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{{short description|Century}} {{Short description|One hundred years, from 1701 to 1800}}
{{other uses}} {{other uses}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=September 2023}}{{Centurybox|18}}
{{Globalize|1=article|2=Western|date=July 2020}}
{{Centurybox|18}}
] ]
]]] ], 14 July 1789, an iconic event of the ].]]
] in the late 18th century was an important element in the ] in Great Britain.]] ] in the late 18th century was an important element in the ] in Europe.]]
] took place in the late 18th century.]] ] took place in the late 18th century.]]
The '''18th century''' lasted from January 1, 1701 (]) to December 31, 1800 (]). During the 18th century, elements of ] thinking culminated in the ], ], and ]. During the century, slave trading and ] expanded on a global scale. Revolutions began to challenge the legitimacy of monarchical and aristocratic power structures, including the structures and beliefs that supported the slave trade. The '''18th century''' lasted from 1 January ] (represented by the ] MDCCI) to 31 December ] (MDCCC). During the 18th century, elements of ] thinking culminated in the ]. Revolutions began to challenge the legitimacy of monarchical and aristocratic power structures. The ] began during mid-century, leading to radical changes in ] and the ]. The ] and other parts of the world intensified and associated mass migrations of people grew in size as part of the ]. During the century, ] expanded across the shores of the ], while declining in ]<ref>{{Cite book|last=Volkov|first=Sergey|title=Concise History of Imperial Russia}}</ref> and ].<ref>{{Cite book|last=Rowe|first=William T.|title=China's Last Empire}}</ref>


] historians have occasionally defined the 18th century otherwise for the purposes of their work. For example, the "short" 18th century may be defined as 1715–1789, denoting the period of time between the death of ] and the start of the ], with an emphasis on directly interconnected events.<ref>{{cite book |author=Anderson, M. S. |url=https://archive.org/details/historianseighte0000ande |title=Historians and Eighteenth-Century Europe, 1715–1789 |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=1979 |isbn=978-0-19-822548-5 |oclc=185538307 |url-access=registration}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |author=Ribeiro, Aileen |title=Dress in Eighteenth-Century Europe 1715–1789 |publisher=Yale University Press |year=2002 |isbn=978-0-300-09151-9 |edition=revised |oclc=186413657}}</ref> To historians who expand the century to include larger historical movements, the "long" 18th century<ref name="Baines">{{cite book |last=Baines |first=Paul |title=The Long 18th Century |publisher=Arnold |year=2004 |isbn=978-0-340-81372-0 |location=London}}</ref> may run from the ] of 1688 to the ] in 1815<ref>{{cite book |title=The Oxford History of the British Empire: Volume II: The Eighteenth Century (Oxford History of the British Empire) |publisher=Oxford University Press, USA |year=2001 |isbn=978-0-19-924677-9 |editor=Marshall, P. J. |oclc=174866045}}, "Introduction" by P. J. Marshall, page 1</ref> or even later.<ref>{{cite book |author=O'Gorman, Frank |url=https://archive.org/details/longeighteenthce0000ogor |title=The Long Eighteenth Century: British Political and Social History 1688–1832 (The Arnold History of Britain Series) |publisher=A Hodder Arnold Publication |year=1997 |isbn=978-0-340-56751-7 |oclc=243883533 |url-access=registration}}</ref>
The period is also known as the "century of lights" or the "century of reason". In continental Europe, philosophers dreamed of a brighter age. For some, this dream turned into a reality with the ] of 1789, though this was later compromised by the excesses of the ]. At first, many monarchies of Europe embraced Enlightenment ideals, but in the wake of the French Revolution they feared loss of power and formed broad coalitions for ].


In ], philosophers ushered in the Age of Enlightenment. This period coincided with the French Revolution of 1789, and was later compromised by the excesses of the ]. At first, many monarchies of Europe embraced Enlightenment ideals, but in the wake of the French Revolution they feared loss of power and formed broad coalitions to oppose the ] in the ]. Various conflicts throughout the century, including the ] and the ], saw ] triumph over its rivals to become the preeminent power in Europe. However, Britain's attempts to exert its authority over the ] became a catalyst for the ]. The 18th century also marked the end of the ] as an independent state. Its semi-democratic government system was not robust enough to prevent ] by the neighboring states of ], ], and Russia.
18th century music includes works characteristic of the ] (including ] and ]) and the ] (including ] and ]).


The ] experienced an unprecedented period of peace and economic expansion, taking part in no European wars from 1740 to 1768. As a consequence, the empire was not exposed to Europe's military improvements of the ] (1756–1763). The Ottoman empire military may have fallen behind and suffered defeats against ] in the second half of the century. In ], ] led ] in successful ]. The ] experienced a period of peace, taking no part in European wars from 1740 to 1768. As a result, the empire was not exposed to Europe's military improvements during the Seven Years' War. The Ottoman military consequently lagged behind and suffered several defeats against Russia in the second half of the century.


In ], the death of Mughal emperor ] was followed by the expansion of the ] and an increasing level of European influence and control in the region. In 1739, Persian emperor Nader Shah invaded and plundered Delhi, the capital of the ]. Later, his general ] scored another victory against the Marathas, the then dominant power in India, in the ] in 1761.<ref name=":0">{{Cite book |last=Chandra |first=Bipin |title=Mordern India |location=India |language=en}}</ref> By the middle of the century, the ] began to conquer eastern India,<ref>{{cite book |last1=Campbell |first1=John |url=https://www.wdl.org/en/item/2384/ |title=Memoirs of the Revolution in Bengal, anno Dom. 1757 |last2=Watts |first2=William |publisher=A. Millar, London |year=1760 |author-link1=John Campbell (author)}}</ref><ref name=":0" /> and by the end of the century, the ] against ] and his father ], led to ] over the south.<ref>{{Citation |title=Why Europe Grew Rich and Asia Did Not: Global Economic Divergence, 1600–1850 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=1_YEcvo-jqcC&pg=PA207 |page=207 |year=2011 |publisher=] |isbn=978-1-139-49889-0 |given=Prasannan |surname=Parthasarathi}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Allana |first=Gulam |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=4nbiAAAAMAAJ |title=Muslim political thought through the ages: 1562–1947 |publisher=Royal Book Company |year=1988 |isbn=9789694070919 |edition=2 |location=Pennsylvania State University, Pennsylvania |page=78 |access-date=18 January 2013}}</ref>
The 18th century also marked the end of the ] as an independent state. The formerly powerful and vast kingdom, which had once conquered Moscow and defeated great Ottoman armies, collapsed under numerous invasions. Its semi-democratic government system was not robust enough to rival the neighboring monarchies of the ], the ] and the ] which divided the Commonwealth territories between themselves, changing the landscape of ] and politics for the next hundred years.


In ], the century was marked by the ], a period characterized by significant cultural and territorial expansion. This period also experienced relative peace and prosperity, allowing for societal growth, increasing literacy rates, flourishing trade, and consolidating imperial power across the vast Qing dynasty's territories. Conversely, the continual ] of the ] also brought a peaceful era called ] and experienced a flourishment of the ] as well as ], which were introduced to Japan through the Dutch port of Nagasaki. In ], the ] and the ] broke out while the ] established ] over the ].
] and other parts of the world intensified and associated mass migrations of people grew in size as the ] continued.


In ], the ] underwent the ], a period when the country was ruled by a class of regional noblemen and the emperor was merely a figurehead. The ] also saw the continued involvement of states such as the ]. In ], the European colonization of ] and ] began during the late half of the century. In the ], the ] declared its independence from Great Britain. In 1776, ] wrote the ]. In 1789, ] was inaugurated as the first president. ] traveled to Europe where he was hailed as an inventor. Examples of his inventions include the ] and ]. ] led an ] that sought to end ].
] became a major power worldwide with the ] in the 1760s and ], especially ]. However, Britain lost many of its North American colonies after the ] and Indian wars. In North America, the defeat of the British resulted in the formation of an independent United States.

In ], ] led successful military campaigns and major invasions, which led to the founding of the ].

In the ], the death of the ] ] marked the end of medieval India. It marked the beginning of modern India and the era of extensive European intervention in the subcontinent. The victory of the British ] over the ] and their ]<ref>{{cite book |last1=Campbell |first1=John |author-link1=John Campbell (author) |first2=William |last2=Watts |year=1760 |title=Memoirs of the Revolution in Bengal, anno Dom. 1757 |url=https://www.wdl.org/en/item/2384/ |publisher=A. Millar, London}}</ref> in the ] caused the deindustrialization of ] and the beginning of the British ] which radically changed human society and the environment. The British invasion expanded to cover much of ].

