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| {{Short description|Lasting state of no war, without clear ending conditions}} | |||
| {{redirect|Perpetual Peace}} | |||
| {{multiple issues| | |||
| {{Refimprove | date=May 2012}} | |||
| {{Original research | date=May 2012}} | |||
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| '''Perpetual peace''' refers to a state of affairs where ] is permanently established over a certain area.{{fact|date=November 2017}} | |||
| The idea of perpetual peace was first suggested in the 18th century, when ] published his essay "Project for Perpetual Peace" ] while working as the negotiator for the ]. However, the idea did not become well known until the late 18th century. The term ''perpetual peace'' became acknowledged when German philosopher ] published his 1795 essay '']''.<ref>Pietrzyk, Mark E.,Ph.D. "The Idea of a Democratic Zone of Peace: Origins in the Enlightenment" <{{cite web |url=http://www.internationalorder.org/idea.html |title=Archived copy |accessdate=2013-09-25 |url-status=dead |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20130619045843/http://www.internationalorder.org/idea.html |archivedate=2013-06-19 }}>.</ref> | |||
| ==The Kantian view and its descendants== | |||
| Kant's 1795 essay, "]" ("'']''") describes his proposed peace program. Perpetual peace is the starting point of contemporary ]. | |||
| "Perpetual Peace" is structured in two parts. The Preliminary Articles described the steps that should be taken immediately, or with all deliberate speed: | |||
| #"No secret treaty of peace shall be held valid in which there is tacitly reserved matter for a future war" | |||
| #"No independent states, large or small, shall come under the dominion of another state by inheritance, exchange, purchase, or donation" | |||
| #"] shall in time be totally abolished" | |||
| #"] shall not be contracted with a view to the external friction of states" | |||
| #"No state shall by force interfere with the constitution or government of another state" | |||
| #"No state shall, during war, permit such acts of hostility which would make mutual confidence in the subsequent peace impossible: such are the employment of assassins (percussores), poisoners (venefici), breach of capitulation, and incitement to treason (perduellio) in the opposing state" | |||
| Three Definitive Articles would provide not merely a cessation of hostilities, but a foundation on which to build a peace: | |||
| #"The civil ] of every state should be ]" | |||
| #"The law of nations shall be founded on a federation of free states" | |||
| #"The law of ] shall be limited to conditions of universal ]" | |||
| Kant's essay in some ways resembles modern ], though it also differs significantly from it. He speaks of ] (''Republikanisch'') states (rather than of ] ones), which he defines to have ] governments, in which the ] is ] from the ]. He does not discuss ], which is vital to modern democracy and quite important to some modern theorists; his commentators dispute whether it is implied by his language. Most importantly, he does not regard ]an governments as sufficient by themselves to produce peace: freedom of travel, though not necessarily migration, (hospitality); and a league of nations are necessary to consciously enact his six-point program. | |||
| Unlike some modern theorists, Kant claims not that republics will be at peace only with each other, but are more pacific than other forms of government in general. | |||
| The general idea that popular and ]s would be more inclined to promote peace and commerce became one current in the stream of European thought and political practice. It was one element of the British policy of ] and the foreign policy of ]. It was also reflected in the ] of ] and the ]. The ], the ], the ], and the ] were all inspired by these principles. | |||
| Kant's essay is a three-legged stool (besides the preliminary disarmament). Various projects for perpetual peace have relied on one leg – either claiming that it is sufficient to produce peace, or that it will create the other two. | |||
| In 1909, ] relied only upon the second leg, arguing that modern commerce made war necessarily unprofitable, even for the technically victorious country, and therefore the possibility of successful war was '']''. ] had described the ] as ] for the upper classes; ] argued that ] made modern ] inherently peaceful and opposed to conquest and ], which economically favored the old ] elites. | |||
