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{{Short description|Group of languages sharing areal features}} {{Short description|Group of languages sharing areal features}}
{{Distinguish|text=the sociolinguistic term ], or with ], an area defined by a language}} {{Distinguish|text=the sociolinguistic term ], or with ], an area defined by a language}}
A '''sprachbund''' ({{IPAc-en|ˈ|s|p|r|ɑː|k|b|ʊ|n|d}} {{IPA-de|ˈʃpʁaːxbʊnt|lang}}, lit. "language federation"), also known as a '''linguistic area''', '''area of linguistic convergence''', or '''diffusion area''', is a group of ]s that share ]s resulting from geographical proximity and ]. The languages may be ], or only distantly related, but the sprachbund characteristics might give a false appearance of relatedness. A '''sprachbund''' ({{IPAc-en|ˈ|s|p|r|ɑː|k|b|ʊ|n|d}}, from {{langx|de|Sprachbund}} {{IPA|de|ˈʃpʁaːxbʊnt||De-Sprachbund.ogg}}, {{lit}} 'language federation'), also known as a '''linguistic area''', '''area of linguistic convergence''', or '''diffusion area''', is a group of ]s that share ]s resulting from geographical proximity and ]. The languages may be ], or only distantly related, but the sprachbund characteristics might give a false appearance of relatedness.


A grouping of languages that share features can only be defined as a sprachbund if the features are shared for some reason other than the genetic history of the languages. Because of this, attempts to classify some language families without knowledge about the history of the languages can lead to misclassification as sprachbunds and similarly some sprachbunds are incorrectly classified as language families.<ref>{{Cite book|last1=Mallinson|first1=Graham|title=Language Typology – Cross-linguistic Studies in Syntax|last2=Blake|first2=Barry J.|publisher=North-Holland|year=1981|isbn=0-444-863117|pages=17–18}}</ref> A grouping of languages that share features can only be defined as a sprachbund if the features are shared for some reason other than the genetic history of the languages. Without knowledge of the history of a regional group of similar languages, it may be difficult to determine whether sharing indicates a language family or a sprachbund.<ref>{{Cite book|last1=Mallinson|first1=Graham|title=Language Typology – Cross-linguistic Studies in Syntax|last2=Blake|first2=Barry J.|publisher=North-Holland|year=1981|isbn=0-444-863117|pages=17–18}}</ref>


==History== ==History==
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| url-status = dead | url-status = dead
}}</ref> }}</ref>

A rigorous set of principles for what evidence is valid for establishing a linguistic area has been presented by Campbell, Kaufman, and Smith-Stark.<ref>Campbell, Lyle, Terrence Kaufman, and Thomas C. Smith-Stark. "Meso-America as a linguistic area." ''Language'' (1986): 530-570.</ref>


==Examples== ==Examples==
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===The Balkans=== ===The Balkans===
{{Main|Balkan Sprachbund}} {{Main|Balkan Sprachbund}}
The idea of areal convergence is commonly attributed to ]'s description in 1830 of ], ] and ] as giving the impression of "''nur eine Sprachform ... mit dreierlei Sprachmaterie''",<ref>Jernej K. Kopitar, “Albanische, walachische und bulgarische Sprache”, ''Wiener Jahrbücher der Literatur'' 46 (1830): 59–106.</ref> which has been rendered by ] as "one grammar with {{sic|the}} three lexicons".<ref>{{citation The idea of areal convergence is commonly attributed to ]'s description in 1830 of ], ] and ] as giving the impression of {{lang|la|"nur eine Sprachform ... mit dreierlei Sprachmaterie"}} ({{literal translation|only one language form with three kinds of language material}}),<ref>Jernej K. Kopitar, "Albanische, walachische und bulgarische Sprache", ''Wiener Jahrbücher der Literatur'' 46 (1830): 59–106.</ref> which has been rendered by ] as "one grammar with {{sic|the}} three lexicons".<ref>{{cite book
| contribution = One Grammar, Three Lexicons: Ideological Overtones and Underpinnings in the Balkan Sprachbund | contribution = One Grammar, Three Lexicons: Ideological Overtones and Underpinnings in the Balkan Sprachbund
| first = Victor A. | last = Friedman | first = Victor A. | last = Friedman
| title = Papers from the 33rd Regional Meeting of the Chicago Linguistic Society | title = Papers from the 33rd Regional Meeting of the Chicago Linguistic Society
| publisher = Chicago Linguistic Society | year = 1997 | publisher = Chicago Linguistic Society | year = 1997
| url = http://humstatic.uchicago.edu/slavic/archived/papers/Friedman-LgIdeologyCLS33.pdf | url = http://humstatic.uchicago.edu/slavic/archived/papers/Friedman-LgIdeologyCLS33.pdf}}</ref><ref name="Friedman (2000)">{{cite journal
| postscript = .}}</ref><ref name="Friedman (2000)">{{citation
| title = After 170 years of Balkan Linguistics: Whither the Millennium? | title = After 170 years of Balkan Linguistics: Whither the Millennium?
| first = Victor A. | last = Friedman | first = Victor A. | last = Friedman
| journal = Mediterranean Language Review | volume = 12 | year = 2000 | pages = 1–15 | journal = Mediterranean Language Review | volume = 12 | year = 2000 | pages = 1–15
| url = http://humstatic.uchicago.edu/slavic/archived/papers/Friedman-170yrsbalkanling.pdf | url = http://humstatic.uchicago.edu/slavic/archived/papers/Friedman-170yrsbalkanling.pdf}}</ref>
| postscript = .}}</ref>


