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{{Short description|Major deity and fierce form of the Hindu Goddess}} {{Short description|Major deity in Indian religions symbolising power, time, and death}}
{{about|the form of ]|the goddess of time and death |Mahakali|the consort of ]|Bhadrakali|demonic entity in Hinduism|Kali (asura)|other uses|Kali (disambiguation)}} {{about|the form of ]|the Supreme goddess of time and death |Mahakali|the consort of ]|Bhadrakali|the divine entity in Hinduism|Kali (demon)|other uses|Kali (disambiguation)}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=March 2015}} {{Use dmy dates|date=March 2015}}
{{Infobox deity<!--Misplaced Pages:WikiProject Hindu mythology--> {{Infobox deity<!--Misplaced Pages:WikiProject Hindu mythology-->
| type = Hindu | type = Hindu
| name = Kali | name = Kali
| deity_of = Mother Goddess;<br/>Goddess of Time, Change, Creation, Power, Destruction and Death | deity_of = Goddess of Time, Death and Destruction
| abode = ]s (but varies by interpretation), ] | abode = ]s, ]s (varies by interpretation), ]
| consort = ] | consort = ]
| mantra = *''oṁ jayanti maṅgala kālī<br>bhadrakālī kapālinī<br>durgā kṣamā śivā dhātrī<br>svāhā svadhā namostute'' | mantra = *''oṁ jayanti maṅgala kālī<br>bhadrakālī kapālinī<br>durgā kṣamā śivā dhātrī<br>svāhā svadhā namostute''


*''oṁ krīṃ kālīkāya namaḥ'' *''oṁ krīṃ kālīkāyai namaḥ''
| weapon = ], ] (]) | weapon = ], ] (])
| image = Kali by Raja Ravi Varma.jpg | image = Kali by Raja Ravi Varma.jpg
| festivals = ], ] | festivals = {{hlist|]|]}}
| caption = ''Kali'' by ] | caption = ''Kali'' by ]
| affiliation = ], ], ], ], ], ], ], ], ], ], ] | affiliation = {{hlist|]|]|]|]|]|]}}
| gender = Female | gender = Female
| member_of = the Ten ] | member_of = The Ten ]
| day = ] and ] | day = Tuesday and Friday
| texts = ], ], ], ], ]s | texts = ], ], ], ], ]s
| mount = ], ] | mount = Lion
}} }}
{{Hinduism}}
{{Saktism}} {{Saktism}}
'''Kali''' ({{IPAc-en|ˈ|k|ɑː|l|iː}}; {{lang-sa|काली}}, {{IAST3|Kālī}}), also called '''Kalika''', is a major ] ] associated with time, change, creation, power, destruction and death in ].<ref name="EY">{{cite web |url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/Kali |title=Kali |date=22 July 2023 |website= |publisher=] |access-date= |quote=}}</ref> Kali is the first of the ten ] in the Hindu ] tradition.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/religion/rituals-puja/the-significance-of-dus-mahavidya/articleshow/68206997.cms|title=The Significance of Dus Mahavidya|website=]|access-date=4 April 2019}}</ref>


Kali's earliest appearance is when she emerged from ]. The goddess is stated to destroy ] in order to defend the innocent. Over time, Kali has been worshipped by devotional movements and Tàntric sects variously as the Divine Mother, Mother of the Universe, Principal energy (]).<ref name="Hawley">{{Cite book|last1=Hawley|first1=John Stratton|title=Sri Ramakrishna: The Spiritual Glow|last2=Wulff|first2=Donna Marie|publisher=Motilal Banarsidass|year=1982|pages=152}}</ref><ref name="Harding">{{cite book|last1=Harding|first1=Elizabeth U.|title=Kali: The Black Goddess of Dakshineswar|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=4woiJbQTsBQC|year=1993|publisher=Nicolas Hays|isbn=978-8120814509}}</ref><ref name="McDaniel">{{cite book|last1=McDaniel|first1=June|title=Offering Flowers, Feeding Skulls: Popular Goddess Worship in West Bengal|year=2004|publisher=Oxford University Press}}</ref> '''Kali''' ({{IPAc-en|ˈ|k|ɑː|l|iː}}; {{langx|sa|काली}}, {{IAST3|Kālī}}), also called '''Kalika''', is a major ] in ], primarily associated with time, death and destruction. Kali is also connected with transcendental knowledge and is the first of the ten ], a group of goddess who provide liberating knowledge.<ref name="Paul"/><ref>{{cite news|url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/religion/rituals-puja/the-significance-of-dus-mahavidya/articleshow/68206997.cms |title=The Significance of Dus Mahavidya |website=] |access-date=4 April 2019}}</ref> Of the numerous ], Kali is held as the most famous.<ref name="Lynn"/> She is the preeminent deity in the ] tradition and the ] worship tradition, and is a central figure in the goddess-centric sects of Hinduism as well as in ].<ref name="EY"/><ref>{{Cite web |title=Dakshin Kali Khadgamala Stotra: A Hymn to the Fierce and Compassionate Goddess from Rudrayamal Tantra - Aghori Stories |url=https://aghoristories.com/tantra/dakshina-kali-khadgamala-stotra-a-hymn-to-the-fierce-and-compassionate-goddess-from-rudrayamal-tantra/?amp=1 |access-date=2024-05-06 |website=aghoristories.com| date=February 2024 }}</ref> Kali is chiefly worshipped as the Divine Mother, Mother of the Universe, and ].<ref name="Hawley">{{Cite book |last1=Hawley |first1=John Stratton |title=Sri Ramakrishna: The Spiritual Glow |last2=Wulff |first2=Donna Marie |publisher=Motilal Banarsidass |year=1982 |pages=152}}</ref><ref name="Harding">{{cite book |last1=Harding |first1=Elizabeth U. |title=Kali: The Black Goddess of Dakshineswar |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=4woiJbQTsBQC |year=1993 |publisher=Nicolas Hays |isbn=978-8120814509}}</ref><ref name="McDaniel">{{cite book |last1=McDaniel |first1=June |title=Offering Flowers, Feeding Skulls: Popular Goddess Worship in West Bengal |year=2004 |publisher=Oxford University Press}}</ref>


The origins of Kali can be traced to the pre-Vedic and ] era goddess worship ] in the ].<ref name="EY">{{cite web |url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/Kali |title=Kali |date=31 July 2024 |website= |publisher=] |access-date= |quote=}}</ref> Etymologically the term ''Kali'' refers to one who governs time or is black. The first major appearance of Kali in the ] literature was in the sixth-century CE text '']''.<ref name="EY"/> Kali appears in many stories, with the most popular one being when she manifests as personification of goddess ]'s rage to defeat the demon ]. The terrifying iconography of Kali makes her a unique figure among the ] and symbolises her embracement and embodiment of the grim worldly realities of blood, death and destruction.<ref name="Paul"/>
] and ] sects additionally worship Kali as the ultimate reality or '']''.<ref name="McDaniel" /> She is also seen as the divine protector and the one who bestows ''],'' (liberation).<ref name="Hawley" /> Worshipped throughout South Asia but particularly in Nepal, South India, Bengal, and Assam; Kali is a central figure in Goddess-centric traditions of Hinduism as well as in ].<ref name="EY"/><ref>{{Cite web |title=Dakshin Kali Khadgamala Stotra: A Hymn to the Fierce and Compassionate Goddess from Rudrayamal Tantra - Aghori Stories |url=https://aghoristories.com/tantra/dakshina-kali-khadgamala-stotra-a-hymn-to-the-fierce-and-compassionate-goddess-from-rudrayamal-tantra/?amp=1 |access-date=2024-05-06 |website=aghoristories.com}}</ref>

Kali is stated to protect and bestow liberation ('']'') to devotees who approach her with an attitude of a child towards mother. Devotional songs and poems that extol the motherly nature of Kali are popular in ], where she is most widely worshipped as the Divine Mother. ] and ] traditions additionally worship Kali as the ultimate reality or '']''.<ref name="McDaniel" /> In modern times, Kali has emerged as a symbol of significance for women.<ref name="Paul"/>


==Etymology== ==Etymology==
The term ''Kali'' is derived from ''Kala'', which is mentioned quite differently in ].<ref name="Jones">{{cite encyclopedia |last1=Jones |first1=Constance |last2=Ryan |first2=James D. |title=Encyclopedia of Hinduism |series=Encyclopedia of World Religions |location=New York |publisher=Infobase Publishing |date=2007 |isbn=9780816054589 |url=https://archive.org/details/wg992 |pages=220–221}}</ref> The homonym ''{{IAST|]}}'' (time) is distinct from ''kāla'' (black), but these became associated through ].<ref name="Coburn111-112"/>
Kālī is the goddess of time or death and the consort of Shiva.<ref name="McDermott2001">{{cite book |last1=McDermott |first1=Rachel Fell |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=FeMX2g8lqkAC&pg=PA175 |title=Singing to the Goddess: Poems to Kali and Uma from Bengal |publisher=] |year=2001 |isbn=978-0198030706}}
</ref> The homonym ''{{IAST|]}}'' (time) is distinct from ''kāla'' (black), but these became associated through ]. She is called Kali Mata ("the dark mother") and also ''kālī'' which can be read here either as a ] or as a description "the dark or black one".<ref name="Coburn111-112">{{cite book|last1=Coburn|first1=Thomas|title=Devī-Māhātmya – Crystallization of the Goddess Tradition|publisher=Motilal Banarsidass, Delhi|year=1984|isbn=978-81-208-0557-6}} Kali is then understood as "she who is the ruler of time", or "she who is black".<ref name="Jones"/> Kālī is the goddess of time or death and the consort of Shiva.<ref name="McDermott2001">{{cite book |last1=McDermott |first1=Rachel Fell |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=FeMX2g8lqkAC&pg=PA175 |title=Singing to the Goddess: Poems to Kali and Uma from Bengal |publisher=] |year=2001 |isbn=978-0198030706}}</ref> She is called Kali Mata ("the dark mother") and also ''kālī'', which can be read here either as a ] or as a description: "the dark (or black) one".<ref name="Coburn111-112">{{cite book |last1=Coburn |first1=Thomas |title=Devī-Māhātmya – Crystallization of the Goddess Tradition |publisher=Motilal Banarsidass, Delhi |year=1984 |isbn=978-81-208-0557-6}}</ref>
</ref>


==Origins== ==Origins==
Line 51: Line 52:
}} }}
</ref> </ref>
Kali originated as a tantric and non-Vedic goddess. Her roots are most probably connected to the Pre-Aryan period.<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Mohanty |first1=Seema |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=3KyfCUvoAtoC |title=The Book of Kali |last2=Seema |date=July 2009 |publisher=Penguin Books India |isbn=978-0-14-306764-1 |language=en}}</ref> Kali originated as a tantric and non-Vedic goddess. Her roots are most probably connected to the Pre-Aryan period.<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Mohanty |first1=Seema |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=3KyfCUvoAtoC |title=The Book of Kali |last2=Seema |date=July 2009 |publisher=Penguin Books India |isbn=978-0-14-306764-1 |language=en}}</ref> According to Indologist ], Kali's origins can be traced to the deities of the Pre-Vedic village, tribal, and mountain cultures of South Asia who were gradually appropriated and transformed by the Sanskritic traditions.<ref name="EY" />


==Legends== ==Legends==
text '']'' where she is said to have emanated from Goddess ] to slay the demon named Raktabija.<ref name="Kinsley1997">{{cite book |last1=Kinsley |first1=David |title=Tantric Visions of the Divine Feminine: The Ten Mahavidyas |publisher=Berkeley: University of California Press |year=1997 |pages=70}} Her most well-known appearance is on the battlefield in the sixth century text '']''. The deity of the first chapter of ''Devi Mahatmyam'' is Mahakali, who appears from the body of sleeping ] as goddess Yoga Nidra to wake him up in order to protect ] and the world from two ] (demons), ]. When Vishnu woke up he started a war against the two asuras. After a long battle with Vishnu, the two demons were undefeated and Mahakali took the form of Mahamaya to enchant the two asuras. When Madhu and Kaitabha were enchanted by Mahakali, Vishnu killed them.<ref name="Kinsley1997">{{cite book |last1=Kinsley |first1=David |title=Tantric Visions of the Divine Feminine: The Ten Mahavidyas |publisher=Berkeley: University of California Press |year=1997 |pages=70–76}}</ref>
</ref>