French-Italian emperor ] formed one of the ] with the major economic power ],<ref>{{Citation |title=Why Europe Grew Rich and Asia Did Not: Global Economic Divergence, 1600–1850 |given=Prasannan |surname=Parthasarathi |publisher=] |year=2011 |isbn=978-1-139-49889-0 |page=207 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=1_YEcvo-jqcC&pg=PA207}}</ref> governed by ] and his father ], who pioneered the use of ] and the world's first iron-cased rockets, the ], through the compilation of the '']''.<ref>{{cite book |last=Allana |first=Gulam |title=Muslim political thought through the ages: 1562–1947 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=4nbiAAAAMAAJ |access-date=18 January 2013 |year=1988 |edition=2 |publisher=Royal Book Company |location=Pennsylvania State University, Pennsylvania |page=78|isbn=9789694070919 }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=http://chnm.gmu.edu/revolution/exhibits/show/liberty--equality--fraternity/item/2938|title=Bonaparte and Islam · Liberty, Equality, Fraternity|website=chnm.gmu.edu|access-date=October 19, 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190528112838/http://chnm.gmu.edu/revolution/exhibits/show/liberty--equality--fraternity/item/2938|archive-date=May 28, 2019|url-status=dead}}</ref> The ] were fought and the ] was initiated in 1784.

Western historians have occasionally defined the 18th century otherwise for the purposes of their work. For example, the "short" 18th century may be defined as 1715–1789, denoting the period of time between the death of ] and the start of the French Revolution, with an emphasis on directly interconnected events.<ref>{{cite book| author = Anderson, M. S.| title = Historians and Eighteenth-Century Europe, 1715–1789| publisher = Oxford University Press| year = 1979| isbn = 978-0-19-822548-5| oclc = 185538307| url-access = registration| url = https://archive.org/details/historianseighte0000ande}}</ref><ref>{{cite book | author= Ribeiro, Aileen| title= Dress in Eighteenth-Century Europe 1715–1789|publisher= Yale University Press| year= 2002 | isbn= 978-0-300-09151-9 | oclc= 186413657| edition= revised}}</ref> To historians who expand the century to include larger historical movements, the "long" 18th century<ref name=Baines>{{cite book | last = Baines | first = Paul | title = The Long 18th Century | publisher = Arnold | location = London | year = 2004 | isbn = 978-0-340-81372-0 }}</ref> may run from the ] of 1688 to the ] in ]<ref>{{cite book | editor= Marshall, P. J.| title= The Oxford History of the British Empire: Volume II: The Eighteenth Century (Oxford History of the British Empire) |publisher= Oxford University Press, USA| year= 2001 | isbn= 978-0-19-924677-9 | oclc= 174866045}}, "Introduction" by P. J. Marshall, page 1</ref> or even later.<ref>{{cite book
| author= O'Gorman, Frank
| title= The Long Eighteenth Century: British Political and Social History 1688–1832 (The Arnold History of Britain Series)
| publisher= A Hodder Arnold Publication
| year= 1997
| isbn= 978-0-340-56751-7
| oclc= 243883533
| url-access= registration
| url= https://archive.org/details/longeighteenthce0000ogor
}}</ref>


==Events== ==Events==
{{For timeline}}
{{Main|Timeline of the 18th century}}
{{see also|Georgian era}}


