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{{Short description|Tamil speaking ethnic group found in India and Sri Lanka}}
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'''Sri Lankan Mukkuvar''' ({{Lang-ta|முக்குவர்|lit=}}) is a ] speaking ethnic group found in the Western and Eastern coastal regions of ]. They are primarily concentrated in the districts of Batticaloa, Ampara and Puttalam. They are also related to "Sri Lankan Moors". Sri Lankan Mukkuvars along with Eastern Muslims of Sri Lankan claim their origin from Kerala and matrilineal in practice. Recent studies show their habits and clan structure, as well as dialects, show affinity towards the Northern Kerala regions.<ref name="colorado.edu">https://www.colorado.edu/faculty/mcgilvray-dennis/sites/default/files/attached-files/mcgilvray_1982_mukkuvar_vannimai.pdf {{Bare URL PDF|date=March 2022}}</ref> '''Sri Lankan Mukkuvar''' ({{Langx|ta|முக்குவர்|lit=}}) is a ] speaking ethnic group found in the Western and Eastern coastal regions of ]. They are primarily concentrated in the districts of ], ], and ].<ref name=":1" />


It is still unclear when did this group migrated from South Western India to Sri Lanka. Mukkuvars traditionally involved in ], ] and ] diving but are also rendered their service as Mercenaries and Naval Mariners to Kings of Sri Lanka, today most of them involved in ].<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=yI4cAAAAMAAJ|title=Early Settlements in Jaffna: An Archaeological Survey|last=Ragupathy|first=Ponnampalam|date=1987|publisher=University of Jaffna|pages=223|language=en}}</ref><ref name="dbm1982p64">{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=MgHIiEtdVFAC&pg=PA172|title=Crucible of Conflict: Tamil and Muslim Society on the East Coast of Sri Lanka|last=McGilvray|first=Dennis B.|publisher=Duke University Press|year=2008|isbn=978-0822389187|pages=60, 61, 64, 77|author-link=Dennis B. McGilvray}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=DpyFAAAAMAAJ|title=The Debasement of the law and of humanity and the drift towards total war|last=(Jaffna)|first=University Teachers for Human Rights|publisher=UTHR (Jaffna), University of Jaffna, Thirunelvely|year=1991|page=31}}</ref> They also include the major ]s in the ] of Sri Lanka who historically also served as ] in medieval era.<ref name="dbm1982p59">{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=n-88AAAAIAAJ&pg=PA60|title=Caste Ideology and Interaction|last=McGilvray|first=Dennis B.|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=1982|isbn=9780521241458|pages=59, 60, 68}}</ref> Mukkuvars traditionally involved in ], ] ] diving, but are also involved in ].<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=yI4cAAAAMAAJ|title=Early Settlements in Jaffna: An Archaeological Survey|last=Ragupathy|first=Ponnampalam|date=1987|publisher=University of Jaffna|pages=223|language=en}}</ref><ref name="dbm1982p64">{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=MgHIiEtdVFAC&pg=PA172|title=Crucible of Conflict: Tamil and Muslim Society on the East Coast of Sri Lanka|last=McGilvray|first=Dennis B.|publisher=Duke University Press|year=2008|isbn=978-0822389187|pages=60, 61, 64, 77|author-link=Dennis B. McGilvray}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=DpyFAAAAMAAJ|title=The Debasement of the law and of humanity and the drift towards total war|last=(Jaffna)|first=University Teachers for Human Rights|publisher=UTHR (Jaffna), University of Jaffna, Thirunelvely|year=1991|page=31}}</ref> They also include the major ]s in the ] of Sri Lanka who historically also served as ] in medieval era.<ref name="dbm1982p59">{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=n-88AAAAIAAJ&pg=PA60|title=Caste Ideology and Interaction|last=McGilvray|first=Dennis B.|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=1982|isbn=9780521241458|pages=59, 60, 68}}</ref>