The ] comprises Albanian, Romanian, the ] of the southern Balkans (Bulgarian, ] and to a lesser degree ]), ], Balkan ], and ]. The ] comprises Albanian, Romanian, the ] of the southern Balkans (Bulgarian, ] and to a lesser degree ]), ], Balkan ], and ].
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===Mainland Southeast Asia=== ===Mainland Southeast Asia===
Languages of the ] have such great surface similarity that extent that early linguists tended to group them all into a single family, although the modern consensus places them into numerous unrelated families. The area stretches from Thailand to China and is home to speakers of languages of the ], ] (or Miao–Yao), ], ] (represented by ]) and ] families.<ref name="Enfield">{{citation Languages of the ] have such great surface similarity that early linguists tended to group them all into a single family, although the modern consensus places them into numerous unrelated families. The area stretches from Thailand to China and is home to speakers of languages of the ], ] (or Miao–Yao), ], ] (represented by ]) and ] families.<ref name="Enfield">{{cite journal
| title = Areal Linguistics and Mainland Southeast Asia | first = N.J. | last = Enfield | journal = Annual Review of Anthropology | volume = 34 | issue = 1 | year = 2005 | title = Areal Linguistics and Mainland Southeast Asia | first = N. J. | last = Enfield | journal = Annual Review of Anthropology | volume = 34 | issue = 1 | year = 2005
| pages = 181–206 | doi = 10.1146/annurev.anthro.34.081804.120406 | hdl = 11858/00-001M-0000-0013-167B-C | url = http://pubman.mpdl.mpg.de/pubman/item/escidoc:57458:2/component/escidoc:57459/Enfield_2005_areal.pdf | postscript = . | hdl-access = free }}</ref> | pages = 181–206 | doi = 10.1146/annurev.anthro.34.081804.120406 | hdl = 11858/00-001M-0000-0013-167B-C | url = http://pubman.mpdl.mpg.de/pubman/item/escidoc:57458:2/component/escidoc:57459/Enfield_2005_areal.pdf | hdl-access = free }}</ref>


Neighbouring languages across these families, though presumed unrelated, often have similar features, which are believed to have spread by diffusion. Neighbouring languages across these families, though presumed unrelated, often have similar features, which are believed to have spread by diffusion.
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===Indian subcontinent=== ===Indian subcontinent===
In a classic 1956 paper titled "India as a Linguistic Area", ] laid the groundwork for the general acceptance of the concept of a sprachbund. In the paper, Emeneau observed that the subcontinent's ] and ] shared a number of features that were not inherited from a common source, but were ], the result of diffusion during sustained contact. These include ]s, ]s, ] word order, ]s, and the ].<ref>{{citation In a classic 1956 paper titled "India as a Linguistic Area", ] laid the groundwork for the general acceptance of the concept of a sprachbund. In the paper, Emeneau observed that the subcontinent's ] and ] shared a number of features that were not inherited from a common source, but were ], the result of diffusion during sustained contact. These include ]s, ]s, ] word order, ]s, and the ].<ref>{{cite journal
| last = Emeneau | first = Murray | year = 1956 | title = India as a Linguistic Area | journal = Language | volume = 32 | issue = 1 | pages = 3–16 | doi=10.2307/410649 | jstor = 410649 | postscript = . }}</ref> | last = Emeneau | first = Murray | year = 1956 | title = India as a Linguistic Area | journal = Language | volume = 32 | issue = 1 | pages = 3–16 | doi=10.2307/410649 | jstor = 410649}}</ref>


