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| According to the ], ] lived in Judea and the Galilee (modern day Israel, Palestine, and Jordan) around the first half of the first century CE. While large numbers of Christians of all denominations take the Gospels to be an reliable and (largely or wholly) accurate account of Jesus' life, other people will question whether Jesus ever existed (see ] for an account of this debate). Some people, including critical Bible scholars and historians, however, accept that Jesus lived, but reject the Gospels as a literal account of his life. They rely on the Gospels as historical sources, but reject supernatural elements including miracles; and argue that the Gospels were written from the point of view of, and in order to support, an orthodox Christianity that was emerging between the second and fourth centuries CE. Moreover, they claim that an account of Jesus' life must make sense in terms of his historical and cultural context, rather than Christian orthodoxy. The study of this context foregrounds Jewish culture, and tensions, trends, and changes in Jewish culture under the influence of Hellenism and Roman occupation. | |||
| According to the ], ] lived in Judea and the Galilee (modern day Israel, Palestine, and Jordan) around the first half of the first century AD. Some people question the ], others do not. Some people, including critical Bible scholars and historians, however, claim that an account of Jesus' life must make sense in terms of his historical and cultural context, rather than Christian orthodoxy. The study of this context involves Jewish culture, tensions, trends, and changes under the influence of Hellenic and Roman occupation. | |||
| == Geographical Background == | |||
| ==The First Temple Era== | |||
| In the 1st century CE, when Jesus was supposed to have lived, most Jews were poor, politically marginalized peasants. Nevertheless, various elites and social movements, sometimes in competition for political power, argued over the status of the Temple, laws and values embodied in sacred scriptures, and the restoration of a monarchy, Jewish sovereignty, and the kingdom of God. These institutions and issues all have their origins in the kingdoms of ] and ], around 1000-586 BCE. | |||
| The ancient land of Judea and Galilee (also, called the land of ], ], Judah & Israel, and currently partially containing the modern state of ]) is situated on the easternmost coast of the ], the westernmost part of the ], also known as the central ]. | |||
| The ancient land of Israel (also, called the land of ] and Palestine) is situated on the easternmost coast of the ], the westernmost part of the ]. Historically a crossroads for intercontinental trade, it was situated between the ancient empires of ] to the south, ] and later ] to the northwest, and ], ], and later ] to the east. The settlement of this area by various groups, including Canaanites and Phoenecians, and the origins of the ancient Israelites is a complex and much-debated topic; see ]. Despite this cosmopolitan setting, the events described in this article take place within a relatively small and circumscribed area, perhaps 100 miles north to south and 40 or 50 miles east to west. | |||
| The settlement of this area by various groups, including Canaanites and ]s, and the origins of the ancient ]s is a complex and much-debated topic, and counts amongst the ]. Despite this cosmopolitan setting, the events described in the ] are placed within a relatively small and circumscribed area, perhaps 100 miles north to south and 40 or 50 miles east to west. | |||
| ===Priests and Kings=== | |||
| The religion of ancient Israel, like those of most ancient Near Eastern societies, centered on a Temple, served by a caste of priests, who sacrificed offerings to their god. Priests claimed descent from ] of the ancient tribe of ], and were believed to have been appointed by God to care for the ]. | |||
| The Levant lies on the border between the two great ] of Europe and africa, which are presently sliding past each other, forming minor mountain ranges. In the area of Palestine itself, a north-south mountain range dominates, leaving a small area of plains by the coast, and a desert inland. In the midst of the mountains lies the ], carving out a valley which historically formed a convenient border between nations. The Jordan runs, within its valley, from a large freshwater lake to the north, the ], into a lake, so laden with saltwater that people can float within it, to the south, the ]. | |||
| In ancient Israel, as in most societies at that time, the priesthood was closely tied with the monarchy. The religious authority of the priests was formalized at the time the ] was constructed, around ], when the high priest Zadok anointed Solomon king. At that time priestly power was legitimized and limited by the monarchy, who came from the House of ] of the tribe of ]. During the First Temple Era (from around ] to ]), the priests were limited to their work in the Temple; political power officially rested in the hands of a king who ruled, ideally, by divine right. | |||
| == Cultural Background == | |||
| ===Prophets=== | |||
| In most ancient Near Eastern societies sacrifice was the primary form of worship. Many such societies also had myths about gods, and laws which they believed were given to them by gods. The Children of Israel similarly had sacred texts (which would later be redacted into the ]), which they believed were written by prophets. Other prophets criticized the king, elites, or the masses and provided visions of a better life. In the south (the kingdom of Judah, or Judea), the tradition was epitomized by prophets like ] and ], who primarily addressed issues of collective (national or communal) concern. In the north (the kingdom of Israel), it was epitomized by ] and ], who (according to the Tanakh) healed people and performed other miracles, and who primarily addressed issues of individual (private or personal) concern (Crossan 1992: 137-167). These prophets were a potent political force. | |||
| === Language === | |||
| Both the Temple and the Monarchy were destroyed by the ] in ], when most Jews were forced into ]. | |||
| The Near East was cosmopolitan, especially during the Hellenistic period. Several languages were used, and the matter of the ''lingua franca'' is still subject of some debate. The Jews almost certainly spoke ], a semitic language from the east, among themselves. ] was at least to some extent a trade language in the region, and indeed throughout the entire eastern portion of the Mediterranean. ] was the language used to write out the scriptures, but had been superseeded by this time by Aramaic, due to Aramaic's position as the main trade language of the fertile crescent (a position enjoyed due to its use in prior empires) | |||
| Procurators like ] (a Roman from Rome) would most likely have spoken ] in private, but would probably have used Greek to handle day to day business in the province, though it is also possible that he used Aramaic for this. Scholars debate whether everyday people or even the more learned, spoke any other languages than Aramaic, perhaps some rudimentary Greek or Latin, and (for Jews) ]. | |||
| ==The Second Temple Era== | |||
| ===The Persian Period=== | |||
| In ] the Persians conquered Babylon and in ], inaugurated the Persian period of Jewish history. In ] ] allowed Jews to return to Judea and rebuild the Temple (completed ]). He appointed ] (the grandson of the last Judean king, ]) governor, but did not allow the restoration of the kingdom. Without the constraining power of the monarchy, the authority of the Temple was amplified, and priests became the dominant authority. However, the ] had been constructed under the auspices of a foreign power, and there were lingering questions about its legitimacy. This provided the condition for various sects to develop within Judaism, each of which claimed to represent "Judaism," and most of which typically discouraged social intercourse, especially marriage, with members of other sects. | |||
| === Bandits === | |||
| The end of the Babylonian Exile saw not only the construction of the Second Temple, but, according to the ], the redaction of the ] as well. Although the priests controlled the monarchy and the Temple, scribes and sages (who would later come to be addressed as '']'', "great one") monopolized the study of the ], which was read publicly on market-days. These sages developed and maintained an oral tradition alongside of the Holy Writ, and identified with the prophets (Biblical political and religious reformers who came from various tribes). | |||
| Social historians have suggested that bandits are common in peasant socities; they are poor men who identify with other peasants, but who seek to aquire wealth and political power. When Herod was still military governor in the Galilee, he spent a good deal of time fighting bandits under the leadership of Ezekias. These bandits are best understood as a peasant group whose targets were local elites (both Hasmonean and Herodian) rather than with Rome. Ventidius Cumanus (procurator 48 to 52 CE) often retaliated against brigandry by punishing peasant communities he believed to be their base of support. | |||
| When a Galillean pilgram on way to Jerusalem was murdered by a Samaritan, the bandit chief Eliezar organized Galilleans for a counter-attack, and Cumanus moved against the Jews. The Syrian legate Quadratus intervened and sent several Jewish and Samaritan officials to Rome. The Emporer Claudius took the Jewish side, and had the Samaritan leaders executed and exiled, and turned one named Veler over to the Jews who beheaded him. Thus, widespread peasant unrest of this period was not exclusively directed against Rome but also expressed discontent against urban elites and other groups; Roman policy sought to contain the power of the bandits while cultivating Jewish support. | |||
| ===The Hellenistic Period=== | |||
| The Hellenistic period of Jewish history began in ] when ] conquered Persia. Upon his death in ], his empire was divided among his generals. At first, Judea was ruled by the Egyptian-Hellenic Ptolemies, but in ],the Syrian-Hellenic ], under Antiochus III, seized control over Judea. | |||
| === Hellenism === | |||
| The Near East was cosmopolitan, especially during the Hellenistic period. Several languages were used, and the matter of the ''lingua franca'' is still subject of some debate. The Jews almost certainly spoke ] among themselves. ] was at least to some extent a trade language in the region, and indeed throughout the entire eastern portion of the Mediterranean. Thus, historian Shaye Cohen has observed that | |||
| Ever since the rule by Hellenic empires, Jews had to grapple with the values of ], and Hellenistic philosophy, which were often directly at odds with their own values and traditions. Bath houses were built in ], for instance, and the '']'' became a centre of social, athletic, and intellectual life. Many Jews embraced these institutions, although Jews who did so were often looked down upon due to their circumcision, noticable in the nude gymnasia, which non-Jews viewed as an unaesthetic defacement of the body. | |||
| :All the Judaisms of the Hellenistic period, of both the diaspora and the land of Israel, were Hellenized, that is, were integral parts of the culture of the ancient world. Some varieties of Judaism were more hellenized than others, but none was an island unto itself. It is a mistake to imagine that the land of Palestine preserved a "pure" form of Judaism and that the diaspora was the home of adulterated or diluted forms of Judaism. The term "Hellenistic Judaism" makes sense, then, only as a chronological indicator for the period from Alexander the Great to the Macabees or perhaps to the Roman conquests of the first century BCE. As a descriptive term for a certain type of Judaism, however, it is meaningless because all the Judaisms of the Hellenistic period were "Hellenistic." (Cohen 1987: 37) | |||
| Many Jews lived in the ] (i.e. outside the area), and the Judean provinces of Judea, Samaria, and the Galilee were populated by many non-Jews (who often showed a curiousity about Judaism). Under such conditions, Jews had to confront a paradox in their own tradition: their laws officially applied only to them, but revealed apparantly universal truths. This situation led to new interpretations, some of which were influenced by Hellenic thought and in response to Gentile interest in Judaism. | |||
| ====Cultural Struggles with Hellenism==== | |||
| Jews had to grapple with the values of ] and Hellenistic philosophy, which were often directly at odds with their own values and traditions. Bath houses were built in ], for instance, and the '']'' became a center of social, athletic, and intellectual life. Many Jews embraced these institutions, although Jews who did so were often looked down upon due to their circumcision, which Gentiles viewed as an aesthetic defacement of the body. Many Jews lived in the ], and the Judean provinces of Judea, Samaria, and the Galilee were populated by many Gentiles (who often showed an interest in Judaism). Under such conditions, Jews had to confront a paradox in their own tradition: their Torah laws applied only to them, but revealed universal truths. This situation led to new interpretations, some of which were influenced by Hellenic thought and in response to Gentile interest in Judaism. | |||