==Etymology== ==Etymology==
The name of the caste has several etymology theories. According to one is Mukkuvar derived from ] word ''mukku'' (means tip or corner) and the suffix ''ar'' (people), thus the term denotes "those from tip of the landmass".<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=dH0px4c60Z0C&pg=PA3|title=Conflict Over Fisheries in the Palk Bay Region|last=Suryanarayan|first=V.|publisher=Lancer Publishers|year=2005|isbn=9788170622420|page=3}}</ref> Another theory states that the word ''Mukkuvan'' (singular form), means "diver" derived from the ] word ''muluku'' (to immerse or to dive).<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=CNxhAAAAMAAJ|title=Journal of the Ceylon Branch of the Royal Asiatic Society|last=Colombo|first=Royal Asiatic Society of Great Britain and Ireland Ceylon Branch|publisher=Colombo Apothecaries Company|year=1967|page=42}}</ref> Other titles used by the community are ''Kukankulam, Murkukan'' and ''Mukkiyar''.<ref name="dbm1982p64" /><ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=OccLAAAAIAAJ|title=Jaffna, Sri Lanka 1980|last=Holmes|first=Walter Robert|date=1980|publisher=Christian Institute for the Study of Religion and Society of Jaffna College|pages=219}}</ref> Their titles Kukankulam (Kukan clan) and Murkukan (foremost Kukan) are literary references to ''Kukan,'' the mariner who ferried Hindu god ] across ] from ] whose descendant they claim.<ref name="dbm1982p59" /> The name of the caste has several etymology theories. According to one is Mukkuvar derived from ] word ''mukku'' (means tip or corner) and the suffix ''ar'' (people), thus the term denotes "those from tip of the landmass".<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=dH0px4c60Z0C&pg=PA3|title=Conflict Over Fisheries in the Palk Bay Region|last=Suryanarayan|first=V.|publisher=Lancer Publishers|year=2005|isbn=9788170622420|page=3}}</ref> Another theory states that the word ''Mukkuvan'' (singular form), means "diver" derived from the ] word ''muluku'' (to immerse or to dive).<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=CNxhAAAAMAAJ|title=Journal of the Ceylon Branch of the Royal Asiatic Society|last=Colombo|first=Royal Asiatic Society of Great Britain and Ireland Ceylon Branch|publisher=Colombo Apothecaries Company|year=1967|page=42}}</ref> Other titles used by the community are ''Kukankulam, Murkukan'' and ''Mukkiyar''.<ref name="dbm1982p64" /><ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=OccLAAAAIAAJ|title=Jaffna, Sri Lanka 1980|last=Holmes|first=Walter Robert|date=1980|publisher=Christian Institute for the Study of Religion and Society of Jaffna College|pages=219}}</ref> Their titles Kukankulam (Kukan clan) and Murkukan (foremost Kukan) are literary references to ''Kukan,'' the mariner who ferried Hindu god ] across ] from ] whose descendant they claim.<ref name="dbm1982p59" />