In later chapters, the story of two asuras who were destroyed by Kali can be found. ] attack the goddess ]. Kaushiki responds with such anger it causes her face to turn dark, resulting in Kali appearing out of her forehead. Kali's appearance is dark blue, gaunt with sunken eyes, and wearing a tiger skin ] and a ]. She immediately defeats the two asuras. Later in the same battle, the asura ] is undefeated because of his ability to reproduce himself from every drop of his blood that reaches the ground. Countless Raktabija clones appear on the battlefield. Kali eventually defeats him by sucking his blood before it can reach the ground, and eating the numerous clones. Kinsley writes that Kali represents "Durga's personified wrath, her embodied fury".<ref name="Kinsley1997" /> In later chapters, the story of two asuras who were destroyed by Kali can be found. ] attack the goddess ]. Kaushiki responds with such anger that it causes her face to turn dark, resulting in Kali appearing out of her forehead. Kali's appearance is dark blue, gaunt with sunken eyes, wearing a tiger skin ] and a ]. She immediately defeats the two asuras. Later in the same battle, the asura ] is undefeated because of his ability to reproduce himself from every drop of his blood that reaches the ground. Countless Raktabija clones appear on the battlefield. Kali eventually defeats him by sucking his blood before it can reach the ground, and eating the numerous clones. Kinsley writes that Kali represents "Durga's personified wrath, her embodied fury".<ref name="Kinsley1997" />


Other origin stories involve Parvati and Shiva. Parvati is typically portrayed as a benign and friendly goddess. The '']'' describes Shiva asking Parvati to defeat the asura ], who received a boon that would only allow a female to kill him. Parvati merges with Shiva's body, reappearing as Kali to defeat Daruka and his armies. Her bloodlust gets out of control, only calming when Shiva intervenes. The '']'' has a different version of Kali's relationship with Parvati. When Shiva addresses Parvati as Kali, "the dark blue one", she is greatly offended. Parvati performs austerities to lose her dark complexion and becomes Gauri, the golden one. Her dark sheath becomes '']'', who while enraged, creates Kali.<ref name="Kinsley1997" /> Other origin stories involve Parvati and Shiva. Parvati is typically portrayed as a benign and friendly goddess. The '']'' describes Shiva asking Parvati to defeat the asura ], who received a boon that would only allow a female to kill him. Parvati merges with Shiva's body, reappearing as Kali to defeat Daruka and his armies. Her bloodlust gets out of control, only calming when Shiva intervenes. The '']'' has a different version of Kali's relationship with Parvati. When Shiva addresses Parvati as Kali, "the dark blue one", she is greatly offended. Parvati performs austerities to lose her dark complexion and becomes Gauri, the golden one. Her dark sheath becomes '']'', who while enraged, creates Kali.<ref name="Kinsley1997" />

In the ], Kali turns black out of rage, while battling the demons ].<ref name="Jones"/>{{rp|221}}


===Slayer of Raktabīja=== ===Slayer of Raktabīja===
In Kāli's most famous legend, ] and her assistants, the ], wound the demon ], in various ways and with a variety of weapons in an attempt to destroy him. They soon find that they have worsened the situation for with every drop of blood that is dripped from Raktabīja, he reproduces a duplicate of himself. The battlefield becomes increasingly filled with his duplicates.<ref name="Kinsley1997" /> Durga summons Kāli to combat the demons. The '']m'' describes: In Kāli's most famous legend, ] and her assistants, the ], wound the demon ], in various ways and with a variety of weapons in an attempt to destroy him. They soon find that they have worsened the situation for with every drop of blood that drips from Raktabīja, he reproduces a duplicate of himself. The battlefield becomes increasingly filled with his duplicates.<ref name="Kinsley1997" /> Durga summons Kāli to combat the demons. This episode is described in the '']m,'' Kali is depicted as being fierce, clad in a tiger's skin and armed with a sword and noose. She has deep, red eyes with tongue lolling out as she catches drops of Raktabīja's blood before they fall to the ground and create duplicates.<ref name="Wangu2003" />


Kali consumes Raktabīja and his duplicates, and dances on the corpses of the slain.<ref name="Kinsley1997" /> In the ''Devi Mahatmya'' version of this story, Kali is also described as a ''Matrika'' and as a '']'' or power of ]. She is given the epithet ''{{IAST|Cāṃuṇḍā}}'' ('']''), that is, the slayer of the demons ].<ref name ="Wangu2003">{{cite book
{{blockquote|Out of the surface of her (Durga's) forehead, fierce with frown, issued suddenly Kali of terrible countenance, armed with a sword and noose. Bearing the strange ] (skull-topped staff), decorated with a garland of skulls, clad in a tiger's skin, very appalling owing to her emaciated flesh, with gaping mouth, fearful with her tongue lolling out, having deep reddish eyes, filling the regions of the sky with her roars, falling upon impetuously and slaughtering the great ] in that army, she devoured those hordes of the foes of the devas and caught the blood of Raktabīja before it could fall to the ground, stopping him from creating more duplicates.<ref>{{cite book
|last1=Jagadiswarananda
|first1=Swami
|title=Devi Mahatmyam
|year=1953
|publisher=Ramakrishna Math
}}</ref>}}

Kali consumes Raktabīja and his duplicates, and dances on the corpses of the slain.<ref name="Kinsley1997" /> In '']'' version of this story, Kali is also described as a ''Matrika'' and as a '']'' or power of ]. She is given the epithet ''{{IAST|Cāṃuṇḍā}}'' ('']''), i.e. the slayer of the demons ].<ref name ="Wangu2003">{{cite book
|last1=Wangu |last1=Wangu
|first1=Madhu Bazaz |first1=Madhu Bazaz
Line 78: Line 72:
|year=2003 |year=2003
|publisher=Abhinav Publications |publisher=Abhinav Publications
|isbn=978-81-7017-416-5}}</ref>{{rp|72}} ''Chamunda'' is very often identified with Kali and is very much like her in appearance and habit.<ref name="Kinsley1997" />{{rp|241 Footnotes}} In Tantric Kali Kula Shaktism, Kali is the supreme goddess and source of all goddesses. In ], Kālī kills ] and ]. |isbn=978-81-7017-416-5}}</ref>{{rp|72}} ''Chamunda'' is very often identified with Kali and is very much like her in appearance and habit.<ref name="Kinsley1997" />{{rp|241 Footnotes}}


==Iconography and forms== ==Iconography and forms==
The goddess Kali is regarded as the most famous female deity of all the numerous ].<ref name="Lynn">{{cite encyclopedia |last=Foulston |first=Lynn |editor-last1=Cush |editor-first1=Denise |editor-last2=Robinson |editor-first2=Catherine |editor-last3=York |editor-first3=Michael |chapter=ŚAKTI |page=730 |title=Encyclopedia of Hinduism |publisher=Routledge |date=2008 |isbn=978-0-7007-1267-0 |url=https://www.taylorfrancis.com/books/mono/10.4324/9780203862032/encyclopedia-hinduism-denise-cush-catherine-robinson-michael-york }}</ref> The uncommon appearance of Kali is explained as a cause of her popularity.<ref name="Paul"/>{{rp|398}} Kali is iconographically depicted as a "terrifying emaciated woman"; with black skin, long tangled hair, red eyes and a long lolling tongue. She is naked barring a grim set of ornamentation: "a necklace of skulls or freshly decapitated heads, a skirt of severed arms and jewellery made from the corpses of infants." The "wildness" is a defining aspect of her character.<ref name="Paul"/>{{rp|399}} The terrifying iconography of Kali is considered symbolic of her role as a protector and a bestower of freedom to devotees, of whom she shall take care of if they come to her in the "attitude of a child."<ref name="Paul"/>{{rp|399}} Devotional songs and poems that glorify the motherly nature of Kali are popular in ], where she is most extensively worshipped.<ref name="Paul"/>{{rp|399}}
The goddess has two depictions: the popular ] form and the ten-armed Mahakali avatar. In both, she is described as being black in colour, though she is often seen as blue in popular Indian art. Her eyes are described as ] with intoxication and rage. Her hair is disheveled, small fangs sometimes protrude out of her mouth, and her tongue is lolling. Sometimes she dons a skirt made of human arms and a ]. Other times, she is seen wearing a tiger skin. She is also accompanied by ] and a ] while standing on the calm and prostrate Shiva, usually right foot forward to symbolize the more popular '']'' ("right-hand path"), as opposed to the more infamous and transgressive ] ("left-hand path").<ref name="Rawson">{{cite book
|last1=Rawson
|first1=Philip
|title=The Art of Tantra
|url=https://archive.org/details/tantra00phil
|url-access=registration
|year=1973
|publisher=Thames & Hudson
}}</ref> These serpents and jackals are shown to drink ]'s blood as it drips out of his head while the goddess carries the head in her hand, preventing it from falling on the ground.


In the ], where Kali first appeared as a personification of the rage of goddess ], an aspect of Kali's character was her thirst for blood and fondness to stay at places of death and destruction.<ref name="Paul"/>{{rp|399}} In original depictions, Kali was often pictured in a cremation ground or battlefield standing on the corpse of ], which symbolized her manifestation as ].<ref name=":3" /> Kali represents the goddess embracing and encompassing the grim worldly realities of "blood, death and destruction".<ref name="Paul">{{cite encyclopedia |last=Reid-Bowen |first=Paul |editor-last1=Cush |editor-first1=Denise |editor-last2=Robinson |editor-first2=Catherine |editor-last3=York |editor-first3=Michael |chapter=KĀLĪ AND CAṆḌĪ|pp=398-399 |title=Encyclopedia of Hinduism |publisher=Routledge |date=2008 |isbn=978-0-7007-1267-0 |url=https://www.taylorfrancis.com/books/mono/10.4324/9780203862032/encyclopedia-hinduism-denise-cush-catherine-robinson-michael-york }}</ref>
In the ten-armed form of Mahakali, she is depicted as shining like a blue stone. She has ten faces, ten feet, and three eyes for each head. She has ornaments decked on all her limbs. There is no association with Shiva.<ref>{{cite book
|last1=Sankaranarayanan
|first1=Sri
|title=Glory of the Divine Mother: Devi Mahatmyam
|year=2001
|publisher=Nesma Books India
|isbn=978-8187936008|page=127}}</ref>


The ''Kalika ]'' describes Kali as "possessing a soothing dark complexion, as perfectly beautiful, riding a lion, four-armed, holding a sword and blue lotus, her hair unrestrained, body firm and youthful".<ref name="White2000">{{cite book |last1=Gupta |first1=Sanjukta |editor-last1=White |editor-first1=David Gordon |editor-link=David Gordon White |chapter=The Worship of Kali According to the Todala Tantra |title=Tantra in Practice |year=2000 |publisher=Princeton Press |page=466 |isbn=0-691-05778-8 |ref=refWhite2000}}</ref> The goddess has two depictions: the popular ] form and the ten-armed Mahakali avatar. In both, she is described as being black in colour, though she is often seen as blue in popular Indian art. Her eyes are described as red with intoxication and rage. Her hair is disheveled, small fangs sometimes protrude out of her mouth, and her tongue is lolling. Sometimes she dons a skirt made of demon arms and a ]. Other times, she is seen wearing a tiger skin. She is also accompanied by ] and a ] while standing on the calm and prostrate Shiva, usually right foot forward to symbolize the more popular '']'' ("right-hand path"), as opposed to the more infamous and transgressive ] ("left-hand path").<ref name="Rawson">{{cite book |last1=Rawson |first1=Philip |title=The Art of Tantra |url=https://archive.org/details/tantra00phil |url-access=registration |year=1973 |publisher=Thames & Hudson}}</ref> Her mount, or '']'', is the lion.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Williams |first=George Mason |title=Handbook of Hindu mythology |date=2003 |publisher=ABC-CLIO |isbn=978-1-57607-106-9 |series=Handbooks of world mythology |location=Santa Barbara (Calif.) |pages=173}}</ref>
The ''Kalika ]'' describes Kali as "possessing a soothing dark complexion, as perfectly beautiful, riding a lion, four-armed, holding a sword and blue lotus, her hair unrestrained, body firm and youthful".<ref name="White2000">{{cite book
|last1=Gupta
|first1=Sanjukta
|editor-last1=White
|editor-first1=David Gordon
|editor-link=David Gordon White
|chapter=The Worship of Kali According to the Todala Tantra
|title=Tantra in Practice
|year=2000
|publisher=Princeton Press
|page=466
|isbn=0-691-05778-8
|ref=refWhite2000}}</ref>