Emeneau specified the tools to establish that language and culture had fused for centuries on the Indian soil to produce an integrated mosaic of structural convergence of four distinct language families: ], ], ] and ]. This concept provided scholarly substance for explaining the underlying Indian-ness of apparently divergent cultural and linguistic patterns. With his further contributions, this area has now become a major field of research in language contact and convergence.<ref name="Thomason (2000)"/><ref>{{citation | last1=Emeneau | first1=Murray | last2=Dil | first2=Anwar | title=Language and Linguistic Area: Essays by Murray B. Emeneau | year=1980 | place=Palo Alto | publisher=Stanford University Press | isbn=978-0-8047-1047-3 | postscript = . }}</ref><ref>{{citation | title = Language contact | first = Sarah Grey | last = Thomason | publisher = Edinburgh University Press | year = 2001 | isbn = 978-0-7486-0719-8 | pages = 114–117 | postscript = . }}</ref> Emeneau specified the tools to establish that language and culture had fused for centuries on the Indian soil to produce an integrated mosaic of structural convergence of four distinct language families: ], ], ] and ]. This concept provided scholarly substance for explaining the underlying Indian-ness of apparently divergent cultural and linguistic patterns. With his further contributions, this area has now become a major field of research in language contact and convergence.<ref name="Thomason (2000)"/><ref>{{cite book | last1=Emeneau | first1=Murray | last2=Dil | first2=Anwar | title=Language and Linguistic Area: Essays by Murray B. Emeneau | year=1980 | place=Palo Alto | publisher=Stanford University Press | isbn=978-0-8047-1047-3 }}</ref><ref>{{cite book | title = Language contact | first = Sarah Grey | last = Thomason | publisher = Edinburgh University Press | year = 2001 | isbn = 978-0-7486-0719-8 | pages = 114–117}}</ref>


===Northeast Asia=== ===Northeast Asia===
Some linguists, such as ], ], ] and ], supported the idea that the ], ], and ] families of Asia (and some small parts of Europe) have a common ancestry, in a controversial group they call ]. ] and ] languages, which are also hypothetically related according to some scholars like ], Shōsaburō Kanazawa, ] and ], are sometimes included as part of the purported Altaic family. This latter hypothesis was supported by people including ], John C. Street and ]. Some linguists, such as ], ], ] and ], supported the idea that the ], ], and ] families of Asia (and some small parts of Europe) have a common ancestry, in a controversial group they call ].{{cn|date=January 2024}} ] and ] languages, which are also hypothetically related according to some scholars like ], Shōsaburō Kanazawa, ] and ], are sometimes included as part of the purported Altaic family. This latter hypothesis was supported by people including ], John C. Street and ]. ], ], ], ] and others dispute or reject this.{{cn|date=January 2024}} A common alternative explanation for similarities among the "Altaic" languages, such as ] and ], is that they are due to areal diffusion.<ref>{{cite book
], ], ], ] and others dispute or reject this. A common alternative explanation for similarities among the "Altaic" languages, such as ] and ], is that they are due to areal diffusion.<ref>{{citation
| contribution = Turko-Mongolic Relations| first = Claus | last = Schönig | contribution = Turko-Mongolic Relations| first = Claus | last = Schönig
| title = The Mongolic Languages | editor-first = Juha | editor-last = Janhunen | title = The Mongolic Languages | editor-first = Juha | editor-last = Janhunen
| pages = 403–419 | location = London | publisher = Routledge | year = 2003 | pages = 403–419 | location = London | publisher = Routledge | year = 2003
| isbn = 978-0-7007-1133-8 | postscript = . }}</ref> | isbn = 978-0-7007-1133-8 }}</ref>


The ], in the northeastern part of the ] spanning the Chinese provinces of ] and ], is an area of interaction between varieties of northwest ], ] and ] and ]. The ], in the northeastern part of the ] spanning the Chinese provinces of ] and ], is an area of interaction between varieties of northwest ], ] and ] and ].{{cn|date=January 2024}}


===Western Europe=== ===Western Europe===
{{Main|Standard Average European}} {{Main|Standard Average European}}