==History== ==History==
The earliest mention of the Mukkuvar is in the ] ] called ''Dambadeni asna'' (13th century AD'')'', mentioning them as soldiers under the army of ].<ref name="dbm1982p59"/> Their folk origin varies from region to region. According to the legend of the Mukkuvar from Kerala, they emigrated to and from Sri Lanka.<ref name=":0">{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=lEBuAAAAMAAJ|title=Tamils and Moors: caste and matriclan structure in eastern Sri Lanka|last=McGilvray|first=Dennis B.|publisher=University of Chicago|year=1974|pages=25–26}}</ref> The '']'' text and other local ]s attribute the emigration of the Sri Lankan Mukkuvar from ] under the rule of ] in 12th century AD, who delegates the power to local petty kings whose successors are identified as belonging to ''Kukankulam''.<ref name="dbm1982p59"/> The conch shell trade flourished in the ancient and medieval era. The Mukkuvars of Jaffna region were traditionally involved in conch shell diving, however took to fishing with the decline of the conch shell trade.<ref>{{Cite book|title=Early Settlements in Jaffna: An Archaeological Survey|last=Ragupathy|first=Ponnampalam|date=1987|publisher=University of Jaffna|pages=166|language=en}}</ref> The earliest mention of the Mukkuvar is in the ] ] called ''Dambadeni asna'' (13th century AD'')'', mentioning them as soldiers under the army of ].<ref name="dbm1982p59"/> Their folk origin varies from region to region. According to the legend of the Mukkuvar from Kerala, they emigrated to and from Sri Lanka.<ref name=":0">{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=lEBuAAAAMAAJ|title=Tamils and Moors: caste and matriclan structure in eastern Sri Lanka|last=McGilvray|first=Dennis B.|publisher=University of Chicago|year=1974|pages=25–26}}</ref> The '']'' text and other local ]s attribute the emigration of the Sri Lankan Mukkuvar from ] under the rule of ] in 12th century AD, who delegates the power to local petty kings whose successors are identified as belonging to ''Kukankulam''.<ref name="dbm1982p59"/> The conch shell trade flourished in the ancient and medieval era. The Mukkuvars of Jaffna region were traditionally involved in conch shell diving, however took to fishing with the decline of the conch shell trade.<ref>{{Cite book|title=Early Settlements in Jaffna: An Archaeological Survey|last=Ragupathy|first=Ponnampalam|date=1987|publisher=University of Jaffna|pages=166|language=en}}</ref>


The Mukkuvar are found in ] and ] of Sri Lanka.<ref name=":1" /> Mukkuvar tribes migrated from ] Coast in Kerala to cities in ] and ] in the 12th century.{{citation needed|date=October 2018}} They established a local polity in Puttalam, Mannar, and Jaffna. However, they and the ] were defeated in a three-month siege by the ] chieftains, sponsored by the ] in the 15th century. This event is celebrated in a ] palm leaf manuscript called the ] (''The Mukkuvar War'').<ref name="dbm1982p64" />] The ] chronicle, '']'', mentions the exile of Mukkuvars from Jaffna Kingdom to ] during the 15th Century after the invasion of Jaffna by Sampumal Kumarayya. Recent studies show their habits and clan structure, as well as dialects, show affinity towards the Northern ] regions.<ref name=":2">{{Cite web |last=Dennis B |first=McGilvary |title='''Caste ideology and interaction''': Mukkuvar vannimai: Tamil caste and matriclan ideology in Batti caloa, Sri Lanka |url=https://www.colorado.edu/faculty/mcgilvray-dennis/sites/default/files/attached-files/mcgilvray_1982_mukkuvar_vannimai.pdf |website=www.colorado.edu}}</ref> Mukkuvar tribes migrated from ] Coast in Kerala to cities in ] and ] in the 12th century.{{citation needed|date=October 2018}} They established a local polity in Puttalam, Mannar, and Jaffna. However, they and the ] were defeated in a three-month siege by the ] chieftains, sponsored by the ] in the 15th century. This event is celebrated in a ] palm leaf manuscript called the ] (''The Mukkuvar War'').<ref name="dbm1982p64" /> The ] chronicle, '']'', mentions the exile of Mukkuvars from Jaffna Kingdom to ] during the 15th Century after the invasion of Jaffna by Sampumal Kumarayya.]According to a popular folklore, is the ] linked to the Mukkuvar king ''Vedi Arasan''. Vedi Arasan had forts at ], ] and ], and was in possession of a ''Naga'' ].<ref>{{Cite book|title=The Ceylon Antiquary and Literary Register|publisher=Office Of The Times Of Ceylon|year=1923|volume=8|location=Archeological Survey of India|pages=252}}</ref> The Karaiyar king ''Meekaman'' with his ] army defeated Vedi Arasan and the ] chief ''Meera'' and earned his Naga gemstone for the Chola princess ''Kannika.''<ref>{{Cite book|title=Tamil Culture in Ceylon: A General Introduction|last=Raghavan|first=M.D.|publisher=Kalai Nilayam|year=1971|pages=53}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|title=Tamil Culture|publisher=Tamil Literature Society|year=1953|volume=2–3|location=Academy of Tamil Culture|pages=307}}</ref> Ruins in Delft island such as ] and ''Vedi Arasan'' ''kottai'' are local names identified with this event.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Devendra|first=D. T.|date=1969|title=A Ruined Dagaba in Delft|journal=The Journal of the Ceylon Branch of the Royal Asiatic Society of Great Britain & Ireland|volume=13|pages=i–iii|issn=0304-2235|jstor=43483470}}</ref>