===1701–1750=== ===1701–1750===
Line 45: Line 28:
] in 1709 turned the ] into a European power.]] ] in 1709 turned the ] into a European power.]]
]]] ]]]
] with the Persian invader ].]]
* ]–]: ] between the ] and ]s. * ]–]: ] between the ] and ]s.
* ]: ] declared under King ]. * ]: ] declared under King ].
* ]–]: The ] is fought, involving most of continental ].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.historyofwar.org/articles/wars_spanishsuccession.html |title=War of the Spanish Succession, 1701–1714 |publisher=Historyofwar.org |access-date=2009-04-25}}</ref> * ]: The ] marks the rise of the ].
* ]–]: The ] is fought, involving most of continental ].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.historyofwar.org/articles/wars_spanishsuccession.html |title=War of the Spanish Succession, 1701–1714 |publisher=Historyofwar.org |access-date=2009-04-25}}</ref>
* ]–]: ] in France. * ]–]: ] in France.
* ]: ] is founded by ]; it is the Russian ] until ]. * ]: ] is founded by ]; it is the Russian ] until ].
* ]–]: The ] against the ]. * ]–]: The ] against the ].
* ]: End of Japan's ] period. * ]: End of Japan's ] period.
* ]: ].<ref name="RICKLEFSp82">Ricklefs (1991), page 82</ref> * ]: ].<ref name="RICKLEFSp82">Ricklefs (1991), page 82</ref>
* ]–]: The ]: French troops defeated at the battles of ] and ]. * ]–]: The War of the Spanish Succession: French troops defeated at the ] and the ].
* ]: Death of Mughal Emperor ] leads to the fragmentation of the ].
* ]: The ] is passed, merging the Scottish and English Parliaments, thus establishing the ].<ref>{{cite web|author=Historic uk – heritage of britain accommodation guide |url=http://www.historic-uk.com/HistoryUK/Scotland-History/ActofUnion.htm |title=The history of Scotland – The Act of Union 1707 |publisher=Historic-uk.com |date=2007-05-03 |access-date=2009-04-25| archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20090408060918/http://www.historic-uk.com/HistoryUK/Scotland-History/ActofUnion.htm| archive-date= 8 April 2009 | url-status= live}}</ref>
* ]: The ] is passed, merging the Scottish and English Parliaments, thus establishing the ].<ref>{{cite web |author=Historic uk – heritage of britain accommodation guide |url=http://www.historic-uk.com/HistoryUK/Scotland-History/ActofUnion.htm |title=The history of Scotland – The Act of Union 1707 |publisher=Historic-uk.com |date=2007-05-03 |access-date=2009-04-25 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20090408060918/http://www.historic-uk.com/HistoryUK/Scotland-History/ActofUnion.htm |archive-date= 8 April 2009 |url-status= live}}</ref>
* ]: ] and English Company Trading to the East Indies merge to form the United Company of Merchants of England Trading to the East Indies.
* ]: The ] and English Company Trading to the East Indies merge to form the United Company of Merchants of England Trading to the East Indies.
* ]–]: Famine kills one-third of ]'s population. * ]–]: Famine kills one-third of ]'s population.
* ]: Foundation of the ].
* ]: The ] marks the coldest winter in 500 years.
* ]: The ] marks the coldest winter in 500 years, contributing to the defeat of ] at ].
* ]: The world's first ], ]'s ], takes effect.
* ]: The world's first ], Britain's ], takes effect.
* ]–]: ] fights Russia in the ].
* ]–]: ] fights Russia in the ] and regains ].
* ]: ] dissolves as local begs seize power.
* ]–]: ] between British, Dutch, and German settlers and the ] of ]. * ]–]: ] between British, Dutch, and German settlers and the ] of ].
* ]: The ] acknowledges the full recovery of the Chinese economy since its apex during the ].
* ]: In Amsterdam, ] invents the ], which remains the most reliable and accurate thermometer until the electronic era. * ]: In Amsterdam, ] invents the ], which remains the most reliable and accurate thermometer until the electronic era.
* ]: The ] breaks out; the British halt the Jacobite advance at the ]; ]. * ]: The ] breaks out; the British halt the Jacobite advance at the ]; ].
* ]: Establishment of the ] along the present-day India-] border. * ]: Establishment of the ] along the present-day India-] border.
* ]–]: ].
* ]: The city of ] is founded by the French in North America. * ]: The city of ] is founded by the French in North America.
* ]–]: ] with Spain versus France, Britain, Austria, and the Netherlands.
* ]–]: ] of the Ottoman Empire. * ]–]: ] of the Ottoman Empire.
* ]: ].<ref name="RICKLEFSp84">Ricklefs (1991), page 84</ref> * ]: ].<ref name="RICKLEFSp84">Ricklefs (1991), page 84</ref>
* ]: The ]. * ]: The ].
* ]–]: The ]. * ]–]: The ].
* ]: Qing forces oust ] invaders from ].
* ]: The ] is signed, ending the ]. * ]: The ] is signed, ending the ].
* ]: ], massacre of its Shia population by ] ]. * ]: ], massacre of its Shia population by ] ].
* ]: ] results in the handover of Iran to the ].
* ]–]: ]. * ]–]: ].
* ]–]: Controversy over ]'s halfpence leads to the '']'' and begins the Irish economic independence from England movement. * ]–]: Controversy over ]'s halfpence leads to the '']'' and begins the Irish economic independence from England movement.
] with the Persian invader ].]]
* ]: ] is abolished in Russia; ] converts household ] into house ].<ref>{{cite encyclopedia|url=http://www.britannica.com/blackhistory/article-24160 |title=Welcome to Encyclopædia Britannica's Guide to History |encyclopedia=Britannica.com |date=1910-01-31 |access-date=2009-04-25| archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20090416090645/http://www.britannica.com/blackhistory/article-24160| archive-date= 16 April 2009 | url-status= live}}</ref>
* ]: ] is abolished in Russia; ] converts household ] into house ].<ref>{{cite encyclopedia|url=https://www.britannica.com/blackhistory/article-24160 |title=Welcome to Encyclopædia Britannica's Guide to History |encyclopedia=Britannica.com |date=1910-01-31 |access-date=2009-04-25| archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20090416090645/https://www.britannica.com/blackhistory/article-24160| archive-date= 16 April 2009 | url-status= live}}</ref>
* ]–]: The "Great Disaster", an invasion of ] territories by the ]. * ]–]: The "Great Disaster", an invasion of ] territories by the ].
* ]–]: The Qing and the Dzungars fight a series of wars across ], ], and ], with inconclusive results.
* ]: ] proposes the ] temperature scale. * ]: ] proposes the ] temperature scale.
* ]–]: ]. * ]: ] revived. Russia joins in 1726.
* ]–]: ] ends inconclusively.
]]]
* ]: ] takes over Ottoman Empire after the ] revolt, ending the ]. * ]: ] takes over Ottoman Empire after the ] revolt, ending the ].
* ]–]: The ] takes place in Great Britain and North America. * ]–]: The ] takes place in Great Britain and North America.
* ]–]: ] raids into Russia.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.zum.de/whkmla/military/russia/milxcrimeantatars.html |title=List of Wars of the Crimean Tatars |publisher=Zum.de |access-date=2009-04-25| archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20090312034756/http://www.zum.de/whkmla/military/russia/milxcrimeantatars.html| archive-date= 12 March 2009 | url-status= live}}</ref> * ]–]: ] raids into Russia.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.zum.de/whkmla/military/russia/milxcrimeantatars.html |title=List of Wars of the Crimean Tatars |publisher=Zum.de |access-date=2009-04-25| archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20090312034756/http://www.zum.de/whkmla/military/russia/milxcrimeantatars.html| archive-date= 12 March 2009 | url-status= live}}</ref>
* ]–]: ]. *]–]: ].
]]]
* ]–]: ].
* ]–]: ].
* ]–]: The ] of China oversees a huge expansion in territory. * ]–]: The ] of China oversees a huge expansion in territory.
* ]–]: ] across the ]; half the population of ] dies.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://ag.arizona.edu/~lmilich/desclim.html |title=Len Milich: Anthropogenic Desertification vs 'Natural' Climate Trends |publisher=Ag.arizona.edu |date=1997-08-10 |access-date=2009-04-25 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120211081648/http://ag.arizona.edu/~lmilich/desclim.html |archive-date=2012-02-11 }}</ref> * ]–]: ] across the ]; half the population of ] dies.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://ag.arizona.edu/~lmilich/desclim.html |title=Len Milich: Anthropogenic Desertification vs 'Natural' Climate Trends |publisher=Ag.arizona.edu |date=1997-08-10 |access-date=2009-04-25 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120211081648/http://ag.arizona.edu/~lmilich/desclim.html |archive-date=2012-02-11 }}</ref>
* ]–]: Hotak Empire ends after the ] by ].
* ]: Great Britain and Spain fight the ] in the Caribbean. * ]: Great Britain and Spain fight the ] in the Caribbean.
* ]: Nader Shah defeats a pan-Indian army of 300,000 at the ]. Taxation is stopped in Iran for three years.
] system came with the defeat of the clansmen at the ] in 1746.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.unique-cottages.co.uk/unspoilt/20/clans |title=A guide to Scottish clans |publisher=Unique-cottages.co.uk |access-date=2009-04-25|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20080511181304/http://www.unique-cottages.co.uk/unspoilt/20/clans |archive-date = May 11, 2008|url-status=dead}}</ref>]]
* ]: ], ] * ]–]: ].
* ]: ] brings the ] to New England
* ]–]: ] kills 20 percent of the population. * ]–]: ] kills 20 percent of the population.
* ]–]: Iran invades ], ], ], and ].
* ]–]: ].
* ]–]: ]. * ]–]: ].
* ]: ], the first water-powered ], begins operation in England.<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Wadsworth |first1=Alfred P. |last2=Mann |first2=Julia De Lacy |year=1931 |title=The Cotton Trade and Industrial Lancashire, 1600–1780 |publisher=] |oclc=2859370 |page=433}}</ref>
* ]:
* ]: ] proposes an inverted form of the centigrade temperature, which is later renamed ] in his honor.
** ], the first water-powered ], begins operation in England.<ref>{{Cite book|last1=Wadsworth|first1=Alfred P.|last2=Mann|first2=Julia De Lacy|year=1931|title=The Cotton Trade and Industrial Lancashire, 1600–1780|publisher=]|oclc=2859370|page=433}}</ref>
* ]: Premiere of ]'s ].
** ] proposes an inverted form of the Centigrade temperature, which is later renamed ] in his honor.
* ]–]: Another ] involves 375,000 men but ultimately ends in a stalemate.
* ]: Premiere of ]'s ]
* ]: The ] is founded by ].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://countrystudies.us/saudi-arabia/7.htm |title=Saudi Arabia – The Saud Family and Wahhabi Islam |publisher=Countrystudies.us |access-date=2009-04-25}}</ref> ] system came with the defeat of the clansmen at the ] in 1746.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.unique-cottages.co.uk/unspoilt/20/clans |title=A guide to Scottish clans |publisher=Unique-cottages.co.uk |access-date=2009-04-25|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20080511181304/http://www.unique-cottages.co.uk/unspoilt/20/clans |archive-date = May 11, 2008|url-status=dead}}</ref>]]
* ]: The ] is founded by ].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://countrystudies.us/saudi-arabia/7.htm |title=Saudi Arabia – The Saud Family and Wahhabi Islam |publisher=Countrystudies.us |access-date=2009-04-25}}</ref>
* ]–]: The ] is fought between the British, the French, the ], and ] in India.
* ]: ] is fought off the coast of France.
* ]–]: The ] is fought between the British, the French, the Marathas, and Mysore in India.
* ]: ] is begun by ] in Scotland. * ]: ] is begun by ] in Scotland.
* ]: The ] is founded by ].
* ]: The ] ends the War of the Austrian Succession and First Carnatic War. * ]: The ] ends the War of the Austrian Succession and First Carnatic War.
* ]–]: The ] is fought between the British, the French, the ], and ] in India. * ]–]: The ] is fought between the British, the French, the Marathas, and Mysore in India.
* ]: Peak of the ]. * ]: Peak of the ].