''Standard Average European'' (''SAE'') is a concept introduced in 1939 by ] to group the modern ] ] which shared common features.<ref>"The Relation of Habitual Thought and Behavior to Language", published in (1941), ''Language, Culture, and Personality: Essays in Memory of ]'' Edited by ], ], Stanley S. Newman. ], ]: Sapir Memorial Publication Fund. pp 75–93.<br />Reprinted in (1956), ''Language, Thought and Reality: Selected Writings of Benjamins Lee Whorf.'' Edited by ]. ], ]: ]. pp. 134–159.<br />Quotation is Whorf (1941:77–78) and (1956:138).<blockquote>The work began to assume the character of a comparison between ] and western European languages. It also became evident that even the grammar of Hopi bore a relation to Hopi culture, and the grammar of European tongues to our own "Western" or "European" culture. And it appeared that the interrelation brought in those large subsummations of experience by language, such as our own terms "time," "space," "substance," and "matter." Since, with respect to the traits compared, there is little difference between ], ], ], or other ] with the 'possible' (but doubtful) exception of ] and ], I have lumped these languages into one group called SAE, or "Standard Average European."</blockquote> (quotation pp. 77–78) and as Whorf, B. L.</ref> Whorf argued that these ]s were characterized by a number of similarities including ] and ], ] and its use as well as the relationship between contrasting words and their origins, idioms and word order which all made them stand out from many other language groups around the world which do not share these similarities; in essence creating a continental sprachbund. His point was to argue that the disproportionate degree of knowledge of SAE languages biased ]s towards considering grammatical forms to be highly natural or even universal, when in fact they were only peculiar to the SAE ]. ''Standard Average European'' (''SAE'') is a concept introduced in 1939 by ] to group the modern ] ] which shared common features.<ref>"The Relation of Habitual Thought and Behavior to Language", in ], ], Stanley S. Newman, eds. (1941), ''Language, Culture, and Personality: Essays in Memory of ]'', ], ]: Sapir Memorial Publication Fund. pp. 75–93.<br />Reprinted in ], eds. (1956), ''Language, Thought and Reality: Selected Writings of Benjamins Lee Whorf.'' ], ]: ]. pp. 134–159.
{{quote|The work began to assume the character of a comparison between ] and western European languages. It also became evident that even the grammar of Hopi bore a relation to Hopi culture, and the grammar of European tongues to our own "Western" or "European" culture. And it appeared that the interrelation brought in those large subsummations of experience by language, such as our own terms "time", "space", "substance", and "matter". Since, with respect to the traits compared, there is little difference between ], ], ], or other ] with the 'possible' (but doubtful) exception of ] and ], I have lumped these languages into one group called SAE, or "Standard Average European."|Whorf 1941:77–78 and 1956:138.}}</ref> Whorf argued that these ]s were characterized by a number of similarities including ] and ], ] and its use as well as the relationship between contrasting words and their origins, idioms and word order which all made them stand out from many other language groups around the world which do not share these similarities; in essence creating a continental {{lang|de|sprachbund}}. His point was to argue that the disproportionate degree of knowledge of SAE languages biased ]s towards considering grammatical forms to be highly natural or even universal, when in fact they were only peculiar to the SAE ].


Whorf likely considered ] and ] to form the core of the SAE, i.e. the ]s of ] which have seen substantial cultural influence from ] during the ]. The ] and ] tend to be more peripheral members. Whorf likely considered ] and ] to form the core of the SAE, i.e. the ]s of ] which have seen substantial cultural influence from ] during the ]. The ] and ] tend to be more peripheral members.


], who was instrumental in the development of ], characterized it as "Standard Average European".<ref>{{cite web|url=http://lecorde.com/interlinguaus/pakupaku/uploads/GodeManifestodeInterlingua.pdf|title=Manifesto de Interlingua|author=Alexander Gode, Ph.D|language=ia|access-date=February 10, 2013}}</ref> The Romance, ], and ] control languages of Interlingua are reflective of the language groups most often included in the SAE ''Sprachbund''. ], who was instrumental in the development of ], characterized it as "Standard Average European".<ref>{{cite web|url=http://lecorde.com/interlinguaus/pakupaku/uploads/GodeManifestodeInterlingua.pdf|title=Manifesto de Interlingua|first=Alexander |last=Gode |language=ia|access-date=February 10, 2013}}</ref> The Romance, ], and ] control languages of Interlingua are reflective of the language groups most often included in the SAE {{lang|de|Sprachbund}}.


