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| {{For|the second largest producer of copper in the world|Aurubis}} | {{For|the second largest producer of copper in the world|Aurubis}} | ||
| {{For|the term as used in works of fiction|List of fictional materials}} | {{For|the term as used in works of fiction|List of fictional materials}} | ||
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| {{Infobox material | {{Infobox material | ||
| | name = Orichalcum | | name = Orichalcum | ||
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| | chem_res_halogen = | | chem_res_halogen = | ||
| | chem_res_ketone = | | chem_res_ketone = | ||
| | gas_perm_temp = 20 |
| gas_perm_temp = 20 °C | ||
| | gas_perm_N = | | gas_perm_N = | ||
| | gas_perm_O = | | gas_perm_O = | ||
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| '''Orichalcum''' or '''aurichalcum''' {{IPAc-en|ˌ|ɔr|ᵻ|ˈ|k|æ|l|k|ə|m}} is a |
'''Orichalcum''' or '''aurichalcum''' {{IPAc-en|ˌ|ɔr|ᵻ|ˈ|k|æ|l|k|ə|m}} is a metal mentioned in several ancient writings, including the story of ] in the '']'' of ]. Within the dialogue, ] (460–403 BC) says that orichalcum had been considered second only to gold in value and had been found and mined in many parts of Atlantis in ancient times, but that by Critias's own time, orichalcum was known only by name.<ref name=":0">{{Cite web |title=The Internet Classics Archive {{!}} Critias by Plato |url=http://classics.mit.edu/Plato/critias.html |access-date=17 November 2021 |website=classics.mit.edu |at=Paragraph 13}}</ref> | ||
| Orichalcum may have been a noble metal such as ],<ref>Cf. Felice Vinci, The Baltic Origins of Homer's Epic Tales. The "Illiad", the "Odyssey" and the Migration of Myth, Inner Traditions, Rochester (Vermont) 2005.</ref> as it was supposed to be mined, or |
Orichalcum may have been a ] such as ],<ref>Cf. Felice Vinci, The Baltic Origins of Homer's Epic Tales. The "Illiad", the "Odyssey" and the Migration of Myth, Inner Traditions, Rochester (Vermont) 2005.</ref> as it was supposed to be mined, but has been identified as pure copper or certain alloys of ], and especially ] alloys<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Di Fazio |first1=Melania |last2=Felici |first2=Anna Candida |last3=Catalli |first3=Fiorenzo |last4=De Vito |first4=Caterina |date=2019-09-03 |title=Microstructure and chemical composition of Roman orichalcum coins emitted after the monetary reform of Augustus (23 B.C.) |url=https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-019-48941-4 |journal=Scientific Reports |language=en |volume=9 |issue=1 |pages=12668 |doi=10.1038/s41598-019-48941-4 |issn=2045-2322 |pmc=6722059 |pmid=31481740|bibcode=2019NatSR...912668D }}</ref> in the case of antique Roman coins, the latter being of "similar appearance to modern brass" according to scientific research.<ref name="Caley">{{Cite book |last=Caley |first=Earle Radcliffe |author-link=Earle R. Caley |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=BUVmAAAAMAAJ&q=Orichalcum |title=Orichalcum and Related Ancient Alloys: Origin, Composition, and Manufacture: With Special Reference to the Coinage of the Roman Empire, Issues 151–154 Front Cover |publisher=] |year=1964 |pages=2, 92, 105}}</ref> | ||
| == Overview == | == Overview == | ||
| The name is derived from the ] {{lang|grc|ὀρείχαλκος}}, ''{{lang|grc-Latn|oreikhalkos}}'' (from {{lang|grc|ὄρος}}, ''{{lang|grc-Latn|oros}}'', mountain and {{lang|grc|χαλκός}}, ''{{lang|grc-Latn|chalkos}}'', copper), |
The name is derived from the ] {{lang|grc|ὀρείχαλκος}}, ''{{lang|grc-Latn|oreikhalkos}}'' (from {{lang|grc|ὄρος}}, ''{{lang|grc-Latn|oros}}'', mountain and {{lang|grc|χαλκός}}, ''{{lang|grc-Latn|chalkos}}'', copper), literally meaning "mountain copper". | ||