| === Religious observance === | |||
| ====Political Struggles with Hellenism==== | |||
| Generally, the Jews accepted foreign rule when they were only required to pay tribute, and otherwise allowed to govern themselves internally. Nevertheless, Jews were divided between those favoring hellenization and those opposing it, and were divided over allegiance to the Ptolemies or Seleucids. When the High Priest Simon II died in ], conflict broke out between supporters of his son Onias III (who opposed hellenization, and favored the Ptolemies) and his son Jason (who favored hellenization, and favored the Seleucids). A period of political intrigue followed, with priests such as Menelaus bribing the king to win the High Priesthood, and accusations of murder of competing contenders for the title. The result was a brief civil war. Huge numbers of Jews flocked to Jason's side, and in ] the Seleucid king Antiochus IV invaded Judea, entered the Temple, and stripped it of money and ceremonial objects. Jason fled to Egypt, and Antiochus imposed a program of forced hellenization, requiring Jews to abandon their own laws and customs. At this point Mattathias and his five sons, John, Eleazar, Simon, Jonathan, and ], priests of the Hasmon family living in the rural village of Modein, assumed leadership of a bloody revolt against the Seleucids. | |||
| According to the Torah, Jews were required to travel to Jerusalem and offer sacrifices at the temple three times a year: ], ], and ]. Although many Jews attempted to do so, many could not due to the large distances involved. Consequently, Jews developed new institutions to supplement the Temple. Outside of Roman Palestine, Jews established ''proseuchai'' (house of prayer). Within Roman Palestine, Jews established ''synagogues'' (meeting houses). Synagogues served primarily as local civic-centers, but people in synagogues and proseuchai developed practices based on and that paralleled practices in the Temple. For example, people in the ''proseuchai'' imitated the Temple practice of reciting the "Shema" twice daily. | |||
| Judah liberated Jerusalem in ] and restored the Temple. Fighting continued, and Judah and his brother Jonathan were killed. In ] an assembly of priests and others affirmed Simon as high priest and leader, in effect establishing the ] dynasty. When Simon was killed in ], his son ] took his place as high priest and king. | |||
| For the most part, although Jews were willing to pay tribute (although they complained when it was excessive), they absolutely refused to allow a religious image in their temple, even though some Emperors considered imposing one. | |||
| ===The Hasmonean Period=== | |||
| After defeating the Seleucid forces, Judah's nephew ] established a new monarchy in the form of the priestly Hasmonean dynasty in ] -- thus establishing priests as political as well as religious authorities. Although the Hasmoneans were heroes for resisting the Seleucids, their reign lacked the legitimacy of the Davidic dynasty of the First Temple Era. | |||
| == Political Background == | |||
| ====The Emergence of the Saducees, Essenes, and Pharisees==== | |||
| In the first century AD, the area was a Roman Province, having a nominal degree of devolution of power. In the history of the area, secular power was frequently given to the head of the priesthood, a tradition starting with Ezra, appointed as such by the Persian Empire. Ruling as kings, or fighting wars resulting in their appointment to power, was intimately connected to Jewish religion which asserted that the Priesthood had the right to make law, tempering that of the occasional non-priest kings. By the time Jesus is claimed to have lived, the division of powers was enforced, the Romans controlling both govenor and priest. The primary tasks of the appointed rulers was to collect tribute, convince the Romans not to interfere, and ensure that the Jews not rebel. | |||
| The rift between the priests and the sages grew during the Hellenistic period, when the Jews faced new political and cultural struggles. Around this time the ] party emerged as the party of the priests and allied elites (the name ''Sadducee'' comes from ]). | |||
| === Kings and Govenors === | |||
| The ] were another early movement, who are believed to have rejected either the Seleucid appointed high priests, or the Hasmonean high priests, as illegitimate. Ultimately, they rejected the Second Temple, arguing that the Essene community was itself the new Temple, and that obedience to the law represented a new form of sacrifice. Although their lack of concern for the Second Temple alienated them from the great mass of Jews, their notion that the sacred could exist outside of the Temple was shared another group, the ] ("separatists"), which had its origins in the relatively new group of authorities of scribes and sages. The meaning of the name is unclear, it may refer to their rejection of Hellenic culture or to their objection to the Hasmonean monopoly on power. | |||
| The early monarchy of the area, according to the ], was descended from a king named ], considered to have defeated the enemies of the nation, and made the kingdom strong. The dynasty he created was known as the ''House of David'', and was seen, by the state religion, as being appointed by God to perpetual rule. However, it, along with the nation, was obliterated by the ]ians in ]. | |||
| During the Hasmonean period, the Saducees and Pharisees functioned primarily as political parties. The political rift between them became evident when Pharisees demanded that the Hasmonean king ] choose between being king and being High Priest. This demand led to a brief civil war that ended with a bloody repression of the Pharisees, although at his deathbed the king called for a reconciliation between the two parties. Alexander was succeeded by his widow, whose brother was a leading Pharisee. Upon her death her elder son, ], sought Pharisee support, and her younger son, Aristobulus, sought the support of the Sadducees. | |||
| Much later, under ], the ] was restored, but suffered from civil war, eventually being replaced by foreign dominion. Just before the start of the first century AD, ] was king, but since he had foreign descent, and had usurped the authority of the ] (who were heroes), his rule was extremely unpopular. When Herod died, the antagonism his sons caused resulted in the Romans appointing ]s, who governed indirectly, and nominal kings such as ], who wielded little genuine power. | |||
| ===The Roman Period=== | |||
| The conflict between Hyrcanus and Aristobulus culminated in a civil war that ended when the ] general ] captured ] in ] and inaugurated the Roman period of Jewish history. Pompey ended the monarchy and named Hyrcanus high priest and ethnarch (a lesser title than "king"). 6 years later Hyrcanus was deprived of the remainder of political authority and ultimate jurisdiction was given to the Proconsul of ], who ruled through Hyrcanus's Idumaean associate ], and later Antipater's two sons ] (military governor of Judea) and ] (military governor of the Galilee). In ] Aristobulus's son Antigonus overthrew Hyrcanus and named himself king and high priest, and Herod fled to Rome. | |||
| One of the most notorious procurators was ]. Pilate frequently tortured those he had arrested, often without trial, showing very little mercy, and often went to extreme lengths of depravity in his treatment of prisoners. He also ruthlessly crushed anything even remotely appearing to be potential for rebellion, such as a religious expedition up a hillside, whose leaders he had killed. Survivors made many complaints, the Samaritans appealing to the Syrian Legate, Vitellius, that they were unarmed, and Pilate's actions were excessively cruel. Once news of his behaviour had reached Rome, even the Romans were appalled, the Senate finally demanding he present himself in Rome to answer for it. Having been stripped of his authority, partly because of the unrest he had instigated, records of what happened to him cease. | |||
| ====The Herodian Dynasty, the Procuratorship, and the Sanhedrin==== | |||
| In Rome, Herod sought the support of ] and ], and secured recognition by the ] as king, confirming the termination of the Hasmonean dynasty. Herod was an unpopular ruler, perceived as a foreigner and a Roman puppet. Actions such as his notorious treatment of his family and of the last Hasmonaeans, and his plans to expand the ], made him more disliked. | |||
| === Priests === | |||
| After Herod's death in 4 BC, various radical Jewish elements rose in revolt: Judas in the Galilee, whose followers tore down the Roman Eagle that had adorned the Temple; Simon in Perea, a former slave of Herod, who burned down the royal palace at Jericho, and Athronges in Judea, a shephard who led a two-year rebellion. The Syrian legate ] took command of Judea, Samaria, and the Galilee, and immediately put down the uprisings, killing thousands of Jews by ] and selling many into slavery. Rome quickly re-established governance and divided Herod's kingdom among his sons: the southern part of the territory (] and ]) was given to ], ] was named tetrarch of the ] and the southern Transjordan (]), and Philip received the northern Transjordan (]). | |||
| The religion of the region, like much of ancient Near Eastern society, centred on temples, served by a ] of priests who made offerings to their god(s). The priests in power by 1AD claimed descent from a figure named ], which they claimed made them part of the tribe of ]. The general populous, due to the claims of Jewish religious texts, believed them to have been appointed by God to care for the ]. | |||
| ] antagonized the Jews as his father had, and in ] the emperor ] acceded to a delegation by placing Judea and Samaria under the indirect rule of a Roman procurator (or prefect), and the direct rule of a Roman-appointed high priest instead. The first procurator was ] (6 - ]); the procurator who ruled from ] to ] was ]. ] was high priest from ] to ], when he was succeeded by his son-in-law ], who served until ]. Jesus is commonly believed to have preached and died around the period 30 - 33 CE. | |||
| When the Persians governed the area, they had appointed a governor and an high priest, but without the constraining power of a monarchy, the authority of the Temple, in the eyes of the people, was amplified, and priests became the dominant authority. In ], the Roman Proconsul, ], established five regional ''synhedria'' (i.e. '']s'', meaning '']''s), to regulate the internal affairs of the Jews. The Sanhedrinae was a legislative council of 71 elders chaired by the high priest, which interpreted Jewish law and adjudicated appeals, especially in ritual matters, but the specific composure and powers actually varied depending on Roman policy. | |||
| During this period Judea and Galilee were effectively semi-autonomous client-states under Roman tribute. For the most part, Jews were willing to pay tribute, although they complained when it was excessive, and absolutely refused to allow a graven image in their Temple although some emperors considered imposing one. The primary tasks of the tetrarch and high priest were to collect tribute, convince the Romans not to interfere with the Temple, and ensure that the Jews not rebel. | |||
| Although the office of high priest was theoretically life-long, the Romans regularly deposed the occupants in favour of new appointees. However, due to the manipulations of ] (himself high priest from ] to ]), the temple remained in control of one family for most of the first century (until it was destroyed). Annas' son-in-law ] (high priest from ]-] and ]-]) was followed by his sons Eleazar (]-]), Jonathas (]), Theophilos (]-]), Matthias (]-]), and Ananias (]). Since the high priest was meant to be life-long, many considered Annas the legitimate holder of the office, and, with regard to Jesus, the ] reports a separate trial before Annas, in addition to the ]. | |||
| In ] the Proconsul Cabineus established five regional ''synhedria'' (]s, or councils) to regulate the internal affairs of the Jews. The Sanhedrinae was a legislative council of 71 elders chaired by the high priest, that interpreted Jewish law and adjudicated appeals, especially in ritual matters. Their specific composure and powers actually varied depending on Roman policy. | |||
| == Religious Background == | |||
| Although the office of high priest was theoretically life-long, the Romans regularly deposed the high priests in favour of new appointees. Due to the manipulations of ], however, the temple remained in control of one family for most of the first century until it was destroyed. Annas was high priest from ]-]. His son-in-law ] was high priest from ]-] and ]-]. His sons Eleazar (]-]), Jonathas (]), Theophilos (]-]), Matthias (]-]) and Ananias (]) all became high priests. The ] reports a separate trial of Jesus before Annas (in addition to the ]), and if this took place, it was perhaps because many considered him to be the legitimate high priest. | |||
| === Sadducees === | |||
| ====Religious and Cultural Life During the Roman Period==== | |||
| ''Main article'':] | |||