The Standard Average European ''Sprachbund'' is most likely the result of ongoing ] in the time of the ]<ref name="haspelmath1"> accessed 2015-10-13</ref> and later, continuing during the ] and the ].{{citation needed|date=May 2015}} Inheritance of the SAE features from ] can be ruled out because Proto-Indo-European, as currently reconstructed, lacked most of the SAE features.<ref name="howyoung">Haspelmath, Martin, 1998. How young is Standard Average European? ''Language Sciences''.</ref> The Standard Average European {{lang|de|Sprachbund}} is most likely the result of ongoing ] in the time of the ]<ref name="haspelmath1"> accessed 2015-10-13</ref>{{fcn|date=December 2024}} and later, continuing during the ] and the ].{{citation needed|date=May 2015}} Inheritance of the SAE features from ] can be ruled out because Proto-Indo-European, as currently reconstructed, lacked most of the SAE features.<ref name="howyoung">Haspelmath, Martin, 1998. "How young is Standard Average European?" ''Language Sciences''.</ref>{{fcn|date=December 2024}}


===Others=== ===Others===
* ] and ] in the 3rd millennium BC<ref>{{citation * ] and ] in the 3rd millennium BC<ref>{{cite book
| title = Syntactic Change in Akkadian: The Evolution of Sentential Complementation | title = Syntactic Change in Akkadian: The Evolution of Sentential Complementation
| first = Guy | last = Deutscher | author-link = Guy Deutscher (linguist) | first = Guy | last = Deutscher | author-link = Guy Deutscher (linguist)
| publisher = ] | year = 2007 | publisher = ] | year = 2007
| isbn = 978-0-19-953222-3 | pages = 20–21 | postscript= . | isbn = 978-0-19-953222-3 | pages = 20–21}}</ref>
⚫ * in the ]n highlands, ]<ref name="Thomason (2000)"/><ref>{{cite journal
}}</ref>
⚫ * in the ]n highlands, ]<ref name="Thomason (2000)"/><ref>{{citation
| first = Charles | last = Ferguson | author-link = Charles A. Ferguson | first = Charles | last = Ferguson | author-link = Charles A. Ferguson
| title = The Ethiopian Language Area | title = The Ethiopian Language Area
| journal = The Journal of Ethiopian Studies | year = 1970 | volume = 8 | issue = 2 | pages = 67–80 | journal = The Journal of Ethiopian Studies | year = 1970 | volume = 8 | issue = 2 | pages = 67–80
⚫ }}</ref><ref>{{cite book
| postscript = .
⚫ }}</ref><ref>{{citation
| first = Charles | last = Ferguson | first = Charles | last = Ferguson
| chapter = The Ethiopian Language Area | pages = 63–76 | chapter = The Ethiopian Language Area | pages = 63–76
| chapter-url = http://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/ED056566.pdf | chapter-url = http://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/ED056566.pdf
| title = Language in Ethiopia | title = Language in Ethiopia
| editor-first1 = M.L. | editor-last1 = Bender | editor-link1 = Lionel Bender (linguist) | editor-first1 = M. L. | editor-last1 = Bender | editor-link1 = Lionel Bender (linguist)
| editor-first2 = J.D. | editor-last2 = Bowen | editor-first2 = J. D. | editor-last2 = Bowen
| editor-first3 = R.L. | editor-last3 = Cooper | editor-first3 = R. L. | editor-last3 = Cooper
| editor-first4 = C.A. |display-editors = 3 | editor-last4 = Ferguson | editor-first4 = C. A. | editor-last4 = Ferguson
| publisher = Oxford University Press | year = 1976 | isbn = 978-0-19-436102-6 | publisher = Oxford University Press | year = 1976 | isbn = 978-0-19-436102-6
| postscript = .
}}</ref> }}</ref>
* ] and ] on the Comorian island of ]. * ] and ] on the Comorian island of ].{{cn|date=January 2024}}
* in the ] basin of ]<ref name="Thomason (2000)"/> * in the ] basin of ]<ref name="Thomason (2000)"/>
* in the ] (northeast Europe) {{citation needed|date=November 2020}} * in the ] (northeast Europe) {{citation needed|date=November 2020}}
* ],<ref name="Chirikba"/> though this is disputed<ref name="Tuite"/> * ],<ref name="Chirikba"/> though this is disputed<ref name="Tuite"/>