| ⚫ | The Romans transliterated "orichalcum" as "aurichalcum", which was thought to mean literally "gold copper". It is known from the writings of ] that the metal which they called orichalcum resembled gold in color but had a much lower value.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Polehampton |first=Edward |url=https://archive.org/details/gallerynaturean08polegoog |title=The Gallery of Nature and Art; Or, a Tour Through Creation and Science |publisher=R. Wilks for C. Cradock & W. Joy |year=1815 |page= |quote=Whether, if a person should offer a piece of gold to sale, thinking that he was only disposing of a piece of orichalcum, an honest man ought to inform him that it was really gold, or might fairly buy for a penny what was worth a thousand times as much}}</ref> In ]'s '']'', the ] of ] is described as "stiff with gold and white orichalc". | ||
| ⚫ | ], |
||
| ⚫ | The Romans transliterated "orichalcum" as "aurichalcum", which was thought to mean literally "gold copper". It is known from the writings of ] that the metal which they called orichalcum resembled gold in color but had a much lower value.<ref>{{Cite book | |
||
| Orichalcum has been |
Orichalcum has been vaguely identified by ancient Greek authors to be either a gold–copper ], a form of pure copper or a copper ] or various chemicals based on copper, but also copper–] and copper–] alloys, or a metal or metallic alloy supposedly no longer known. | ||
| In later years |
In later years "orichalcum" was used to describe the ] mineral ] and also to describe brass. These usages are difficult to reconcile with the claims of Plato's Critias, who states that the metal was "only a name" by his time,<ref name=":0" /> while brass and chalcopyrite were very important in the time of Plato,{{citation-needed|date=November 2020}} as they still are today. | ||
| ] notes that ], an |
] notes that ], an 18th-century professor of chemistry, wrote of an ancient idea that there were "two sorts of brass or orichalcum". Needham also suggests that the Greeks may not have known how orichalcum was made and that they might even have had an imitation of the original.<ref name="Needham">{{Cite book |last=Needham |first=Joseph |title=Science and Civilisation in China |volume=5,Chemistry and Chemical Technology; Part 2, Spagyrical Discovery and Invention: Magisteries of Gold and Immortality |publisher=] |year=1974 |isbn=978-0521085717 |pages=227–228}}</ref> | ||
| == Ingots found == | |||
| ⚫ | In 2015, 39 ingots |
||
| ⚫ | ], Sicily]] | ||
| ⚫ | In 2015, 39 ingots were discovered in a sunken vessel on the coast of ] in Sicily which have tentatively been dated at ]. They were analyzed with ] and found to be an alloy consisting of 75–80% copper, 15–20% zinc, and smaller percentages of nickel, lead, and iron.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Saraceni |first=Jessica E. |title=Unusual Metal Recovered from Ancient Greek Shipwreck |url=http://www.archaeology.org/news/2874-150107-sicily-orichalcum-metal |website=] |date=7 January 2015 |agency=archaeology.org}}</ref> Another cache of 47 ingots was recovered in February 2016 and found to have similar composition as measured with ] and ]: around 65–80% copper, 15–25% zinc, 4–7% lead, 0.5–1% nickel, and trace amounts of silver, ], ], ], and other elements.<ref>{{Cite journal |first1=Eugenio |last1=Caponetti |last2=Armetta |first2=Francesco |last3=Brusca |first3=Lorenzo |last4=Ferrante |first4=Marco |last5=Martino |first5=Delia Chillura |last6=Saladino |first6=Maria Luisa |last7=Guastella |first7=Dario |last8=Chirco |first8=Gabriella |last9=Berrettoni |first9=Mario |last10=Zamponi |first10=Silvia |last11=Conti |first11=Paolo |last12=Tusa |first12=Sebastiano |date=June 2021 |title=Newly discovered orichalcum ingots from Mediterranean sea: Further investigation |journal=Journal of Archaeological Science: Reports |volume=37 |page=102901 |doi=10.1016/j.jasrep.2021.102901 |s2cid=233577366 |number=102901|bibcode=2021JArSR..37j2901C |hdl=11581/459834 |hdl-access=free }}</ref> | ||
| == |
== In ancient literature == | ||
| Orichalcum is first mentioned in the 7th century BC by ], and in the ] dedicated to ], dated to the 630s.{{Citation needed|date=November 2021}} | Orichalcum is first mentioned in the ] by ], and in the ] dedicated to ], dated to the ].{{Citation needed|date=November 2021}} | ||