| According to the Torah, Jews were required to travel to Jerusalem and offer sacrifices at the Temple three times a year: ], ], and ]. Although many Jews attempted to do so, many could not due to the large distances involved. Consequently, Jews developed new institutions to supplement the Temple. Outside of Roman Palestine, Jews established ''proseuchai'' (house of prayer). Within Roman Palestine, Jews established ''synagogues'' (meeting houses). Synagogues served primarily as local civic-centers, but people in synagogues and proseuchai developed practices based on and that paralleled practices in the Temple. For example, people in the ''proseuchai'' imitated the Temple practice of reciting the "Shema" twice daily. | |||
| The Sadducees (meaning '']-ites'') emerged from the official priesthood, and those who supported them, upholding the laws of the nation as it stood, and the institution of a religion centralised on one location, the temple (known as the ]) in ]. As such, they dominated worship in the temple, and acts such as animal sacrifice. Saducees favoured a limited interpretation of the ], and did not believe the dead could be resurrected, instead preferring a more permanent ]. There is a record of only one high priest (Ananus, in ]) being a Saducee, although scholars generally assume that the Sanhedrin was dominated by them. | |||
| During the Roman period, ] and ] continued to be the most important languages in the region. Procurators like ] (a Roman from Rome) would most likely have spoken ] in private, but would probably have used Greek to handle day to day business in the province, though it is also possible that he used Aramaic for this. Scholars debate whether everyday people or Jesus himself spoke any other languages than Aramaic, perhaps some rudimentary Greek or Latin, and (as a Jew) ]. | |||
| === Essenes === | |||
| ====Saducees and Pharisees in the Roman period==== | |||
| ''Main article'':] | |||
| There is a record of only one high priest (Ananus, in ]) being a Saducee, although scholars generally assume that the Sanhedrin was dominated by Saducees. The Pharisees were politically quiescent, and studied, taught, and worshipped in their own way. Although popular and respected, they had no power. | |||
| The Essenes were also an early movement, who rejected the appointed high priests as illegitimate. Ultimately, they rejected the Jerusalem temple, arguing that their community itself was a temple of God, and that simply following religious law represented a form of sacrifice. Most knowledge of the beliefs of the ] derives from texts alleged to have been owned by them found at ], and should this be true, they appear to have had ] interpretations of scripture. | |||
| During this period serious theological differences emerged between the Saducees and Pharisees. Whereas Saducees favored a limited interpretation of the ], Pharisees debated new applications of the law and devised ways for all Jews to incorporate purity practices (hitherto limited to the Temple) in their everyday lives. Unlike the Saducees, the Pharisees also believed in the resurrection of the dead in a future, messianic age. | |||
| They formed sets of small communities centred on a single teacher, older than 30, and held their goods in common to varying degrees, some keeping everything in common (partly similar to ]) and others only a ] of their income. Some groups tried to keep as much as possible within their community, only going outside for what they could not produce, and this, together with their lack of concern for the temple, alienated them from the great mass of Jews. | |||
| ====New Prophets==== | |||
| During this time a variety of other religious movements and splinter groups developed. A number of individuals claimed to be new prophets, in the tradition of ] and ]. The ] provides two examples of such Jewish miracle workers around the time of Jesus. ] Ta'anit 3:8 tells of "Honi the Circledrawer" who, in the middle of the first century BCE, was famous for his ability to successfully pray for rain. On one occasion when God did not answer his prayer, he drew a circle in the dust, stood inside it, and informed God that he would not move until it rained. When it began to drizzle, Honi told God that he was not satisfied and expected more rain; it then began to pour. The rabbis of the Mishnah disapproved of Honi's impertinence, but respected his relationship with God. | |||
| === Pharisees === | |||
| ] Berakot 5:5 tells of Hanina ben Dosa, who in the generation following Jesus cured Gamaliel's son by prayer (compare with Matthew 8: 5-13). A later story (In the Babylonian Talmud, Berakot 33a) tells of a lizard that used to injur passers-by. Hanina ben Dosa came and put his heel over the hole; the lizard bit him and the lizard died. Such men as Honi and Hanina were respected for their relationship with God but not considered especially saintly, and their abilities were seen as one more unknowable thing and not deemed a result of any ultra-strict observance of Jewish law. These men were sometimes doubted, often respected, but never considered "saviors" or "messiahs." | |||
| ''Main article'':] | |||
| The notion of the Essenes, that the sacred could exist outside the temple was shared by another group, the Pharisees (meaning ''separatists'', either referring to rejection of Hellenic culture or of the Hasmonaeans), which had its origins in the relatively new group of authorities of scribes and sages. Pharisees dominated scriptural studies (i.e. of the '']'' and '']''), and expounded on the meaning of texts, debating new applications of the law, devised ways for all Jews to incorporate non-temple purity practices into daily life, and supported ] resulting from it. Pharisees also believed in the resurrection of the dead in a future age, when the House of David had restored the independant kingdom of Israel. | |||
| ====Messiahs and Millenial Prophets==== | |||
| The English word "]" is derived from the Hebrew word ''mashiyakh'' (משיח), meaning "anointed one." But this word has had other meanings, for different groups of people at different times. We cannot immediately assume that Jesus and his followers used the word the same way as Christians today. | |||
| The Pharisees were politically quiescent, and studied, taught, and worshipped in their own way, and although popular and respected, they had no power. As the first century wore on, they split into two camps, those of ] (whose name means ''victor''), who supported liberal interpretation, and those of ] (whose name means ''loser''), supporting a rigid interpretation. Hillel's group eventually gained dominance, and one of his descendants, ] became famed for his wisdom, the first to be named '']'' (''teacher''), to the extent that texts attributed to ] (whom ]s refer to as ''St. Paul'') state that he was proud to claim to have sat at Gamaliel's feet. | |||
| For many Christians today, "messiah" refers to the personal savior of all humankind. Christians also rely on an apocalyptic notion of messiah, as one who who will usher in the end of history by resurrecting the dead and by executing God's judgement over humankind. This apocalyptic vision has its origins in Jewish culture during the Babylonian Exile and the Second Temple Period. Nevertheless, it existed alongside a nationalist notion of messiah, as one who will defend the Jews against foreign oppressors and rule the Jews justly, and by divine right. This nationalist vision has its origins in the Hebrew Bible, and endures among Jews today. | |||
| ===Prophets=== | |||
| In the Hebrew Bible, "messiah" was originally used to refer to High Priests and kings, who were elevated to office by being anointed with oil. The Essenes and the ], edited in 200 CE, uses the term mainly to refer to the High Priest. By the time of the Roman occupation, however, many Jews also used the term to refer to a descendent of ] who would restore God's kingdom. Thus, although all Jewish kings were annointed, not all kings were considered messianic. The ] kings (162 BCE - 56 BCE) were not descended from David, and did not claim to have established God's Kingdom. After the Roman occupation and the fall of the Hasmoneans, many Jews hoped that the Romans would be replaced by a Jewish king. However, Jews were divided over how this might occur. Most Jews believed that their history was governed by God, meaning that even the conquest of Judea by the Romans was a divine act. Thus, the majority of Jews accepted Roman rule, and did not look for, or encourage, messiahs. They believed that the Romans would be replaced by a Jewish king only through divine intervention. | |||
| Many societies had myths about gods, and laws which they believed were given by them. The Jewish nations by 1AD had sacred texts encoding such things, which they believed were written by ]. Some prophets criticized the king, elites, or the masses and provided visions of a better life. According to the ], in the early history of the Jewish nations, the tradition was epitomized on one hand by prophets like ] and ], who primarily addressed issues of collective concern, and on the other by ] and ], who healed people and performed other miracles, primarily addressing issues of personal individual concern. The credence given to prophets made them a potent political force. | |||
| During the first century a number of individuals claimed to be new prophets, in the individualist tradition of ] and ]. The ] records two examples of people claiming to work miracles around this time. The ], at Ta'anit 3:8, tells of ] who, in the middle of the first century BC, was famous for his ability to successfully pray for rain (his nickname derives from an occasion on which he was unsuccessful in his prayers, and so he confined himself to a circle in the dust which he had drawn, until his prayers were answered). Tha ], at Berakot 5:5, tells of ], who in the middle of the first century AD cured Gamaliel's son by prayer, and later killed a villanous lizard merely by causing it to bite him. | |||
| During this period a new class of prophets emerged who hearkened back to ] and ] as harbingers of national liberation. These men did not claim to be messiahs, and did not rely on physical force, but did lead large movements of people (from the hundreds to the thousands) to act in ways that, they believed, would lead God to restore his kingdom. For example, in 36 C.E. a Samaritan led a large group up Mount Gerizim, where they believed Moses had buried sacred vessels (echoing Moses' ascent up Mt. Sinai). Pilate blocked their route and killed their leaders. Josephus, who elsewhere expressed prejudice against Samaritans, suggested that they were armed. But the surviving Samaritans appealed to the Syrian Legate, Vitellius, that they were unarmed and that Pilate's actions were excessively cruel. As a result, Pilate was sent to Rome and ultimately dismissed from his post as procurator. Another such prophet was Theudas, who, sometime between 44 C.E. and 46 C.E. led a large group of people to the Jordan river, which he claimed he could part (echoing Moses at the Red Sea and Joshua at the Jordan river). Fadus, the procurator who succeeded Pilate, blocked their route and killed Theudas. An "Egyptian Prophet" (it is unclear if the prophet came from Egypt, or was invoking Moses' Egyptian origin) led thirty thousand around the mount of Olives and sought to enter Jerusalem until stopped by Felix, the procurator who succeeded Fadus. | |||
| Such men as Honi and Hanina were respected for their relationship with God but not considered especially saintly, and their abilities were seen as one more unknowable thing, and not deemed a result of any ultra-strict observance of Jewish law. These men were sometimes doubted, often respected, but never considered ''saviours'' in any way. | |||
| ====Sicarii, Bandits, and Zealots==== | |||
| Various groups also resisted the status quo by force of arms. In many cases these groups did not have a clearly defined revolutionary program; in some cases they were opposed more to urban elites than to the Romans per se. These groups took on different forms, with different methods in the North than in the South. | |||
| === Messiahs and Millenialism === | |||
| The ], or "dagger-men" were urban terrorists who emerged in Jerusalem in the 50s CE, specifically stabbing to death Jews whom they believed to be supporters of the Romans. | |||
| For many Christians, ''messiah'' refers to a personal saviour of all humankind, and sometimes also has an apocalyptic notion, as one who who will usher in the end of history by resurrecting the dead and by executing God's judgement over humankind. However, the english word '']'' is derived from the Hebrew word '']'' (משיח), meaning ''anointed'', which had other meanings. We cannot immediately assume that Jesus and his followers used the word the same way as Christians today. | |||
| In the ], ''messiah'' was originally used to refer to High Priests and kings, who were elevated to office by being anointed with oil. The Essenes and the ], edited in 200 AD, used the term mainly to refer to the High Priest, but by the time of the Roman occupation, many Jews also used the term to refer to a descendent of ] who would restore God's kingdom. Thus, although all Jewish kings were annointed, not all kings were considered messianic. | |||
