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| {{Short description|Origins of the sinhalese}} | |||
| {{Use dmy dates|date=October 2021}} | {{Use dmy dates|date=October 2021}} | ||
| ] | ] | ||
| '''Genetic studies on the Sinhalese''' is part of ] investigating the origins of the ] population. | '''Genetic studies on the Sinhalese''' is part of ] investigating the origins of the ] population. | ||
| All studies agree that there is a significant relationship between the Sinhalese and the Bengalis and Tamils, and that there is a significant genetic relationship between Sri Lankan Tamils and Sinhalese |
All studies agree that there is a significant relationship between the Sinhalese and the Bengalis and South Indian Tamils, and that there is a significant genetic relationship between Sri Lankan Tamils and Sinhalese. This is also supported by a genetic distance study, which showed low differences in genetic distance between the Sinhalese and the ], ], and ] volunteers. | ||
| <ref name="gd">{{cite journal |last1=Kirk |first1=R. L. |title=The legend of Prince Vijaya — a study of Sinhalese origins |journal=American Journal of Physical Anthropology |date=July 1976 |volume=45 |issue=1 |pages=91–99 |doi=10.1002/ajpa.1330450112 }}</ref> | |||
| According to a study published in 2021 using 16 X-chromosomal short tandem repeat markers (STRs), there was no genetic subdivision detected between Sinhalese, Moors and Sri Lankan Tamils while Indian Tamils were having a subtle but statistically significant difference. The observed close relationship between Moors and Sinhalese maybe explained by the matrimonial bonds made by Moor males with Sinhalese females during their original settlement in Sri Lanka. Further, the phylogram generated for the four main ethnic groups of Sri Lanka was suggestive of an Indian origin for Moors compared to the Arabic origin speculated by some. | |||
| ==Relationship to Bengalis== | == Relationship to Bengalis == | ||
| ] | ] | ||
| An ] ] analysis |
An ] ] analysis by Mastana S (2007) using Sinhalese, Tamil, Bengali, ] (]), and ] as parental populations found the following proportions of genetic contribution. The Sinhalese sample size used was 121 individuals.:<ref name="mastana">{{cite journal | vauthors = Mastana S |title=Molecular anthropology: population and forensic genetic applications |journal=Anthropologist Special |volume=3 |year=2007 |pages=373–383 |url=http://www.krepublishers.com/06-Special%20Volume-Journal/T-Anth-00-Special%20Volumes/T-Anth-SI-03-Anth-Today-Web/Anth-SI-03-29-Mastana-S/Anth-SI-03-29-Mastana-S-Tt.pdf}}</ref> | ||
| {| class="wikitable" | {| class="wikitable" | ||
| |- | |- | ||
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| Analysis of X chromosome STRs by Perera et al. (2021) found the Sinhalese (as well as ] and ]) to be more closely related to Bengalis, than to the ].<ref name="perera">Perera, N., Galhena, G. and Ranawaka, G., 2021. X-chromosomal STR based genetic polymorphisms and demographic history of Sri Lankan ethnicities and their relationship with global populations. Scientific reports, 11(1), pp.1-12.</ref> | |||
| D1S80 allele frequency (a popular allele for genetic fingerprinting) is also similar between the Sinhalese and Bengalis, suggesting the two groups are closely related.<ref>Surinder Singh Papiha (1999). Genomic Diversity: Applications in Human Population Genetics. London: Springer. 7.</ref> The Sinhalese also have similar frequencies of the allele ] (13%) to West Bengalis (17%).<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Mukhopadhyay K, Dutta S, Das Bhomik A | title = MTHFR gene polymorphisms analyzed in population from Kolkata, West Bengal | journal = Indian Journal of Human Genetics | volume = 13 | issue = 1 | pages = 38 | date = January 2007 | pmid = 21957342 | pmc = 3168154 | doi = 10.4103/0971-6866.32035 }}</ref><ref name="Vajira H.W. Dissanayake 2009, Pages 159-162">{{cite journal | vauthors = Dissanayake VH, Weerasekera LY, Gammulla CG, Jayasekara RW | title = Prevalence of genetic thrombophilic polymorphisms in the Sri Lankan population--implications for association study design and clinical genetic testing services | journal = Experimental and Molecular Pathology | volume = 87 | issue = 2 | pages = 159–62 | date = October 2009 | pmid = 19591822 | doi = 10.1016/j.yexmp.2009.07.002 }}</ref> | |||
| Genetic distance analysis by Kirk (1976) found the Sinhalese to be closer to the Bengal than they are to populations in Gujarat or the Panjab.<ref name="kirk">{{cite journal | vauthors = Kirk RL |title=The legend of Prince Vijaya – a study of Sinhalese origins |journal=American Journal of Physical Anthropology |date=July 1976 |volume=45 |issue=1 |pages=91–99 |doi=10.1002/ajpa.1330450112 }}</ref> | |||
| A test for ] conducted by Dr Toomas Kivisild on Sinhalese of Sri Lanka has shown that 23% of the subjects were ]a (R-SRY1532) positive.<ref name="Kivisild"/> Also in the same test 24.1% of the subjects were ] positive as subclades of ] (92R7).<ref name="Kivisild">{{cite book| vauthors = Kivisild T, Rootsi S, Metspalu M, Metspalu E, Parik J, Kaldma K, Usanga E, Mastana S, Papiha SS, Villems R | display-authors = 6 |year=2003|chapter=The Genetics of Language and Farming Spread in India| veditors = Bellwood P, Renfrew C | title=Examining the farming/language dispersal hypothesis |publisher=McDonald Institute for Archaeological Research|location=Cambridge, United Kingdom|pages=215–222|chapter-url=http://evolutsioon.ut.ee/publications/Kivisild2003a.pdf}}</ref> ] is also found in a considerable percentage among ] of India. Sample size used was 87 subjects. | |||
| ] | |||
| A study in 2007 found similar frequencies of the allele ] in sinhalese (7.4%) and North Indian subjects (6.7%). HLA-A*02 is a rare allele which has a relatively high frequency in North Indian populations and is considered to be a novel allele among the North Indian population. This suggests possible North Indian origin of the Sinhalese.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Malavige GN, Rostron T, Seneviratne SL, Fernando S, Sivayogan S, Wijewickrama A, Ogg GS | title = HLA analysis of Sri Lankan Sinhalese predicts North Indian origin | journal = International Journal of Immunogenetics | volume = 34 | issue = 5 | pages = 313–5 | date = October 2007 | pmid = 17845299 | doi = 10.1111/j.1744-313X.2007.00698.x | s2cid = 13210660 }}</ref> | |||