*the ] and ] languages with ]<ref>{{Cite journal|doi = 10.1016/j.cub.2006.02.021|title = Concomitant Replacement of Language and mtDNA in South Caspian Populations of Iran|year = 2006|last1 = Nasidze|first1 = Ivan|last2 = Quinque|first2 = Dominique|last3 = Rahmani|first3 = Manijeh|last4 = Alemohamad|first4 = Seyed Ali|last5 = Stoneking|first5 = Mark|journal = Current Biology|volume = 16|issue = 7|pages = 668–673|pmid = 16581511|s2cid = 7883334|doi-access = free}}</ref> *the ] and ] languages with ]<ref>{{Cite journal|doi = 10.1016/j.cub.2006.02.021|title = Concomitant Replacement of Language and mtDNA in South Caspian Populations of Iran|year = 2006|last1 = Nasidze|first1 = Ivan|last2 = Quinque|first2 = Dominique|last3 = Rahmani|first3 = Manijeh|last4 = Alemohamad|first4 = Seyed Ali|last5 = Stoneking|first5 = Mark|journal = Current Biology|volume = 16|issue = 7|pages = 668–673|pmid = 16581511|s2cid = 7883334|doi-access = free| bibcode=2006CBio...16..668N }}</ref>
* several ], including: * several ], including:
** ]<ref>{{citation ** ]<ref>{{cite journal
| doi= 10.2307/415477 | doi= 10.2307/415477
| title= Meso-America as a Linguistic Area | title= Meso-America as a Linguistic Area
| first1 = Lyle | last1 = Campbell | first2 = Terrence | last2 = Kaufman | first3 = Thomas C. | last3 = Smith-Stark | first1 = Lyle | last1 = Campbell | first2 = Terrence | last2 = Kaufman | first3 = Thomas C. | last3 = Smith-Stark
| journal = Language | volume = 62 | issue = 3 | year = 1986 | pages = 530–570 | journal = Language | volume = 62 | issue = 3 | year = 1986 | pages = 530–570
| jstor= 415477 | jstor= 415477 }}</ref>
⚫ ** ]{{cn|date=January 2024}}
| postscript = . }}</ref>
⚫ ** ]
** ]<ref name="Thomason (2000)"/> ** ]<ref name="Thomason (2000)"/>
* ] and ] spoken in eastern ] and ]<ref>{{citation | last1 = Klamer | first1 = Marian | first2 = Ger | last2 = Reesink | first3 = Miriam | last3 = van Staden | contribution = East Nusantara as a linguistic area | editor-first= Pieter | editor-last = Muysken | year = 2008 | title = From Linguistic Areas to Areal Linguistics | publisher = John Benjamins | pages = 95–149 | isbn = 978-90-272-3100-0 | postscript = . }}</ref><ref>Schapper, Antoinette. "Wallacea, a linguistic area." ''Archipel. Études interdisciplinaires sur le monde insulindien'' 90 (2015): 99-151. </ref> * ] and ] spoken in eastern ] and ]<ref>{{cite book | last1 = Klamer | first1 = Marian | first2 = Ger | last2 = Reesink | first3 = Miriam | last3 = van Staden | contribution = East Nusantara as a linguistic area | editor-first= Pieter | editor-last = Muysken | year = 2008 | title = From Linguistic Areas to Areal Linguistics | publisher = John Benjamins | pages = 95–149 | isbn = 978-90-272-3100-0 }}</ref><ref>Schapper, Antoinette. . ''Archipel. Études interdisciplinaires sur le monde insulindien'' 90 (2015): 99–151.</ref>
* East ]—proposed, though currently uncertain<ref>{{cite book * East ]—proposed, though currently uncertain<ref>{{cite book
|last=Haig|first=Geoffrey |last=Haig|first=Geoffrey
Line 184: Line 180:
|publisher=University of Bamberg Press |publisher=University of Bamberg Press
}}</ref> }}</ref>

==Proposed examples==

Language families that have been proposed to actually be sprachbunds

* ] of Australia<ref>{{cite book | last = Dixon | first = R. M. W. | contribution = The Australian Linguistic Area | editor1-last= Dixon | editor1-first = R. M. W | editor2-first = Alexandra | editor2-last = Aikhenvald | year = 2001 | title = Areal Diffusion and Genetic Inheritance: Problems in Comparative Linguistics | publisher = Oxford University Press | isbn = 978-0-19-829981-3 | pages = 64–104 m }}</ref>
* ],{{sfn|Loprieno|1995|p=51}} proposed by G. W. Tsereteli to be a sprachbund rather than a language family. However, the linguistic consensus is that Afro-Asiatic is a valid language family.