| in addition, bandits or brigands had been active in the region. After fleeing ] and prior to assuming his kingship, ] fought with and led a band of brigands. Social historians have suggested that bandits are common in peasant socities; they are poor men who identify with other peasants, but who seek to aquire wealth and political power. When Herod was still military governor in the Galilee, he spent a good deal of time fighting bandits under the leadership of Ezekias. These bandits are best understood as a peasant group whose targets were local elites (both Hasmonean and Herodian) rather than with Rome. Ventidius Cumanus (procurator 48 to 52 CE) often retaliated against brigandry by punishing peasant communities he believed to be their base of support. When a Galillean pilgram on way to Jerusalem was murdered by a Samaritan, the bandit chief Eliezar organized Galilleans for a counter-attack, and Cumanus moved against the Jews. The Syrian legate Quadratus intervened and sent several Jewish and Samaritan officials to Rome. The Emporer Claudius took the Jewish side, and had the Samaritan leaders executed and exiled, and turned one named Veler over to the Jews who beheaded him. Thus, widespread peasant unrest of this period was not exclusively directed against Rome but also expressed discontent against urban elites and other groups; Roman policy sought to contain the power of the bandits while cultivating Jewish support. | |||
| The ] kings (162 BC - 56 BC) were not descended from David, and did not claim to have ]. After the Roman occupation and the fall of the Hasmoneans, many Jews hoped that the Romans would be replaced by a Jewish king. However, Jews were divided over how this might occur. Most Jews believed that their history was governed by God, meaning that even the conquest of Judea by the Romans was a divine act. Thus, the majority of Jews accepted Roman rule, and did not look for, or encourage, messiahs, believing that the Romans would be replaced by a Jewish king only through divine intervention. | |||
| During the Great Revolt in 66 CE, Josephus was sent to command the Galilee. He raised an army primarily of local bandits who pillaged nearby Greek and Roman cities (including ones occupied by Jewish elites), including the administrative centers of Sepphoris, Tiberias, and Gabara. This suggests that they were concerned primarily with gain or social insurrection against local elites, rather than a political revolution against Roman occupation. When Roman legions arrived from Syria, the bandit army melted away. | |||
| During this period a class of prophets emerged who hearkened back to ] and ] as harbingers of national liberation, expressing a nationalist notion of ''messiah'', as one who will defend the Jews against foreign oppressors, and rule the Jews justly by divine right. These men did not rely on physical force, but did lead large movements of people (from the hundreds to the thousands) to act in ways that, they believed, would lead God to restore an independant kingdom ruled by the House of David. For example, in 36 AD a ] led a large group up ], where they believed Moses had buried sacred vessels (echoing Moses' ascent up Mt. Sinai), but Pilate blocked their route and killed their leaders, an act which contributed to his downfall. | |||
| The Romans employed a scorched-earth policy in its fight in the north, driving thousands of peasants sourthwards towards Jerusalem. Between 67 and 68 CE, these peasants, perhaps led by bandits, formed a new political party called the ], which believed that an independent kingdom should be restored immediately through force of arms. It is unclear whether their leaders made messianic claims. The Zealots imprisoned members of the Herodian family, killed the former high priests Ananus ben Artanus and Joshua ben Gamaliel, and put on trial the wealthiest citizens. It is possible that they believed they were purging elements who whom they believed would have surrendered to the Romans. But these purges also reveal the great social divide between Jewish peasants and aristocrats at this time. They formed part of a social revolution: although they ultimately lost to the Romans, elite groups like the Hasmoneans, Herodians, and Saducees would never again have power in Roman Palestine. | |||
| Another such prophet was ], who, sometime between 44 AD and 46 AD led a large group of people to the Jordan, which he claimed he could part, but Fadus, the successor to Pilate, blocked their route and killed Theudas. After Theudas came the ''Egyptian'' (this is the only known appelation of him - it is unclear if the prophet came from Egypt, or was invoking Moses' Egyptian origin) led thirty thousand around the mount of Olives, and sought to enter Jerusalem, until stopped by Felix, the procurator who succeeded Fadus. | |||
| ===Jesus in this context=== | |||
| According to the Gospels, Jesus was born in Bethlehem, although he grew up in Nazareth. In all four Gospels, Jesus is referred to as "son of God". Matthew and Luke also provide genealogies establishing that Joseph was a descendent of David. Mark, the earliest Gospel, begins with Jesus' baptism, at which time Mark has a voice from heaven calling Jesus his beloved son. Christians do not view these different accounts as irreconcilable, but most critical Bible scholars see these variations as evidence of alternative views of Jesus, some of which may have developed only after Jesus' death. | |||
| * Jesus may have been born in Nazareth, and Joseph may have been his biological father. The assertion that he was born in Bethlehem, and that Jesus was the son of Joseph and a descendant of David, would have substantiated the claim that Jesus was the Jewish messiah. | |||
| * Jesus may have been anointed by John, at which point he could literally claim to be messiah, which means "anointed one." The phrase "son of God" was often used in the Hebrew Bible to refer to an especially righteous person (see ]); some suggest that God adopted Jesus as His son when Jesus was baptized by John, a view known as ]. | |||
| * the account of the Virgin Birth, and the claim that "son of God" means that Jesus was literally God's son and divine, represent a Christian view that may have developed during the period when Christianity was breaking away from Judaism. | |||
| === Armed Resistance === | |||
| Most of the material in the Gospels focus on the last year of Jesus' life, and most scholars focus on this period. | |||
| ''Main article'':] | |||
| Gospels agree that Jesus grew up in Nazareth, went to the ] to meet and be baptised by the prophet Yohannan (John) the Baptist, and began healing and preaching to villagers and fishermen around the Sea of Galilee (in Hebrew, Kinereth; in Greek, Gennesaret). Although there were many Phoenician, Macedonian, and Roman cities nearby (e.g. Gesara and Gadara; Sidon and Tyre; Sepphoris and Tiberias), there is one account to Jesus having healed someone in the region of the Gadarenes which is found in the three synoptic Gospels, and another when he healed a Syro-Phoenician girl in the vicinity of Tyre and Sidon (Mark 7:24-30). Otherwise, there is no record of Jesus having spent any significant amount of time in them. The center of his work was ], a small town (about 500 by 350 meters, with a population of 1,500-2,000) where, according to the Gospels he appeared at the town's synagogue (a non-sacred meeting house, where Jews would often gather on the Sabbath to study the Torah), healed a paralytic, and continued seeking disciples. These activities were typical of the magician-prophets common in the Galilee. | |||
| Various groups also resisted the status quo by force of arms, in many cases without a specific long term plan, and in some cases more opposed to urbanist elitism. As the first century progressed, these groups became more noticable. A group known as ] (meaning ''dagger-men'') were urban terrorists who emerged in Jerusalem in the 50s AD, specifically stabbing to death Jews whom they believed to be supporters of the Romans. More organised resistance took the form of the ], who between 67 and 68 imprisoned members of the Herodian family, killed the former high priests Ananus ben Artanus and Joshua ben Gamaliel, and put on trial the wealthiest citizens, in an attempt to purge away pro-Roman factions. | |||
| Once Jesus established a following (although there are debates over the number of followers) he moved to the Davidic capital of Judea, Jerusalem, and began preaching in the wildernesses of the ] and ], including occasional forays into Samaria. He ended his career in Jerusalem (the synoptic Gospels suggest that his career lasted around one year and was spent mostly in the Galilee; John suggests that his career lasted something more than two years and was spent mostly in Judea). These activities were characteristic of milennial prophets. | |||
| == Historical Background == | |||
| Jesus seems not to have belonged to any particular party or movement; Jesus was special (perhaps even unique) in combining elements of many of these different – and for most Jews, opposing – positions. Most critical scholars see Jesus as working in the prophetic tradition, healing people and performing miracles in the prophetic tradition of the Galilee, and preaching God's desire for justice and righteousness in the prophetic tradition of Judea. However, many of his teachings echoed the beliefs of the Qumran community (which was probably a branch of the Essenes) and of some of the Pharisees; and his declarations that the kingdom was at hand echoed the Zealots. (See ] for a discussion of how Jesus identified himself, or was identified by others, in the Gospels.) | |||
| In the 1st century AD, when Jesus was supposed to have lived, most Jews were poor, politically marginalized peasants. Nevertheless, various elites and social movements, sometimes in competition for political power, argued over the status of the Temple, laws and values embodied in scripture, the restoration of a monarchy, Jewish sovereignty, and the Jewish kingdom. These institutions began in the kingdoms of ] and of ], in the 11th to 6th centuries BC. | |||
| ===Babylon and Egypt=== | |||
| Many scholars argue that it is likely that, like most Jews, Jesus believed that the restoration of the monarchy would be accomplished by God, not by any movement of Jews. However, he did believe that this restoration was imminent. Jesus was enigmatic at best about his claim to actually be the presumptive monarch. That he speaks of twelve disciples is probably symbolic of the twelve tribes of Israel, and thus a metaphor for "all Israel". | |||
| Historically a crossroads for intercontinental trade, the area was situated between the ancient empires of ] to the south west, ] and later ] to the northwest, and ], ], the ]s, ]s, and later ] to the east and north (the south east is ], and the west is ]). As a consequence, the area formed the front line between each empire, and also a buffer, sometimes powers preferring to keep it nominally independant as a barrier to their enemies, and at other times preferring domination to vie for expansion. The geographical misfortune of the area made it an intrinsic ''powder-keg'', causing misfortune for its attempts at self-rule. | |||
| First the area was laid waste by the Egyptians, followed by later Egyptian withdrawel, after suffering damage (like many nations at the time) from the mysterious ]. Then the area tried to fend off the Assyrian empire's interest in it, eventually losing the northern half, and the southern remainder, Judah, becoming a vassal state. When the Babylonians took over the Assyrian empire, the Egyptians advanced, and the Judean king, ], rode out to draw battle, at ] but lost, a battle so devastating its name lived on in ] as the location for the final battle of good and evil - '']''. | |||
| Talk of a restoration of the monarchy was seditious under Roman occupation, and Jesus entered Jerusalem at an especially risky time. Although most Jews did not have the means to travel to Jerusalem for every holiday, virtually all tried to comply with these laws as best they could. Thus, during these festivals, such as the Passover, when Jesus came to Jerusalem, the population swelled – and outbreaks of violence and riots were common. Critical scholars argue that the high priest feared that Jesus' talk of an imminent restoration of an independent Jewish state would likely spark a riot. As maintaining the peace was one of the primary jobs of the high priest, whom the Romans held personally responsible for any major outbreak of violence, he had Jesus arrested and turned him over to the Romans for execution. | |||
| Flipping between Egyptian and Babylonian vassals, the last king decided to rebel, drawing wrath so great that the Babylonians obliterated Judah's existance, carrying off its treasures, imprisoning its nobles, and killing the royal heirs before the face of the rebellious king, who was then blinded so that it was the last he ever saw. A few decades later, Persia arose as a new power, winning Babylon in ], and in accordance with their religious (]), and governmental, principles, ] released (in ]) the Jewish people and helped them reconstruct their nation. | |||
| ==The Great Revolt and the Destruction of the Temple== | |||