| D1S80 allele frequency (a popular allele for genetic fingerprinting) is also similar between the Sinhalese and Bengalis, suggesting the two groups are closely related.<ref>Surinder Singh Papiha (1999). Genomic Diversity: Applications in Human Population Genetics. London: Springer. 7.</ref> | |||
| ==Relationship to Tamils== | |||
| {{Main|Genetic studies on Sri Lankan Tamils}} | |||
| ] | |||
| The Sinhalese also have similar frequencies of the allele ] (13%) to West Bengalis (17%).<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Mukhopadhyay K, Dutta S, Das Bhomik A | title = MTHFR gene polymorphisms analyzed in population from Kolkata, West Bengal | journal = Indian Journal of Human Genetics | volume = 13 | issue = 1 | pages = 38 | date = January 2007 | pmid = 21957342 | pmc = 3168154 | doi = 10.4103/0971-6866.32035 | doi-access = free }}</ref><ref name="Vajira H.W. Dissanayake 2009, Pages 159-162">{{cite journal | vauthors = Dissanayake VH, Weerasekera LY, Gammulla CG, Jayasekara RW | title = Prevalence of genetic thrombophilic polymorphisms in the Sri Lankan population--implications for association study design and clinical genetic testing services | journal = Experimental and Molecular Pathology | volume = 87 | issue = 2 | pages = 159–62 | date = October 2009 | pmid = 19591822 | doi = 10.1016/j.yexmp.2009.07.002 }}</ref> | |||
| Another study by GK Kshatriya conducted in 1995 assessing the 'Genetic affinities of Sri Lankan Populations' found a large genetic contribution from the Tamils of South India, as well as from the Bengali and Vedda populations.<ref name=GKK>{{cite journal | vauthors = Kshatriya GK | title = Genetic affinities of Sri Lankan populations | journal = Human Biology | volume = 67 | issue = 6 | pages = 843–66 | date = December 1995 | pmid = 8543296 | publisher = American Association of Anthropological Genetics }}</ref> | |||
| ==Relationship to Indian Tamils== | |||
| {| class="wikitable" | |||
| ] | |||
| A genetic admixture study by Kshatriya (1995) found the Sinhalese to have a higher contribution from Indian Tamils (69.86% +/- 0.61), compared with the Bengalis (25.41% +/- 0.51).<ref name=kshatriya>{{cite journal | vauthors = Kshatriya GK | title = Genetic affinities of Sri Lankan populations | journal = Human Biology | volume = 67 | issue = 6 | pages = 843–66 | date = December 1995 | pmid = 8543296 | publisher = American Association of Anthropological Genetics }}</ref> | |||
| Genetic distance analysis by Roychoudhury AK et al. (1985) suggested the Sinhalese are more closely related to South and West Indian populations, than the Bengalis.<ref name="Roychoudhury"/> | |||
| Genetic distance analysis by Kirk (1976) suggested the Sinhalese are closer to the Tamils and Keralites of South India, than they are to the populations in Gujarat or the Panjab.<ref name="kirk"/> | |||
| ] | |||
| A 2023 study by Singh et al using higher resolution markers than previous studies found that there was higher gene flow from South India to the Sinhalese than from North India, with the Sinhalese sharing the highest ] with ] specially ]s, compared to the other Indian populations studied. The study also found heightened sharing with the ] of India , consistent with a ] contribution .This excess sharing of segments suggests common roots of Sinhala with the Marāṭhā corroborating the linguistic hypothesis of ], ], and ]. The total Sinhalese sample size used was 9 individuals. <ref>Prajjval Pratap Singh, Sachin Kumar, Nagarjuna Pasupuleti, Niraj Rai, Gyaneshwer Chaubey, R. Ranasinghe, "Reconstructing the population history of Sinhalese, the major ethnic group in Śrī Laṅkā," iScience, August 31, 2023, DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.isci.2023.107797.</ref> | |||
| == Relationship to North West Indians == | |||
| An ] ] analysis by Mastana S (2007) found a North West Indian contribution (20-23%).<ref name="krep">{{cite journal | vauthors = Mastana S |title=Molecular anthropology: population and forensic genetic applications |journal=Anthropologist Special |volume=3 |year=2007 |pages=373–383 |url=http://www.krepublishers.com/06-Special%20Volume-Journal/T-Anth-00-Special%20Volumes/T-Anth-SI-03-Anth-Today-Web/Anth-SI-03-29-Mastana-S/Anth-SI-03-29-Mastana-S-Tt.pdf }}</ref> | |||
| Analysis of X chromosome STRs by Perera et al., (2011) showed that the Sinhalese, Sri Lankan Tamil, Moor and Indian Tamils of Sri Lanka, share affinities with the ] (an Indigenous group) of North West India.<ref>Perera, N., Galhena, G. and Ranawaka, G., 2021. X-chromosomal STR based genetic polymorphisms and demographic history of Sri Lankan ethnicities and their relationship with global populations. Scientific reports, 11(1), pp.1-12.</ref> | |||
| ==Relationship to other major ethnic groups in Sri Lanka== | |||
| A study looking at genetic variation of the ] gene in the Sinhalese and Sri Lankan Tamil population, found similar genetic backgrounds for both ethnic groups, with little genetic flow from other neighbouring Asian population groups.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Soejima M, Koda Y | title = Denaturing high-performance liquid chromatography-based genotyping and genetic variation of FUT2 in Sri Lanka | journal = Transfusion | volume = 45 | issue = 12 | pages = 1934–9 | date = December 2005 | pmid = 16371047 | doi = 10.1111/j.1537-2995.2005.00651.x | s2cid = 10401001 }}</ref> Studies have also found no significant difference with regards to ], blood genetic markers (Saha, 1988) and ] between the Sinhalese and other ethnic groups in Sri Lanka.<ref name="saha">{{cite journal | vauthors = Saha N | title = Blood genetic markers in Sri Lankan populations--reappraisal of the legend of Prince Vijaya | journal = American Journal of Physical Anthropology | volume = 76 | issue = 2 | pages = 217–25 | date = 1988 | pmid = 3166342 | doi = 10.1002/ajpa.1330760210 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Roberts DF, Creen CK, Abeyaratne KP |title=Blood Groups of the Sinhalese |journal=Man |date=1972 |volume=7 |issue=1 |pages=122–127 |doi=10.2307/2799860 |jstor=2799860 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Dissanayake VH, Giles V, Jayasekara RW, Seneviratne HR, Kalsheker N, Broughton Pipkin F, Morgan L | title = A study of three candidate genes for pre-eclampsia in a Sinhalese population from Sri Lanka | journal = The Journal of Obstetrics and Gynaecology Research | volume = 35 | issue = 2 | pages = 234–42 | date = April 2009 | pmid = 19708171 | doi = 10.1111/j.1447-0756.2008.00926.x | s2cid = 24958292 | doi-access = free }}</ref> Another study has also found "no significant genetic variation among the major ethnic groups in Sri Lanka".