When ] once asked a devotee why one would prefer to worship Mother over him, this devotee rhetorically replied, "Maharaj, when they are in trouble your devotees come running to you. But, where do you run when you are in trouble?"<ref name="Saradananda1952">{{cite book
|last1=Saradananda
|first1=Swami
|title='Sri Ramakrishna: The Great Master
|year=1952
|publisher=Ramakrishna Math
}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last1=Hati|first1=Kamalpada|title=Sri Ramakrishna: The Spiritual Glow|last2=P.K.|first2=Pramanik|publisher=Orient Book Co.|year=1985|pages=17–18|ref=refHati1985}}</ref>


===Popular form=== ===Popular form===
] ]
Classic depictions of Kali share several features, as follows:

Kali's most common four armed iconographic image shows each hand carrying variously a Khadga (crescent-shaped sword or a giant sickle), a ] (trident), a severed head, and a bowl or skull-cup (]) collecting the blood of the severed head. This is the form of Bhima Kali.


Two of these hands (usually the left) are holding a sword and a severed head. The sword signifies divine knowledge and the human head signifies human ego which must be slain by divine knowledge in order to attain ]. The other two hands (usually the right) are in the ] (fearlessness) and ] (blessing) ]s, which means her initiated devotees (or anyone worshipping her with a true heart) will be saved as she will guide them here and in the hereafter.<ref name="White2000" />{{rp|477}} This is the form of Dakshina Kali. Kali is depicted with four arms, which symbolize the circle of creation and dissolution.<ref name=":3" /> Her left hands are depicted holding a severed head and a sword.<ref name=":3">{{Cite book |last1=Foulston |first1=Lynn |title=Hindu goddesses: beliefs and practices |last2=Abbott |first2=Stuart |date=2009 |publisher=Sussex Academic |isbn=978-1-902210-43-8 |edition= |location=Brighton |pages=34–38}}</ref> The sword signifies divine knowledge and the human head signifies human ego which must be slain by divine knowledge in order to attain ]. The right hands are usually depicted in the ] (fearlessness) and ] (blessing) ]s, which means her initiated devotees (or anyone worshipping her with a true heart) will be saved as she will guide them here and in the hereafter.<ref name="White2000" />{{rp|477}}


She wears a ], variously enumerated at ] (an auspicious number in Hinduism and the number of countable beads on a ] ] or rosary for repetition of ]) or 51, which represents Varnamala or the Garland of letters of the Sanskrit alphabet, ]. Hindus believe ] is a language of ], and each of these letters represents a form of energy, or a form of Kali. Therefore, she is generally seen as the mother of language, and all ].<ref name="White2000" />{{rp|475}} She wears a ], variously enumerated at ] (an auspicious number in Hinduism and the number of countable beads on a ] ] or rosary for repetition of ]) or 51, which represents Varnamala or the Garland of letters of the Sanskrit alphabet, ]. Hindus believe ] is a language of ], and each of these letters represents a form of energy, or a form of Kali. Therefore, she is generally seen as the mother of language, and all ]s.<ref name="White2000" />{{rp|475}}


She is often depicted naked which symbolizes her being beyond the covering of ] since she is pure (''nirguna'') being-consciousness-bliss and far above Prakriti. She is shown as very dark as she is Brahman in its supreme unmanifest state. She has no permanent qualities—she will continue to exist even when the universe ends. It is therefore believed that the concepts of color, light, good, and bad do not apply to her.<ref name="White2000" />{{rp|463–488}} She is often depicted naked which symbolizes her being beyond the covering of ] since she is pure (''nirguna'') being-consciousness-bliss and far above Prakriti. She is shown as very dark as she is Brahman in its supreme unmanifest state. She has no permanent qualities—she will continue to exist even when the universe ends. It is therefore believed that the concepts of color, light, good, and bad do not apply to her.<ref name="White2000" />{{rp|463–488}}
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] ]
Mahakali (]: Mahākālī, ]: महाकाली, ]: মহাকালী, ]: મહાકાળી), literally translated as "Great Kali," is sometimes considered as a greater form of Kali, identified with the Ultimate reality of ]. It can also be used as an honorific of the Goddess Kali,<ref name="McDaniel"/>{{rp|257}} signifying her greatness by the prefix "Mahā-". Mahakali, in Sanskrit, is etymologically the feminized variant of ] or ''Great Time'' (which is interpreted also as ''Death''), an epithet of the God Shiva in Hinduism. Mahakali is the presiding Goddess of the first episode of the '']''. Here, she is depicted as Devi in her universal form as ]. Here Devi serves as the agent who allows the cosmic order to be restored. Mahakali (]: Mahākālī, ]: महाकाली, ]: মহাকালী, ]: મહાકાળી), literally translated as "Great Kali", is sometimes considered as a greater form of Kali, identified with the Ultimate reality of ]. It can also be used as an honorific of the Goddess Kali,.<ref name="McDaniel"/>{{rp|257}} Mahakali symbolizes absolute night and the power of time. She is depicted with five or ten heads, each with three eyes and holding different weapons. Mahakali is known as the origin of all things, her consort is ].<ref name="McDaniel" />{{rp|257}}


The ] mentions that Kali took the form of Mahakali at the instruction of Shiva who wanted her to destroy the world during the time of universal ].<ref name="McDaniel" />{{rp|242}}
Kali is depicted in the Mahakali form as having ten heads, ten arms, and ten legs. Each of her ten hands is carrying a various implement which varies in different accounts, but each of these represents the power of one of the ] or Hindu Gods and are often the identifying weapon or ritual item of a given Deva. The implication is that Mahakali subsumes and is responsible for the powers that these deities possess and this is in line with the interpretation that Mahakali is identical with Brahman. While not displaying ten heads, an "ekamukhi" or one headed image may be displayed with ten arms, signifying the same concept: the powers of the various Gods come only through her ].


In the ten-armed form of Mahakali, she is depicted as shining like a blue stone. She has ten faces, ten feet, and three eyes for each head. She has ornaments decked on all her limbs. There is no association with Shiva.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Sankaranarayanan |first1=Sri |title=Glory of the Divine Mother: Devi Mahatmyam |publisher=Nesma Books India |year=2001 |isbn=978-8187936008 |page=127}}</ref>
The name ''Mahakali'', when ''kali'' is rendered to mean "black", translates to Japanese as ].


===Dakshinakali=== ===Dakshinakali===
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Dakshinakali is typically shown with her right foot on ]'s chest—while depictions showing Kali with her left foot on Shiva's chest depict the even more fearsome Vamakali. Vamakali is usually worshipped by non-householders.<ref name="Pravrajika Vedantaprana 2015 p.16">Pravrajika Vedantaprana, Saptahik Bartaman, Volume 28, Issue 23, Bartaman Private Ltd., 6, JBS Haldane Avenue, 700 105 (ed. 10 October 2015) p.16</ref> Dakshinakali is typically shown with her right foot on ]'s chest—while depictions showing Kali with her left foot on Shiva's chest depict the even more fearsome Vamakali. Vamakali is usually worshipped by non-householders.<ref name="Pravrajika Vedantaprana 2015 p.16">Pravrajika Vedantaprana, Saptahik Bartaman, Volume 28, Issue 23, Bartaman Private Ltd., 6, JBS Haldane Avenue, 700 105 (ed. 10 October 2015) p.16</ref>


The pose shows the conclusion of an episode in which Kali was rampaging out of control after destroying many demons. Lord Vishnu, Kali's brother, confronted Kali in an attempt to cool her down. She was unable to see beyond the limitless power of her rage and Lord Vishnu had to move out of her way. Seeing this the devas became more fearful, afraid that in her rampage, Kali would not stop until she destroyed the entire universe. Shiva saw only one solution to prevent Kali's endless destruction. Lord Shiva lay down on the battlefield so that Goddess Mahakali would have to step on him. When she saw her consort under her foot, Kali realized that she had gone too far. Filled with grief for the damage she had done, her blood-red tongue hung from her mouth, calming her down. In some interpretations of the story, Shiva was attempting to receive Kali's grace by receiving her foot on his chest.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Kinsley |first=David R. |editor1-last=McDermott |editor1-first=Rachel Fell |editor2-last=Kripal |editor2-first=Jeffrey J. |chapter=Kali |title=Encountering Kali: in the margins, at the center, in the West |year=2003 |publisher=University of California Press |page=36 |isbn=978-0-520-92817-6}}</ref> The pose shows the conclusion of an episode in which Kali was rampaging out of control after destroying many demons. Vishnu confronted Kali in an attempt to cool her down. She was unable to see beyond the limitless power of her rage and Vishnu had to move out of her way. Seeing this the devas became more fearful, afraid that in her rampage, Kali would not stop until she destroyed the entire universe. Shiva saw only one solution to prevent Kali's endless destruction. Shiva lay down on the battlefield so that Goddess Mahakali would have to step on him. When she saw her consort under her foot, Kali realized that she had gone too far. Filled with grief for the damage she had done, her blood-red tongue hung from her mouth, calming her down. In some interpretations of the story, Shiva was attempting to receive Kali's grace by receiving her foot on his chest.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Kinsley |first=David R. |editor1-last=McDermott |editor1-first=Rachel Fell |editor2-last=Kripal |editor2-first=Jeffrey J. |chapter=Kali |title=Encountering Kali: in the margins, at the center, in the West |year=2003 |publisher=University of California Press |page=36 |isbn=978-0-520-92817-6}}</ref>


] ]

There are many different interpretations of the pose held by Dakshinakali, including those of the 18th and 19th-century bhakti poet-devotees such as ]. Some have to do with battle imagery and tantric metaphysics. The most popular is a devotional view.