| By ] Jewish discontent with Rome had escalated. At first, the priests tried to suppress rebellion, even calling upon the Pharisees for help. After the Roman garrison failed to stop Hellenists from desecrating a synagogue in ], however, the high priest suspended payment of tribute, inaugurating the ]. In 70 CE the Temple was destroyed. The destruction of the Second Temple was a profoundly traumatic experience for the Jews, who were now confronted with difficult and far-reaching questions: | |||
| * How to achieve atonement without the Temple? | |||
| * How to explain the disastrous outcome of the rebellion? | |||
| * How to live in the post-Temple, Romanized world? | |||
| * How to connect present and past traditions? | |||
| How people answered these questioned depended largely on their position prior to the revolt. But the destruction of the Second Temple by the Romans not only put an end to the revolt, it marked the end of an era. Revolutionaries like the Zealots had been crushed by the Romans, and had little credibility (the last Zealots died at ] in ]). Similarly, the Sadducees, whose teachings were so closely connected to the Temple cult, disappeared. The Essenes also vanished, perhaps because their teachings so diverged from the concerns of the times. The destruction of the Second Temple was of no consequence to them; precisely for this reason, they were of little consequence to the vast majority of Jews. Two organized groups remained: Christians, and Pharisees (and some scholars suggest that it was at this time, when Christians and Pharisees were competing for leadership of the Jewish people, that accounts of debates between Jesus and the apostles, and Pharisees, and anti-Pharisaic passages, were written and incorporated into the New Testament). | |||
| === Hellenism and the Maccabees === | |||
| ===The Emergence of Christianity=== | |||
| The Hellenistic period of Jewish history began in ] when the ]n, ], conquered Persia. Upon his death in ], his empire was divided among his generals. At first, Judea was ruled by the Egypto-Hellenic Ptolemies, but in ],the Syrio-Hellenic ], under Antiochus III, seized control. Although the Jews generally accepted foreign rule as vassals, they were divided on the issue of hellenisation of their culture, and on whether to support the Ptolemies or Seleucids. | |||
| According to prevalent Jewish beliefs, Jesus' failure to establish the Kingdom of God, and his death at the hands of the Romans, invalidated any messianic claims. Paula Fredriksen, in ''From Jesus to Christ'', has suggested that Jesus' impact on his followers was so great that they could not accept this failure. According to the ], some Christians believed that they encountered Jesus after his crucifixion; they argued that he had been resurrected, and would soon return to usher in the kingdom of God. Others adapted ] as a way to maintain the vitality and validity of Jesus' teachings (see Elaine Pagels, ''The Gnostic Gospels''). According to Daniel Boyarin, in ''A Radical Jew,'' Paul used the figure of Jesus to reinterpret the Hebrew Bible in terms of the Platonic opposition between the ideal (which is real) and the material (which is false). Judaism is a corporeal religion, in which membership is based not on belief but rather descent from Abraham, physically marked by circumcision. Paul saw in a resurrected Jesus the possibility of a spiritual rather than corporeal messiah. He used this notion of messiah to argue for a spiritual religion through which all people -- not just descendents of Abraham -- could worship the God of Abraham. Unlike Judaism, which holds that it is the proper religion only of the Jews, Pauline Christianity claimed to be the proper religion for all people. | |||
| Judea had been ruled by the priesthood ever since ] was given political and priestly control by Cyrus, and when the High Priest Simon II died in ], conflict broke out between supporters of his son, Onias III, who was against hellenising and supported Ptolemaic control, and supporters of his other son, Jason, who favoured hellenising and the Seleucids. The struggle between these rival factions lead to a period of political intrigue; some priests such as ] bribed the king to win the High Priesthood, and many competing contenders were accused of murder. | |||
| Since Christians believed that Jesus had already replaced the Temple as the expression of a new covenant, they were relatively unconcerned with the destruction of the Temple. When Christians could no longer attract a large number of followers from among the Jews -- perhaps because, in the aftermath of the revolt, Jews were afraid that talk of a new king and a new kingdom would provoke Roman wrath, or because most Jews did not feel that the destruction of the Temple signified the abrogation of their covenant with God, or because Jesus' central teachings (to love one's neighbor, and to love God with all one's heart, soul, and might) were also fundamental to Jewish teaching -- they turned to Gentile converts, distanced themselves from the rebellious Jews, and emerged as a new religion. This distancing was a long and gradual process. Some Christians were still part of the Jewish community up until the time of the Bar Kochba revolt in the 130s. As late as the 300s, John Chrysostom strongly discouraged Christians from attending Jewish festivals in Antioch, which suggests at least some ongoing contact between the two groups in that city. | |||
| The result was (brief) civil war. Huge numbers flocked to Jason's pro-Seleucid side, and in ] the Seleucid king, Antiochus IV, invaded, entering the temple, and stripping it of money and ceremonial objects. Jason fled, to Egypt, and the Seleucids imposed forced hellenisation, requiring Jews to abandon seperate law or custom. At this point, a priest of the Hasmon family named ], and his five sons (John, Eleazar, Simon, Jonathan, and ] - known as ''Maccabee''), also priests, living in the rural village of Modein, roused an army, and lead a bloody revolt against the Seleucids. | |||
| ===The Emergence of Rabbinic Judaism=== | |||
| Of all the major Second Temple sects, only the Pharisees remained (but see ]). Although they had accepted the importance of the Temple, their vision of Jewish law as a means by which ordinary people could engage with the sacred in their daily lives, provided them with a position from which to respond to all four challenges, in a way meaningful to the vast majority of Jews. | |||
| Judah (Maccabee) won Jerusalem in ] and restored the temple, but fighting continued, and Judah and Jonathan were killed. In ], after independance had been won, an assembly of priests and others confirmed Simon as their high priest and leader, and when Simon was killed in ], his son, ], took his place, in effect establishing an ] dynasty. | |||
| Following the destruction of the Temple, Rome governed Judea through a ] at ] and a Jewish ]. ], formerly a leading Pharisee, was appointed the first Patriarch (the Hebrew word, Nasi, also means ], or ]), and he reestablished the Sanhedrin at Javneh under Pharisee control. Instead of giving tithes to the priests and sacrificing offerings at the Temple, the rabbis instructed Jews to give money to charities and study in local ]s. | |||
| === Romans === | |||
| When the Emperor ] threatened to rebuild Jerusalem as a pagan city dedicated to ], in ], some of the leading sages of the Sanhedrin supported a rebellion (and, for a short time, an independent state) led by ] (also called Bar Kochba, or "son of a star"); some, such as Rabbi Akiba, believed Bar Kochbah to be ''messiah'', or king. Up until this time, a number of Christians were still part of the Jewish community. However, they did not support or take part in the revolt. Whether because they had no wish to fight, or because they could not support a second messiah in addition to Jesus, or because of their harsh treatment by Bar Kochba during his brief reign, these Christians also left the Jewish community around this time. | |||
| A political rift gradually emerged as objection to Hasmonean dominance of the priesthood, and political appointments to it, grew, eventually becoming the group known as ]. Matters came to a head when the Pharisees demanded that the Hasmonean, ], choose between being king and being High Priest, causing another brief civil war, ending with a bloody repression of Pharisees. However, at his deathbed the king called for reconciliation, and was succeeded by his widow, whose brother was a leading Pharisee, and whose elder son (named ]) favoured the Pharisees, though her younger son (named Aristobulus) did not. | |||
| The conflict between the sons culminated in yet another civil war, during which Hyrcanus appealed to the rising power of Rome for assistance. Rome saw political advantage in entering the region, and the ] general ] captured ] in ], ended monarchial rule but naming Hyrcanus high priest and '']'' (a lesser title than ''king''). After 6 years, political jurisdiction was transferred by the Romans to the Proconsul of ], who appointed Hyrcanus's Idumaean associate, ], as govenor, later partitioning the area under his two sons ] (Judea) and ] (Galilee). | |||
| This revolt ended in ] when Bar Kochba and his army were defeated. According to a ], in addition to Bar Kochba the Romans tortured and executed ten leading members of the Sanhedrin. This account also claims this was belated atonement for the guilt of the ten brothers who kidnapped ]. It is possible that this account represents a Pharisaic response to the ] account of ]' ]; in both accounts the Romans brutally punish rebels, who accept their torture as atonement for the crimes of others. | |||
| In ] Aristobulus's son ] overthrew Hyrcanus and named himself king and high priest, and Herod fled to Rome, where he sought the support of ] and ], securing recognition by the ] as king. Herod was an unpopular ruler, perceived as a foreigner and a Roman puppet. Actions such as notorious treatment of his own family, treatment that of the Hasmonaeans (who were regarded in some ways as heroes, due to their earlier freeing of the nation from foreign rule), and his plans to redesign and expand the temple, made him more disliked, and propaganda against him abounded. | |||
| After the suppression of the revolt the vast majority of Jews were sent into exile; shortly thereafter (around 200 CE), ] edited together judgements and traditions into an authoritative code, the ]. This marks the transformation of Pharisaic Judaism into Rabbinic Judaism. | |||
| Herod died in 4 BC, and various radical Jewish elements saw the opportunity to restore kings like the Hasmonaeans, and so arose in revolt: Judas in Gallilee, whose followers tore down the Roman Eagle that had adorned the temple; Simon in Perea, previously Herod's slave, who burned down the royal palace in Jericho; Athronges in Judea, a shepherd, who led a two-year rebellion. The Syrian legate ] took command of Judea, Samaria, and the Galilee, and immediately put down the uprisings, killing thousands of Jews by ], and selling many into slavery. Rome quickly re-established governance and divided Herod's kingdom amongst his sons: the southern part (] and ]) was given to ], ] was named '']'' of the ] and southern Transjordan (]), and Philip received the northern Transjordan (]). | |||
| Although the Rabbis traced their origins to the Pharisees, Rabbinic Judaism nevertheless involved a radical repudiation of certain elements of Phariseism -- elements that were basic to Second Temple Judaism. The Pharisees had been partisan. Members of different sects argued with one another over the correctness of their respective interpretations, but there is no significant record of any such debates. After the destruction of the Second Temple, these sectarian divisions ended. The term "Pharisee" was no longer used, perhaps because it was a term more often used by non-Pharisees, but also because the term was explicitly sectarian. The Rabbis claimed leadership over all Jews, and added to the ] the ''birkat haMinim'', a prayer which in part exclaims, "Praised are You O Lord, who breaks enemies and defeats the arrogant," and which is understood as a rejection of sectarians and sectarianism. This shift by no means resolved conflicts over the interpretation of the Torah; rather, it relocated debates between sects to debates within Rabbinic Judaism. | |||
| ] antagonized the Jews as his father had, and in ] the emperor ] acceded to an appeal by placing Judea and Samaria under the indirect rule of a Roman ] (or ]), and the direct rule of a high priest appointed by Rome, instead. The first procurator was ] (6 - ]), but the most famed was the one from ] to ], ]. | |||
| The Pharisaic commitment to scholarly debate as a value in and of itself, rather than merely a byproduct of sectarianism, emerged as a defining feature of Judaism. Debating itself became a central value, and the Rabbis maintained scrupulous records of debates valuing minoirty opinions as much as majority opinions. This tradition of study and debate reached its fullest expression in the development of the ]im, elaborations of the Mishnah and records of Rabbinic debates and discussions, compiled around ] in ] and around ] in ]. The Rabbinic Era is thus divided into two periods, that of the ''Tannaim'' (from the Aramaic word for "repeat," also used to mean "learn"), who completed the ] and wrote the ], and that of the ''Amoraim'' (from the Aramaic word for "speaker"), who wrote the ]s. The Rabbis emphasized that there was one God who created and cared for all people. Unlike Christianity, which in its orthodox form held that no one could achieve salvation except through Christianity, Rabinnic Judaism stressed that only Jews had to follow Rabbinic teachings, and that other nations were free to find their own paths to God. | |||