===1751–1800=== ===1751–1800===
* ]: The ] adopts the ], skipping 11 days from 3 September to 13 September. On the calendar, 2 September is followed directly by 14 September.
* ]: The Treaty of Pondicherry ends the Second Carnatic War and recognizes ] as ]. * ]: The Treaty of Pondicherry ends the Second Carnatic War and recognizes ] as ].
* ]: ] is founded by a royal charter of ].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.columbia.edu/content/history.html|title=History|publisher=Columbia University}}</ref> * ]: ] is founded by a royal charter of ].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.columbia.edu/content/history.html|title=History|publisher=Columbia University}}</ref>
* ]–]: The ], the North American chapter of the ], is fought in colonial North America, mostly by the French and their allies against the English and their allies. * ]–]: The ], the North American chapter of the ], is fought in colonial North America, mostly by the French and their allies against the English and their allies.
* ]: The ] destroys most of ]'s capital and kills up to 100,000. * ]: The ] destroys most of ]'s capital and kills up to 100,000.
* ]–]: The ] forces transfer of the French Acadian population from Nova Scotia and New Brunswick. * ]: The ] depopulates much of northern Xinjiang, allowing for Han, Uyghur, Khalkha Mongol, and Manchu colonization.
* ]–]: The ] forces transfer of the French Acadian population from Nova Scotia and New Brunswick.
* ]–]: The ] is fought among European powers in various theaters around the world. * ]–]: The ] is fought among European powers in various theaters around the world.
* ]–]: The ] is fought between the British, the French, the ], and ] in India. * ]–]: The ] is fought between the British, the French, and Mysore in India.
* ]: ].
], Empress of Russia.]] ], Empress of Russia.]]
* ]: ] becomes King of Britain. * ]: ] becomes King of Britain.
* ]: Maratha Empire defeated at ]. * ]: ] defeated at ].
* ]–]: Reign of ] of Russia. * ]–]: Reign of ] of Russia.
* ]: The ] ends the Seven Years' War and Third Carnatic War. * ]: The ] ends the Seven Years' War and Third Carnatic War.
* ]: ] and the ] defeat the ] at the ].
* ]: The Mughals are defeated at the ].
* ]: The ] is introduced into the ] by the British Parliament. * ]: The ] is introduced into the ] by the British Parliament.
* ]: The ] and utterly destroy ].
* ]: ] becomes king of Denmark. He was ] to ].
* ]–]: ] under ] repels ] from Qing China, securing hegemony over the ].
* ]: ] becomes king of Denmark. He was ] to ].
* ]–]: ]. * ]–]: ].
* ]: ] expels Burmese invaders and reunites Thailand under an authoritarian regime.
* ]–]: ]. * ]–]: ].
* ]–]: ]. * ]–]: ].
* ]: Spanish ] establish the first of 21 ] in ]. * ]: Spanish ] establish the first of 21 ] in ].
* ]–]: ] explores and maps New Zealand and Australia. * ]–]: ] explores and maps New Zealand and Australia.
* ]–]: The ] kills one-third of the ] population. * ]–]: The ] kills one-third of the Bengal population.
* ]: The ] dissolves, only to be revived in 1785.
* ]: French expeditions capture ] plants in ], ending the VOC monopoly of the plant.<ref name="RICKLEFSp102">Ricklefs (1991), page 102</ref> (to 1772)
* ]: French expeditions capture ] plants in ], ending the ]'s (VOC) monopoly of the plant.<ref name="RICKLEFSp102">Ricklefs (1991), page 102</ref>
* ]–]: ] kills hundreds of thousands.
* ]: The ] in Moscow.
* ]: The ] dissolves as the territory becomes colonized by Russians. More than a hundred thousand ] migrate back to ].
* ]: ] stages a coup d'état, becoming almost an absolute monarch.
]]] ]]]
* ]–]: ] kills hundreds of thousands.
* ]: The ] in Moscow.
* ]: ] stages a coup d'état, becoming almost an absolute monarch.
* ]–]: Maratha Empire fights Britain and ]'s forces during the ]. * ]–]: Maratha Empire fights Britain and ]'s forces during the ].
* ]–]: The ] end the ] and erase Poland from the map for 123 years. * ]–]: The ] end the ] and erase Poland from the map for 123 years.
* ]–]: ], the largest peasant revolt in Russian history. * ]–]: ], the largest peasant revolt in Russian history.
* ]: East India Company starts operations in ] to smuggle ]. * ]: East India Company starts operations in ] to smuggle ].
* ]: Russia imposes a reduction in autonomy on the ] of Ukraine.
* ]–]: ]. * ]–]: ].
* ]–]: ]. * ]–]: ].
* ]: Several ]s are founded by Chinese settlers in the island of ]. They are some of the first democracies in Asia.
* ]–]: ] occurs over land in the South American frontiers.
* ]: ] founded by ]. * ]: ] founded by ].
* ]: The ] is adopted by the ] in ]. * ]: The ] is adopted by the ] in ].
* ]: ] publishes '']''. * ]: ] publishes '']''.
* ]: ] becomes the first European to land on the ]. * ]: ] becomes the first European to land on the ].
* ]: ] signed.
* ]: Spain acquires its ] from the Portuguese, which is administered by the newly-established ].
* ]: ] is reunified for the first time in 200 years by the ]. The ] has been established, terminating the ].
* ]–]: ] between British and ] settlers and the ] in the ]. * ]–]: ] between British and ] settlers and the ] in the ].
* ]–]: ] to the combined Franco-Spanish navy.
]]]
* ]: Iran enters yet another period of conflict and civil war after the prosperous reign of ].
]]]
* ]: Outbreak of the ] against Spanish colonization led by ] in ]. * ]: Outbreak of the ] against Spanish colonization led by ] in ].
* ]: The city of Los Angeles is founded by ] settlers. * ]: The city of Los Angeles is founded by Spanish settlers.]]]
* ]–]: ] is abolished in the ] (first step; second step in ]). * ]–]: ] is abolished in the ] (first step; second step in ]).
* ]: The ] of Thailand is dissolved after a palace coup.
* ]: The ] formally ends the ]. * ]: The ] formally ends the ].
* ]: Russian annexation of ].
* ]–]: Imam ], a ] warrior and Muslim mystic, leads a coalition of Muslim ] from throughout the ] in a ] against Russian settlers and military bases in the Caucasus, as well as against local traditionalists, who followed the traditional customs and common law (Adat) rather than the theocratic Sharia.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.islamicsupremecouncil.org/bin/site/wrappers/spirituality-sufism_caucasus.html |title=Sufism in the Caucasus |publisher=Islamicsupremecouncil.org |access-date=2009-04-25|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20090223235641/http://www.islamicsupremecouncil.org/bin/site/wrappers/spirituality-sufism_caucasus.html |archive-date = February 23, 2009|url-status=dead}}</ref> * ]–]: Imam ], a ] warrior and Muslim mystic, leads a coalition of Muslim ] from throughout the ] in a ] against Russian settlers and military bases in the Caucasus, as well as against local traditionalists, who followed the traditional customs and common law (Adat) rather than the theocratic Sharia.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.islamicsupremecouncil.org/bin/site/wrappers/spirituality-sufism_caucasus.html |title=Sufism in the Caucasus |publisher=Islamicsupremecouncil.org |access-date=2009-04-25|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20090223235641/http://www.islamicsupremecouncil.org/bin/site/wrappers/spirituality-sufism_caucasus.html |archive-date = February 23, 2009|url-status=dead}}</ref>
* ]–]: The ] is fought between the United States and ]. * ]–]: The ] is fought between the United States and ].
* ]–]: ] premieres ] and ] * ]–]: The ] concludes with an exchange of territories in the ].
* ]–]: ] premieres '']'' and '']''.
* ]: The ] occupy Timbuktu until the 19th century.
* ]–]: ]. * ]–]: ].
* ]: ] arrives in Australia * ]: ] arrives in Australia
* ]–]: ]. * ]–]: ].
* ]: Dutch ] (1788–1899) would become the first generally accepted validated case of a ] on record.<ref>{{cite web |title=Table A – Verified Supercentenarians (Listed Chronologically By Birth Date) |url=http://www.grg.org/Adams/A.HTM |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160712044827/http://www.grg.org/Adams/A.HTM |archive-date=12 July 2016 |access-date=9 November 2016}}</ref><ref name="grggl"></ref>
]]]
* ]–]: A Qing attempt to reinstall an exiled ] in northern Vietnam ].
* ]: ] is elected the first ]; he serves until ]. * ]: ] is elected the first ]; he serves until ].
* ]: ] defeats the ] army.
* ]–]: ]. * ]–]: ].
] at the ]]]
* ]: The ]. * ]: The ].
* ]: The ]. * ]: The ].
* ]: The ], an unsuccessful separatist movement in central Brazil led by ] * ]: The {{lang|pt|]|italic=no}}, an unsuccessful separatist movement in central Brazil led by ]
* ]: Suppression of the ] by ] forces and re-establishment of the ]. * ]: Suppression of the ] by ] forces and re-establishment of the ].
* ]–]: ] explores the world during the ]. * ]–]: ] explores the world during the ].
* ]–]: The ]. * ]–]: The ].
* ] ] premieres ] * ]: Mozart premieres '']''.
* ]–]: The ] lead into the ], which last from ]–]. * ]–]: The ] lead into the ], which last from ]–].
* ]: The ] is founded. * ]: The ] is founded.
* ]: ]. * ]: ].
* ]: ] (1792–1903) would become the first recorded female ] to reach the age of 110.<ref name="BIB">{{cite book |last=Balfour-Pau |first=Glen |title=Bagpipes in Babylon: A Lifetime in the Arab World and Beyond |date=20 December 2005 |publisher=I.B.Tauris, 2006 |isbn=9781845111519}}</ref><ref name="Priaulx">{{cite web |date=2005 |title=The Harvey Family |url=http://www.priaulxlibrary.co.uk/priaulx-library-new-details2.asp?ItemID=95 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20131022135751/http://www.priaulxlibrary.co.uk/priaulx-library-new-details2.asp?ItemID=95 |archivedate=22 October 2013 |work=Priaulx Library}}</ref>
* ]: ] ]. * ]: ] ].
* ]: The largest ] in American history kills as many as 5,000 people in ], roughly 10% of the population.<ref>{{cite web | title=Yellow Fever Attacks Philadelphia, 1793 | work=EyeWitness to History|url=http://www.eyewitnesstohistory.com/yellowfever.htm|access-date=2007-06-22| archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20070607233805/http://www.eyewitnesstohistory.com/yellowfever.htm| archive-date= 7 June 2007 | url-status= live}}</ref> * ]: The largest ] in American history kills as many as 5,000 people in ], roughly 10% of the population.<ref>{{cite web | title=Yellow Fever Attacks Philadelphia, 1793 | work=EyeWitness to History|url=http://www.eyewitnesstohistory.com/yellowfever.htm|access-date=2007-06-22| archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20070607233805/http://www.eyewitnesstohistory.com/yellowfever.htm| archive-date= 7 June 2007 | url-status= live}}</ref>
* ]–]: ] against the French Republic at the time of the ]. * ]–]: ] against the French Republic at the time of the ].
* ]–]: The ], which were a series of incidents between settlers and ] and the ] clans of the ] in ], ]. * ]–]: The ], which were a series of incidents between settlers and ] and the ] clans of the ] in ], ].
* ]: The ] is officially adopted as the French ]. * ]: The ] is officially adopted as the French ].] at the ]]]
* ]: The ] in the final days of ] wars to ] the ]. * ]: The ] in the final days of King ]'s wars to ] the Hawaiian Islands.
* ]–]: ], prompting ].
* ]: ] administers the first ]; ] killed an estimated 400,000 Europeans each year during the 18th century, including five reigning ]s.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Riedel S |title=Edward Jenner and the history of smallpox and vaccination |journal=Proc (Bayl Univ Med Cent) |volume=18 |issue=1 |pages=21–5 |year=2005 |pmid=16200144 |doi= 10.1080/08998280.2005.11928028|pmc=1200696}}</ref> * ]: ] administers the first ]; ] killed an estimated 400,000 Europeans each year during the 18th century, including five reigning ]s.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Riedel S |title=Edward Jenner and the history of smallpox and vaccination |journal=Proc (Bayl Univ Med Cent) |volume=18 |issue=1 |pages=21–5 |year=2005 |pmid=16200144 |doi= 10.1080/08998280.2005.11928028|pmc=1200696}}</ref>
* ]: ]: The ] marks ]'s first victory as an army commander. * ]: ]: The ] marks ]'s first victory as an army commander.
* ]: The British eject the Dutch from ]. * ]: The British eject the Dutch from ] and ].
* ]–]: The ] against the ] in China. * ]–]: The ] against the ] in China.
* ]: The ] fails to overthrow ]. * ]: The ] fails to overthrow ].
* ]–]: The ] is fought between the United States and France. * ]–]: The ] is fought between the United States and France.
* ]: ] is dissolved. * ]: ] is dissolved.
* ]: ] forces under ] ] from French occupation.
* ]: 1 January, The bankrupt ] (VOC) is formally dissolved and the nationalised ] are established.<ref name="RICKLEFSp106">Ricklefs (1991), page 106</ref>
* ]: ] - ]'s ] brings the end of the ].
* ]: Death of the Qianlong Emperor after ]. His favorite official, ], is ordered to commit suicide.
* ]: On 1 January, the bankrupt VOC is formally dissolved and the nationalized ] are established.<ref name="RICKLEFSp106">Ricklefs (1991), page 106</ref>