According to Rachel Fell McDermott, the poets portrayed Shiva as "the devotee who falls at feet in devotion, in the surrender of his ego, or in hopes of gaining ''moksha'' by her touch." In fact, Shiva is said to have become so enchanted by Kali that he performed austerities to win her, and having received the treasure of her feet, held them against his heart in reverence.<ref name="Dold2003">{{cite book |last1=Dold |first1=Patricia |editor-last1=McDermott |editor-first1=Rachel Fell |editor2-last=Kripal |editor2-first=Jeffrey J. |chapter=Kali the Terrific and Her Tests |title=Encountering Kali: In the Margins, at the Center, in the West |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=bMUJyU_C-LkC |year=2003 |publisher=University of California Press |page=54 |isbn=978-0-520-92817-6}} According to Rachel Fell McDermott, the poets portrayed Shiva as "the devotee who falls at feet in devotion, in the surrender of his ego, or in hopes of gaining ''moksha'' by her touch." In fact, Shiva is said to have become so enchanted by Kali that he performed austerities to win her, and having received the treasure of her feet, held them against his heart in reverence.<ref name="Dold2003">{{cite book |last1=Dold |first1=Patricia |editor-last1=McDermott |editor-first1=Rachel Fell |editor2-last=Kripal |editor2-first=Jeffrey J. |chapter=Kali the Terrific and Her Tests |title=Encountering Kali: In the Margins, at the Center, in the West |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=bMUJyU_C-LkC |year=2003 |publisher=University of California Press |page=54 |isbn=978-0-520-92817-6}}
</ref> </ref>


==Dakshina Kali and Krishnananda Agamavagisha==
The popularity of the worship of the Dakshinakali form of Goddess Kali is often attributed to ]. He was a noted 17th-century Bengali Tantra thinker and author of ''Tantrasara''. Devi Kali reportedly appeared to him in a dream and told him to popularize her in a particular form that would appear to him the following day. The next morning he observed a young woman making cow dung patties. While placing a patty on a wall, she stood in the ''alidha'' pose, with her right foot forward. When she saw Krishnananda watching her, she was embarrassed and put her tongue between her teeth, Agamavagisha realized that this was the divine form of maa kali he was looking for.<ref name="Dold2003" />{{rp|54}}<ref name="Sircar1998">{{cite book The popularity of the worship of the Dakshinakali form of Goddess Kali is often attributed to ]. He was a noted 17th-century Bengali Tantra thinker and author of ''Tantrasara''. Devi Kali reportedly appeared to him in a dream and told him to popularize her in a particular form that would appear to him the following day. The next morning he observed a young woman making cow dung patties. While placing a patty on a wall, she stood in the ''alidha'' pose, with her right foot forward. When she saw Krishnananda watching her, she was embarrassed and put her tongue between her teeth, Agamavagisha realized that this was the divine form of maa kali he was looking for.<ref name="Dold2003" />{{rp|54}}<ref name="Sircar1998">{{cite book
|last1=Sircar |last1=Sircar
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===Other forms=== ===Other forms===
Other forms of Kali popularly worshipped in Bengal include Raksha Kali (form of Kali worshipped for protection against epidemics and drought), Bhadra Kali and Guhya Kali. Kali is said to have 8, 12, or 21 different forms according to different traditions. The popular forms are Adya Kali, Chintamani Kali, Sparshamani Kali, Santati Kali, ], Dakshina Kali, ], Bhadra Kali, Smashana Kali, Adharvana Bhadra Kali, Kamakala Kali, Guhya Kali, Hamsa Kali, Shyama Kali, and Kalasankarshini Kali.<ref name="Pravrajika Vedantaprana 2015 p.16"/> Other forms of Kali popularly worshipped in Bengal include ] (form of Kali worshipped for protection against epidemics and drought), Bhadra Kali and Guhya Kali. Kali is said to have 8, 12, or 21 different forms according to different traditions. The popular forms are Adya Kali, Chintamani Kali, Sparshamani Kali, Santati Kali, ], Dakshina Kali, ], Bhadra Kali, Smashana Kali, Adharvana Bhadra Kali, Kamakala Kali, Guhya Kali, Hamsa Kali, Shyama Kali, and Kalasankarshini Kali. In ], ] is a regional form of ].<ref name="Pravrajika Vedantaprana 2015 p.16"/>


==Symbolism== ==Symbolism==
].]]
Interpretations of the symbolic meanings of Kali's appearance vary depending on Tantric or devotional approach, and on whether one views her image in a symbolic, allegorical or mystical fashion.<ref name="Kinsley1998pp86-90" />


Interpretations of the symbolic meanings of Kali's appearance vary depending on Tantric or devotional approach, and on whether one views her image in a symbolic, allegorical or mystical fashion.<ref name="Kinsley1998pp86-90" /> There are many varied depictions of the different forms of Kali. The most common form shows her with four arms and hands, showing aspects of both creation and destruction. The two right hands are often held out in blessing, one in a mudra saying "fear not" (]), the other conferring boons. Her left hands hold a severed head and blood-covered sword. The sword severs the bondage of ignorance and ego (]), represented by the severed head. One interpretation of Kali's tongue is that the red tongue symbolizes the ] nature being conquered by the white (symbolizing ]) nature of the teeth. Her blackness represents that she is '']'', beyond all qualities of nature, and transcendent.<ref name="Kinsley1998pp86-90" /><ref name="Dold2003" />{{rp|53–55}} Kali's lolling tongue is interpreted as her being angry, enraged; while many in India interpret it as "biting the tongue" in shame.<ref name="Jones"/>{{rp|222}}
===Physical form===
].]]
There are many varied depictions of the different forms of Kali. The most common form shows her with four arms and hands, showing aspects of both creation and destruction. The two right hands are often held out in blessing, one in a mudra saying "fear not" (]), the other conferring boons. Her left hands hold a severed head and blood-covered sword. The sword severs the bondage of ignorance and ego (]), represented by the severed head. One interpretation of Kali's tongue is that the red tongue symbolizes the ] nature being conquered by the white (symbolizing ]) nature of the teeth. Her blackness represents that she is '']'', beyond all qualities of nature, and transcendent.<ref name="Kinsley1998pp86-90" /><ref name="Dold2003" />{{rp|53–55}}


The most widespread interpretation of Kali's extended tongue involve her embarrassment over the sudden realization that she has stepped on her husband's chest. Kali's sudden "modesty and shame" over that act is the prevalent interpretation among ].<ref name="Dold2003" />{{rp|53–55}} The biting of the tongue conveys the emotion of ''lajja'' or modesty, an expression that is widely accepted as the emotion being expressed by Kali.<ref name="Kali's Tongue">{{cite book |last1=Menon |first1=Usha |last2=Shweder |first2=Richard A. |title=Emotion and Culture: Empirical Studies of Mutual Influence |chapter=Kali's Tongue: Cultural Psychology and the Power of Shame in Orissa, India |editor-last=Kitayama |editor-first=Shinobu |editor2-last=Markus |editor2-first=Hazel Rose |location=Washington, D.C. |publisher=American Psychological Association |date=1994 |pages=241–284}}</ref><ref name="McDaniel"/>{{rp|237}} In Bengal also, Kali's protruding tongue is "widely accepted... as a sign of speechless embarrassment: a gesture very common among Bengalis."<ref name="Dutta2011">{{cite book|author=Krishna Dutta|title=Calcutta: A Cultural and Literary History (Cities of the Imagination)|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=SZq_BAAAQBAJ&pg=PT18|year=2011|publisher=Andrews UK Ltd|isbn=978-1-904955-87-0|page=18}}</ref><ref name="Harding" />{{rp|xxiii}} The most widespread interpretation of Kali's extended tongue involve her embarrassment over the sudden realization that she has stepped on her husband's chest. Kali's sudden "modesty and shame" over that act is the prevalent interpretation among ].<ref name="Dold2003" />{{rp|53–55}} The biting of the tongue conveys the emotion of ''lajja'' or modesty, an expression that is widely accepted as the emotion being expressed by Kali.<ref name="Kali's Tongue">{{cite book |last1=Menon |first1=Usha |last2=Shweder |first2=Richard A. |title=Emotion and Culture: Empirical Studies of Mutual Influence |chapter=Kali's Tongue: Cultural Psychology and the Power of Shame in Orissa, India |editor-last=Kitayama |editor-first=Shinobu |editor2-last=Markus |editor2-first=Hazel Rose |location=Washington, D.C. |publisher=American Psychological Association |date=1994 |pages=241–284}}</ref><ref name="McDaniel"/>{{rp|237}} In Bengal also, Kali's protruding tongue is "widely accepted... as a sign of speechless embarrassment: a gesture very common among Bengalis."<ref name="Dutta2011">{{cite book |author=Krishna Dutta |title=Calcutta: A Cultural and Literary History (Cities of the Imagination) |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=SZq_BAAAQBAJ&pg=PT18 |year=2011 |publisher=Andrews UK Ltd |isbn=978-1-904955-87-0 |page=18}}</ref><ref name="Harding" />{{rp|xxiii}}


The twin earrings of Kali are small embryos. This is because Kali likes devotees who have childlike qualities in them.<ref name="Pravrajika Vedantaprana 2015 p.16"/> The forehead of Kali is seen to be as luminous as the full moon and eternally giving out ambrosia.<ref name="Pravrajika Vedantaprana 2015 p.16"/> The twin earrings of Kali are small embryos. This is because Kali likes devotees who have childlike qualities in them.<ref name="Pravrajika Vedantaprana 2015 p.16"/> The forehead of Kali is seen to be as luminous as the full moon and eternally giving out ambrosia.<ref name="Pravrajika Vedantaprana 2015 p.16"/>


Kali is often shown standing with her right foot on Shiva's chest. This represents an episode where Kali was out of control on the battlefield, such that she was about to destroy the entire universe. Shiva pacified her by laying down under her foot to pacify and calm her. Shiva is sometimes shown with a blissful smile on his face.<ref name="Dold2003" />{{rp|53–55}} She is typically shown with a garland of severed heads, often numbering fifty. This can symbolize the letters of the Sanskrit alphabet and therefore as the primordial sound of ] from which all creation proceeds. The severed arms which make up her skirt represent her devotee's karma that she has taken on.<ref name="Kinsley1998pp86-90" /> Kali is often shown standing with her right foot on Shiva's chest. This represents an episode where Kali was out of control on the battlefield, such that she was about to destroy the entire universe. Shiva pacified her by laying down under her foot to pacify and calm her. Shiva is sometimes shown with a blissful smile on his face.<ref name="Dold2003" />{{rp|53–55}} She is typically shown with a garland of severed heads, often numbering fifty. This can symbolize the letters of the Sanskrit alphabet and therefore as the primordial sound of ] from which all creation proceeds. The severed arms which make up her skirt represent her devotee's karma that she has taken on.<ref name="Kinsley1998pp86-90" />

===Mother Nature===
The name Kali means ] or force of time. When there were neither the creation, nor the sun, the moon, the planets, and the earth, there was only darkness and everything was created from the darkness. The Dark appearance of Kali represents the darkness from which everything was born.<ref name="Harding" /> Her complexion is black. As she is also the goddess of Preservation, Kali is worshipped as the preserver of ].{{citation needed|date=June 2022}} Kali is standing calm on ], her appearance represents the preservation of mother nature.{{citation needed|date=June 2022}} Her free, long and black hair represents nature's freedom from ].{{citation needed|date=June 2022}} Under the third eye of kali, the signs of both sun, moon, and fire are visible which represent the driving forces of nature.{{citation needed|date=June 2022}} Kali is not always thought of as a Dark Goddess.{{citation needed|date=June 2022}} Despite Kali's origins in battle, she evolved to a full-fledged symbol of Mother Nature in her creative, nurturing and devouring aspects.{{citation needed|date=June 2022}}


There are several interpretations of the symbolism behind the commonly represented image of Kali standing on Shiva's supine form. A common interpretation is that Shiva symbolizes '']'', the universal unchanging aspect of reality, or pure consciousness. Kali represents '']'', nature or matter, sometimes seen as having a feminine quality of creation of life. The merging of these two qualities represent ultimate reality.<ref name="Kinsley1997" />{{rp|88}} There are several interpretations of the symbolism behind the commonly represented image of Kali standing on Shiva's supine form. A common interpretation is that Shiva symbolizes '']'', the universal unchanging aspect of reality, or pure consciousness. Kali represents '']'', nature or matter, sometimes seen as having a feminine quality of creation of life. The merging of these two qualities represent ultimate reality.<ref name="Kinsley1997" />{{rp|88}}
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==Worship== ==Worship==
===Mantras=== ===Mantras===
Kali could be considered a general concept, like Durga, and is primarily worshipped in the Kali Kula sect of worship. The closest way of direct worship is Maha Kali or ] (Bhadra in Sanskrit means 'gentle'). Kali is worshipped as one of the 10 ] forms of Adi Parashakti. One mantra for worship to Kali is:<ref name="Chawdri">{{cite book Kali is closely associated with transcendent knowledge and is regarded as the first of the ten ]s, an amalgamation of goddesses who provide liberating knowledge.<ref name="Paul"/>{{rp|399}} Kali is primarily worshipped in the ] worship tradition. The closest way of direct worship is to the forms of ] or ] (Bhadra in Sanskrit means 'gentle'). One mantra for Kali worship is:<ref name="Chawdri">{{cite book
|last=Chawdhri |last=Chawdhri
|first=L.R. |first=L.R.
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ॐ काली काली महाकाली कालिके परमेश्वरी । सर्वानन्दकरी देवी नारायणि नमोऽस्तुते ।। ॐ काली काली महाकाली कालिके परमेश्वरी । सर्वानन्दकरी देवी नारायणि नमोऽस्तुते ।।
}} }}

In fact, chanting of Mahishasura Mardhini is a daily ritual in all Hindu Bengali homes especially during Navratri / Durga Pujo as it is called.{{citation needed|date=September 2021}}

The chant of the first chapter of Durga Saptashati is considered a very important hymn to Sri Mahakali as Devi Mahatmyam / Durga Saptashati dates back to the Upanishadic Era of Indological literature.