| == End of an Era == | |||
| By ] Jewish discontent with Rome had escalated. At first, the priests tried to suppress rebellion, even calling upon the Pharisees for help. After the Roman garrison failed to stop Hellenists from desecrating a synagogue in ], however, the high priest suspended payment of tribute, inaugurating the ]. During the Great Revolt, ] was sent to command the Galilee, raising an army primarily of local bandits, who subsequently pillaged nearby Greek and Roman cities, suggesting they had more interest in social rather than political gain. When Roman legions arrived from Syria, the bandit army melted away. | |||
| In 70 AD the Romans obliterated the temple. The destruction was a profoundly traumatic experience for many of the Jews, who were now confronted with difficult and far-reaching questions of how to achieve atonement without a temple, and how to explain the disasterous result. How people answered these questioned depended largely on their prior position. | |||
| Revolutionaries like the Zealots had been crushed, and had little subsequent credibility, the last committing suicide at ] (in ]) rather than give in. Similarly, the Sadducees, whose teachings were so closely connected to the temple cult, disappeared. Although always fairly detached from the general culture, and having little in the way of surviving records or documentary evidence, the Essenes are also believed to have vanished, perhaps because their teachings so diverged from the concerns of the times, the destruction having no consequence to them. | |||
| This left the Pharisees, emergent Christianity, and ]ism (a group which included followers of ]), as the surviving groups. Judaism is a corporeal religion, in which membership is based not on belief but rather descent from Abraham, physically marked by circumcision. But a resurrected, or ], figure offers the possibility of a spiritual rather than just a corporeal messiah, allowing an extension of Judaism's principles outside the limit of Jewish territory. | |||
| Following the destruction of the temple, Rome governed Judea through a ] at ] and a Jewish ]. ], formerly a leading Pharisee, was appointed the first Patriarch (the Hebrew word, Nasi, also means ], or ]), and he reestablished the Sanhedrin at Javneh under Pharisee control. Instead of giving tithes to the priests and sacrificing offerings at the Temple, the rabbis instructed Jews to give money to charities and study in local ]s. | |||
| A second revolt, against Emporer ]'s threat to rebuild Jerusalem as a pagan city dedicated to ], in ], led by ] again failed. Because of perceived support from the ], according to a ], the Romans tortured and executed ten leading members of the Sanhedrin. After the suppression of the revolt the vast majority of Jews were sent into exile; shortly thereafter (around 200 CE), ] edited together judgements and traditions into an authoritative code, the ]. | |||
| Too close an association with Judaism was perhaps risky, fearing Roman vengeance, and so an emphasis on the differences occurred, encouraging non-Jews to take part in the beliefs. This distancing was a long and gradual process, and some Christians were still part of the Jewish community even up until the time of the ] revolt in the 130s. As late as the 300s, ] strongly discouraged Christians from attending Jewish festivals in ], which suggests at least some ongoing contact between the two groups in that city. | |||
| The Pharisees had been partisan, but after the destruction of the temple, these sectarian divisions ended. The term ''Pharisee'' was no longer was appropriate, and the Rabbis claimed leadership over all Jews, addeding to the ] the ''birkat haMinim'', a prayer against sectarianism. This shift by no means resolved conflicts over the interpretation of the Torah, just transferring them to later forms of Judaism. | |||
| ===The Emergence of Rabbinic Judaism=== | |||
| Of all the major Second Temple sects, only the Pharisees remained (but see ]). Although they had accepted the importance of the Temple, their vision of Jewish law as a means by which ordinary people could engage with the sacred in their daily lives, provided them with a position from which to respond to all four challenges, in a way meaningful to the vast majority of Jews. | |||
| ==Related Articles== | ==Related Articles== | ||
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| == Reference Sources == | |||
| === General background reference sources === | |||
| *], ''Antiquities of the Jews'' 93AD | |||
| <!-- I am not certain which of the other section should go here, as they all seem to express only one particular point of view. --> | |||
| ==Sources== | |||
| === Jesus as a Jew === | |||
| *Boyarin, Daniel ''A Radical Jew: Paul and the Politics of Identity'' 1997 ISBN 0-520-21214-2 | *Boyarin, Daniel ''A Radical Jew: Paul and the Politics of Identity'' 1997 ISBN 0-520-21214-2 | ||
| *Cohen, Shaye J.D. 1988 ''From the Maccabees to the Mishnah'' ISBN 0-664-25017-3 | *Cohen, Shaye J.D. 1988 ''From the Maccabees to the Mishnah'' ISBN 0-664-25017-3 | ||
| Line 167: | Line 186: | ||
| *Vermes, Geza, ''The Religion of Jesus the Jew'' ISBN 0800627970 | *Vermes, Geza, ''The Religion of Jesus the Jew'' ISBN 0800627970 | ||
| *Vermes, Geza, ''Jesus in his Jewish context'' ISBN 0800636236 | *Vermes, Geza, ''Jesus in his Jewish context'' ISBN 0800636236 | ||
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According to the Gospels, Jesus lived in Judea and the Galilee (modern day Israel, Palestine, and Jordan) around the first half of the first century AD. Some people question the Historicity of Jesus, others do not. Some people, including critical Bible scholars and historians, however, claim that an account of Jesus' life must make sense in terms of his historical and cultural context, rather than Christian orthodoxy. The study of this context involves Jewish culture, tensions, trends, and changes under the influence of Hellenic and Roman occupation.
Geographical Background
The ancient land of Judea and Galilee (also, called the land of Canaan, Palestine, Judah & Israel, and currently partially containing the modern state of Israel) is situated on the easternmost coast of the Mediterranean, the westernmost part of the Fertile Crescent, also known as the central Levant.
The settlement of this area by various groups, including Canaanites and Phoenecians, and the origins of the ancient Israelites is a complex and much-debated topic, and counts amongst the History of ancient Israel and Judah. Despite this cosmopolitan setting, the events described in the New Testament are placed within a relatively small and circumscribed area, perhaps 100 miles north to south and 40 or 50 miles east to west.
The Levant lies on the border between the two great tectonic plates of Europe and africa, which are presently sliding past each other, forming minor mountain ranges. In the area of Palestine itself, a north-south mountain range dominates, leaving a small area of plains by the coast, and a desert inland. In the midst of the mountains lies the river Jordan, carving out a valley which historically formed a convenient border between nations. The Jordan runs, within its valley, from a large freshwater lake to the north, the Sea of Gallilee, into a lake, so laden with saltwater that people can float within it, to the south, the Dead Sea.
Cultural Background
Language
The Near East was cosmopolitan, especially during the Hellenistic period. Several languages were used, and the matter of the lingua franca is still subject of some debate. The Jews almost certainly spoke Aramaic, a semitic language from the east, among themselves. Greek was at least to some extent a trade language in the region, and indeed throughout the entire eastern portion of the Mediterranean. Hebrew was the language used to write out the scriptures, but had been superseeded by this time by Aramaic, due to Aramaic's position as the main trade language of the fertile crescent (a position enjoyed due to its use in prior empires)
Procurators like Pontius Pilate (a Roman from Rome) would most likely have spoken Latin in private, but would probably have used Greek to handle day to day business in the province, though it is also possible that he used Aramaic for this. Scholars debate whether everyday people or even the more learned, spoke any other languages than Aramaic, perhaps some rudimentary Greek or Latin, and (for Jews) Hebrew.
Bandits
Social historians have suggested that bandits are common in peasant socities; they are poor men who identify with other peasants, but who seek to aquire wealth and political power. When Herod was still military governor in the Galilee, he spent a good deal of time fighting bandits under the leadership of Ezekias. These bandits are best understood as a peasant group whose targets were local elites (both Hasmonean and Herodian) rather than with Rome. Ventidius Cumanus (procurator 48 to 52 CE) often retaliated against brigandry by punishing peasant communities he believed to be their base of support.
When a Galillean pilgram on way to Jerusalem was murdered by a Samaritan, the bandit chief Eliezar organized Galilleans for a counter-attack, and Cumanus moved against the Jews. The Syrian legate Quadratus intervened and sent several Jewish and Samaritan officials to Rome. The Emporer Claudius took the Jewish side, and had the Samaritan leaders executed and exiled, and turned one named Veler over to the Jews who beheaded him. Thus, widespread peasant unrest of this period was not exclusively directed against Rome but also expressed discontent against urban elites and other groups; Roman policy sought to contain the power of the bandits while cultivating Jewish support.
Hellenism
Ever since the rule by Hellenic empires, Jews had to grapple with the values of Hellenism, and Hellenistic philosophy, which were often directly at odds with their own values and traditions. Bath houses were built in Jerusalem, for instance, and the gymnasium became a centre of social, athletic, and intellectual life. Many Jews embraced these institutions, although Jews who did so were often looked down upon due to their circumcision, noticable in the nude gymnasia, which non-Jews viewed as an unaesthetic defacement of the body.
Many Jews lived in the Diaspora (i.e. outside the area), and the Judean provinces of Judea, Samaria, and the Galilee were populated by many non-Jews (who often showed a curiousity about Judaism). Under such conditions, Jews had to confront a paradox in their own tradition: their laws officially applied only to them, but revealed apparantly universal truths. This situation led to new interpretations, some of which were influenced by Hellenic thought and in response to Gentile interest in Judaism.
Religious observance
According to the Torah, Jews were required to travel to Jerusalem and offer sacrifices at the temple three times a year: Passover, Sukkot, and Shavuot. Although many Jews attempted to do so, many could not due to the large distances involved. Consequently, Jews developed new institutions to supplement the Temple. Outside of Roman Palestine, Jews established proseuchai (house of prayer). Within Roman Palestine, Jews established synagogues (meeting houses). Synagogues served primarily as local civic-centers, but people in synagogues and proseuchai developed practices based on and that paralleled practices in the Temple. For example, people in the proseuchai imitated the Temple practice of reciting the "Shema" twice daily.
For the most part, although Jews were willing to pay tribute (although they complained when it was excessive), they absolutely refused to allow a religious image in their temple, even though some Emperors considered imposing one.
Political Background
In the first century AD, the area was a Roman Province, having a nominal degree of devolution of power. In the history of the area, secular power was frequently given to the head of the priesthood, a tradition starting with Ezra, appointed as such by the Persian Empire. Ruling as kings, or fighting wars resulting in their appointment to power, was intimately connected to Jewish religion which asserted that the Priesthood had the right to make law, tempering that of the occasional non-priest kings. By the time Jesus is claimed to have lived, the division of powers was enforced, the Romans controlling both govenor and priest. The primary tasks of the appointed rulers was to collect tribute, convince the Romans not to interfere, and ensure that the Jews not rebel.
Kings and Govenors
The early monarchy of the area, according to the Tanakh, was descended from a king named David, considered to have defeated the enemies of the nation, and made the kingdom strong. The dynasty he created was known as the House of David, and was seen, by the state religion, as being appointed by God to perpetual rule. However, it, along with the nation, was obliterated by the Babylonians in 586 BC.