According to a popular folklore, is the ] linked to the Mukkuvar king ''Vedi Arasan''. Vedi Arasan had forts at ], ] and ], and was in possession of a ''Naga'' ].<ref>{{Cite book|title=The Ceylon Antiquary and Literary Register|publisher=Office Of The Times Of Ceylon|year=1923|volume=8|location=Archeological Survey of India|pages=252}}</ref> The Karaiyar king ''Meekaman'' with his ] army defeated Vedi Arasan and the ] chief ''Meera'' and earned his Naga gemstone for the Chola princess ''Kannika.''<ref>{{Cite book|title=Tamil Culture in Ceylon: A General Introduction|last=Raghavan|first=M.D.|publisher=Kalai Nilayam|year=1971|pages=53}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|title=Tamil Culture|publisher=Tamil Literature Society|year=1953|volume=2–3|location=Academy of Tamil Culture|pages=307}}</ref> Ruins in Delft island such as ] and ''Vedi Arasan'' ''kottai'' are local names identified with this event.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Devendra|first=D. T.|date=1969|title=A Ruined Dagaba in Delft|journal=The Journal of the Ceylon Branch of the Royal Asiatic Society of Great Britain & Ireland|volume=13|pages=i–iii|issn=0304-2235|jstor=43483470}}</ref>


The ''Mattakallappu Manmiyam'' refers to the defeat of the ] by the Mukkuvar and the Sonakar in eastern parts of the island. Several places in Eastern Province bear names related to this event.<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=lvjsAAAAMAAJ|title=Land, human rights & the eastern predicament|last=(Jaffna)|first=University Teachers for Human Rights|date=1993|publisher=UTHR (Jaffna), University of Jaffna, Thirunelvely|page=89}}</ref> The theme of the Mukkuvar seeking the aid of Muslim Sonakars was always present and at that time alliances and intermarriage between the communities took place.<ref name=":0" /> The ] was under the leadership of Mukkuvar ''Vannimai'' chiefs.<ref name="dbm1982p64" /> The ''Mattakallappu Manmiyam'' refers to the defeat of the ] by the Mukkuvar and the Sonakar in eastern parts of the island. Several places in Eastern Province bear names related to this event.<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=lvjsAAAAMAAJ|title=Land, human rights & the eastern predicament|last=(Jaffna)|first=University Teachers for Human Rights|date=1993|publisher=UTHR (Jaffna), University of Jaffna, Thirunelvely|page=89}}</ref> The theme of the Mukkuvar seeking the aid of Muslim Sonakars was always present and at that time alliances and intermarriage between the communities took place.<ref name=":0" /> The ] was under the leadership of Mukkuvar ''Vannimai'' chiefs.<ref name="dbm1982p64" />