| According to the '']'' of ], the inner wall surrounding the citadel with the Temple of Poseidon "flashed with the red light of orichalcum". The interior walls, pillars and floors of the temple were completely covered in orichalcum, and the roof was variegated with gold, silver, and orichalcum. In the center of the temple stood a pillar of orichalcum, on which the laws of Poseidon and records of the first son princes of Poseidon were inscribed.<ref>{{Cite web|title=The Internet Classics Archive {{!}} Critias by Plato|url=http://classics.mit.edu/Plato/critias.html |
According to the '']'' of ], the inner wall surrounding the citadel of Atlantis with the Temple of ] "flashed with the red light of orichalcum". The interior walls, pillars, and floors of the temple were completely covered in orichalcum, and the roof was variegated with gold, silver, and orichalcum. In the center of the temple stood a pillar of orichalcum, on which the laws of Poseidon and records of the first son princes of Poseidon were inscribed.<ref>{{Cite web |title=The Internet Classics Archive {{!}} Critias by Plato |url=http://classics.mit.edu/Plato/critias.html |access-date=17 November 2021 |website=classics.mit.edu |at=Paragraphs 14–15}}</ref> | ||
| ] points out that orichalcum had lost currency due to the mines being exhausted. ] in ] (62) describes a type of copper that is "very shiny and white, not because there is tin mixed with it, but because some earth is combined and molten with it." This might be a reference to orichalcum obtained during the smelting of copper with the addition of "]", a kind of earth formerly found on the shores of the Black Sea, which is attributed to be ].<ref>{{ |
] points out that orichalcum had lost currency due to the mines being exhausted. ] in ] (62) describes a type of copper that is "very shiny and white, not because there is tin mixed with it, but because some earth is combined and molten with it." This might be a reference to orichalcum obtained during the smelting of copper with the addition of "]", a kind of earth formerly found on the shores of the Black Sea, which is attributed to be ].<ref>{{Cite book |last=Zhirov |first=Nicholas F. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=hKVQFP47tJQC&q=Orichalcum |title=Atlantis: Atlantology: Basic Problems |publisher=The Minerva Group, Inc. |year=2001 |isbn=0-89875-591-3 |page=46}}</ref> | ||
| == Numismatics == | == Numismatics == | ||
| In ], the term "orichalcum" is used to refer to |
In ], the term "orichalcum" is used to refer exclusively to a type of ] alloy used for minting Roman ], ], ], and ] type of coins. It is considered more valuable than copper, of which the ] was previously made.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Di Fazio |first1=Melania |last2=Felici |first2=Anna Candida |last3=Catalli |first3=Fiorenzo |last4=De Vito |first4=Caterina |date=2019-09-03 |title=Microstructure and chemical composition of Roman orichalcum coins emitted after the monetary reform of Augustus (23 B.C.) |url=https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-019-48941-4 |journal=Scientific Reports |language=en |volume=9 |issue=1 |pages=12668 |doi=10.1038/s41598-019-48941-4 |issn=2045-2322 |pmc=6722059 |pmid=31481740|bibcode=2019NatSR...912668D }}</ref> | ||
| == See also == | == See also == | ||
| {{Div col|colwidth=25em}} | {{Div col|colwidth=25em}} | ||
| ⚫ | * ] | ||
| * ] | * ] | ||
| * ] | * ] | ||
| ⚫ | * ] | ||
| * ] | * ] | ||
| ⚫ | * ] | ||
| * ] | * ] | ||
| ⚫ | * ] | ||
| ⚫ | * ] | ||
| * ] | * ] | ||
| * ] | * ] | ||
| * ] | * ] | ||
| ⚫ | * ] | ||
| {{div col end}} | {{div col end}} | ||
| == References == | == References == | ||
| {{reflist |
{{reflist}} | ||
| == External links == | == External links == | ||
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| ] | ] | ||
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Latest revision as of 12:22, 2 January 2025
Fabulous metal mentioned in ancient writings, such as the story of Atlantis in the Critias of Plato For the mineral made of a basic carbonate of zinc and copper, see Aurichalcite. For the second largest producer of copper in the world, see Aurubis. For the term as used in works of fiction, see List of fictional materials.