<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Illeperuma RJ, Mohotti SN, De Silva TM, Fernandopulle ND, Ratnasooriya WD | title = Genetic profile of 11 autosomal STR loci among the four major ethnic groups in Sri Lanka | journal = Forensic Science International. Genetics | volume = 3 | issue = 3 | pages = e105-6 | date = June 2009 | pmid = 19414153 | doi = 10.1016/j.fsigen.2008.10.002 }}</ref> This is further supported by a study which found very similar frequencies of alleles ], ] & ] in Indian Tamil, Sinhalese, Sri Lankan Tamil, and Sri Lankan Moor populations.<ref name="Vajira H.W. Dissanayake 2009, Pages 159-162"/> | |||
| ==Relationship to other South Asians and West Asians== | |||
| A 1985 study conducted by Roychoudhury AK and Nei M indicating the values of genetic distance showed that the Sinhalese, along with the four ] populations from ], ], ], and ], were closer to ] and ] than the neighboring East/Southeast Asian groups represented by the ], ], ] in northern Sumatra, and the ].<ref name="Roychoudhury">{{cite journal |last1=Roychoudhury |first1=Arun K. |last2=Nei |first2=Masatoshi |title=Genetic Relationships between Indians and Their Neighboring Populations |journal=Human Heredity |date=2 September 2008 |volume=35 |issue=4 |pages=201–206 |doi=10.1159/000153545 |pmid=4029959 |url=https://karger.com/hhe/article-abstract/35/4/201/154044/Genetic-Relationships-between-Indians-and-Their?redirectedFrom=fulltext |issn=0001-5652}}</ref> | |||
| ==Relationship to East and Southeast Asians== | |||
| Genetic markers of ] among the Sinhalese show high frequencies of afb1b3 which has its origins in the ] and ] provinces of southern China.<ref name="immunoglobulinsource">{{cite journal | vauthors = Matsumoto H | title = The origin of the Japanese race based on genetic markers of immunoglobulin G | journal = Proceedings of the Japan Academy. Series B, Physical and Biological Sciences | volume = 85 | issue = 2 | pages = 69–82 | date = 2009 | pmid = 19212099 | pmc = 3524296 | doi = 10.2183/pjab.85.69 | bibcode = 2009PJAB...85...69M }}</ref> It is also found at high frequencies among Odias, certain Nepali and Northeast Indian, southern Han Chinese, Southeast Asian and certain ] populations of the ].<ref name="immunoglobulinsource"/> At a lower frequency, ab3st is also found among the Sinhalese and is generally found at higher frequencies among northern Han Chinese, Tibetan, Mongolian, Korean and Japanese populations.<ref name="immunoglobulinsource"/> The ] TF*Dchi allele which is common among East Asian and Native American populations is also found among the Sinhalese.<ref name="Roychoudhury"/> HumDN1*4 and HumDN1*5 are the predominant ] genes among the Sinhalese and are also the predominant genes among southern Chinese ethnic groups and the ] of Nepal.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Fujihara J, Yasuda T, Iida R, Ueki M, Sano R, Kominato Y, Inoue K, Kimura-Kataoka K, Takeshita H | display-authors = 6 | title = Global analysis of genetic variations in a 56-bp variable number of tandem repeat polymorphisms within the human deoxyribonuclease I gene | journal = Legal Medicine | volume = 17 | issue = 4 | pages = 283–6 | date = July 2015 | pmid = 25771153 | doi = 10.1016/j.legalmed.2015.01.005 }}</ref> A 1988 study conducted by N. Saha, showed the high GC*1F and low GC*1S frequencies among the Sinhalese are comparable to those of the Chinese, Japanese, Koreans, Thais, Malays, Vietnamese, Laotians and Tibetans.<ref>{{cite book | vauthors = Malhotra R |title=Anthropology of Development: Commemoration Volume in the Honour of Professor I.P. Singh |date=1992 |publisher=Mittal Publications |isbn=978-81-7099-328-5 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=U6WhkmvI324C }}{{page needed|date=March 2020}}</ref> ] a variant of normal hemoglobin, which originated in and is prevalent among populations in ], is also common among the Sinhalese and can reach up to 40% in Sri Lanka.<ref>{{cite book | vauthors = Kumar D |title=Genetic Disorders of the Indian Subcontinent |date=2012 |publisher=Springer Science & Business Media |isbn=978-1-4020-2231-9 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=2grSBwAAQBAJ }}{{page needed|date=March 2020}}</ref> | |||
| == Paternal Line == | |||
| === Y-DNA of Sinhalese === | |||
| Kivisild et al.(2003) found the most common ] found in the Sinhalese are ], ], ] and ] in that order.<ref name="Kivisild2003222">{{cite journal |display-authors=6 |vauthors=Kivisild T, Rootsi S, Metspalu M, Mastana S, Kaldma K, Parik J, Metspalu E, Adojaan M, Tolk HV, Stepanov V, Gölge M, Usanga E, Papiha SS, Cinnioğlu C, King R, Cavalli-Sforza L, Underhill PA, Villems R |date=February 2003 |title=The genetic heritage of the earliest settlers persists both in Indian tribal and caste populations |journal=American Journal of Human Genetics |volume=72 |issue=2 |pages=313–332 |doi=10.1086/346068 |pmc=379225 |pmid=12536373}}</ref> | |||
| {| class="wikitable sortable" | |||
| |+'''Frequencies of Y chromosome DNA haplogroups in the Sinhalese''' | |||
| !'''Population''' | |||
| !'''n''' | |||
| !''']''' | |||
| !''']''' | |||
| !''']''' | |||
| !''']''' | |||
| !''']''' | |||
| !''']''' | |||
| !''']''' | |||
| !''']''' | |||
| !''']''' | |||
| !''']''' | |||
| !''']''' | |||
| !''']''' | |||
| !''']''' | |||
| !''']''' | |||
| !''']''' | |||
| !''']''' | |||
| !''']''' | |||
| !''']''' | |||
| !''']''' | |||
| !'''Others''' | |||
| !'''Reference''' | |||
| |- | |- | ||
| !Sinhalese | |||
| ! Parental population | |||
| |39 | |||
| ! Tamil | |||
| |{{gold (color)|0}} | |||
| ! Bengali | |||
| |{{maroon|0}} | |||
| ! Vedda | |||
| |{{magenta|10.3%}} | |||
| |{{turquoise|0}} | |||
| |{{orange|10.3%}} | |||
| |{{olive|0}} | |||
| |{{green|10.3%}} | |||
| |{{teal|0}} | |||
| |{{red|18%}} | |||
| |{{lime|0}} | |||
| |{{silver (color)|0}} | |||
| |{{aqua|0}} | |||
| |{{cyan|0}} | |||