==Religion== ==Religion==
One of the earliest tribes to get converted to ] by the ] were the Mukkuvars from ] in Kerala. The Mukkuvar practising ] are known as '']'', ''Pulasar'', ''Puislam'' or "''New muslims''", derived from the ] word ''putiya'' (new) and ''Islam''.<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=lMmSFw8G4wgC&pg=PA77|title=Kaleidoscopic Ethnicity: International Migration and the Reconstruction of Community Identities in India|last=Kurien|first=Prema A.|publisher=Rutgers University Press|year=2002|isbn=9780813530895|page=77}}</ref> The Mukkuvars of Sri Lanka from ] are mostly Roman Catholic with a strong minority of Muslim Mukkuvars who are known as Sonakars, however they are mostly ]s in the Northern and Eastern provinces.<ref name=":1">{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Fb4LAAAAIAAJ|title=Tamil culture in Ceylon: a general introduction|last=Raghavan|first=M. D.|publisher=Kalai Nilayam|year=1971|page=88|quote="Religiously considered, in the North-western Province, they are largely Roman Catholics, with a strong minority of the Muslim Mukkuvar in the village of Kottantivu. In the Northern and Eastern Provinces they are largely Hindus."}}</ref> One of the earliest tribes to get converted to ] by the ] were the Mukkuvars from ] in Kerala. The Mukkuvar in India practising ] are known '']'', ''Pulasar'', ''Puislam'' or "''New muslims''", derived from the ] word ''putiya'' (new) and ''Islam''.<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=lMmSFw8G4wgC&pg=PA77|title=Kaleidoscopic Ethnicity: International Migration and the Reconstruction of Community Identities in India|last=Kurien|first=Prema A.|publisher=Rutgers University Press|year=2002|isbn=9780813530895|page=77}}</ref> The Mukkuvars of Sri Lanka from ] are mostly Roman Catholic with a strong minority of Muslim Mukkuvars who are known as Sonakars, however they are mostly ]s in the Northern and Eastern provinces.<ref name=":1">{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Fb4LAAAAIAAJ|title=Tamil culture in Ceylon: a general introduction|last=Raghavan|first=M. D.|publisher=Kalai Nilayam|year=1971|page=88|quote="Religiously considered, in the North-western Province, they are largely Roman Catholics, with a strong minority of the Muslim Mukkuvar in the village of Kottantivu. In the Northern and Eastern Provinces they are largely Hindus."}}</ref>


==Customs== ==Customs==
The Mukkuvars of eastern parts of Sri Lanka follow the ], also known as ''Mukkuva Ēṟppāṭu'', which applies to marriage and property.<ref name="dbm1982p59" /> The Mukkuvars in Eastern Sri Lanka are, like other castes, also divided into ''kudi's'' (] clans).<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=AO_WBQAAQBAJ|title=Life Beyond Survival: Social Forms of Coping After the Tsunami in War-affected Eastern Sri Lanka|last=Thurnheer|first=Katharina|publisher=Transcript Verlag|year=2014|isbn=9783839426012|page=142}}</ref> According the study conducted by McGilvray, Kudi system of Mukkuvars and Eastern Muslims has greater resemblances to Northern Kerala Nayars, Tiyyars, and Mappillas.<ref name="colorado.edu"/> The Mukkuvars of eastern parts of Sri Lanka follow the ], also known as ''Mukkuva Ēṟppāṭu'', which applies to marriage and property.<ref name="dbm1982p59" /> The Mukkuvars in Eastern Sri Lanka are, like other castes, also divided into ''kudi's'' (] clans).<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=AO_WBQAAQBAJ|title=Life Beyond Survival: Social Forms of Coping After the Tsunami in War-affected Eastern Sri Lanka|last=Thurnheer|first=Katharina|publisher=Transcript Verlag|year=2014|isbn=9783839426012|page=142}}</ref> According the study conducted by McGilvray, Kudi system of Mukkuvars and Eastern Muslims has greater resemblances to Northern Kerala Nayars, Tiyyars, and Mappillas.<ref name=":2" />


==See also== ==See also==
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Latest revision as of 21:04, 27 October 2024

Tamil speaking ethnic group found in India and Sri Lanka

Mukkuvar
ReligionsHinduism, Christianity, Islam
LanguagesTamil
Related groupsKerala Mukkuvar, Marakkayar, Mogaveera, Sri Lankan Moors

Sri Lankan Mukkuvar (Tamil: முக்குவர்) is a Tamil speaking ethnic group found in the Western and Eastern coastal regions of Sri Lanka. They are primarily concentrated in the districts of Puttalam, Batticaloa, and Amparai.