| Orichalcum | |
|---|---|
 A bronze sestertius coin from the time of Caligula | |
| Material type | Metal |
Orichalcum or aurichalcum /ˌɔːrɪˈkælkəm/ is a metal mentioned in several ancient writings, including the story of Atlantis in the Critias of Plato. Within the dialogue, Critias (460–403 BC) says that orichalcum had been considered second only to gold in value and had been found and mined in many parts of Atlantis in ancient times, but that by Critias's own time, orichalcum was known only by name.
Orichalcum may have been a noble metal such as platinum, as it was supposed to be mined, but has been identified as pure copper or certain alloys of bronze, and especially brass alloys in the case of antique Roman coins, the latter being of "similar appearance to modern brass" according to scientific research.
Overview
The name is derived from the Greek ὀρείχαλκος, oreikhalkos (from ὄρος, oros, mountain and χαλκός, chalkos, copper), literally meaning "mountain copper".
The Romans transliterated "orichalcum" as "aurichalcum", which was thought to mean literally "gold copper". It is known from the writings of Cicero that the metal which they called orichalcum resembled gold in color but had a much lower value. In Virgil's Aeneid, the breastplate of Turnus is described as "stiff with gold and white orichalc".
Orichalcum has been vaguely identified by ancient Greek authors to be either a gold–copper alloy, a form of pure copper or a copper ore or various chemicals based on copper, but also copper–tin and copper–zinc alloys, or a metal or metallic alloy supposedly no longer known.
In later years "orichalcum" was used to describe the sulfide mineral chalcopyrite and also to describe brass. These usages are difficult to reconcile with the claims of Plato's Critias, who states that the metal was "only a name" by his time, while brass and chalcopyrite were very important in the time of Plato, as they still are today.
Joseph Needham notes that Bishop Richard Watson, an 18th-century professor of chemistry, wrote of an ancient idea that there were "two sorts of brass or orichalcum". Needham also suggests that the Greeks may not have known how orichalcum was made and that they might even have had an imitation of the original.
Ingots found
In 2015, 39 ingots were discovered in a sunken vessel on the coast of Gela in Sicily which have tentatively been dated at 2,100 years old. They were analyzed with X-ray fluorescence and found to be an alloy consisting of 75–80% copper, 15–20% zinc, and smaller percentages of nickel, lead, and iron. Another cache of 47 ingots was recovered in February 2016 and found to have similar composition as measured with ICP-OES and ICP-MS: around 65–80% copper, 15–25% zinc, 4–7% lead, 0.5–1% nickel, and trace amounts of silver, antimony, arsenic, bismuth, and other elements.
In ancient literature
Orichalcum is first mentioned in the 7th century BC by Hesiod, and in the Homeric hymn dedicated to Aphrodite, dated to the 630s BC.
According to the Critias of Plato, the inner wall surrounding the citadel of Atlantis with the Temple of Poseidon "flashed with the red light of orichalcum". The interior walls, pillars, and floors of the temple were completely covered in orichalcum, and the roof was variegated with gold, silver, and orichalcum. In the center of the temple stood a pillar of orichalcum, on which the laws of Poseidon and records of the first son princes of Poseidon were inscribed.