| |{{grey|0}} | |||
| |{{blue|0}} | |||
| |{{pink|12.8%}} | |||
| |{{purple|0}} | |||
| |{{brown|38.5%}} | |||
| |{{yellow|0}} | |||
| | | |||
| |Kivisild2003<ref name="Kivisild2003222">{{cite journal |display-authors=6 |vauthors=Kivisild T, Rootsi S, Metspalu M, Mastana S, Kaldma K, Parik J, Metspalu E, Adojaan M, Tolk HV, Stepanov V, Gölge M, Usanga E, Papiha SS, Cinnioğlu C, King R, Cavalli-Sforza L, Underhill PA, Villems R |date=February 2003 |title=The genetic heritage of the earliest settlers persists both in Indian tribal and caste populations |journal=American Journal of Human Genetics |volume=72 |issue=2 |pages=313–332 |doi=10.1086/346068 |pmc=379225 |pmid=12536373}}</ref> | |||
| |- | |- | ||
| | Using Tamil, Bengali and Vedda as parental population | |||
| | 69.86% | |||
| | 25.41% | |||
| | 4.73% | |||
| |} | |} | ||
| == Maternal Line == | |||
| Dr. Sarabjit Mastanain finding states ] was 0.8956 and it indicates Sinhalese & Tamil as native population. Also, it reflects on ] among five populations of Sri Lanka as per given below ] of the ].<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Mastana |first=Sarabjit |date=November 1996 |title=Genetic variation in Sri Lanka |url=https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Sarabjit-Mastana/publication/14297881_Genetic_variation_in_Sri_Lanka/links/562e329708ae04c2aeb5b827/Genetic-variation-in-Sri-Lanka.pdf |journal=Scientific Reports |pages=26–27}}</ref> | |||
| {{clade | |||
| |label1=''Genetic distance'' | |||
| |sublabel1=(''5 populations of Sri Lanka'') | |||
| |1={{clade | |||
| |1={{clade | |||
| |1=Burgher | |||
| }} | |||
| |2={{clade | |||
| |1=Malay | |||
| |2={{clade | |||
| |1=Moor | |||
| |2={{clade | |||
| |1=Tamil | |||
| |2=Sinhalese | |||
| }} | |||
| }} | |||
| }} | |||
| }} | |||
| }} | |||
| === MtDNA of Sinhalese === | |||
| ==Relationship to other ethnic groups in Sri Lanka== | |||
| A study looking at genetic variation of the ] gene in the Sinhalese and Sri Lankan Tamil population, found similar genetic backgrounds for both ethnic groups, with little genetic flow from other neighbouring Asian population groups.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Soejima M, Koda Y | title = Denaturing high-performance liquid chromatography-based genotyping and genetic variation of FUT2 in Sri Lanka | journal = Transfusion | volume = 45 | issue = 12 | pages = 1934–9 | date = December 2005 | pmid = 16371047 | doi = 10.1111/j.1537-2995.2005.00651.x | s2cid = 10401001 }}</ref> Studies have also found no significant difference with regards to ], blood genetic markers and ] between the Sinhalese and other ethnic groups in Sri Lanka.<ref name="saha">{{cite journal | vauthors = Saha N | title = Blood genetic markers in Sri Lankan populations--reappraisal of the legend of Prince Vijaya | journal = American Journal of Physical Anthropology | volume = 76 | issue = 2 | pages = 217–25 | date = June 1988 | pmid = 3166342 | doi = 10.1002/ajpa.1330760210 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Roberts DF, Creen CK, Abeyaratne KP |title=Blood Groups of the Sinhalese |journal=Man |date=1972 |volume=7 |issue=1 |pages=122–127 |doi=10.2307/2799860 |jstor=2799860 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Dissanayake VH, Giles V, Jayasekara RW, Seneviratne HR, Kalsheker N, Broughton Pipkin F, Morgan L | title = A study of three candidate genes for pre-eclampsia in a Sinhalese population from Sri Lanka | journal = The Journal of Obstetrics and Gynaecology Research | volume = 35 | issue = 2 | pages = 234–42 | date = April 2009 | pmid = 19708171 | doi = 10.1111/j.1447-0756.2008.00926.x | s2cid = 24958292 }}</ref> Another study has also found "no significant genetic variation among the major ethnic groups in Sri Lanka".<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Illeperuma RJ, Mohotti SN, De Silva TM, Fernandopulle ND, Ratnasooriya WD | title = Genetic profile of 11 autosomal STR loci among the four major ethnic groups in Sri Lanka | journal = Forensic Science International. Genetics | volume = 3 | issue = 3 | pages = e105-6 | date = June 2009 | pmid = 19414153 | doi = 10.1016/j.fsigen.2008.10.002 }}</ref> This is further supported by a study which found very similar frequencies of alleles ], ] & ] in Indian Tamil, Sinhalese, Sri Lankan Tamil, and Sri Lankan Moor populations.<ref name="Vajira H.W. Dissanayake 2009, Pages 159-162"/> | |||
| Ranweera et al. (2014) found the most common mtDNA haplogroup in the Sinhalese to be, ] and ] (U7a) , ] (r30) and ] (G3a1′2).<ref name="Ranaweera201422">{{cite journal |last1=Ranaweera |first1=Lanka |last2=Kaewsutthi |first2=Supannee |last3=Win Tun |first3=Aung |last4=Boonyarit |first4=Hathaichanoke |last5=Poolsuwan |first5=Samerchai |last6=Lertrit |first6=Patcharee |date=January 2014 |title=Mitochondrial DNA history of Sri Lankan ethnic people: their relations within the island and with the Indian subcontinental populations |journal=Journal of Human Genetics |volume=59 |issue=1 |pages=28–36 |doi=10.1038/jhg.2013.112 |pmid=24196378 |doi-access=free}}</ref><ref name="Ranasinghe201522">{{cite journal |last1=Ranasinghe |first1=Ruwandi |last2=Tennekoon |first2=Kamani H. |last3=Karunanayake |first3=Eric H. |last4=Lembring |first4=Maria |last5=Allen |first5=Marie |date=November 2015 |title=A study of genetic polymorphisms in mitochondrial DNA hypervariable regions I and II of the five major ethnic groups and Vedda population in Sri Lanka |journal=Legal Medicine |volume=17 |issue=6 |pages=539–546 |doi=10.1016/j.legalmed.2015.05.007 |pmid=26065620}}</ref> | |||
| A genetic study carried out in 2015 by Lian dang et. on origin of ] and other populations of Sri Lanka involving 200 ], 103 ] of Sri Lankan origin, 200 ] of Indian origin and 35 ] calculated the averaged genetic makeup across individuals of each population,<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Deng L, Hoh BP, Lu D, Saw WY, Twee-Hee Ong R, Kasturiratne A, Janaka de Silva H, Zilfalil BA, Kato N, Wickremasinghe AR, Teo YY, Xu S | display-authors = 6 | title = Dissecting the genetic structure and admixture of four geographical Malay populations | journal = Scientific Reports | volume = 5 | issue = 1 | pages = 14375 | date = September 2015 | pmid = 26395220 | pmc = 4585825 | doi = 10.1038/srep14375 | bibcode = 2015NatSR...514375D }}</ref> which show substantially higher amount of Central Asian ancestry and low South Asian ancestry among Sinhalese compared to both Tamil groups. | |||