===Tantra=== ===Tantra===
]]] ]]]


Goddesses play an important role in the study and practice of ] Yoga, and are affirmed to be as central to discerning the nature of reality as are the male deities. Although ] is often said to be the recipient and student of ]'s wisdom in the form of ''Tantras'', it is Kali who seems to dominate much of the Tantric iconography, texts, and rituals.{{citation needed|date=July 2020}} In many sources Kāli is praised as the highest reality or greatest of all deities. The ''Nirvana-tantra'' says the gods ], ], and Shiva all arise from her like bubbles in the sea, ceaselessly arising and passing away, leaving their original source unchanged. The ''Niruttara-tantra'' and the ''Picchila-tantra'' declare all of Kāli's mantras to be the greatest and the ''Yogini-tantra'', ''Kamakhya-tantra'' and the ''Niruttara-tantra'' all proclaim Kāli ''vidyas'' (manifestations of ''Mahadevi'', or "divinity itself"). They declare her to be an essence of her own form (''svarupa'') of the ''Mahadevi''.<ref name="Kinsley1997" />{{rp|122–124}} In Tantrism the cause of reality is the mutual interaction between male and female or Shiva and Shakti. As a result, goddesses play an important role in the study and practice of ] Yoga and are essential in understanding the nature of reality.<ref name="Kinsley1997" /> Kali is often mentioned in Tantric iconography, texts and rituals even though ] received ]'s wisdom in the form of Tantras.<ref name="Kinsley1997" /> Kali is revered are the highest reality or greatest of all deities in many Tantric texts. The ''Niruttara-tantra'' and the ''Picchila-tantra'' state that among all mantras Kali's mantras are the greatest. The ''Kdmadd-tantra'' mentions that Kali is ''sacciddnanda'' or imperishable bliss and Brahman. In other texts like the''Yogini-tantra'', ''Kamakhya-tantra'' and the ''Niruttara-tantra'' Kali is referred to as an essential form of ].<ref name="Kinsley1997" />{{rp|122–124}}


In Tantric practice, Kali's figure represents death itself. The ''Karpuradi-stotra,'' dated to approximately 10th century CE'','' describes the ''Pancatattva'' ritual which is performed on cremation grounds (''Samahana-sadhan''). It states that a '']'' that meditates on the terrible aspects of Kali's form and confronts her can attain salvation.<ref name="Kinsley1997" />{{rp|122–124}}
In the ''Mahanirvana-tantra'', Kāli is one of the epithets for the primordial ''ṥakti'', and in one passage Shiva praises her:


The ''Karpuradi-stotra'' also describes Kali's gentler form that is young, with a smiling face and with two right hands to dispel fear and offer boons. She is also described as the supreme being of the universe. In this benign form, Kali becomes the goddess who grants salvation when fear is overcome and goes from being a symbol of death to being a symbol of triumph over death.<ref name="Kinsley1997" />{{rp|124–125}}
{{blockquote|At the dissolution of things, it is Kāla Who will devour all, and by reason of this He is called Mahākāla , and since Thou devourest Mahākāla Himself, it is Thou who art the Supreme Primordial Kālika. Because Thou devourest Kāla, Thou art Kāli, the original form of all things, and because of Thou art the Origin of and devourest all things Thou art called the Adya . Re-assuming after Dissolution Thine own form, dark and formless, Thou alone remainest as One ineffable and inconceivable. Though having a form, yet art Thou formless; though Thyself without beginning, multiform by the power of Maya, Thou art the Beginning of all, Creatrix, Protectress, and Destructress that Thou art.<ref name="Kinsley1997" />{{rp|122–124}}}}

The figure of Kāli conveys death, destruction, and the consuming aspects of reality. As such, she is also a "forbidden thing", or even death itself. In the ''Pancatattva'' ritual, the '']'' boldly seeks to confront Kali, and thereby assimilates and transforms her into a vehicle of salvation.<ref name="Kinsley1997" />{{rp|122–124}} This is clear in the work of the ''Karpuradi-stotra'',<ref>{{cite book
|last1=Woodroffe
|first1=John
|author-link=John Woodroffe
|title=Karpuradi Stotra, Tantrik Texts Vol IX
|year=1922
|publisher=Calcutta Agamanusandhana Samiti
}}</ref> short praise of Kāli describing the ''Pancatattva'' ritual unto her, performed on ]. (''Samahana-sadhana'');

{{blockquote|He, O Mahākāli who in the cremation-ground, who wear skull garland and skirt of bones and with dishevelled hair, intently meditates upon Thee and recites Thy mantra, and with each recitation makes offering to Thee of a thousand Akanda flowers with seed, becomes without any effort a Lord of the earth. Oh Kāli, whoever on Tuesday at midnight, having uttered Thy mantra, makes offering even but once with devotion to Thee of a hair of his Shakti in the cremation-ground, becomes a great poet, a Lord of the earth, and ever goes mounted upon an elephant.<ref name="Kinsley1997" />{{rp|122–124}}}}

The ''Karpuradi-stotra'', dated to approximately 10th century CE,<ref>{{cite book
|last1=Beck
|first1=Guy L.
|title=Sonic Theology: Hinduism and Sacred Sound
|year=1993
|publisher=University of South Carolina Press
|isbn=978-1-64336-404-9|page=145}}</ref> clearly indicates that Kāli is more than a terrible, vicious, slayer of demons who serves ] or ]. Here, she is identified as the supreme mother of the universe, associated with the five elements. In union with Lord Shiva, she creates and destroys worlds. Her appearance also takes a different turn, befitting her role as ruler of the world and object of meditation.<ref name="Kinsley1997" />{{rp|124–125}} In contrast to her terrible aspects, she takes on hints of a more benign dimension. She is described as young and beautiful, has a gentle smile, and makes gestures with her two right hands to dispel any fear and offer boons. The more positive features exposed offer the distillation of divine wrath into a goddess of salvation, who rids the ''sadhaka'' of fear. Here, Kali appears as a symbol of triumph over death.<ref name="Kinsley1997" />{{rp|125}}


===In Bengali tradition=== ===In Bengali tradition===
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] ]


Kali is a central figure in late medieval ] devotional literature, with such notable devotee poets as ] (1769–1821), ] (1718–1775). With the exception of being associated with ] as ]'s consort, Kāli is rarely pictured in Hindu legends and iconography as a motherly figure until Bengali devotions beginning in the early eighteenth century. Even in Bengāli tradition her appearance and habits change little, if at all.<ref name="Kinsley1997" />{{rp|126}} Kali is a central figure in late medieval ] devotional literature, with such notable devotee poets as ] (1769–1821) and ] (1718–1775). With the exception of being associated with ] as ]'s consort, Kāli is rarely pictured in Hindu legends and iconography as a motherly figure until Bengali devotions beginning in the early eighteenth century. Even in Bengāli tradition her appearance and habits change little, if at all.<ref name="Kinsley1997" />{{rp|126}}

The Tantric approach to Kāli is to display courage by confronting her on cremation grounds in the dead of night, despite her terrible appearance. In contrast, the Bengali devotee adopts the attitude of a child, coming to love her unreservedly. In both cases, the goal of the devotee is to become reconciled with death and to learn acceptance of the way that things are. These themes are addressed in Rāmprasād's work.<ref name="Kinsley1997" />{{rp|125–126}} Rāmprasād comments in many of his other songs that Kāli is indifferent to his wellbeing, causes him to suffer, brings his worldly desires to nothing and his worldly goods to ruin. He also states that she does not behave like a mother should and that she ignores his pleas:


The Tantric approach to Kāli is to display courage by confronting her on cremation grounds in the dead of night, despite her terrible appearance. In contrast, the Bengali devotee adopts the attitude of a child, coming to love her unreservedly. In both cases, the goal of the devotee is to become reconciled with death and to learn acceptance of the way that things are. These themes are addressed in Rāmprasād's work.<ref name="Kinsley1997" />{{rp|125–126}} Rāmprasād comments in many of his other songs that Kāli is indifferent to his wellbeing, causes him to suffer, brings his worldly desires to nothing and his worldly goods to ruin. He also states that she does not behave like a mother should and that she ignores his pleas.<ref name="Kinsley1997" />{{rp|128}}
{{poemquote|Can mercy be found in the heart of her who was born of the stone?
Were she not merciless, would she kick the breast of her lord?
Men call you merciful, but there is no trace of mercy in you, Mother.
You have cut off the heads of the children of others, and these you wear as a garland around your neck.
It matters not how much I call you "Mother, Mother." You hear me, but you will not listen.<ref name="Kinsley1997" />{{rp|128}}}}


To be a child of Kāli, Rāmprasād asserts, is to be denied of earthly delights and pleasures. Kāli is said to refrain from giving that which is expected. To the devotee, it is perhaps her very refusal to do so that enables her devotees to reflect on dimensions of themselves and of reality that go beyond the material world.<ref name="Kinsley1997" />{{rp|128}} To be a child of Kāli, Rāmprasād asserts, is to be denied of earthly delights and pleasures. Kāli is said to refrain from giving that which is expected. To the devotee, it is perhaps her very refusal to do so that enables her devotees to reflect on dimensions of themselves and of reality that go beyond the material world.<ref name="Kinsley1997" />{{rp|128}}


A significant portion of Bengali devotional music features Kāli as its central theme and is known as ] ("Music of the Night"). Mostly sung by male vocalists, today women have taken to this form of music. A significant portion of Bengali devotional music features Kāli as its central theme and is known as ].<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Multani |first1=Angelie |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=qsDGEAAAQBAJ&dq=shyama+sangeet+in+bengali+tradition&pg=PT50 |title=From Canon to Covid: Transforming English Literary Studies in India. Essays in Honour of GJV Prasad |last2=Pal |first2=Swati |last3=Saha |first3=Nandini |last4=Shakil |first4=Albeena |last5=Ghosh |first5=Arjun |date=2023-08-31 |publisher=Taylor & Francis |isbn=978-1-000-89220-8 |language=en}}</ref>