Pliny the Elder points out that orichalcum had lost currency due to the mines being exhausted. Pseudo-Aristotle in De mirabilibus auscultationibus (62) describes a type of copper that is "very shiny and white, not because there is tin mixed with it, but because some earth is combined and molten with it." This might be a reference to orichalcum obtained during the smelting of copper with the addition of "cadmia", a kind of earth formerly found on the shores of the Black Sea, which is attributed to be zinc oxide.
Numismatics
In numismatics, the term "orichalcum" is used to refer exclusively to a type of brass alloy used for minting Roman as, sestertius, dupondius, and semis type of coins. It is considered more valuable than copper, of which the as coin was previously made.
See also
- Ashtadhatu
- Auricupride
- Corinthian bronze
- Electrum
- Hepatizon
- Panchaloha
- Shakudō
- Shibuichi
- Thokcha
- Tumbaga
References
- ^ "The Internet Classics Archive | Critias by Plato". classics.mit.edu. Paragraph 13. Retrieved 17 November 2021.
- Cf. Felice Vinci, The Baltic Origins of Homer's Epic Tales. The "Illiad", the "Odyssey" and the Migration of Myth, Inner Traditions, Rochester (Vermont) 2005.
- Di Fazio, Melania; Felici, Anna Candida; Catalli, Fiorenzo; De Vito, Caterina (3 September 2019). "Microstructure and chemical composition of Roman orichalcum coins emitted after the monetary reform of Augustus (23 B.C.)". Scientific Reports. 9 (1): 12668. Bibcode:2019NatSR...912668D. doi:10.1038/s41598-019-48941-4. ISSN 2045-2322. PMC 6722059. PMID 31481740.
- Caley, Earle Radcliffe (1964). Orichalcum and Related Ancient Alloys: Origin, Composition, and Manufacture: With Special Reference to the Coinage of the Roman Empire, Issues 151–154 Front Cover. American Numismatic Society. pp. 2, 92, 105.
- Polehampton, Edward (1815). The Gallery of Nature and Art; Or, a Tour Through Creation and Science. R. Wilks for C. Cradock & W. Joy. p. 272.
Whether, if a person should offer a piece of gold to sale, thinking that he was only disposing of a piece of orichalcum, an honest man ought to inform him that it was really gold, or might fairly buy for a penny what was worth a thousand times as much
- Needham, Joseph (1974). Science and Civilisation in China. Vol. 5, Chemistry and Chemical Technology, Part 2, Spagyrical Discovery and Invention: Magisteries of Gold and Immortality. Cambridge University Press. pp. 227–228. ISBN 978-0521085717.
- Saraceni, Jessica E. (7 January 2015). "Unusual Metal Recovered from Ancient Greek Shipwreck". Archaeology Magazine. archaeology.org.
- Caponetti, Eugenio; Armetta, Francesco; Brusca, Lorenzo; Ferrante, Marco; Martino, Delia Chillura; Saladino, Maria Luisa; Guastella, Dario; Chirco, Gabriella; Berrettoni, Mario; Zamponi, Silvia; Conti, Paolo; Tusa, Sebastiano (June 2021). "Newly discovered orichalcum ingots from Mediterranean sea: Further investigation". Journal of Archaeological Science: Reports. 37 (102901): 102901. Bibcode:2021JArSR..37j2901C. doi:10.1016/j.jasrep.2021.102901. hdl:11581/459834. S2CID 233577366.
- "The Internet Classics Archive | Critias by Plato". classics.mit.edu. Paragraphs 14–15. Retrieved 17 November 2021.
- Zhirov, Nicholas F. (2001). Atlantis: Atlantology: Basic Problems. The Minerva Group, Inc. p. 46. ISBN 0-89875-591-3.
- Di Fazio, Melania; Felici, Anna Candida; Catalli, Fiorenzo; De Vito, Caterina (3 September 2019). "Microstructure and chemical composition of Roman orichalcum coins emitted after the monetary reform of Augustus (23 B.C.)". Scientific Reports. 9 (1): 12668. Bibcode:2019NatSR...912668D. doi:10.1038/s41598-019-48941-4. ISSN 2045-2322. PMC 6722059. PMID 31481740.
External links
Media related to Orichalcum at Wikimedia Commons