==Inventions, discoveries, and introductions==
==Significant people==

===Politicians, military===
{{see also|Founding Fathers of the United States|Enlightened absolutism}}
]]]
]]]
]]]
]]]
]]]
]]]
]]]
]]]
]]]
]]]
]]]
* ], American statesman
* ], American statesman
* ], Afghan King
* ], Sultan of the Ottoman Empire
* ], Ruler of ]
* ], American Revolutionary Army
* ], Queen of Great Britain
* ], Austrian-born Queen of France
* ], King of Spain
* ], Elector of Saxony, King of Poland, and Grand Duke of Lithuania
* ], Mughal Emperor
* ], Peshwa of ]
* ], King of ]
* ], King of ]
* ], American statesman
* ], Anglo-Irish politician
* ], Prime Minister of Britain
* ], Anglo-Irish politician
* ], Empress of Russia
* ], King of Spain, Naples, and Sicily
* ], Emperor of the Holy Roman Empire, King of Bohemia and Hungary
* ], King of Sweden, the Goths and the Wends
* ], French revolutionary
* ], French revolutionary
* ], Empress of Russia
* ], Emperor of ]
* ], King of Naples, Sicily, and the ]
* ], American leader, scientist and statesman
* ], Spanish naval officer and explorer
* ], King of Sweden, the Goths and the Wends
* ], King of Prussia
* ], King of Great Britain and Ireland
* ], King of Great Britain and Ireland
* ], King of Great Britain and Ireland
* ], French feminist
* ], American revolutionary, merchant, and explorer
* ], King of Sweden, the Goths and the Wends
* ], tenth of the eleven Sikh Gurus
* ], King of Joseon dynasty
* ], American patriot, executed for espionage by the British
* ], Sultan of Ottoman Empire
* ], American statesman
* ], American statesman
* ], Emperor of Japan
* ], Emperor of ] and member of the ].
* ], American statesman
* ], American statesman
* ], King of Joseon Dynasty
* ], American naval commander
* ], King of Portugal
* ], Austrian Emperor
* ], Chinese Emperor
* ], ] of Iran and King of Persi
* ], Continental Army officer
* ], King of France
* ], King of France
* ], King of France
* ], imprisoned King of France, never ruled
* ], American statesman
* ], fourth Peshwa of Maratha Empire
* ], Marathan leader
* ], Sultan of Ottoman Empire
* ], Spanish explorer
* ], American statesman
* Prince ], Russian statesman, ]
* ], Miami chief and warrior
* ], Spanish statesman
* ], French officer
* ], Sultan of Ottoman Empire
* ], King of Persia
*], First Emperor of France
* ], king of ]
* ], Emperor of Japan
* ], British admiral
* ] ], third Peshwa of Maratha Empire
* ], King of Keladi Nayaka
* ], Sultan of Ottoman Empire
* ] (''Peter the Great''), Emperor of Russia
* ], King of Spain
* ], Ottawa chief and warrior
* Prince ], Russian statesman and general
* ], Emperor of Tây Sơn Dynasty of Vietnam
* ], Emperor of China
* ], Monarch of the ]
* ], Prince of Hungary and Transylvania, revolutionary leader
* ], Polish politician
* ], American revolutionary leader and silversmith
* ], French revolutionary leader
* ], American flag maker
* Count ], Russian general
* ], King of Persia.
* ], Anglo-Irish politician
* ], Anglo-Irish politician
* ], French revolutionary
* ], Prime Minister of Portugal
* ], King of Nepal and founder of Kingdom of Nepal
* ], Emperor of ]
* ], Sultan of Ottoman Empire
* ], Anglo-Scottish ] exile
* ], King of Joseon Dynasty
* ], Russian military leader
* ], Austrian Empress
* ], Leader of the 1798 United Irishmen rebellion
* ], Japanese Shōgun
* ], Japanese Shōgun
* ], Japanese Shōgun
* ], Japanese Shōgun
* ], Japanese Shōgun
* ], Japanese Shōgun
* ], Haitian revolutionary leader
* ], Peruvian revolutionary
* ], British Captain and explorer
* ], Prime Minister of Great Britain
* ], American general and first President of the United States
* ], British officer
* ], King of Joseon Dynasty

===Show business, theatre, entertainers===
{{see also|Theatre Royal, Drury Lane|Haymarket Theatre|Sichuan opera}}
]]]
]]]
* ], French playwright
* ], Italian singer
* ], Italian singer
* ], French dancer
* ], Italian dancer
* ], English actor, poet, playwright
* ], French actress
* ], French actor
* ], Italian singer
* ], Russian playwright
* ], English actor
* ], English dramatist and poet
* ], Italian playwright
* ], Italian playwright
* ], Russian playwright
* ], Chinese dramatist, poet
* ], Russian actress, singer
* ], French actress
* ], Irish actor
* ], Japanese dramatist, playwright
* ], French dancer and balletmaster
* ], French dancer and choreographer
* ], Italian singer
* ], Irish playwright
* ], Russian playwright
* ], French actor
* ], Russian actor
* ], Chinese playwright, poet

===Musicians, composers===
{{main|List of Classical era composers|List of Baroque composers}}
]]]
]]]
]]]
* ], Italian composer
* ], German composer
* ], Italian composer
* ], Russian composer
* ], English musician and music historian
* ], French composer
* ], English hymnist and poet
* ], Turkish/Ottoman composer
* ], German composer
* ], Italian violinist, composer, and music theorist
* ], German-English composer
* ], Austrian composer
* ], Armenian/Ottoman composer
* ], Bengali composer
* ], Austrian composer
* ], German composer, teacher
* ], French composer and chess master
* ], French composer
* ], Bengali composer, musician, and poet
* ], Venetian composer
* ], Italian composer
* ], Italian violin maker
* ], German composer
* ], Italian composer
* ], English hymnist