Kāli is especially venerated in the festival of ] in eastern India – celebrated when the new moon day of ] month coincides with the festival of ]. The practice of animal sacrifice is still practiced during Kali Puja in Bengal, Orissa, and Assam, though it is rare outside of those areas. The ]s where this takes place involves the ritual slaying of goats, chickens and sometimes male water buffalos. Throughout India, the practice is becoming less common.<ref name="Fuller Christopher John 2004 83">{{cite book|last=J. Fuller|first= C.|title=The Camphor Flame: Popular Hinduism and Society in India |edition=Revised|year=2004|publisher=]|isbn=978-0-691-12048-5 |page=83|quote=Animal sacrifice is still practiced widely and is an important ritual in popular Hinduism|id= {{ASIN|069112048X|country=uk}}}}</ref> The rituals in eastern India temples where animals are killed are generally led by ] priests.<ref name="Fuller Christopher John 2004 83"/>{{rp|84, 101–104}} A number of ] ] specify the ritual for how the animal should be killed. A Brahmin priest will recite a mantra in the ear of the animal to be sacrificed, in order to free the animal from the cycle of life and death. Groups such as People for Animals continue to protest animal sacrifice based on court rulings forbidding the practice in some locations.<ref>{{cite book |last1=McDermottb|first1=Rachel Fell |title=Revelry, rivalry, and longing for the goddesses of Bengal: the fortunes of Hindu festivals |date=2011 |publisher=] |location=New York; Chichester |isbn=978-0-231-12918-3 |page=205 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ggBeH_lmUu8C&pg=PR10 |access-date=17 December 2014}}</ref> Kāli is especially venerated in the festival of ] in eastern India – celebrated when the new moon day of ] month coincides with the festival of ]. The practice of animal sacrifice is still practiced during Kali Puja in Bengal, Orissa, and Assam, though it is rare outside of those areas. The ]s where this takes place involves the ritual slaying of goats, chickens and sometimes male water buffalos. Throughout India, the practice is becoming less common.<ref name="Fuller Christopher John 2004 83">{{cite book|last=J. Fuller|first= C.|title=The Camphor Flame: Popular Hinduism and Society in India |edition=Revised|year=2004|publisher=]|isbn=978-0-691-12048-5 |page=83|quote=Animal sacrifice is still practiced widely and is an important ritual in popular Hinduism|id= {{ASIN|069112048X|country=uk}}}}</ref> The rituals in eastern India temples where animals are killed are generally led by ] priests.<ref name="Fuller Christopher John 2004 83"/>{{rp|84, 101–104}} A number of ] ] specify the ritual for how the animal should be killed. A Brahmin priest will recite a mantra in the ear of the animal to be sacrificed, in order to free the animal from the cycle of life and death. Groups such as People for Animals continue to protest animal sacrifice based on court rulings forbidding the practice in some locations.<ref>{{cite book |last1=McDermottb|first1=Rachel Fell |title=Revelry, rivalry, and longing for the goddesses of Bengal: the fortunes of Hindu festivals |date=2011 |publisher=] |location=New York; Chichester |isbn=978-0-231-12918-3 |page=205 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ggBeH_lmUu8C&pg=PR10 |access-date=17 December 2014}}</ref>
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Tantric Kali cults such as the Kaula and Krama had a strong influence on ], as can be seen in fierce-looking ]s and ]s such as ] and Krodikali.<ref>{{Cite book |last=English |first=Elizabeth |url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/50234984 |title=Vajrayoginī: her visualizations, rituals & forms: a study of the cult of Vajrayoginī in India |publisher=Wisdom Publications |year=2002 |isbn=0-86171-329-X |edition=1st Wisdom |location=Boston |pages=38–40 |oclc=50234984}}</ref> Tantric Kali cults such as the Kaula and Krama had a strong influence on ], as can be seen in fierce-looking ]s and ]s such as ] and Krodikali.<ref>{{Cite book |last=English |first=Elizabeth |url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/50234984 |title=Vajrayoginī: her visualizations, rituals & forms: a study of the cult of Vajrayoginī in India |publisher=Wisdom Publications |year=2002 |isbn=0-86171-329-X |edition=1st Wisdom |location=Boston |pages=38–40 |oclc=50234984}}</ref>


In Tibet, Krodikali (alt. Krodhakali, Kālikā, Krodheśvarī, Krishna Krodhini) is known as ''Tröma Nagmo'' ({{lang-xct|ཁྲོ་མ་ནག་མོ་}}, ]: {{lang|bo-Latn|khro ma nag mo}}, English: "The Black Wrathful Lady").<ref> {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080821222811/http://www.himalayanart.org/pages/vajrayogini/index.html |date=21 August 2008 }} Himalayan Art Resources</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.himalayanart.org/image.cfm/490.html|title=Vajrayogini (Buddhist Deity) – Krodha Kali (Wrathful Black Varahi) |work=HimalayanArt}}</ref> She features as a key deity in the practice tradition of ] founded by ] and is seen as a fierce form of ].<ref>{{Cite book |last=Simmer-Brown |first=Judith |author-link=Judith Simmer-Brown |url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/54964040 |title=Dakini's warm breath: the feminine principle in Tibetan Buddhism |year=2002 |isbn=1-57062-920-X |edition=1st paperback |location=Boulder |publisher=Shambhala |pages=146 |oclc=54964040}}</ref> Other similar fierce deities include the dark blue Ugra Tara and the lion-faced ].<ref>{{Cite book |last=Shaw |first=Miranda Eberle |url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/62342823 |title=Buddhist goddesses of India |publisher=Princeton University Press |year=2006 |isbn=0-691-12758-1 |location=Princeton |pages=340, 426|oclc=62342823}}</ref> In Tibet, Krodikali (alt. Krodhakali, Kālikā, Krodheśvarī, Krishna Krodhini) is known as ''Tröma Nagmo'' ({{langx|xct|ཁྲོ་མ་ནག་མོ་}}, ]: {{lang|bo-Latn|khro ma nag mo}}, English: "The Black Wrathful Lady").<ref> {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080821222811/http://www.himalayanart.org/pages/vajrayogini/index.html |date=21 August 2008 }} Himalayan Art Resources</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.himalayanart.org/image.cfm/490.html|title=Vajrayogini (Buddhist Deity) – Krodha Kali (Wrathful Black Varahi) |work=HimalayanArt}}</ref> She features as a key deity in the practice tradition of ] founded by ] and is seen as a fierce form of ].<ref>{{Cite book |last=Simmer-Brown |first=Judith |author-link=Judith Simmer-Brown |url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/54964040 |title=Dakini's warm breath: the feminine principle in Tibetan Buddhism |year=2002 |isbn=1-57062-920-X |edition=1st paperback |location=Boulder |publisher=Shambhala |pages=146 |oclc=54964040}}</ref> Other similar fierce deities include the dark blue Ugra Tara and the lion-faced ].<ref>{{Cite book |last=Shaw |first=Miranda Eberle |url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/62342823 |title=Buddhist goddesses of India |publisher=Princeton University Press |year=2006 |isbn=0-691-12758-1 |location=Princeton |pages=340, 426|oclc=62342823}}</ref>


===In Sinhala Buddhism=== ===In Sinhala Buddhism===

] of a guardian with a very similar appearance to Kali]]
In Sri Lanka, Kali is venerated and called upon by Buddhists and Hindus. She is a type of mother goddess, sometimes invoked to fight disease,<ref>{{Cite web |title=Three aspects of the 'Dhammika Paniya' controversy |url=https://www.dailymirror.lk/opinion/Three-aspects-of-the--%E2%80%98Dhammika-Paniya%E2%80%99--controversy/172-202661}}</ref> and a maid of the Goddess ].<ref name=":0" /> In Sinhala Buddhism, her origin is explained through her arriving at Munneśvaram from South India, eating humans, and attempting to eat Pattini, who instead tames her.<ref name=":2" /> In Sri Lanka, Kali is venerated and called upon by Buddhists and Hindus. She is a type of mother goddess, sometimes invoked to fight disease,<ref>{{Cite web |title=Three aspects of the 'Dhammika Paniya' controversy |url=https://www.dailymirror.lk/opinion/Three-aspects-of-the--%E2%80%98Dhammika-Paniya%E2%80%99--controversy/172-202661}}</ref> and a maid of the Goddess ].<ref name=":0" /> In Sinhala Buddhism, her origin is explained through her arriving at Munneśvaram from South India, eating humans, and attempting to eat Pattini, who instead tames her.<ref name=":2" />


She is regarded as having seven forms; Bhadrakāli (who is associated with business and gold trade, and prominently worshipped at the Tamil Hindu ] temple, though over 80% of its patrons are Sinhala Buddhists. Bhadrakāli priests here interpret her tongue as symbolizing revenge, rather than embarrassment, and she tramples the demon of ignorance<ref name=":2">{{Cite journal |last=Bastin |first=Rohan |date=September 1996 |title=THE REGENERATIVE POWER OF KALI WORSHIP IN CONTEMPORARY SINHALA BUDDHISM |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/23171698 |journal=Social Analysis: The International Journal of Anthropology}}</ref>), Mahābhadrakāli, Pēnakāli, Vandurukāli (Hanumāpatrakāli), Rīrikāli, Sohonkāli, and Ginikāli.<ref name=":0" /> These forms are subordinate to Kāliammā (the mother of Kāli). Red flowers, silver coins, blood, and oil lamps with mustard oil are offered to her, and as Pattini's servant, she accepts offerings on her behalf.<ref name=":1">{{Cite journal |last=Hewamanage |first=Wimal |date=January 2018 |title=The History of the Kāli Cult and its Implications in Modern Sri Lankan Buddhist Culture |journal=Alternative Spirituality and Religion Review}}</ref> Sohonkāli is the form venerated in one of her most popular temples, the Mōdara Kāli temple in ].<ref name=":0">{{Cite web |title=Kali is not alien to Sinhala-Buddhism |url=https://dailyexpress.lk/commentary/5609/}}</ref> She is regarded as having seven forms; Bhadrakāli (who is associated with business and gold trade, and prominently worshipped at the Tamil Hindu ] temple, though over 80% of its patrons are Sinhala Buddhists. Bhadrakāli priests here interpret her tongue as symbolizing revenge, rather than embarrassment, and she tramples the demon of ignorance<ref name=":2">{{Cite journal |last=Bastin |first=Rohan |date=September 1996 |title=The Regenerative Power of Kali Worship in Contemporary Sinhala Buddhism |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/23171698 |journal=Social Analysis: The International Journal of Anthropology|issue=40 |pages=59–94 |jstor=23171698 }}</ref>), Mahābhadrakāli, Pēnakāli, Vandurukāli (Hanumāpatrakāli), Rīrikāli, Sohonkāli, and Ginikāli.<ref name=":0" /> These forms are subordinate to Kāliammā (the mother of Kāli). Red flowers, silver coins, blood, and oil lamps with mustard oil are offered to her, and as Pattini's servant, she accepts offerings on her behalf.<ref name=":1">{{Cite journal |last=Hewamanage |first=Wimal |date=January 2018 |title=The History of the Kāli Cult and its Implications in Modern Sri Lankan Buddhist Culture |journal=Alternative Spirituality and Religion Review|volume=9 |issue=2 |pages=246–256 |doi=10.5840/asrr2018111353 }}</ref> Sohonkāli is the form venerated in one of her most popular temples, the Mōdara Kāli temple in ].<ref name=":0">{{Cite web |title=Kali is not alien to Sinhala-Buddhism |date=27 December 2020 |url=https://dailyexpress.lk/commentary/5609/}}</ref>


Her worship in Sri Lanka dates back to at least the 9th century CE, and ] created the ] in the 13th century based on an older 5th century work, which actively recontextualizes Kali in a Buddhist context,<ref>{{Cite web |title=Sri Kali and Sri Lanka |url=http://www.srilankaguardian.org/2011/12/sri-kali-and-sri-lanka.html?m=1}}</ref> exploring the nature of violence and vengeance and how they trap people in cycles until justification, guilt, and good and evil become irrelevant.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Thera |first=Dharmasena |title=The Jewels of the Doctrine |year=1991 |isbn=0-7914-0489-7 |language=English |translator-last=Obeyesekere |translator-first=Ranjini}}</ref> Kali has been seen as both a demon (though a tamed one, thanks to Pattini<ref name=":2" />) and a goddess in Sri Lanka.<ref name=":1" /> She and mythical Sinhala Buddhist kings both use demonic fury as a necessary condition of conquest.<ref name=":2" /> Her worship in Sri Lanka dates back to at least the 9th century CE, and ] created the ] in the 13th century based on an older 5th century work, which actively recontextualizes Kali in a Buddhist context,<ref>{{Cite web |title=Sri Kali and Sri Lanka |url=http://www.srilankaguardian.org/2011/12/sri-kali-and-sri-lanka.html?m=1}}</ref> exploring the nature of violence and vengeance and how they trap people in cycles until justification, guilt, and good and evil become irrelevant.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Thera |first=Dharmasena |title=The Jewels of the Doctrine |year=1991 |publisher=SUNY Press |isbn=0-7914-0489-7 |language=English |translator-last=Obeyesekere |translator-first=Ranjini}}</ref> Kali has been seen as both a demon (though a tamed one, thanks to Pattini<ref name=":2" />) and a goddess in Sri Lanka.<ref name=":1" /> She and mythical Sinhala Buddhist kings both use demonic fury as a necessary condition of conquest.<ref name=":2" />