Mukkuvars traditionally involved in fishing, conch shell pearl diving, but are also involved in agriculture. They also include the major landlords in the Eastern Province of Sri Lanka who historically also served as mercenaries in medieval era.

Etymology

The name of the caste has several etymology theories. According to one is Mukkuvar derived from Tamil word mukku (means tip or corner) and the suffix ar (people), thus the term denotes "those from tip of the landmass". Another theory states that the word Mukkuvan (singular form), means "diver" derived from the Dravidian word muluku (to immerse or to dive). Other titles used by the community are Kukankulam, Murkukan and Mukkiyar. Their titles Kukankulam (Kukan clan) and Murkukan (foremost Kukan) are literary references to Kukan, the mariner who ferried Hindu god Rama across Ganges from Ayodhya whose descendant they claim.

History

The earliest mention of the Mukkuvar is in the Sinhalese panegyric called Dambadeni asna (13th century AD), mentioning them as soldiers under the army of Parakramabahu II. Their folk origin varies from region to region. According to the legend of the Mukkuvar from Kerala, they emigrated to and from Sri Lanka. The Mattakallappu Manmiyam text and other local palm-leaf manuscripts attribute the emigration of the Sri Lankan Mukkuvar from South India under the rule of Kalinga Magha in 12th century AD, who delegates the power to local petty kings whose successors are identified as belonging to Kukankulam. The conch shell trade flourished in the ancient and medieval era. The Mukkuvars of Jaffna region were traditionally involved in conch shell diving, however took to fishing with the decline of the conch shell trade.

Recent studies show their habits and clan structure, as well as dialects, show affinity towards the Northern Kerala regions. Mukkuvar tribes migrated from Malabar Coast in Kerala to cities in Puttalam and Jaffna in the 12th century. They established a local polity in Puttalam, Mannar, and Jaffna. However, they and the Sonakar were defeated in a three-month siege by the Karaiyar chieftains, sponsored by the Kingdom of Kotte in the 15th century. This event is celebrated in a Sinhalese palm leaf manuscript called the Mukkara Hatana (The Mukkuvar War). The Jaffna chronicle, Yalpana Vaipava Malai, mentions the exile of Mukkuvars from Jaffna Kingdom to Batticaloa during the 15th Century after the invasion of Jaffna by Sampumal Kumarayya.

Ruins locally known as Vedi Arasan Kottai i.e. Vedi Arasan's fort.

According to a popular folklore, is the Delft Island linked to the Mukkuvar king Vedi Arasan. Vedi Arasan had forts at Kayts, Kankesanthurai and Keerimalai, and was in possession of a Naga gemstone. The Karaiyar king Meekaman with his Chola army defeated Vedi Arasan and the Moor chief Meera and earned his Naga gemstone for the Chola princess Kannika. Ruins in Delft island such as Meekaman kottai and Vedi Arasan kottai are local names identified with this event.

The Mattakallappu Manmiyam refers to the defeat of the Thimilar by the Mukkuvar and the Sonakar in eastern parts of the island. Several places in Eastern Province bear names related to this event. The theme of the Mukkuvar seeking the aid of Muslim Sonakars was always present and at that time alliances and intermarriage between the communities took place. The Batticaloa region was under the leadership of Mukkuvar Vannimai chiefs.

Religion

One of the earliest tribes to get converted to Catholicism by the Portuguese were the Mukkuvars from Thiruvananthapuram in Kerala. The Mukkuvar in India practising Islam are known Pusalan, Pulasar, Puislam or "New muslims", derived from the Tamil word putiya (new) and Islam. The Mukkuvars of Sri Lanka from North Western Province are mostly Roman Catholic with a strong minority of Muslim Mukkuvars who are known as Sonakars, however they are mostly Hindus in the Northern and Eastern provinces.