| Haplogroup M represents the dispersal of modern humans around 60.000 years ago along the southern Asian coastline following a southern coastal route across Arabia and India to reach Australia short after.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Marrero |first1=P. |last2=Abu-Amero |first2=K. K. |last3=Larruga |first3=J. M. |last4=Cabrera |first4=V. M. |year=2016 |title=Carriers of human mitochondrial DNA macrohaplogroup M colonized India from southeastern Asia |journal=BMC Evolutionary Biology |volume=16 |issue=1 |page=246 |doi=10.1186/s12862-016-0816-8 |pmc=5105315 |pmid=27832758 |doi-access=free|bibcode=2016BMCEE..16..246M }}</ref> | |||
| ==Relationship to East and Southeast Asians== | |||
| Genetic studies show that the Sinhalese have received some genetic flow from neighboring populations in ] and ], such as from the ethnically diverse and disparate ] and ],<ref name="dentalsource">{{cite book | vauthors = Petraglia MD, Allchin B |title=The Evolution and History of Human Populations in South Asia: Inter-disciplinary Studies in Archaeology, Biological Anthropology, Linguistics and Genetics |date=2007 |publisher=Springer Science & Business Media |isbn=978-1-4020-5562-1 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Qm9GfjNlnRwC }}{{page needed|date=March 2020}}</ref> which is due to their close genetic links to Northeast India.<ref name="pmid16847698">{{cite journal |vauthors=Soejima M, Koda Y |date=January 2007 |title=Population differences of two coding SNPs in pigmentation-related genes SLC24A5 and SLC45A2 |journal=International Journal of Legal Medicine |volume=121 |issue=1 |pages=36–9 |doi=10.1007/s00414-006-0112-z |pmid=16847698 |s2cid=11192076}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Kivisild T, Rootsi S, Metspalu M, Mastana S, Kaldma K, Parik J, Metspalu E, Adojaan M, Tolk HV, Stepanov V, Gölge M, Usanga E, Papiha SS, Cinnioğlu C, King R, Cavalli-Sforza L, Underhill PA, Villems R | display-authors = 6 | title = The genetic heritage of the earliest settlers persists both in Indian tribal and caste populations | journal = American Journal of Human Genetics | volume = 72 | issue = 2 | pages = 313–32 | date = February 2003 | pmid = 12536373 | pmc = 379225 | doi = 10.1086/346068 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Sengupta S, Zhivotovsky LA, King R, Mehdi SQ, Edmonds CA, Chow CE, Lin AA, Mitra M, Sil SK, Ramesh A, Usha Rani MV, Thakur CM, Cavalli-Sforza LL, Majumder PP, Underhill PA | display-authors = 6 | title = Polarity and temporality of high-resolution y-chromosome distributions in India identify both indigenous and exogenous expansions and reveal minor genetic influence of Central Asian pastoralists | journal = American Journal of Human Genetics | volume = 78 | issue = 2 | pages = 202–21 | date = February 2006 | pmid = 16400607 | pmc = 1380230 | doi = 10.1086/499411 }}</ref> A 1985 study conducted by Roychoudhury AK and Nei M, indicated the values of genetic distance showed that the Sinhalese people were slightly closer to ] populations due to gene exchange in the past.<ref name="Roychoudhury">{{cite journal | vauthors = Roychoudhury AK, Nei M | title = Genetic relationships between Indians and their neighboring populations | journal = Human Heredity | volume = 35 | issue = 4 | pages = 201–6 | date = 1985 | pmid = 4029959 | doi = 10.1159/000153545 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Bhasin MK |title=Morphology to Molecular Anthropology: Castes and Tribes of India |journal=International Journal of Human Genetics |date=4 September 2017 |volume=9 |issue=3–4 |pages=145–230 |doi=10.1080/09723757.2009.11886070 |s2cid=53353581 }}</ref> In regards to comparisons of root and canal morphology of Sri Lankan mandibular molars, it showed that they were further away from Mongoloid populations.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Peiris R, Takahashi M, Sasaki K, Kanazawa E | title = Root and canal morphology of permanent mandibular molars in a Sri Lankan population | journal = Odontology | volume = 95 | issue = 1 | pages = 16–23 | date = July 2007 | pmid = 17660977 | doi = 10.1007/s10266-007-0074-8 | s2cid = 8504778 }}</ref> Among haplogroups found in ] populations, a lower frequency of East Asian ], ] has been found among the populations of Sri Lanka alongside ] in conjunction with the main mtDNA haplogroup of Sri Lanka's ethnic groups, ].<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Ranaweera L, Kaewsutthi S, Win Tun A, Boonyarit H, Poolsuwan S, Lertrit P | title = Mitochondrial DNA history of Sri Lankan ethnic people: their relations within the island and with the Indian subcontinental populations | journal = Journal of Human Genetics | volume = 59 | issue = 1 | pages = 28–36 | date = January 2014 | pmid = 24196378 | doi = 10.1038/jhg.2013.112 | doi-access = free }}</ref> In regards to ], ] is found at low to moderate frequencies in Sri Lanka.<ref>{{cite web|title=Y-DNA Haplogroup C and its Subclades - 2017|url=http://isogg.org/tree/ISOGG_HapgrpC.html|access-date=31 May 2017|publisher=International Society of Genetic Genealogy}}</ref> | |||
| Haplogroup U7 is considered a West Eurasian–specific mtDNA haplogroup, believed to have originated in the ] area approximately 30,000 years ago. In South Asia, U7 occurs in about 12% in Gujarat, while for the whole of India its frequency stays around 2%, and 5% in ]. In the ] of Sri Lanka it reaches its highest frequency of 13.33% (subclade U7a). It is speculated that large-scale immigration carried these mitochondrial haplogroups into India.<ref name="metspalu22">{{cite journal |display-authors=6 |vauthors=Metspalu M, Kivisild T, Metspalu E, Parik J, Hudjashov G, Kaldma K, Serk P, Karmin M, Behar DM, Gilbert MT, Endicott P, Mastana S, Papiha SS, Skorecki K, Torroni A, Villems R |date=August 2004 |title=Most of the extant mtDNA boundaries in south and southwest Asia were likely shaped during the initial settlement of Eurasia by anatomically modern humans |journal=BMC Genetics |volume=5 |pages=26 |doi=10.1186/1471-2156-5-26 |pmc=516768 |pmid=15339343 |doi-access=free}}</ref> | |||