===Visual artists, painters, sculptors, printmakers, architects===
{{main|History of painting|Rococo|Neoclassicism}}
]]]
]]]
]]]
]]]
]]]
* ], French painter
* ], British printer and typographer (founder of Baskerville font, Birmingham)
* ], Italian painter
* ], French painter, architect, missionary in China
* ], English artist and poet
* ], French sculptor
* ], French painter
* ], Italian painter
* ], Italian painter
* ], Italian painter, architect, missionary in China
* ], French painter
* ], Russian architect
* ], Russian architect
* ], Russian painter
* ], Italian painter
* ], American painter
* ], French painter
* ], Russian architect
* ], Austrian architect
* ], French sculptor
* ], French painter
* ], Chinese painter, poet
* ], English painter
* ], Spanish painter
* ], French painter
* ], Italian painter
* ], Italian painter
* ], German painter
* ], Austrian-Italian architect
* ], English painter and engraver
* ], Austrian painter
* ], Russian architect
* ], German painter and architect
* ], Russian architect
* ], Russian sculptor
* ], French sculptor, student of his father
* ], French sculptor
* ], Russian painter
* ], Swiss painter
* ], Chinese artist and scholar
* ], French sculptor
* ], Russian sculptor
* ], French painter
* ], Spanish painter
* ], French-German painter, architect
* ], Belgian architect
* ], Japanese printmaker, teacher
* ], Italian painter
* ], Swedish painter
* ], Italian painter
* ], German architect (Saxony)
* ], Italian-born Russian architect
* ], English painter
* ], Dutch painter
* ], Italian-born Russian architect
* ], Spanish sculptor
* ], American painter
* ], Japanese woodblock printer
* ], Venetian painter
* ], Italian-born Russian architect
* ], Japanese printmaker and painter
* ], Italian architect
* ], French painter
* ], Spanish architect
* ], French painter
* ], French painter
* ], Chinese painter, poet, essayist
* ], Russian architect

===Writers, poets===
]]]
]]]
]]]
]]]
* ], American poet
* ], English writer
* ], Filipino poet
* ], English Poet, essayist, and children's author
* ], French writer
* ], French writer
* ], French poet and literary critic
* ], Scottish biographer
* ], English novelist
* ], Scottish poet
* ], Chinese writer
* ], Venetian adventurer, writer and womanizer
* ], French writer
* ], English novelist and journalist
* ], Russian poet
* ], Anglo-Irish novelist
* ], Eboe writer and abolitionist
* ], English novelist
* ], French writer
* ], German writer
* ], Anglo-Irish writer, poet, children's writer, and playwright
* ], English poet, scholar, and educator
* ], English writer
* ], British writer, lexicographer, poet, and literary critic
* ], Hungarian writer
* ], Russian fabulist
* ], French writer
* ], English novelist and poet
* ], Chinese poet and writer
* ], English novelist and playwright
* ], Chinese novelist
* ], Indian poet
* ], ]
* ], French journalist
* ], French writer
* ], Spanish writer
* ], French writer and politician
* ], English children's literature publisher
* ], English poet
* ], French writer
* ], Chinese short story writer
* ], English novelist
* ], Russian writer
* ], English novelist
* ], French writer and philosopher
* ], Bengali poet and singer
* ], German writer
* ], Scottish novelist and poet
* ], English poet and actor
* ], English poet and biographer
* ], English memoirist
* ], Russian poet and playwright
* ], English writer
* ], Anglo-Irish writer
* ], Anglo-Irish satirist and ] ]
* ], Japanese writer
* ], French writer and philosopher
* ], English writer and politician
* ], first published African-American female poet
* ], British writer and feminist
* ], Chinese writer
* ], Chinese poet, scholar and artist

===Philosophers, theologians===

]]]
]]]
]]]
]]]
* ], Japanese scholar, writer and politician
* ], Ukrainian rabbi
* ], Italian philosopher and politician
* ], English philosopher and reformer
* ], Irish empiricist philosopher
* ], British statesman and philosopher
* ], French philosopher
* ], French philosopher
* ], Archbishop of Canterbury
* ], English philosopher, poet and scientist
* ], French writer and philosopher
* ], American theologian and philosopher
* ], English philosopher and novelist
* ], German writer, Jewish theologian, translator, and professor
* ], German philosopher, writer, and critic
* ], Archbishop of Canterbury
* ], French-German philosopher and writer
* ], Scottish philosopher
* ], Archbishop of Canterbury
* ], Japanese philosopher
* ], German philosopher
* ], English theologian
* ], German philosopher and writer
* ] ], Italian bishop, founder of Redemptorists, Saint
* ], Italian philosopher and diplomat
* ], German philosopher
* ], French thinker
* ], Archbishop of Canterbury
* ], Japanese philosopher and scholar
* ], English philosopher
* ], American deist
* ], English bishop and editor
* ], German writer, Jewish theologian, and educator
* ], Archbishop of Canterbury
* ], French writer and philosopher
* ], Archbishop of Canterbury
* ] ], Russian theologian
* ], Japanese scholar and translator
* ], Swedish scientist, thinker and mystic
* ], Archbishop of Canterbury
* ], German philosopher and jurist
* ], Italian philosopher
* ], Arab Islamic theologian and founder of Wahhabism
* ], Archbishop of Canterbury
* ], English theologian, founder of Methodism
* ], also known as Tamkin, was an Azerbaijani geographer, philosopher and poet
* ], German religious writer and bishop

===Scientists, researchers===
]]]
]]]
]]]
]]]
]]]
]]]
* ], African American almanac author, surveyor, abolitionist and scientist
* ], Italian mathematician
* ], French mathematician, physicist and encyclopedist
* ], English botanist
* ], Italian scientist, the first European female college teacher<ref name="Schiebinger">{{cite book | editor=Porter, Roy| title=The Cambridge History of Science, Volume 4: The Eighteenth Century (The Cambridge History of Science) |publisher=Cambridge University Press | year=2003 | isbn=978-0-521-57243-9 | oclc=123123201 }}, "The Philosopher's Beard: Women and Gender in Science" by Londra Schiebinger, pages 184–210</ref>
* ], Swiss mathematician and physicist
* ], Scottish chemist (discovered carbon dioxide)
* ], physicist, astronomer, mathematician, philosopher, diplomat, poet, and Jesuit
* ], French scientist
* ], chemist (recognized Hydrogen as its own elemental substance)
* ], Swedish astronomer
* ], French scientist and inventor
* ], Finnish philosopher and economist
* ], French mathematician
* ], English navigator, explorer and cartographer
* ], Chinese mathematician, geographer, phonologist and philosopher
* ], Ecuadorian scientist
* ], Swiss mathematician
* ], German physicist and engineer
* ], Scottish physician and chemist
* ], German mathematician, physicist and astronomer
* ], English historian
* ], English inventor of vaccination
* ], English philologist
* ], Russian historian
* ], Russian inventor
* ], Italian-French mathematician and physicist
* ], French naturalist, biologist
* ], French physicist and mathematician
* ], French chemist, considered father of modern chemistry
* ], French chemist and painter
* ], Scottish economist
* ], Chinese scholar and mathematician
* ], French mathematician
* ], Swedish biologist
* ], Russian scientist
* ], Irish literary scholar
* ], English economist
* ], French mathematician
* ], German-Russian zoologist and botanist
* ], dissenting minister and chemist
* ], French scientist
* ], French economist
* ], Swedish chemist (discovered oxygen)
* ], civil engineer and physicist
* ], Scottish economist and philosopher
* ], Russian historian and ethnographer
* ], French economist
* ], Spanish scientist and explorer
* ], Italian physicist and chemist
* ], Scottish scientist and inventor
* ], American astronomer and mathematician
* ], English geologist

===Other===
]]]
*] alias John the Painter, British criminal
*], English pirate
*], Bermudian pirate
*], African pirate
*], first Australian bushranger
*], English pirate
*], American literate ] blacksmith
*], Welsh pirate