Customs

The Mukkuvars of eastern parts of Sri Lanka follow the Mukkuva laws, also known as Mukkuva Ēṟppāṭu, which applies to marriage and property. The Mukkuvars in Eastern Sri Lanka are, like other castes, also divided into kudi's (matrilineal clans). According the study conducted by McGilvray, Kudi system of Mukkuvars and Eastern Muslims has greater resemblances to Northern Kerala Nayars, Tiyyars, and Mappillas.

See also

References

  1. ^ Raghavan, M. D. (1971). Tamil culture in Ceylon: a general introduction. Kalai Nilayam. p. 88. Religiously considered, in the North-western Province, they are largely Roman Catholics, with a strong minority of the Muslim Mukkuvar in the village of Kottantivu. In the Northern and Eastern Provinces they are largely Hindus.
  2. Ragupathy, Ponnampalam (1987). Early Settlements in Jaffna: An Archaeological Survey. University of Jaffna. p. 223.
  3. ^ McGilvray, Dennis B. (2008). Crucible of Conflict: Tamil and Muslim Society on the East Coast of Sri Lanka. Duke University Press. pp. 60, 61, 64, 77. ISBN 978-0822389187.
  4. (Jaffna), University Teachers for Human Rights (1991). The Debasement of the law and of humanity and the drift towards total war. UTHR (Jaffna), University of Jaffna, Thirunelvely. p. 31.
  5. ^ McGilvray, Dennis B. (1982). Caste Ideology and Interaction. Cambridge University Press. pp. 59, 60, 68. ISBN 9780521241458.
  6. Suryanarayan, V. (2005). Conflict Over Fisheries in the Palk Bay Region. Lancer Publishers. p. 3. ISBN 9788170622420.
  7. Colombo, Royal Asiatic Society of Great Britain and Ireland Ceylon Branch (1967). Journal of the Ceylon Branch of the Royal Asiatic Society. Colombo Apothecaries Company. p. 42.
  8. Holmes, Walter Robert (1980). Jaffna, Sri Lanka 1980. Christian Institute for the Study of Religion and Society of Jaffna College. p. 219.
  9. ^ McGilvray, Dennis B. (1974). Tamils and Moors: caste and matriclan structure in eastern Sri Lanka. University of Chicago. pp. 25–26.
  10. Ragupathy, Ponnampalam (1987). Early Settlements in Jaffna: An Archaeological Survey. University of Jaffna. p. 166.
  11. ^ Dennis B, McGilvary. "Caste ideology and interaction: Mukkuvar vannimai: Tamil caste and matriclan ideology in Batti caloa, Sri Lanka" (PDF). www.colorado.edu.
  12. The Ceylon Antiquary and Literary Register. Vol. 8. Archeological Survey of India: Office Of The Times Of Ceylon. 1923. p. 252.
  13. Raghavan, M.D. (1971). Tamil Culture in Ceylon: A General Introduction. Kalai Nilayam. p. 53.
  14. Tamil Culture. Vol. 2–3. Academy of Tamil Culture: Tamil Literature Society. 1953. p. 307.
  15. Devendra, D. T. (1969). "A Ruined Dagaba in Delft". The Journal of the Ceylon Branch of the Royal Asiatic Society of Great Britain & Ireland. 13: i–iii. ISSN 0304-2235. JSTOR 43483470.
  16. (Jaffna), University Teachers for Human Rights (1993). Land, human rights & the eastern predicament. UTHR (Jaffna), University of Jaffna, Thirunelvely. p. 89.
  17. Kurien, Prema A. (2002). Kaleidoscopic Ethnicity: International Migration and the Reconstruction of Community Identities in India. Rutgers University Press. p. 77. ISBN 9780813530895.
  18. Thurnheer, Katharina (2014). Life Beyond Survival: Social Forms of Coping After the Tsunami in War-affected Eastern Sri Lanka. Transcript Verlag. p. 142. ISBN 9783839426012.

17. Could Marthanda Varma have won the Colachel War without the fishermen

english.manoramaonline.com

Further reading

  • The ancient myths of the aborigines Kerala Calling, July 2004 by Dr. M.V Vishnu Namboodiri

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