| Genetic markers of ] among the Sinhalese show high frequencies of afb1b3 which has its origins in the ] and ] provinces of southern China.<ref name="immunoglobulinsource">{{cite journal | vauthors = Matsumoto H | title = The origin of the Japanese race based on genetic markers of immunoglobulin G | journal = Proceedings of the Japan Academy. Series B, Physical and Biological Sciences | volume = 85 | issue = 2 | pages = 69–82 | date = 2009 | pmid = 19212099 | pmc = 3524296 | doi = 10.2183/pjab.85.69 | bibcode = 2009PJAB...85...69M }}</ref> It is also found at high frequencies among Odias, certain Nepali and Northeast Indian, southern Han Chinese, Southeast Asian and certain ] populations of the ].<ref name="immunoglobulinsource"/> At a lower frequency, ab3st is also found among the Sinhalese and is generally found at higher frequencies among northern Han Chinese, Tibetan, Mongolian, Korean and Japanese populations.<ref name="immunoglobulinsource"/> The ] TF*Dchi allele which is common among East Asian and Native American populations is also found among the Sinhalese.<ref name="Roychoudhury"/> HumDN1*4 and HumDN1*5 are the predominant ] genes among the Sinhalese and are also the predominant genes among southern Chinese ethnic groups and the ] of Nepal.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Fujihara J, Yasuda T, Iida R, Ueki M, Sano R, Kominato Y, Inoue K, Kimura-Kataoka K, Takeshita H | display-authors = 6 | title = Global analysis of genetic variations in a 56-bp variable number of tandem repeat polymorphisms within the human deoxyribonuclease I gene | journal = Legal Medicine | volume = 17 | issue = 4 | pages = 283–6 | date = July 2015 | pmid = 25771153 | doi = 10.1016/j.legalmed.2015.01.005 }}</ref> A 1988 study conducted by N. Saha, showed the high GC*1F and low GC*1S frequencies among the Sinhalese are comparable to those of the Chinese, Japanese, Koreans, Thais, Malays, Vietnamese, Laotians and Tibetans.<ref>{{cite book | vauthors = Malhotra R |title=Anthropology of Development: Commemoration Volume in the Honour of Professor I.P. Singh |date=1992 |publisher=Mittal Publications |isbn=978-81-7099-328-5 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=U6WhkmvI324C }}{{page needed|date=March 2020}}</ref> A 1998 study conducted by D.E. Hawkey showed dental morphology of the Sinhalese is closely related to those of the Austro-Asiatic populations of East and Northeast India.<ref name="dentalsource"/> ] a variant of normal hemoglobin, which originated in and is prevalent among populations in ], is also common among the Sinhalese and can reach up to 40% in Sri Lanka.<ref>{{cite book | vauthors = Kumar D |title=Genetic Disorders of the Indian Subcontinent |date=2012 |publisher=Springer Science & Business Media |isbn=978-1-4020-2231-9 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=2grSBwAAQBAJ }}{{page needed|date=March 2020}}</ref> | |||
| Chaubey states that "considerable number of maternal lineages of Sri Lanka is shared with India, more precisely with ]."<ref>Chaubey, G. Language isolates and their genetic identity: a commentary on mitochondrial DNA history of Sri Lankan ethnic people: their relations within the island and with the Indian subcontinental populations. J Hum Genet 59, 61–63 (2014). https://doi.org/10.1038/jhg.2013.122</ref> | |||
| == Relationship to other populations in regards to X-STR loci == | |||
| A 2021 study focusing on 16 studied X-STR loci, compared four Sri Lankan ethnicities (Sinhalese, Sri Lankan Tamils, Indian Tamils, Moors) with 14 other world populations (Bhil India, Bangladesh, Malaysia, Thailand, China, Japan, Taiwan, Germany, Italy, Sweden, Denmark, North Portugal, Somalia, and Ivory Coast) with eight X chromosome based STR markers using a multidimensional scaling plot (MDS plot), it revealed that Sri Lankans were clustered together not only with South Asians like Indians and Bangladeshis, but also with Europeans. However, allelic distribution of many X-STR loci in Sri Lankan ethnic groups differ from European, Southeast Asian, East Asian and African populations and are most similar to the two Indian populations and Bangladeshi population included in the study.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Perera |first=Nandika |last2=Galhena |first2=Gayani |last3=Ranawaka |first3=Gaya |date=2021-06-17 |title=X-chromosomal STR based genetic polymorphisms and demographic history of Sri Lankan ethnicities and their relationship with global populations |url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC8211843/ |journal=Scientific Reports |volume=11 |pages=12748 |doi=10.1038/s41598-021-92314-9 |issn=2045-2322 |pmc=8211843 |pmid=34140598}}</ref> | |||
| == References == | == References == | ||
Latest revision as of 17:43, 6 January 2025
Origins of the sinhalese
Genetic studies on the Sinhalese is part of population genetics investigating the origins of the Sinhalese population.
All studies agree that there is a significant relationship between the Sinhalese and the Bengalis and South Indian Tamils, and that there is a significant genetic relationship between Sri Lankan Tamils and Sinhalese. This is also supported by a genetic distance study, which showed low differences in genetic distance between the Sinhalese and the Bengali, Tamil, and Keralite volunteers.
Relationship to Bengalis
An Alu polymorphism analysis by Mastana S (2007) using Sinhalese, Tamil, Bengali, Gujarati (Patel), and Punjabi as parental populations found the following proportions of genetic contribution. The Sinhalese sample size used was 121 individuals.:
| Statistical Method | Bengali | Tamil | North Western |
|---|---|---|---|
| Point Estimate | 57.49% | 42.5% | - |
| Maximum Likelihood Method | 88.07% | - | - |
| Using Tamil, Bengali and North West as parental population | 50-66% | 11-30% | 20-23% |
| Parental population | Bengali | Tamil | Gujarati | Punjabi |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Using Tamil and Bengali as parental population | 70.03% | 29.97% | - | |
| Using Tamil, Bengali and Gujarati as parental population | 71.82% | 16.38% | 11.82% | |
| Using Bengali, Gujarati and Punjabi as parental population | 82.09% | - | 15.39% | 2.52% |
Analysis of X chromosome STRs by Perera et al. (2021) found the Sinhalese (as well as Sri Lankan Tamils and Sri Lankan Muslims) to be more closely related to Bengalis, than to the Indian Tamils of Sri Lanka.