Yantras are used in relation to her, sourced from the ], later Buddhist ] chants, and from non-Buddhist yantras and mantras. The Sādhakayantra is popular, and its corresponding mantra includes Arabic words and Islamic concepts.<ref name=":1" /> Yantras are used in relation to her, sourced from the ], later Buddhist ] chants, and from non-Buddhist yantras and mantras. The Sādhakayantra is popular, and its corresponding mantra includes Arabic words and Islamic concepts.<ref name=":1" />
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===Worship in the Western world=== ===Worship in the Western world===
====Theorized early worship==== ====Theorized early worship====
A form of Kali worship may have already been transmitted to the west in Medieval times by the wandering ]. A few authors have drawn parallels between Kali worship and the ceremonies of the annual pilgrimage in honor of ], also known as ''Sara-la-Kali'' ("Sara the Black", {{lang-rom|Sara e Kali}}), held at ], a place of ] for Roma in the ], in southern ].<ref>{{Cite book |last=McDowell |first=Bart |title=Gypsies: Wanderers of the World |pages=38–57}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Fonseca |first=Isabel |url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/32387216 |title=Bury me standing: the Gypsies and their journey |others=Mazal Holocaust Collection, David Lindroth Inc. |year=1995 |isbn=0-679-40678-6 |edition=1st |location=New York |publisher=Alfred A. Knopf |pages=106–107 |oclc=32387216}}</ref> ] (2001) states: A form of Kali worship may have already been transmitted to the west in Medieval times by the wandering ]. A few authors have drawn parallels between Kali worship and the ceremonies of the annual pilgrimage in honor of ], also known as ''Sara-la-Kali'' ("Sara the Black", {{langx|rom|Sara e Kali}}), held at ], a place of ] for Roma in the ], in southern France.<ref>{{Cite book |last=McDowell |first=Bart |title=Gypsies: Wanderers of the World |pages=38–57}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Fonseca |first=Isabel |url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/32387216 |title=Bury me standing: the Gypsies and their journey |others=Mazal Holocaust Collection, David Lindroth Inc. |year=1995 |isbn=0-679-40678-6 |edition=1st |location=New York |publisher=Alfred A. Knopf |pages=106–107 |oclc=32387216}}</ref> ] (2001) notes that the similarities in the ceremonies performed at the shrine if Sainte Sara (called Sara e Kali in Romani) indicate that Kali/Durga worship have been incorporated to a Christian figure.<ref name="McDermott1998p281-305" />

{{blockquote|If we compare the ceremonies with those performed in France at the shrine of Sainte Sara (called ''Sara e Kali'' in Romani), we become aware that the worship of Kali/]/Sara has been transferred to a Christian figure... in France, to a ] called Sara, who is actually part of the Kali/Durga/Sara worship among certain groups in India.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Lee |first=Ronald |title=The Rom-Vlach Gypsies and the Kris-Romani |pages=210}}</ref>}}


====In modern times==== ====In modern times====
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| publisher = Motilal Banarsidass | publisher = Motilal Banarsidass
| date = 1998 | date = 1998
|pages=281–305}}</ref> Rachel Fell McDermott, Professor of Asian and Middle Eastern Cultures at ] and author of several books on Kali, has noted the evolving views in the West regarding Kali and her worship. In 1998 McDermott wrote that: |pages=281–305}}</ref> Rachel Fell McDermott, Professor of Asian and Middle Eastern Cultures at ] and author of several books on Kali, has noted the evolving views in the West regarding Kali and her worship. In 1998 McDermott wrote that feminists and New Age spiritualists are drawn to Kali because they perceive her to be a symbol of repressed female power, sexuality, and healing but that this is a misinterpretation which stems from a lack of knowledge about Hindu religious tradition.<ref name="McDermott1998p281-305" /> By 2003, she amended this view stating that cross-cultural borrowing should be done thoughtfully and is natural due to religious globalization. She further stated that Kali enthusiasts since the early 1990s had sought to take on a more informed approach by incorporating more Indian perspective of her character than feminist and New Age interpretations.<ref name="McDermott1998p281-305" />


The emergence of Kali in the modern times as an image of significance for many women, both Hindu and non-Hindu, has been noteworthy.<ref name="Paul"/>{{rp|399}} Since the late twentieth century, various ]s in the West have associated Kali with ].<ref name="EY" /> ] religious and spiritual movements have found in the iconographic representations and mythological stories of Kali an inspiration for ] and ].<ref name="EY" />
{{blockquote|A variety of writers and thinkers have found Kali an exciting figure for reflection and exploration, notably, ] and participants in ] spirituality who are attracted to goddess worship. , Kali is a symbol of wholeness and healing, associated especially with repressed female power and sexuality. confusion and misrepresentation, stemming from a lack of knowledge of Hindu history among these authors, draw upon materials written by scholars of the Hindu religious tradition&nbsp;... It is hard to import the worship of a goddess from another culture: religious associations and connotations have to be learned, imagined or intuited when the deep symbolic meanings embedded in the native culture are not available.<ref name="McDermott1998p281-305" />}}

By 2003, she amended her previous view.
{{blockquote|... crosscultural borrowing ''is'' appropriate and a natural by-product of religious globalization—although such borrowing ought to be done responsibly and self-consciously. If some Kali enthusiasts, therefore, careen ahead, reveling in a goddess of power and sex, many others, particularly since the early 1990s, have decided to reconsider their theological trajectories. These , whether of South Asian descent or not, are endeavoring to rein in what they perceive as excesses of feminist and New Age interpretations of the Goddess by choosing to be informed by, moved by, an Indian view of her character.<ref>{{cite book |last1=McDermott |first1=Rachel Fell |title=Encountering Kali: In the Margins, at the Center, in the West |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=bMUJyU_C-LkC |year=2003 |publisher=University of California Press |page=285 |isbn=978-0-520-92817-6}}</ref>
}}


====In Réunion==== ====In Réunion====


In ], a part of France in the Indian Ocean, veneration for Saint ] ({{Lang-fr|Saint Expédit}}) is very popular. The ] have Tamil ancestry but are, at least nominally, Catholics. In ], an island territory of France in the Indian Ocean, veneration for Saint ] ({{Langx|fr|Saint Expédit}}) is very popular. The ] have Tamil ancestry but are, at least nominally, Catholics.
The saint is identified with Kali.<ref name="Suryanarayan">{{cite journal |last1=Suryanarayan |first1=V. |title=Tamils In Re-Union: Losing Cultural Identity – Analysis |journal=Eurasia Review |date=12 October 2018 |url=https://www.eurasiareview.com/12102018-tamils-in-re-union-losing-cultural-identity-analysis/ |access-date=3 March 2021 |language=en |quote=Saint Expedit, worshipped locally, is identified with Goddess Kali.}}</ref> The saint is identified with Kali.<ref name="Suryanarayan">{{cite journal |last1=Suryanarayan |first1=V. |title=Tamils In Re-Union: Losing Cultural Identity – Analysis |journal=Eurasia Review |date=12 October 2018 |url=https://www.eurasiareview.com/12102018-tamils-in-re-union-losing-cultural-identity-analysis/ |access-date=3 March 2021 |language=en |quote=Saint Expedit, worshipped locally, is identified with Goddess Kali.}}</ref>


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The Bronze Age epic cycles of the ]ine city of ] include a myth according to which the warrior goddess ] started attacking warriors, with the text of the myth describing the goddess as gloating and her heart filling with joy and her liver with laughter while attaching the heads of warriors to her back and girding hands to her waist{{sfn|Pope|1977|pages=606–607}} until she is pacified by a message of peace sent by her brother and consort, the god ].{{sfn|Pope|1977|page=601}} The Bronze Age epic cycles of the ]ine city of ] include a myth according to which the warrior goddess ] started attacking warriors, with the text of the myth describing the goddess as gloating and her heart filling with joy and her liver with laughter while attaching the heads of warriors to her back and girding hands to her waist{{sfn|Pope|1977|pages=606–607}} until she is pacified by a message of peace sent by her brother and consort, the god ].{{sfn|Pope|1977|page=601}}


The Hindu goddess Kālī similarly wore a necklace of severed heads and a girdle of severed hands, and was pacified by her consort, Śiva, throwing himself under her feet. The sickle sword wielded by Kālī might also have been connected to similar sickle swords used in ] ].{{sfn|Pope|1977|pages=608}} The Hindu goddess Kali similarly wore a necklace of severed heads and a girdle of severed hands, and was pacified by her consort, Śiva, throwing himself under her feet. The sickle sword wielded by Kali might also have been connected to similar sickle swords used in ] ].{{sfn|Pope|1977|pages=608}}


=== Egyptian Sekhmet === === Egyptian Sekhmet ===
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==In popular culture== ==In popular culture==
]'' magazine cover, 1972]]
], based on the out stuck tongue of Kali]]
A 1939 American ]'', ]'', features a resurgent sect of ]s as worshippers of Kali who are at war with the British Raj.<ref>{{Cite book |doi=10.4324/9780203720707 |title=South Asian Transnationalisms |date=2014-02-25 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-1-135-71832-9 |editor-last=Sinha |editor-first=Babli |pages=88–89}}</ref> In the ]' 1965 film '']'', ] is pursued by Kali worshippers intending to sacrifice him.<ref name="Magic Circles">{{cite book |last1=McKinney |first1=Devin |title=Magic Circles: The Beatles in Dream and History |date=2003 |publisher=Harvard University Press |isbn=978-0-674-01202-8 |page=78 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=NODXwtg3SIkC&dq=%22Help!%22+Beatles+Kali&pg=PA78 |language=en}}</ref><ref name="Vampires' Most Wanted">{{cite book |last1=Enright |first1=Laura |title=Vampires' Most Wanted: The Top 10 Book of Bloodthirsty Biters, Stake-wielding Slayers, and Other Undead Oddities |date=30 June 2011 |publisher=], Inc. |isbn=978-1-59797-752-4 |page=12 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=kbM7fOH5SI0C&dq=%22Help!%22+Beatles+Kali&pg=PT12 |language=en}}</ref> In '']'' (1984), an action-adventure film which takes place in 1935, a Thuggee cult of Kali worshippers are villains.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Ganguly |first1=Swagato |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=r_0wDwAAQBAJ&q=%22Indiana+Jones+and+the+Temple+of+Doom%22+kali&pg=PT12 |title=Idolatry and the Colonial Idea of India: Visions of Horror, Allegories of Enlightenment |date=2017 |publisher=Taylor & Francis |isbn=978-1351584678 |language=en |access-date=6 January 2019}}</ref> An Indian television series, '']'' (2017), has ] (Mahakali), Shiva's consort, assuming varied forms to destroy evil and protect the innocent.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Nathan |first=Leona |date=2017-07-23 |title=Mahakali – Anth Hi Aarambh Hai: Pooja Sharma Says, Playing Mahakali Is A Lifetime Experience |url=https://www.india.com/entertainment/mahakali-anth-hi-aarambh-hai-pooja-sharma-says-playing-mahakali-is-a-lifetime-experience-2342973/ |access-date=2020-09-27 |website=India News, Breaking News, Entertainment News {{!}} India.com |language=en}}</ref>
{{see also|Thuggee#In popular culture}}

'']'', a 1939 American ] from ] directed by ] and starring ], ], and ], features a resurgent sect of Thuggees as worshippers of Kali who are at war with the British Raj.