==See also== ==See also==
Line 197: Line 200:


] ]
]

Latest revision as of 17:30, 1 January 2025

Group of languages sharing areal features Not to be confused with the sociolinguistic term Sprechbund, or with Sprachraum, an area defined by a language.

A sprachbund (/ˈsprɑːkbʊnd/, from German: Sprachbund [ˈʃpʁaːxbʊnt] , lit. 'language federation'), also known as a linguistic area, area of linguistic convergence, or diffusion area, is a group of languages that share areal features resulting from geographical proximity and language contact. The languages may be genetically unrelated, or only distantly related, but the sprachbund characteristics might give a false appearance of relatedness.

A grouping of languages that share features can only be defined as a sprachbund if the features are shared for some reason other than the genetic history of the languages. Without knowledge of the history of a regional group of similar languages, it may be difficult to determine whether sharing indicates a language family or a sprachbund.

History

In a 1904 paper, Jan Baudouin de Courtenay emphasised the need to distinguish between language similarities arising from a genetic relationship (rodstvo) and those arising from convergence due to language contact (srodstvo).

Nikolai Trubetzkoy introduced the Russian term языковой союз (yazykovoy soyuz 'language union') in a 1923 article. In a paper presented to the first International Congress of Linguists in 1928, he used a German calque of this term, Sprachbund, defining it as a group of languages with similarities in syntax, morphological structure, cultural vocabulary and sound systems, but without systematic sound correspondences, shared basic morphology or shared basic vocabulary.

Later workers, starting with Trubetzkoy's colleague Roman Jakobson, have relaxed the requirement of similarities in all four of the areas stipulated by Trubetzkoy.

A rigorous set of principles for what evidence is valid for establishing a linguistic area has been presented by Campbell, Kaufman, and Smith-Stark.

Examples

The Balkans

Main article: Balkan Sprachbund

The idea of areal convergence is commonly attributed to Jernej Kopitar's description in 1830 of Albanian, Bulgarian and Romanian as giving the impression of "nur eine Sprachform ... mit dreierlei Sprachmaterie" (lit. 'only one language form with three kinds of language material'), which has been rendered by Victor Friedman as "one grammar with the [sic] three lexicons".

The Balkan Sprachbund comprises Albanian, Romanian, the South Slavic languages of the southern Balkans (Bulgarian, Macedonian and to a lesser degree Serbo-Croatian), Greek, Balkan Turkish, and Romani.

All but one of these are Indo-European languages but from very divergent branches, and Turkish is a Turkic language. Yet they have exhibited several signs of grammatical convergence, such as avoidance of the infinitive, future tense formation, and others.

The same features are not found in other languages that are otherwise closely related, such as the other Romance languages in relation to Romanian, and the other Slavic languages such as Polish in relation to Bulgaro-Macedonian.

Mainland Southeast Asia

Languages of the Mainland Southeast Asia linguistic area have such great surface similarity that early linguists tended to group them all into a single family, although the modern consensus places them into numerous unrelated families. The area stretches from Thailand to China and is home to speakers of languages of the Sino-Tibetan, Hmong–Mien (or Miao–Yao), Tai–Kadai, Austronesian (represented by Chamic) and Mon–Khmer families.

Neighbouring languages across these families, though presumed unrelated, often have similar features, which are believed to have spread by diffusion. A well-known example is the similar tone systems in Sinitic languages (Sino-Tibetan), Hmong–Mien, Tai languages (Kadai) and Vietnamese (Austroasiatic). Most of these languages passed through an earlier stage with three tones on most syllables (but no tonal distinctions on checked syllables ending in a stop consonant), which was followed by a tone split where the distinction between voiced and voiceless consonants disappeared but in compensation the number of tones doubled. These parallels led to confusion over the classification of these languages, until André-Georges Haudricourt showed in 1954 that tone was not an invariant feature, by demonstrating that Vietnamese tones corresponded to certain final consonants in other languages of the Mon–Khmer family, and proposed that tone in the other languages had a similar origin.