Genetic distance analysis by Kirk (1976) found the Sinhalese to be closer to the Bengal than they are to populations in Gujarat or the Panjab.
D1S80 allele frequency (a popular allele for genetic fingerprinting) is also similar between the Sinhalese and Bengalis, suggesting the two groups are closely related.
The Sinhalese also have similar frequencies of the allele MTHFR 677T (13%) to West Bengalis (17%).
Relationship to Indian Tamils
A genetic admixture study by Kshatriya (1995) found the Sinhalese to have a higher contribution from Indian Tamils (69.86% +/- 0.61), compared with the Bengalis (25.41% +/- 0.51).
Genetic distance analysis by Roychoudhury AK et al. (1985) suggested the Sinhalese are more closely related to South and West Indian populations, than the Bengalis.
Genetic distance analysis by Kirk (1976) suggested the Sinhalese are closer to the Tamils and Keralites of South India, than they are to the populations in Gujarat or the Panjab.
A 2023 study by Singh et al using higher resolution markers than previous studies found that there was higher gene flow from South India to the Sinhalese than from North India, with the Sinhalese sharing the highest Identity by descent with Tamils specially Piramalai Kallars, compared to the other Indian populations studied. The study also found heightened sharing with the Maratha of India , consistent with a West Eurasian contribution .This excess sharing of segments suggests common roots of Sinhala with the Marāṭhā corroborating the linguistic hypothesis of Lazarus Geiger, Ralph Lilley Turner, and George van Driem. The total Sinhalese sample size used was 9 individuals.
Relationship to North West Indians
An Alu polymorphism analysis by Mastana S (2007) found a North West Indian contribution (20-23%).
Analysis of X chromosome STRs by Perera et al., (2011) showed that the Sinhalese, Sri Lankan Tamil, Moor and Indian Tamils of Sri Lanka, share affinities with the Bhil (an Indigenous group) of North West India.
Relationship to other major ethnic groups in Sri Lanka
A study looking at genetic variation of the FUT2 gene in the Sinhalese and Sri Lankan Tamil population, found similar genetic backgrounds for both ethnic groups, with little genetic flow from other neighbouring Asian population groups. Studies have also found no significant difference with regards to blood group, blood genetic markers (Saha, 1988) and single-nucleotide polymorphism between the Sinhalese and other ethnic groups in Sri Lanka. Another study has also found "no significant genetic variation among the major ethnic groups in Sri Lanka". This is further supported by a study which found very similar frequencies of alleles MTHFR 677T, F2 20210A & F5 1691A in Indian Tamil, Sinhalese, Sri Lankan Tamil, and Sri Lankan Moor populations.
Relationship to other South Asians and West Asians
A 1985 study conducted by Roychoudhury AK and Nei M indicating the values of genetic distance showed that the Sinhalese, along with the four Indian subcontinent populations from Punjab, Gujarat, Andhra Pradesh, and Bangladesh, were closer to Afghans and Iranians than the neighboring East/Southeast Asian groups represented by the Bhutanese, Malays, Bataks in northern Sumatra, and the Chinese.
Relationship to East and Southeast Asians
Genetic markers of immunoglobulin among the Sinhalese show high frequencies of afb1b3 which has its origins in the Yunnan and Guangxi provinces of southern China. It is also found at high frequencies among Odias, certain Nepali and Northeast Indian, southern Han Chinese, Southeast Asian and certain Austronesian populations of the Pacific Islands. At a lower frequency, ab3st is also found among the Sinhalese and is generally found at higher frequencies among northern Han Chinese, Tibetan, Mongolian, Korean and Japanese populations. The Transferrin TF*Dchi allele which is common among East Asian and Native American populations is also found among the Sinhalese. HumDN1*4 and HumDN1*5 are the predominant DNase I genes among the Sinhalese and are also the predominant genes among southern Chinese ethnic groups and the Tamang people of Nepal. A 1988 study conducted by N. Saha, showed the high GC*1F and low GC*1S frequencies among the Sinhalese are comparable to those of the Chinese, Japanese, Koreans, Thais, Malays, Vietnamese, Laotians and Tibetans. Hemoglobin E a variant of normal hemoglobin, which originated in and is prevalent among populations in Southeast Asia, is also common among the Sinhalese and can reach up to 40% in Sri Lanka.
Paternal Line
Y-DNA of Sinhalese
Kivisild et al.(2003) found the most common Y-chromosome DNA haplogroups found in the Sinhalese are Haplogroup R2, Haplogroup L, Haplogroup R1a and F in that order.
| Population | n | C | E | F | G | H | I | J | K | L | N | O | P | Q | R | R1 | R1a | R1b | R2 | T | Others | Reference |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Sinhalese | 39 | 0 | 0 | 10.3% | 0 | 10.3% | 0 | 10.3% | 0 | 18% | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 12.8% | 0 | 38.5% | 0 | Kivisild2003 |
Maternal Line
MtDNA of Sinhalese
Ranweera et al. (2014) found the most common mtDNA haplogroup in the Sinhalese to be, Haplogroup M and Haplogroup U (U7a) , Haplogroup R (r30) and Haplogroup G (G3a1′2).
Haplogroup M represents the dispersal of modern humans around 60.000 years ago along the southern Asian coastline following a southern coastal route across Arabia and India to reach Australia short after.
Haplogroup U7 is considered a West Eurasian–specific mtDNA haplogroup, believed to have originated in the Black Sea area approximately 30,000 years ago. In South Asia, U7 occurs in about 12% in Gujarat, while for the whole of India its frequency stays around 2%, and 5% in Pakistan. In the Vedda people of Sri Lanka it reaches its highest frequency of 13.33% (subclade U7a). It is speculated that large-scale immigration carried these mitochondrial haplogroups into India.
Chaubey states that "considerable number of maternal lineages of Sri Lanka is shared with India, more precisely with southern part of India."
References
- Kirk, R. L. (July 1976). "The legend of Prince Vijaya — a study of Sinhalese origins". American Journal of Physical Anthropology. 45 (1): 91–99. doi:10.1002/ajpa.1330450112.
- Mastana S (2007). "Molecular anthropology: population and forensic genetic applications" (PDF). Anthropologist Special. 3: 373–383.
- Perera, N., Galhena, G. and Ranawaka, G., 2021. X-chromosomal STR based genetic polymorphisms and demographic history of Sri Lankan ethnicities and their relationship with global populations. Scientific reports, 11(1), pp.1-12.
- ^ Kirk RL (July 1976). "The legend of Prince Vijaya – a study of Sinhalese origins". American Journal of Physical Anthropology. 45 (1): 91–99. doi:10.1002/ajpa.1330450112.
- Surinder Singh Papiha (1999). Genomic Diversity: Applications in Human Population Genetics. London: Springer. 7.