==Inventions, discoveries, introductions==
{{main|Timeline of historic inventions#18th century|Timeline of scientific discoveries#18th century}} {{main|Timeline of historic inventions#18th century|Timeline of scientific discoveries#18th century}}
]]] ]]]
] of ], completed in 1771, during the reign of the ].]]
* ]: The first ] was built by ] * ]: The first ] was built by ]
* ]: ] was invented by John Shore * ]: ] was invented by ]
* ]: ] invented by ] * ]: ] invented by ]
* ]: ] by ] * ]: ] by ]
Line 660: Line 222:
* ]: ] discovers Alaska * ]: ] discovers Alaska
* ]: ] invented by ] was the first electrical ] * ]: ] invented by ] was the first electrical ]
* ]: ] perfects the first precision ]
* ]: ] invented by ] * ]: ] invented by ]
* ]: The first ] to be built in the New World (North America) was invented by ]. * ]: The first ] to be built in the New World (North America) was invented by ].
* ]: The tallest ''wooden'' ] statue in the world is erected at ], ], China. * ]: The tallest ''wooden'' ] statue in the world is erected at ], ], China.
* ]: ] created by ] brought on the ] * ]: ] created by ] brought on the ]
Line 669: Line 232:
* ]–]: ] mapped the boundaries of the Pacific Ocean and discovered many ] * ]–]: ] mapped the boundaries of the Pacific Ocean and discovered many ]
* ]: ] discovers "dephlogisticated air", oxygen * ]: ] discovers "dephlogisticated air", oxygen
] of ], completed in 1771, during the reign of the ].]]
* ]: ] first synthesis of "phlogisticated nitrous air", nitrous oxide, "laughing gas"
* ]: Joseph Priestley's first synthesis of "phlogisticated nitrous air", ], "laughing gas"
* ]: First improved steam engines installed by ]
* ]: First improved steam engines installed by ]
* ]: ] invented by ] * ]: ] invented by ]
* ]: ] invented by ] * ]: ] invented by Samuel Miller
* ]: ] was first discovered by ] * ]: ] was first discovered by ]
* ]: ] announces discovery of Uranus * ]: ] announces discovery of Uranus
Line 687: Line 251:


==Literary and philosophical achievements== ==Literary and philosophical achievements==
{{main|18th century in literature|18th century in philosophy}}

* ]: '']'' by ] first performed * ]: '']'' by ] first performed
* ]–]: '']'' translated into French by ]. The work becomes immensely popular throughout Europe. * ]–]: '']'' translated into French by ]. The work becomes immensely popular throughout Europe.
Line 698: Line 262:
* ]: '']'' becomes one of the first ] * ]: '']'' becomes one of the first ]
* ]: '']'' (''The Treasury of Loyal Retainers''), popular Japanese ], composed * ]: '']'' (''The Treasury of Loyal Retainers''), popular Japanese ], composed
* ]: '']'' by ] * ]: '']'' by ]
* ]: '']'' by ] * ]: '']'' by ]
* ]: '']'' by ] published * ]: '']'' by ] published
* ]–]: The French ] * ]–]: The French ]
* ]: '']'' by ] * ]: '']'' by ]
* ]: ''Arithmetika Horvatzka'' by ]
* ]: '']'' by ] * ]: '']'' by ]
* ]: '']'' by ] * ]: '']'' by ]
Line 709: Line 274:
* ]: '']'' by ] * ]: '']'' by ]
* ]: '']'' by ] first published * ]: '']'' by ] first published
* ]: '']'' (''Tales of Moonlight and Rain'') by ] * ]: {{Lang|ja-latn|]}} (''Tales of Moonlight and Rain'') by ]
* ]: '']'', foundation of the modern theory of economy, was published by ] * ]: '']'', foundation of the modern theory of economy, was published by ]
* ]–]: '']'' was published by ] * ]–]: '']'' was published by ]
Line 729: Line 294:
* ]: '']'' by ] and ] * ]: '']'' by ] and ]
* ]: '']'' published by ] * ]: '']'' published by ]
* (mid-18th century): '']'' (authorship attributed to ]), one of the most famous Chinese novels * (mid–18th century): '']'' (authorship attributed to ]), one of the most famous Chinese novels


==Musical works== ==Musical works==
Line 737: Line 302:
* ]: '']'' by ] * ]: '']'' by ]
* ]: '']'' composed by ] * ]: '']'' composed by ]
* ]: '']'' is composed by ] for the coronation of ]. It has been performed at every subsequent British coronation.
* ]: '']'', first opera by ] * ]: '']'', first opera by ]
* ]: '']'' for ] published by ] * ]: '']'' for ] published by ]
Line 745: Line 311:
* ]: '']'', opera by ] * ]: '']'', opera by ]
* ]: '']'', opera by ] * ]: '']'', opera by ]
* ]: ''] (Symphony No.41)'' composed by ] * ]: ''] (Symphony No. 41)'' composed by ]
* ]: '']'', opera by ] * ]: '']'', opera by ]
* ]–]: ] by ] * ]–]: ] by ]
Line 751: Line 317:
* ]: '']'', oratorio by ] first performed * ]: '']'', oratorio by ] first performed


== References == ==References==
{{Reflist}} {{Reflist}}


==Further reading== ==Further reading==
* Black, Jeremy and Roy Porter, eds. ''A Dictionary of Eighteenth-Century World History'' (1994) 890pp * Black, Jeremy and Roy Porter, eds. ''A Dictionary of Eighteenth-Century World History'' (1994) 890pp
* Klekar, Cynthia. “Fictions of the Gift: Generosity and Obligation in Eighteenth-Century English Literature.” Innovative Course Design Winner. ''American Society for Eighteenth-Century Studies'': Wake Forest University, 2004. <>. Refereed. * Klekar, Cynthia. "Fictions of the Gift: Generosity and Obligation in Eighteenth-Century English Literature." Innovative Course Design Winner. ''American Society for Eighteenth-Century Studies'': Wake Forest University, 2004. <>. Refereed.
* Langer, William. ''An Encyclopedia of World History'' (5th ed. 1973); highly detailed outline of events * Langer, William. ''An Encyclopedia of World History'' (5th ed. 1973); highly detailed outline of events
* Morris, Richard B. and Graham W. Irwin, eds. ''Harper Encyclopedia of the Modern World: A Concise Reference History from 1760 to the Present'' (1970) * Morris, Richard B. and Graham W. Irwin, eds. ''Harper Encyclopedia of the Modern World: A Concise Reference History from 1760 to the Present'' (1970)
Line 763: Line 329:
* ], London, houses one of the finest collections of 18th-century decorative arts from France, England and Italy, including paintings, furniture, porcelain and gold boxes. * ], London, houses one of the finest collections of 18th-century decorative arts from France, England and Italy, including paintings, furniture, porcelain and gold boxes.


== External links == ==External links==
* {{commons category-inline}} * {{commons category-inline}}


Line 779: Line 345:
] ]
] ]
] ]

Latest revision as of 21:13, 8 January 2025

One hundred years, from 1701 to 1800 For other uses, see 18th century (disambiguation).
Millennium
2nd millennium
Centuries
Timelines
State leaders
Decades
Categories:
Births – Deaths
Establishments – Disestablishments
Political boundaries at the beginning of year 1700
Storming of the Bastille, 14 July 1789, an iconic event of the French Revolution.
Development of the Watt steam engine in the late 18th century was an important element in the Industrial Revolution in Europe.
The American Revolutionary War took place in the late 18th century.

The 18th century lasted from 1 January 1701 (represented by the Roman numerals MDCCI) to 31 December 1800 (MDCCC). During the 18th century, elements of Enlightenment thinking culminated in the Atlantic Revolutions. Revolutions began to challenge the legitimacy of monarchical and aristocratic power structures. The Industrial Revolution began during mid-century, leading to radical changes in human society and the environment. The European colonization of the Americas and other parts of the world intensified and associated mass migrations of people grew in size as part of the Age of Sail. During the century, slave trading expanded across the shores of the Atlantic Ocean, while declining in Russia and China.

Western historians have occasionally defined the 18th century otherwise for the purposes of their work. For example, the "short" 18th century may be defined as 1715–1789, denoting the period of time between the death of Louis XIV of France and the start of the French Revolution, with an emphasis on directly interconnected events. To historians who expand the century to include larger historical movements, the "long" 18th century may run from the Glorious Revolution of 1688 to the Battle of Waterloo in 1815 or even later.

In Europe, philosophers ushered in the Age of Enlightenment. This period coincided with the French Revolution of 1789, and was later compromised by the excesses of the Reign of Terror. At first, many monarchies of Europe embraced Enlightenment ideals, but in the wake of the French Revolution they feared loss of power and formed broad coalitions to oppose the French Republic in the French Revolutionary Wars. Various conflicts throughout the century, including the War of the Spanish Succession and the Seven Years' War, saw Great Britain triumph over its rivals to become the preeminent power in Europe. However, Britain's attempts to exert its authority over the Thirteen Colonies became a catalyst for the American Revolution. The 18th century also marked the end of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth as an independent state. Its semi-democratic government system was not robust enough to prevent partition by the neighboring states of Austria, Prussia, and Russia.

In West Asia, Nader Shah led Persia in successful military campaigns. The Ottoman Empire experienced a period of peace, taking no part in European wars from 1740 to 1768. As a result, the empire was not exposed to Europe's military improvements during the Seven Years' War. The Ottoman military consequently lagged behind and suffered several defeats against Russia in the second half of the century.