Similarly, the unrelated Khmer (Mon–Khmer), Cham (Austronesian) and Lao (Kadai) languages have almost identical vowel systems. Many languages in the region are of the isolating (or analytic) type, with mostly monosyllabic morphemes and little use of inflection or affixes, though a number of Mon–Khmer languages have derivational morphology. Shared syntactic features include classifiers, object–verb order and topic–comment structure, though in each case there are exceptions in branches of one or more families.

Indian subcontinent

In a classic 1956 paper titled "India as a Linguistic Area", Murray Emeneau laid the groundwork for the general acceptance of the concept of a sprachbund. In the paper, Emeneau observed that the subcontinent's Dravidian and Indo-Aryan languages shared a number of features that were not inherited from a common source, but were areal features, the result of diffusion during sustained contact. These include retroflex consonants, echo words, subject–object–verb word order, discourse markers, and the quotative.

Emeneau specified the tools to establish that language and culture had fused for centuries on the Indian soil to produce an integrated mosaic of structural convergence of four distinct language families: Indo-Aryan, Dravidian, Munda and Tibeto-Burman. This concept provided scholarly substance for explaining the underlying Indian-ness of apparently divergent cultural and linguistic patterns. With his further contributions, this area has now become a major field of research in language contact and convergence.

Northeast Asia

Some linguists, such as Matthias Castrén, G. J. Ramstedt, Nicholas Poppe and Pentti Aalto, supported the idea that the Mongolic, Turkic, and Tungusic families of Asia (and some small parts of Europe) have a common ancestry, in a controversial group they call Altaic. Koreanic and Japonic languages, which are also hypothetically related according to some scholars like William George Aston, Shōsaburō Kanazawa, Samuel Martin and Sergei Starostin, are sometimes included as part of the purported Altaic family. This latter hypothesis was supported by people including Roy Andrew Miller, John C. Street and Karl Heinrich Menges. Gerard Clauson, Gerhard Doerfer, Juha Janhunen, Stefan Georg and others dispute or reject this. A common alternative explanation for similarities among the "Altaic" languages, such as vowel harmony and agglutination, is that they are due to areal diffusion.

The Qinghai–Gansu sprachbund, in the northeastern part of the Tibetan plateau spanning the Chinese provinces of Qinghai and Gansu, is an area of interaction between varieties of northwest Mandarin Chinese, Amdo Tibetan and Mongolic and Turkic languages.

Western Europe

Main article: Standard Average European

Standard Average European (SAE) is a concept introduced in 1939 by Benjamin Whorf to group the modern Indo-European languages of Europe which shared common features. Whorf argued that these languages were characterized by a number of similarities including syntax and grammar, vocabulary and its use as well as the relationship between contrasting words and their origins, idioms and word order which all made them stand out from many other language groups around the world which do not share these similarities; in essence creating a continental sprachbund. His point was to argue that the disproportionate degree of knowledge of SAE languages biased linguists towards considering grammatical forms to be highly natural or even universal, when in fact they were only peculiar to the SAE language group.

Whorf likely considered Romance and West Germanic to form the core of the SAE, i.e. the literary languages of Europe which have seen substantial cultural influence from Latin during the medieval period. The North Germanic and Balto-Slavic languages tend to be more peripheral members.

Alexander Gode, who was instrumental in the development of Interlingua, characterized it as "Standard Average European". The Romance, Germanic, and Slavic control languages of Interlingua are reflective of the language groups most often included in the SAE Sprachbund.

The Standard Average European Sprachbund is most likely the result of ongoing language contact in the time of the Migration Period and later, continuing during the Middle Ages and the Renaissance. Inheritance of the SAE features from Proto-Indo-European can be ruled out because Proto-Indo-European, as currently reconstructed, lacked most of the SAE features.

Others

Proposed examples

Language families that have been proposed to actually be sprachbunds

See also

References

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    The work began to assume the character of a comparison between Hopi and western European languages. It also became evident that even the grammar of Hopi bore a relation to Hopi culture, and the grammar of European tongues to our own "Western" or "European" culture. And it appeared that the interrelation brought in those large subsummations of experience by language, such as our own terms "time", "space", "substance", and "matter". Since, with respect to the traits compared, there is little difference between English, French, German, or other European languages with the 'possible' (but doubtful) exception of Balto-Slavic and non-Indo-European, I have lumped these languages into one group called SAE, or "Standard Average European."

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