- Mukhopadhyay K, Dutta S, Das Bhomik A (January 2007). "MTHFR gene polymorphisms analyzed in population from Kolkata, West Bengal". Indian Journal of Human Genetics. 13 (1): 38. doi:10.4103/0971-6866.32035. PMC 3168154. PMID 21957342.
- ^ Dissanayake VH, Weerasekera LY, Gammulla CG, Jayasekara RW (October 2009). "Prevalence of genetic thrombophilic polymorphisms in the Sri Lankan population--implications for association study design and clinical genetic testing services". Experimental and Molecular Pathology. 87 (2): 159–62. doi:10.1016/j.yexmp.2009.07.002. PMID 19591822.
- Kshatriya GK (December 1995). "Genetic affinities of Sri Lankan populations". Human Biology. 67 (6). American Association of Anthropological Genetics: 843–66. PMID 8543296.
- ^ Roychoudhury, Arun K.; Nei, Masatoshi (2 September 2008). "Genetic Relationships between Indians and Their Neighboring Populations". Human Heredity. 35 (4): 201–206. doi:10.1159/000153545. ISSN 0001-5652. PMID 4029959.
- Prajjval Pratap Singh, Sachin Kumar, Nagarjuna Pasupuleti, Niraj Rai, Gyaneshwer Chaubey, R. Ranasinghe, "Reconstructing the population history of Sinhalese, the major ethnic group in Śrī Laṅkā," iScience, August 31, 2023, DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.isci.2023.107797.
- Mastana S (2007). "Molecular anthropology: population and forensic genetic applications" (PDF). Anthropologist Special. 3: 373–383.
- Perera, N., Galhena, G. and Ranawaka, G., 2021. X-chromosomal STR based genetic polymorphisms and demographic history of Sri Lankan ethnicities and their relationship with global populations. Scientific reports, 11(1), pp.1-12.
- Soejima M, Koda Y (December 2005). "Denaturing high-performance liquid chromatography-based genotyping and genetic variation of FUT2 in Sri Lanka". Transfusion. 45 (12): 1934–9. doi:10.1111/j.1537-2995.2005.00651.x. PMID 16371047. S2CID 10401001.
- Saha N (1988). "Blood genetic markers in Sri Lankan populations--reappraisal of the legend of Prince Vijaya". American Journal of Physical Anthropology. 76 (2): 217–25. doi:10.1002/ajpa.1330760210. PMID 3166342.
- Roberts DF, Creen CK, Abeyaratne KP (1972). "Blood Groups of the Sinhalese". Man. 7 (1): 122–127. doi:10.2307/2799860. JSTOR 2799860.
- Dissanayake VH, Giles V, Jayasekara RW, Seneviratne HR, Kalsheker N, Broughton Pipkin F, Morgan L (April 2009). "A study of three candidate genes for pre-eclampsia in a Sinhalese population from Sri Lanka". The Journal of Obstetrics and Gynaecology Research. 35 (2): 234–42. doi:10.1111/j.1447-0756.2008.00926.x. PMID 19708171. S2CID 24958292.
- Illeperuma RJ, Mohotti SN, De Silva TM, Fernandopulle ND, Ratnasooriya WD (June 2009). "Genetic profile of 11 autosomal STR loci among the four major ethnic groups in Sri Lanka". Forensic Science International. Genetics. 3 (3): e105-6. doi:10.1016/j.fsigen.2008.10.002. PMID 19414153.
- ^ Matsumoto H (2009). "The origin of the Japanese race based on genetic markers of immunoglobulin G". Proceedings of the Japan Academy. Series B, Physical and Biological Sciences. 85 (2): 69–82. Bibcode:2009PJAB...85...69M. doi:10.2183/pjab.85.69. PMC 3524296. PMID 19212099.
- Fujihara J, Yasuda T, Iida R, Ueki M, Sano R, Kominato Y, et al. (July 2015). "Global analysis of genetic variations in a 56-bp variable number of tandem repeat polymorphisms within the human deoxyribonuclease I gene". Legal Medicine. 17 (4): 283–6. doi:10.1016/j.legalmed.2015.01.005. PMID 25771153.
- Malhotra R (1992). Anthropology of Development: Commemoration Volume in the Honour of Professor I.P. Singh. Mittal Publications. ISBN 978-81-7099-328-5.
- Kumar D (2012). Genetic Disorders of the Indian Subcontinent. Springer Science & Business Media. ISBN 978-1-4020-2231-9.
- ^ Kivisild T, Rootsi S, Metspalu M, Mastana S, Kaldma K, Parik J, et al. (February 2003). "The genetic heritage of the earliest settlers persists both in Indian tribal and caste populations". American Journal of Human Genetics. 72 (2): 313–332. doi:10.1086/346068. PMC 379225. PMID 12536373.
- Ranaweera, Lanka; Kaewsutthi, Supannee; Win Tun, Aung; Boonyarit, Hathaichanoke; Poolsuwan, Samerchai; Lertrit, Patcharee (January 2014). "Mitochondrial DNA history of Sri Lankan ethnic people: their relations within the island and with the Indian subcontinental populations". Journal of Human Genetics. 59 (1): 28–36. doi:10.1038/jhg.2013.112. PMID 24196378.
- Ranasinghe, Ruwandi; Tennekoon, Kamani H.; Karunanayake, Eric H.; Lembring, Maria; Allen, Marie (November 2015). "A study of genetic polymorphisms in mitochondrial DNA hypervariable regions I and II of the five major ethnic groups and Vedda population in Sri Lanka". Legal Medicine. 17 (6): 539–546. doi:10.1016/j.legalmed.2015.05.007. PMID 26065620.
- Marrero, P.; Abu-Amero, K. K.; Larruga, J. M.; Cabrera, V. M. (2016). "Carriers of human mitochondrial DNA macrohaplogroup M colonized India from southeastern Asia". BMC Evolutionary Biology. 16 (1): 246. Bibcode:2016BMCEE..16..246M. doi:10.1186/s12862-016-0816-8. PMC 5105315. PMID 27832758.
- Metspalu M, Kivisild T, Metspalu E, Parik J, Hudjashov G, Kaldma K, et al. (August 2004). "Most of the extant mtDNA boundaries in south and southwest Asia were likely shaped during the initial settlement of Eurasia by anatomically modern humans". BMC Genetics. 5: 26. doi:10.1186/1471-2156-5-26. PMC 516768. PMID 15339343.
- Chaubey, G. Language isolates and their genetic identity: a commentary on mitochondrial DNA history of Sri Lankan ethnic people: their relations within the island and with the Indian subcontinental populations. J Hum Genet 59, 61–63 (2014). https://doi.org/10.1038/jhg.2013.122
| Human genetics | |
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| Sub-topics | |
| Genetic history by region | |
| Population genetics by group |
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