In South Asia, the death of Mughal emperor Aurangzeb was followed by the expansion of the Maratha Confederacy and an increasing level of European influence and control in the region. In 1739, Persian emperor Nader Shah invaded and plundered Delhi, the capital of the Mughal Empire. Later, his general Ahmad Shah Durrani scored another victory against the Marathas, the then dominant power in India, in the Third Battle of Panipat in 1761. By the middle of the century, the British East India Company began to conquer eastern India, and by the end of the century, the Anglo-Mysore Wars against Tipu Sultan and his father Hyder Ali, led to Company rule over the south.

In East Asia, the century was marked by the High Qing era, a period characterized by significant cultural and territorial expansion. This period also experienced relative peace and prosperity, allowing for societal growth, increasing literacy rates, flourishing trade, and consolidating imperial power across the vast Qing dynasty's territories. Conversely, the continual seclusion policy of the Tokugawa shogunate also brought a peaceful era called Pax Tokugawa and experienced a flourishment of the arts as well as scientific knowledge and advancements, which were introduced to Japan through the Dutch port of Nagasaki. In Southeast Asia, the Konbaung–Ayutthaya Wars and the Tây Sơn Wars broke out while the Dutch East India Company established increasing levels of control over the Mataram Sultanate.

In Africa, the Ethiopian Empire underwent the Zemene Mesafint, a period when the country was ruled by a class of regional noblemen and the emperor was merely a figurehead. The Atlantic slave trade also saw the continued involvement of states such as the Oyo Empire. In Oceania, the European colonization of Australia and New Zealand began during the late half of the century. In the Americas, the United States declared its independence from Great Britain. In 1776, Thomas Jefferson wrote the Declaration of Independence. In 1789, George Washington was inaugurated as the first president. Benjamin Franklin traveled to Europe where he was hailed as an inventor. Examples of his inventions include the lightning rod and bifocal glasses. Túpac Amaru II led an uprising that sought to end Spanish colonial rule in Peru.

Events

For a chronological guide, see Timeline of the 18th century. See also: Georgian era

1701–1750

Europe at the beginning of the War of the Spanish Succession, 1700
The Battle of Poltava in 1709 turned the Russian Empire into a European power.
John Churchill, 1st Duke of Marlborough
Mughal emperor Muhammad Shah with the Persian invader Nader Shah.
Qianlong Emperor
The extinction of the Scottish clan system came with the defeat of the clansmen at the Battle of Culloden in 1746.

1751–1800

Catherine the Great, Empress of Russia.
Encyclopédie, ou dictionnaire raisonné des sciences, des arts et des métiers
Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen

Inventions, discoveries, and introductions

Main articles: Timeline of historic inventions § 18th century, and Timeline of scientific discoveries § 18th century
The spinning jenny
The Chinese Putuo Zongcheng Temple of Chengde, completed in 1771, during the reign of the Qianlong Emperor.

Literary and philosophical achievements

Main articles: 18th century in literature and 18th century in philosophy

Musical works

References

  1. Volkov, Sergey. Concise History of Imperial Russia.
  2. Rowe, William T. China's Last Empire.
  3. Anderson, M. S. (1979). Historians and Eighteenth-Century Europe, 1715–1789. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-822548-5. OCLC 185538307.
  4. Ribeiro, Aileen (2002). Dress in Eighteenth-Century Europe 1715–1789 (revised ed.). Yale University Press. ISBN 978-0-300-09151-9. OCLC 186413657.
  5. Baines, Paul (2004). The Long 18th Century. London: Arnold. ISBN 978-0-340-81372-0.
  6. Marshall, P. J., ed. (2001). The Oxford History of the British Empire: Volume II: The Eighteenth Century (Oxford History of the British Empire). Oxford University Press, USA. ISBN 978-0-19-924677-9. OCLC 174866045., "Introduction" by P. J. Marshall, page 1
  7. O'Gorman, Frank (1997). The Long Eighteenth Century: British Political and Social History 1688–1832 (The Arnold History of Britain Series). A Hodder Arnold Publication. ISBN 978-0-340-56751-7. OCLC 243883533.
  8. ^ Chandra, Bipin. Mordern India. India.
  9. Campbell, John; Watts, William (1760). Memoirs of the Revolution in Bengal, anno Dom. 1757. A. Millar, London.
  10. Parthasarathi, Prasannan (2011), Why Europe Grew Rich and Asia Did Not: Global Economic Divergence, 1600–1850, Cambridge University Press, p. 207, ISBN 978-1-139-49889-0
  11. Allana, Gulam (1988). Muslim political thought through the ages: 1562–1947 (2 ed.). Pennsylvania State University, Pennsylvania: Royal Book Company. p. 78. ISBN 9789694070919. Retrieved 18 January 2013.
  12. "War of the Spanish Succession, 1701–1714". Historyofwar.org. Retrieved 25 April 2009.
  13. Ricklefs (1991), page 82
  14. Historic uk – heritage of britain accommodation guide (3 May 2007). "The history of Scotland – The Act of Union 1707". Historic-uk.com. Archived from the original on 8 April 2009. Retrieved 25 April 2009.
  15. Ricklefs (1991), page 84
  16. "Welcome to Encyclopædia Britannica's Guide to History". Britannica.com. 31 January 1910. Archived from the original on 16 April 2009. Retrieved 25 April 2009.
  17. "List of Wars of the Crimean Tatars". Zum.de. Archived from the original on 12 March 2009. Retrieved 25 April 2009.
  18. "Len Milich: Anthropogenic Desertification vs 'Natural' Climate Trends". Ag.arizona.edu. 10 August 1997. Archived from the original on 11 February 2012. Retrieved 25 April 2009.
  19. Wadsworth, Alfred P.; Mann, Julia De Lacy (1931). The Cotton Trade and Industrial Lancashire, 1600–1780. Manchester University Press. p. 433. OCLC 2859370.
  20. "A guide to Scottish clans". Unique-cottages.co.uk. Archived from the original on 11 May 2008. Retrieved 25 April 2009.
  21. "Saudi Arabia – The Saud Family and Wahhabi Islam". Countrystudies.us. Retrieved 25 April 2009.
  22. "History". Columbia University.
  23. Ricklefs (1991), page 102
  24. "Sufism in the Caucasus". Islamicsupremecouncil.org. Archived from the original on 23 February 2009. Retrieved 25 April 2009.
  25. "Table A – Verified Supercentenarians (Listed Chronologically By Birth Date)". Archived from the original on 12 July 2016. Retrieved 9 November 2016.
  26. Photo Gallery for Supercentenarians born before 1850, as of May 17, 2019
  27. Balfour-Pau, Glen (20 December 2005). Bagpipes in Babylon: A Lifetime in the Arab World and Beyond. I.B.Tauris, 2006. ISBN 9781845111519.
  28. "The Harvey Family". Priaulx Library. 2005. Archived from the original on 22 October 2013.
  29. "Yellow Fever Attacks Philadelphia, 1793". EyeWitness to History. Archived from the original on 7 June 2007. Retrieved 22 June 2007.
  30. Riedel S (2005). "Edward Jenner and the history of smallpox and vaccination". Proc (Bayl Univ Med Cent). 18 (1): 21–5. doi:10.1080/08998280.2005.11928028. PMC 1200696. PMID 16200144.
  31. Ricklefs (1991), page 106
  32. Encyclopædia Britannica's Great Inventions, Encyclopædia Britannica Archived August 7, 2008, at the Wayback Machine
  33. Meggs, Philip B. A History of Graphic Design. (1998) John Wiley & Sons, Inc. p 146 ISBN 978-0-471-29198-5

Further reading

  • Black, Jeremy and Roy Porter, eds. A Dictionary of Eighteenth-Century World History (1994) 890pp
  • Klekar, Cynthia. "Fictions of the Gift: Generosity and Obligation in Eighteenth-Century English Literature." Innovative Course Design Winner. American Society for Eighteenth-Century Studies: Wake Forest University, 2004. <Home | American Society for Eighteenth-Century Studies (ASECS)>. Refereed.
  • Langer, William. An Encyclopedia of World History (5th ed. 1973); highly detailed outline of events online free
  • Morris, Richard B. and Graham W. Irwin, eds. Harper Encyclopedia of the Modern World: A Concise Reference History from 1760 to the Present (1970) online
  • Milward, Alan S, and S. B. Saul, eds. The economic development of continental Europe: 1780–1870 (1973) online; note there are two different books with identical authors and slightly different titles. Their coverfage does not overlap.
    • Milward, Alan S, and S. B. Saul, eds. The development of the economies of continental Europe, 1850–1914 (1977) online
  • The Wallace Collection, London, houses one of the finest collections of 18th-century decorative arts from France, England and Italy, including paintings, furniture, porcelain and gold boxes.

External links

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