Much later, under Judah Maccabee, the monarcy was restored, but suffered from civil war, eventually being replaced by foreign dominion. Just before the start of the first century AD, Herod the Great was king, but since he had foreign descent, and had usurped the authority of the Hasmonaeans (who were heroes), his rule was extremely unpopular. When Herod died, the antagonism his sons caused resulted in the Romans appointing procurators, who governed indirectly, and nominal kings such as Herod Antipas, who wielded little genuine power.
One of the most notorious procurators was Pontius Pilate. Pilate frequently tortured those he had arrested, often without trial, showing very little mercy, and often went to extreme lengths of depravity in his treatment of prisoners. He also ruthlessly crushed anything even remotely appearing to be potential for rebellion, such as a religious expedition up a hillside, whose leaders he had killed. Survivors made many complaints, the Samaritans appealing to the Syrian Legate, Vitellius, that they were unarmed, and Pilate's actions were excessively cruel. Once news of his behaviour had reached Rome, even the Romans were appalled, the Senate finally demanding he present himself in Rome to answer for it. Having been stripped of his authority, partly because of the unrest he had instigated, records of what happened to him cease.
Priests
The religion of the region, like much of ancient Near Eastern society, centred on temples, served by a caste of priests who made offerings to their god(s). The priests in power by 1AD claimed descent from a figure named Aaron, which they claimed made them part of the tribe of Levi. The general populous, due to the claims of Jewish religious texts, believed them to have been appointed by God to care for the Tabernacle.
When the Persians governed the area, they had appointed a governor and an high priest, but without the constraining power of a monarchy, the authority of the Temple, in the eyes of the people, was amplified, and priests became the dominant authority. In 57 BCE, the Roman Proconsul, Cabineus, established five regional synhedria (i.e. Sanhedrins, meaning councils), to regulate the internal affairs of the Jews. The Sanhedrinae was a legislative council of 71 elders chaired by the high priest, which interpreted Jewish law and adjudicated appeals, especially in ritual matters, but the specific composure and powers actually varied depending on Roman policy.
Although the office of high priest was theoretically life-long, the Romans regularly deposed the occupants in favour of new appointees. However, due to the manipulations of Annas (himself high priest from 7 to 14 CE), the temple remained in control of one family for most of the first century (until it was destroyed). Annas' son-in-law Caiaphas (high priest from 18-22 and 24-36) was followed by his sons Eleazar (23-24), Jonathas (37), Theophilos (38-42), Matthias (42-44), and Ananias (63). Since the high priest was meant to be life-long, many considered Annas the legitimate holder of the office, and, with regard to Jesus, the Gospel of John reports a separate trial before Annas, in addition to the Sanhedrin.
Religious Background
Sadducees
Main article:Sadducees
The Sadducees (meaning Zadok-ites) emerged from the official priesthood, and those who supported them, upholding the laws of the nation as it stood, and the institution of a religion centralised on one location, the temple (known as the Second Temple) in Jerusalem. As such, they dominated worship in the temple, and acts such as animal sacrifice. Saducees favoured a limited interpretation of the Torah, and did not believe the dead could be resurrected, instead preferring a more permanent Sheol. There is a record of only one high priest (Ananus, in 62 CE) being a Saducee, although scholars generally assume that the Sanhedrin was dominated by them.
Essenes
Main article:Essenes
The Essenes were also an early movement, who rejected the appointed high priests as illegitimate. Ultimately, they rejected the Jerusalem temple, arguing that their community itself was a temple of God, and that simply following religious law represented a form of sacrifice. Most knowledge of the beliefs of the Essenes derives from texts alleged to have been owned by them found at Qumran, and should this be true, they appear to have had esoteric interpretations of scripture.
They formed sets of small communities centred on a single teacher, older than 30, and held their goods in common to varying degrees, some keeping everything in common (partly similar to monasticism) and others only a tithe of their income. Some groups tried to keep as much as possible within their community, only going outside for what they could not produce, and this, together with their lack of concern for the temple, alienated them from the great mass of Jews.
Pharisees
Main article:Pharisees
The notion of the Essenes, that the sacred could exist outside the temple was shared by another group, the Pharisees (meaning separatists, either referring to rejection of Hellenic culture or of the Hasmonaeans), which had its origins in the relatively new group of authorities of scribes and sages. Pharisees dominated scriptural studies (i.e. of the Torah and Tanakh), and expounded on the meaning of texts, debating new applications of the law, devised ways for all Jews to incorporate non-temple purity practices into daily life, and supported Oral Law resulting from it. Pharisees also believed in the resurrection of the dead in a future age, when the House of David had restored the independant kingdom of Israel.
The Pharisees were politically quiescent, and studied, taught, and worshipped in their own way, and although popular and respected, they had no power. As the first century wore on, they split into two camps, those of Hillel the Elder (whose name means victor), who supported liberal interpretation, and those of Shammai (whose name means loser), supporting a rigid interpretation. Hillel's group eventually gained dominance, and one of his descendants, Gamaliel became famed for his wisdom, the first to be named Rabbi (teacher), to the extent that texts attributed to Paul of Tarsus (whom Christians refer to as St. Paul) state that he was proud to claim to have sat at Gamaliel's feet.
Prophets
Many societies had myths about gods, and laws which they believed were given by them. The Jewish nations by 1AD had sacred texts encoding such things, which they believed were written by prophets. Some prophets criticized the king, elites, or the masses and provided visions of a better life. According to the Tanakh, in the early history of the Jewish nations, the tradition was epitomized on one hand by prophets like Isaiah and Jeremiah, who primarily addressed issues of collective concern, and on the other by Elijah and Elisha, who healed people and performed other miracles, primarily addressing issues of personal individual concern. The credence given to prophets made them a potent political force.
During the first century a number of individuals claimed to be new prophets, in the individualist tradition of Elijah and Elisha. The Talmud records two examples of people claiming to work miracles around this time. The Mishnah, at Ta'anit 3:8, tells of Honi the Circledrawer who, in the middle of the first century BC, was famous for his ability to successfully pray for rain (his nickname derives from an occasion on which he was unsuccessful in his prayers, and so he confined himself to a circle in the dust which he had drawn, until his prayers were answered). Tha Mishnah, at Berakot 5:5, tells of Hanina ben Dosa, who in the middle of the first century AD cured Gamaliel's son by prayer, and later killed a villanous lizard merely by causing it to bite him.
Such men as Honi and Hanina were respected for their relationship with God but not considered especially saintly, and their abilities were seen as one more unknowable thing, and not deemed a result of any ultra-strict observance of Jewish law. These men were sometimes doubted, often respected, but never considered saviours in any way.
Messiahs and Millenialism
For many Christians, messiah refers to a personal saviour of all humankind, and sometimes also has an apocalyptic notion, as one who who will usher in the end of history by resurrecting the dead and by executing God's judgement over humankind. However, the english word messiah is derived from the Hebrew word mashiyakh (משיח), meaning anointed, which had other meanings. We cannot immediately assume that Jesus and his followers used the word the same way as Christians today.
In the Hebrew Bible, messiah was originally used to refer to High Priests and kings, who were elevated to office by being anointed with oil. The Essenes and the Mishnah, edited in 200 AD, used the term mainly to refer to the High Priest, but by the time of the Roman occupation, many Jews also used the term to refer to a descendent of King David who would restore God's kingdom. Thus, although all Jewish kings were annointed, not all kings were considered messianic.
The Hasmonean kings (162 BC - 56 BC) were not descended from David, and did not claim to have divine right. After the Roman occupation and the fall of the Hasmoneans, many Jews hoped that the Romans would be replaced by a Jewish king. However, Jews were divided over how this might occur. Most Jews believed that their history was governed by God, meaning that even the conquest of Judea by the Romans was a divine act. Thus, the majority of Jews accepted Roman rule, and did not look for, or encourage, messiahs, believing that the Romans would be replaced by a Jewish king only through divine intervention.
During this period a class of prophets emerged who hearkened back to Moses and Joshua as harbingers of national liberation, expressing a nationalist notion of messiah, as one who will defend the Jews against foreign oppressors, and rule the Jews justly by divine right. These men did not rely on physical force, but did lead large movements of people (from the hundreds to the thousands) to act in ways that, they believed, would lead God to restore an independant kingdom ruled by the House of David. For example, in 36 AD a Samaritan led a large group up Mount Gerizim, where they believed Moses had buried sacred vessels (echoing Moses' ascent up Mt. Sinai), but Pilate blocked their route and killed their leaders, an act which contributed to his downfall.
Another such prophet was Theudas, who, sometime between 44 AD and 46 AD led a large group of people to the Jordan, which he claimed he could part, but Fadus, the successor to Pilate, blocked their route and killed Theudas. After Theudas came the Egyptian (this is the only known appelation of him - it is unclear if the prophet came from Egypt, or was invoking Moses' Egyptian origin) led thirty thousand around the mount of Olives, and sought to enter Jerusalem, until stopped by Felix, the procurator who succeeded Fadus.
Armed Resistance
Main article:Zealots
Various groups also resisted the status quo by force of arms, in many cases without a specific long term plan, and in some cases more opposed to urbanist elitism. As the first century progressed, these groups became more noticable. A group known as Sicarii (meaning dagger-men) were urban terrorists who emerged in Jerusalem in the 50s AD, specifically stabbing to death Jews whom they believed to be supporters of the Romans. More organised resistance took the form of the Zealots, who between 67 and 68 imprisoned members of the Herodian family, killed the former high priests Ananus ben Artanus and Joshua ben Gamaliel, and put on trial the wealthiest citizens, in an attempt to purge away pro-Roman factions.
Historical Background
In the 1st century AD, when Jesus was supposed to have lived, most Jews were poor, politically marginalized peasants. Nevertheless, various elites and social movements, sometimes in competition for political power, argued over the status of the Temple, laws and values embodied in scripture, the restoration of a monarchy, Jewish sovereignty, and the Jewish kingdom. These institutions began in the kingdoms of Israel and of Judah, in the 11th to 6th centuries BC.
Babylon and Egypt
Historically a crossroads for intercontinental trade, the area was situated between the ancient empires of Egypt to the south west, Greece and later Rome to the northwest, and Assyria, Babylonia, the Akkadians, Sumerians, and later Persia to the east and north (the south east is desert, and the west is sea). As a consequence, the area formed the front line between each empire, and also a buffer, sometimes powers preferring to keep it nominally independant as a barrier to their enemies, and at other times preferring domination to vie for expansion. The geographical misfortune of the area made it an intrinsic powder-keg, causing misfortune for its attempts at self-rule.
First the area was laid waste by the Egyptians, followed by later Egyptian withdrawel, after suffering damage (like many nations at the time) from the mysterious Sea Peoples. Then the area tried to fend off the Assyrian empire's interest in it, eventually losing the northern half, and the southern remainder, Judah, becoming a vassal state. When the Babylonians took over the Assyrian empire, the Egyptians advanced, and the Judean king, Josiah, rode out to draw battle, at Meggiddo but lost, a battle so devastating its name lived on in Jewish eschatology as the location for the final battle of good and evil - Armaggeddon.