| The ] theory has been developed in recent years. Mansfield and Pollins, writing in the Journal of Conflict Resolution, summarize a large body of empirical work which, for the most part, supports the thesis.<ref>{{cite journal |url=http://www.people.fas.harvard.edu/~johnston/GOV90ia/week%203/mansfield.pdf |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20080828175701/http://www.people.fas.harvard.edu/~johnston/GOV90ia/week%203/mansfield.pdf |archivedate=August 28, 2008 |title=The Study of Interdependence and Conflict |first1=Edward D |last1=Mansfield |first2=Brian M |last2=Pollins |journal=Journal of Conflict Resolution |volume=45 |number=6 |date=December 2001 |pages=834–859 |doi=10.1177/0022002701045006007}}</ref> There are various exceptions and qualifications which seem to limit the circumstances under which economic interdependence results in conflict reduction. On the other hand, moving beyond economic interdependence to the issue of ] within states, Erik Gartzke has found ] that economic freedom (as measured by the ]) is about fifty times more effective than democracy in reducing violent conflict.<ref>{{cite book |chapter-url=http://www.cato.org/pubs/efw/efw2005/efw2005-2.pdf |title=Economic Freedom of the World: 2005 Annual Report |chapter=2: Economic Freedom and Peace |first=Erik |last=Gartzke |publisher=The Cato Institute |url-status=dead |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20081016060114/http://www.cato.org/pubs/efw/efw2005/efw2005-2.pdf |archivedate=2008-10-16 }}</ref> | |||
| The third leg is the old idea that a confederation of peaceable princes could produce a perpetual peace. Kant had distinguished his league from a universal state; ] proposed, in ''Union Now'' (1938), a union of the democratic states modelled after the Constitution of the United States. He argued that trade and the peaceable ways of democracy would keep this Union perpetual, and counted on the combined power of the Union to deter the ] from war. | |||
| In "]", part IV of '']'' (1786–89), ] proposed that disarmament, arbitration, and the renunciation of colonies would produce perpetual peace,<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.laits.utexas.edu/poltheory/bentham/pil/pil.e04.html |title=A Plan for an Universal and Perpetual Peace |work=The Principles of International Law |first=Jeremy |last=Bentham}}</ref> thus relying merely on Kant's preliminary articles and on none of the three main points; contrary to the modern theorists, he relied on public opinion, even against the ]. | |||
| Since 2008, the Perpetual Peace Project—a partnership between the ] (EUNIC), the ] (IPI), the ], ], and ]—is engaging Kant's essay in an ongoing philosophical and curatorial initiative that is conceptualized around ultimately "re-writing" Kant's 1795 treatise,<ref>"Gregg Lambert presents the Perpetual Peace Project" <{{cite web |url=https://iah.unc.edu/events/calendar/2012/lecture-gregg-lambert-presents-the-perpetual-peace-project |title=Archived copy |accessdate=2014-04-05 |url-status=dead |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20141017193441/https://iah.unc.edu/events/calendar/2012/lecture-gregg-lambert-presents-the-perpetual-peace-project |archivedate=2014-10-17 }}>.</ref> as well as a republication of the essay.<ref>Utrecht University 'Perpetual Peace Project' <http://www.uu.nl/faculty/humanities/NL/centreforthehumanities/nieuws/Pages/20121122cfh-Perpetual-Peace-Project-2013.aspx>.</ref> | |||
| ==See also== | |||
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| ==Notes== | |||
| {{reflist}} | |||
| ==References== | |||
| * ], '''', in Review of International Studies, vol. 18, no. 4, 1992, pp. 295–317. | |||
| * Adolf, Antony. ''Peace. A World History''. Polity, 2009. {{ISBN|978-0745641263}} | |||
| * Beck, Sanderson. ''Peace Plans of Rousseau, Bentham, and Kant''. 2003 <http://rousseaustudies.free.fr/ArticleBeck.htm> | |||
| * Bohman, James. ''"Perpetual peace: essays on Kant's cosmopolitan ideal"''. ], 1997. | |||
| * Ferraro, Vincent. ''Kant's Project for a Perpetual Peace''. <http://www.mtholyoke.edu/acad/intrel/kant/kant1.htm> | |||
| * Ghervas, Stella. ''''. ], 2021. {{ISBN|9780674975262}}. | |||
| *{{Citation |last=Ghervas |first=Stella |title=Balance of Power vs Perpetual Peace: Paradigms of European Order from Utrecht to Vienna, 1713-1815 |journal=The International History Review |volume=39 |pages=404-425 |number=3 |date=2017 |doi=10.1080/07075332.2016.1214613}} | |||
| * Hinsley,Francis H. ''Power and the pursuit of peace: theory and practice in the history of relations between states''. ], 1967. | |||
| * Lenhard, Johannes. ''Kant and the Liberal Democratic Peace Theory - the Cases of Kosovo, Iraq and Afghanistan''. ], 2010. {{ISBN|978-3640595884}} | |||
| * Palmquist, Stephen. ''"The Philosopher as a 'Secret Agent' for Peace: Taking Seriously Kant's Revival of the 'Old Question'"''<http://www.hkbu.edu.hk/~ppp/srp/arts/PSAP.htm> | |||
| * Senghaas, Dieter. ''On perpetual peace: a timely assessment'', ], 2007. | |||
| * Terminski, Bogumil. ''The evolution of the concept of perpetual peace in the history of political-legal thought, Perspectivas internacionales'', vol. 6, n.º 1, 2010, pp. 277–291. | |||
| ==External links== | |||
| * free ebook | |||
| * slightly modified for easier reading | |||
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