Flipping between Egyptian and Babylonian vassals, the last king decided to rebel, drawing wrath so great that the Babylonians obliterated Judah's existance, carrying off its treasures, imprisoning its nobles, and killing the royal heirs before the face of the rebellious king, who was then blinded so that it was the last he ever saw. A few decades later, Persia arose as a new power, winning Babylon in 539 BCE, and in accordance with their religious (zoroastrian), and governmental, principles, Cyrus the Great released (in 520 BCE) the Jewish people and helped them reconstruct their nation.
Hellenism and the Maccabees
The Hellenistic period of Jewish history began in 332 BCE when the Macedonian, Alexander the Great, conquered Persia. Upon his death in 323 BCE, his empire was divided among his generals. At first, Judea was ruled by the Egypto-Hellenic Ptolemies, but in 198 BCE,the Syrio-Hellenic Seleucid Empire, under Antiochus III, seized control. Although the Jews generally accepted foreign rule as vassals, they were divided on the issue of hellenisation of their culture, and on whether to support the Ptolemies or Seleucids.
Judea had been ruled by the priesthood ever since Ezra was given political and priestly control by Cyrus, and when the High Priest Simon II died in 175 BCE, conflict broke out between supporters of his son, Onias III, who was against hellenising and supported Ptolemaic control, and supporters of his other son, Jason, who favoured hellenising and the Seleucids. The struggle between these rival factions lead to a period of political intrigue; some priests such as Menelaus bribed the king to win the High Priesthood, and many competing contenders were accused of murder.
The result was (brief) civil war. Huge numbers flocked to Jason's pro-Seleucid side, and in 167 BCE the Seleucid king, Antiochus IV, invaded, entering the temple, and stripping it of money and ceremonial objects. Jason fled, to Egypt, and the Seleucids imposed forced hellenisation, requiring Jews to abandon seperate law or custom. At this point, a priest of the Hasmon family named Mattathias, and his five sons (John, Eleazar, Simon, Jonathan, and Judah - known as Maccabee), also priests, living in the rural village of Modein, roused an army, and lead a bloody revolt against the Seleucids.
Judah (Maccabee) won Jerusalem in 165 BCE and restored the temple, but fighting continued, and Judah and Jonathan were killed. In 141 BCE, after independance had been won, an assembly of priests and others confirmed Simon as their high priest and leader, and when Simon was killed in 135 BCE, his son, John Hyrcanus, took his place, in effect establishing an Hasmonean dynasty.
Romans
A political rift gradually emerged as objection to Hasmonean dominance of the priesthood, and political appointments to it, grew, eventually becoming the group known as Pharisees. Matters came to a head when the Pharisees demanded that the Hasmonean, Alexander Jannai, choose between being king and being High Priest, causing another brief civil war, ending with a bloody repression of Pharisees. However, at his deathbed the king called for reconciliation, and was succeeded by his widow, whose brother was a leading Pharisee, and whose elder son (named Hyrcanus) favoured the Pharisees, though her younger son (named Aristobulus) did not.
The conflict between the sons culminated in yet another civil war, during which Hyrcanus appealed to the rising power of Rome for assistance. Rome saw political advantage in entering the region, and the Roman general Pompey captured Jerusalem in 63 BC, ended monarchial rule but naming Hyrcanus high priest and ethnarch (a lesser title than king). After 6 years, political jurisdiction was transferred by the Romans to the Proconsul of Syria, who appointed Hyrcanus's Idumaean associate, Antipater the Idumaean, as govenor, later partitioning the area under his two sons Phasael (Judea) and Herod (Galilee).
In 40 BC Aristobulus's son Antigonus overthrew Hyrcanus and named himself king and high priest, and Herod fled to Rome, where he sought the support of Mark Anthony and Octavian, securing recognition by the Senate as king. Herod was an unpopular ruler, perceived as a foreigner and a Roman puppet. Actions such as notorious treatment of his own family, treatment that of the Hasmonaeans (who were regarded in some ways as heroes, due to their earlier freeing of the nation from foreign rule), and his plans to redesign and expand the temple, made him more disliked, and propaganda against him abounded.
Herod died in 4 BC, and various radical Jewish elements saw the opportunity to restore kings like the Hasmonaeans, and so arose in revolt: Judas in Gallilee, whose followers tore down the Roman Eagle that had adorned the temple; Simon in Perea, previously Herod's slave, who burned down the royal palace in Jericho; Athronges in Judea, a shepherd, who led a two-year rebellion. The Syrian legate Varus took command of Judea, Samaria, and the Galilee, and immediately put down the uprisings, killing thousands of Jews by crucifixion, and selling many into slavery. Rome quickly re-established governance and divided Herod's kingdom amongst his sons: the southern part (Judea and Samaria) was given to Archelaus, Herod Antipas was named tetrarch of the Galilee and southern Transjordan (Peraea), and Philip received the northern Transjordan (Batanaea).
Archelaus antagonized the Jews as his father had, and in 6 AD the emperor Augustus acceded to an appeal by placing Judea and Samaria under the indirect rule of a Roman procurator (or prefect), and the direct rule of a high priest appointed by Rome, instead. The first procurator was Coponius (6 - 9), but the most famed was the one from 26 to 36 AD, Pontius Pilate.
End of an Era
By 66 AD Jewish discontent with Rome had escalated. At first, the priests tried to suppress rebellion, even calling upon the Pharisees for help. After the Roman garrison failed to stop Hellenists from desecrating a synagogue in Caesarea, however, the high priest suspended payment of tribute, inaugurating the Great Jewish Revolt. During the Great Revolt, Flavius Josephus was sent to command the Galilee, raising an army primarily of local bandits, who subsequently pillaged nearby Greek and Roman cities, suggesting they had more interest in social rather than political gain. When Roman legions arrived from Syria, the bandit army melted away.
In 70 AD the Romans obliterated the temple. The destruction was a profoundly traumatic experience for many of the Jews, who were now confronted with difficult and far-reaching questions of how to achieve atonement without a temple, and how to explain the disasterous result. How people answered these questioned depended largely on their prior position.
Revolutionaries like the Zealots had been crushed, and had little subsequent credibility, the last committing suicide at Masada (in 73 AD) rather than give in. Similarly, the Sadducees, whose teachings were so closely connected to the temple cult, disappeared. Although always fairly detached from the general culture, and having little in the way of surviving records or documentary evidence, the Essenes are also believed to have vanished, perhaps because their teachings so diverged from the concerns of the times, the destruction having no consequence to them.
This left the Pharisees, emergent Christianity, and Mandaeanism (a group which included followers of John the Baptist), as the surviving groups. Judaism is a corporeal religion, in which membership is based not on belief but rather descent from Abraham, physically marked by circumcision. But a resurrected, or gnostic, figure offers the possibility of a spiritual rather than just a corporeal messiah, allowing an extension of Judaism's principles outside the limit of Jewish territory.
Following the destruction of the temple, Rome governed Judea through a Procurator at Caesarea and a Jewish Patriarch. Yohanan ben Zakkai, formerly a leading Pharisee, was appointed the first Patriarch (the Hebrew word, Nasi, also means prince, or president), and he reestablished the Sanhedrin at Javneh under Pharisee control. Instead of giving tithes to the priests and sacrificing offerings at the Temple, the rabbis instructed Jews to give money to charities and study in local Synagogues.
A second revolt, against Emporer Hadrian's threat to rebuild Jerusalem as a pagan city dedicated to Jupiter, in 132 CE, led by Simon bar Kozeba again failed. Because of perceived support from the Sanhedrin, according to a midrash, the Romans tortured and executed ten leading members of the Sanhedrin. After the suppression of the revolt the vast majority of Jews were sent into exile; shortly thereafter (around 200 CE), Judah haNasi edited together judgements and traditions into an authoritative code, the Mishna.
Too close an association with Judaism was perhaps risky, fearing Roman vengeance, and so an emphasis on the differences occurred, encouraging non-Jews to take part in the beliefs. This distancing was a long and gradual process, and some Christians were still part of the Jewish community even up until the time of the Bar Kochba revolt in the 130s. As late as the 300s, John Chrysostom strongly discouraged Christians from attending Jewish festivals in Antioch, which suggests at least some ongoing contact between the two groups in that city.
The Pharisees had been partisan, but after the destruction of the temple, these sectarian divisions ended. The term Pharisee was no longer was appropriate, and the Rabbis claimed leadership over all Jews, addeding to the Amidah the birkat haMinim, a prayer against sectarianism. This shift by no means resolved conflicts over the interpretation of the Torah, just transferring them to later forms of Judaism.
The Emergence of Rabbinic Judaism
Of all the major Second Temple sects, only the Pharisees remained (but see Karaite Judaism). Although they had accepted the importance of the Temple, their vision of Jewish law as a means by which ordinary people could engage with the sacred in their daily lives, provided them with a position from which to respond to all four challenges, in a way meaningful to the vast majority of Jews.
Related Articles
- Roman Empire
- Julio-Claudian dynasty
- Romanitas, Culture of Rome
- Paideia
- Hellenistic Greece
- History of ancient Israel and Judah
- Assyro-Babylonian culture
- Social life in Babylonia and Assyria
- Judeo-Christian tradition
- Comparing and contrasting Judaism and Christianity
Reference Sources
General background reference sources
- Flavius Josephus, Antiquities of the Jews 93AD
Jesus as a Jew
- Boyarin, Daniel A Radical Jew: Paul and the Politics of Identity 1997 ISBN 0-520-21214-2
- Cohen, Shaye J.D. 1988 From the Maccabees to the Mishnah ISBN 0-664-25017-3
- Cohen, Shaye J.D. The Beginnings of Jewishness: Boundaries, Varieties, Uncertainties 2001 ISBN 0-520-22693-3
- Crossan, John Dominic 1991 The Historical Jesus: The Life of a Mediterranean Jewish Peasant, ISBN 0060616296
- Ehrman, Bart The New Testament: A Historical Introduction to the Early Christian Writings, ISBN 0195154622
- Fredriksen, Paula Jesus of Nazareth, King of the Jews: A Jewish Life and the Emergence of Christianity ISBN 0679767460
- Fredriksen, Paula 1988 From Jesus to Christ ISBN 0-300-04864-5
- Meier, John A Marginal Jew: Rethinking the Historical Jesus: The Roots of the Problem and the Person. Vol I 1991 ISBN 0-385-26425-9
- Meier, John Mentor, Message, and Miracles. A Marginal Jew: Rethinking the Historical Jesus Vol. II 1994 ISBN 0-385-46992-6
- Meier, John Companions and Competitors. A Marginal Jew: Rethinking the Historical Jesus Vol. III ISBN 2001 0-385-46993-4
- Neusner, Jacob Torah From our Sages: Pirke Avot ISBN 0-940-64605-6
- Pagels, Elaine The Gnostic Gospels 1989 ISBN 0-679-72453-2
- Sanders, E.P. The historical figure of Jesus, Penguin, 1996, ISBN 0140144994
- Sanders, E.P. Jesus and Judaism, Fortress Press, 1987, ISBN 0800620615
- Schwartz, Leo, ed. Great Ages and Ideas of the Jewish People ISBN 0-394-60413-X
- Vermes, Geza Jesus the Jew: A Historian's Reading of the Gospels ISBN 0800614437
- Vermes, Geza, The Religion of Jesus the Jew ISBN 0800627970
- Vermes, Geza, Jesus in his Jewish context ISBN 0800636236