In the ]' 1965 film '']'', ] is pursued by Kali worshippers intending to sacrifice him.<ref name="Magic Circles">{{cite book |last1=McKinney |first1=Devin |title=Magic Circles: The Beatles in Dream and History |date=2003 |publisher=Harvard University Press |isbn=978-0-674-01202-8 |page=78 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=NODXwtg3SIkC&dq=%22Help!%22+Beatles+Kali&pg=PA78 |language=en}}</ref><ref name="Vampires' Most Wanted">{{cite book |last1=Enright |first1=Laura |title=Vampires' Most Wanted: The Top 10 Book of Bloodthirsty Biters, Stake-wielding Slayers, and Other Undead Oddities |date=30 June 2011 |publisher=], Inc. |isbn=978-1-59797-752-4 |page=12 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=kbM7fOH5SI0C&dq=%22Help!%22+Beatles+Kali&pg=PT12 |language=en}}</ref>

The ] of the band ], created in 1971, was inspired by the stuck-out tongue of Kali.<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2015/06/08/arts/music/art-of-the-rolling-stones-behind-that-zipper-and-that-tongue.html|title=Art of the Rolling Stones: Behind That Zipper and That Tongue|last=Coscarelli|first=Joe|work=]|date=7 June 2015|access-date=9 June 2015|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150611105409/http://www.nytimes.com/2015/06/08/arts/music/art-of-the-rolling-stones-behind-that-zipper-and-that-tongue.html |archive-date=11 June 2015}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Fornatale |first1=Peter |title=50 Licks: Myths and Stories from Half a Century of the Rolling Stones |date=2013 |publisher=Bloomsbury Publishing |isbn=978-1408833834 |pages= |url=https://archive.org/details/50licksmythsstor00forn |url-access=registration |language=en}}</ref>

A version of Kali is on the cover of the first issue of feminist magazine '']'', published in 1972. Here, Kali's many arms symbolize the many tasks of the contemporary American woman.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Lemak |first1=Jennifer A. |last2=Hopkins-Benton |first2=Ashley |title=Votes for Women: Celebrating New York's Suffrage Centennial |date=2017 |publisher=] |isbn=978-1-4384-6732-0 |pages=204 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=tuo_DwAAQBAJ&pg=PA204 |access-date=2 July 2020 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last1=Donald |first1=Brooke |title=The feminist struggle continues, Gloria Steinem says, encouraging a Stanford audience toward 'one new subversive thing' |url=https://news.stanford.edu/news/2012/january/gloria-steinem-talk-012712.html |website=] |access-date=2 July 2020 |language=en |date=27 January 2012}}</ref>

A ] cult of Kali worshippers are villains in '']'' (1984), an action-adventure film which takes place in 1935.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Ganguly |first1=Swagato |title=Idolatry and the Colonial Idea of India: Visions of Horror, Allegories of Enlightenment |date=2017 |publisher=Taylor & Francis |isbn=978-1351584678 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=r_0wDwAAQBAJ&q=%22Indiana+Jones+and+the+Temple+of+Doom%22+kali&pg=PT12 |access-date=6 January 2019 |language=en}}</ref>

'']'' (2017) is an Indian television series in which ] (Mahakali), Shiva's consort, assumes varied forms to destroy evil and protect the innocent.<ref>{{Cite web|last=Nathan|first=Leona|date=2017-07-23|title=Mahakali – Anth Hi Aarambh Hai: Pooja Sharma Says, Playing Mahakali Is A Lifetime Experience|url=https://www.india.com/entertainment/mahakali-anth-hi-aarambh-hai-pooja-sharma-says-playing-mahakali-is-a-lifetime-experience-2342973/|access-date=2020-09-27|website=India News, Breaking News, Entertainment News {{!}} India.com|language=en}}</ref>

==References==
{{Reflist|30em}}


A modern version of Kali was featured on the cover of the first issue of feminist magazine '']'', published in 1972, with Kali's many arms symbolizing the many tasks of the contemporary American woman.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Lemak |first1=Jennifer A. |last2=Hopkins-Benton |first2=Ashley |title=Votes for Women: Celebrating New York's Suffrage Centennial |date=2017 |publisher=] |isbn=978-1-4384-6732-0 |pages=204 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=tuo_DwAAQBAJ&pg=PA204 |access-date=2 July 2020 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last1=Donald |first1=Brooke |title=The feminist struggle continues, Gloria Steinem says, encouraging a Stanford audience toward 'one new subversive thing' |url=https://news.stanford.edu/news/2012/january/gloria-steinem-talk-012712.html |website=] |access-date=2 July 2020 |language=en |date=27 January 2012}}</ref> The ] of the band ], created in 1971, was inspired by the stuck-out tongue of Kali.<ref>{{cite news |last=Coscarelli |first=Joe |date=7 June 2015 |title=Art of the Rolling Stones: Behind That Zipper and That Tongue |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2015/06/08/arts/music/art-of-the-rolling-stones-behind-that-zipper-and-that-tongue.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150611105409/http://www.nytimes.com/2015/06/08/arts/music/art-of-the-rolling-stones-behind-that-zipper-and-that-tongue.html |archive-date=11 June 2015 |access-date=9 June 2015 |work=]}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Fornatale |first1=Peter |url=https://archive.org/details/50licksmythsstor00forn |title=50 Licks: Myths and Stories from Half a Century of the Rolling Stones |date=2013 |publisher=Bloomsbury Publishing |isbn=978-1408833834 |pages= |language=en |url-access=registration}}</ref>


==Further reading== ==Further reading==
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* {{cite book |last1=Santideva |first1=Sadhu |title=Ascetic Mysticism |year=2000 |publisher=Cosmo Publications |ref=refSantideva2000}} * {{cite book |last1=Santideva |first1=Sadhu |title=Ascetic Mysticism |year=2000 |publisher=Cosmo Publications |ref=refSantideva2000}}
* Loriliai Biernacki, ''Renowned Goddess of Desire: Women, Sex, and Speech in Tantra'' Oxford Scholarship Online: September 2007, {{doi| 10.1093/acprof:oso/9780195327823.001.0001}}, {{ISBN|978-0195327823}} * Loriliai Biernacki, ''Renowned Goddess of Desire: Women, Sex, and Speech in Tantra'' Oxford Scholarship Online: September 2007, {{doi| 10.1093/acprof:oso/9780195327823.001.0001}}, {{ISBN|978-0195327823}}
* {{cite book |editor-last=Haussig |editor-first=Hans Wilhelm |editor-link=:de:Hans Wilhelm Haussig |last1=Pope |first1=Marvin H. |author-link1= |last2=Röllig |first2=Wolfgang |author-link2=:de:Wolfgang Röllig |date=1965 |title=Götter und Mythen im Vorderen Orient |trans-title=Gods and Myths in the Middle East |chapter=Syrien: Die Mythologie der Ugariter und Phönizier |trans-chapter=Syria: The Mythology of the Ugarites and Phoenicians |language=de |url= |location=], ] |publisher=] |pages=217–312 |isbn=}} * {{cite book |editor-last=Haussig |editor-first=Hans Wilhelm |editor-link=:de:Hans Wilhelm Haussig |last1=Pope |first1=Marvin H. |author-link1= |last2=Röllig |first2=Wolfgang |author-link2=:de:Wolfgang Röllig |date=1965 |title=Götter und Mythen im Vorderen Orient |trans-title=Gods and Myths in the Middle East |chapter=Syrien: Die Mythologie der Ugariter und Phönizier |trans-chapter=Syria: The Mythology of the Ugarites and Phoenicians |language=de |url= |location=], Germany |publisher=] |pages=217–312 |isbn=}}
* {{cite book |last=Pope |first=Marvin H. |author-link= |date=1977 |title=Song of Songs |series=] |volume=7C |url= |location=], ] |publisher=] |isbn=978-0-385-00569-2 }} * {{cite book |last=Pope |first=Marvin H. |author-link= |date=1977 |title=Song of Songs |series=] |volume=7C |url= |location=New York City, United States |publisher=] |isbn=978-0-385-00569-2}}
* Shanmukha Anantha Natha and Shri Ma Kristina Baird, ''Divine Initiation'' Shri Kali Publications (2001) {{ISBN|0-9582324-0-7}} – Has a chapter on Mahadevi with a commentary on the ''Devi Mahatmyam'' from the Markandeya Purana. * Shanmukha Anantha Natha and Shri Ma Kristina Baird, ''Divine Initiation'' Shri Kali Publications (2001) {{ISBN|0-9582324-0-7}} – Has a chapter on Mahadevi with a commentary on the ''Devi Mahatmyam'' from the Markandeya Purana.
* Ajit Mookerjee, ''Kali: The Feminine Force'' {{ISBN|0-89281-212-5}} * Ajit Mookerjee, ''Kali: The Feminine Force'' {{ISBN|0-89281-212-5}}
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* *
{{Refend}} {{Refend}}

==References==
{{Reflist|30em}}


==External links== ==External links==
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Latest revision as of 14:45, 10 January 2025

Major deity in Indian religions symbolising power, time, and death This article is about the form of Mahadevi. For the Supreme goddess of time and death, see Mahakali. For the consort of Virabhadra, see Bhadrakali. For the divine entity in Hinduism, see Kali (demon). For other uses, see Kali (disambiguation).

Kali
Goddess of Time, Death and Destruction
Member of The Ten Mahavidyas
Kali by Raja Ravi Varma
Affiliation
AbodeCremation grounds, Battlefields (varies by interpretation), Manidvipa
Mantra
  • oṁ jayanti maṅgala kālī
    bhadrakālī kapālinī
    durgā kṣamā śivā dhātrī
    svāhā svadhā namostute
  • oṁ krīṃ kālīkāyai namaḥ
WeaponScimitar, Trishula (Trident)
DayTuesday and Friday
MountLion
TextsDevi-Bhagavata Purana, Devi Mahatmya, Kalika Purana, Shakta Upanishads, Tantras
GenderFemale
Festivals
ConsortShiva
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Kali (/ˈkɑːliː/; Sanskrit: काली, IAST: Kālī), also called Kalika, is a major goddess in Hinduism, primarily associated with time, death and destruction. Kali is also connected with transcendental knowledge and is the first of the ten Mahavidyas, a group of goddess who provide liberating knowledge. Of the numerous Hindu goddesses, Kali is held as the most famous. She is the preeminent deity in the Hindu tantric tradition and the Kalikula worship tradition, and is a central figure in the goddess-centric sects of Hinduism as well as in Shaivism. Kali is chiefly worshipped as the Divine Mother, Mother of the Universe, and Divine feminine energy.

The origins of Kali can be traced to the pre-Vedic and Vedic era goddess worship traditions in the Indian subcontinent. Etymologically the term Kali refers to one who governs time or is black. The first major appearance of Kali in the Sanskrit literature was in the sixth-century CE text Devi Mahatmya. Kali appears in many stories, with the most popular one being when she manifests as personification of goddess Durga's rage to defeat the demon Raktabija. The terrifying iconography of Kali makes her a unique figure among the goddesses and symbolises her embracement and embodiment of the grim worldly realities of blood, death and destruction.

Kali is stated to protect and bestow liberation (moksha) to devotees who approach her with an attitude of a child towards mother. Devotional songs and poems that extol the motherly nature of Kali are popular in Bengal, where she is most widely worshipped as the Divine Mother. Shakta and Tantric traditions additionally worship Kali as the ultimate reality or Brahman. In modern times, Kali has emerged as a symbol of significance for women.

Etymology

The term Kali is derived from Kala, which is mentioned quite differently in Sanskrit. The homonym kālá (time) is distinct from kāla (black), but these became associated through popular etymology. Kali is then understood as "she who is the ruler of time", or "she who is black". Kālī is the goddess of time or death and the consort of Shiva. She is called Kali Mata ("the dark mother") and also kālī, which can be read here either as a proper name or as a description: "the dark (or black) one".

Origins

Although the word Kālī appears as early as the Atharva Veda, the first use of it as a proper name is in the Kathaka Grhya Sutra (19.7). Kali originated as a tantric and non-Vedic goddess. Her roots are most probably connected to the Pre-Aryan period. According to Indologist Wendy Doniger, Kali's origins can be traced to the deities of the Pre-Vedic village, tribal, and mountain cultures of South Asia who were gradually appropriated and transformed by the Sanskritic traditions.

Legends

Her most well-known appearance is on the battlefield in the sixth century text Devi Mahatmyam. The deity of the first chapter of Devi Mahatmyam is Mahakali, who appears from the body of sleeping Vishnu as goddess Yoga Nidra to wake him up in order to protect Brahma and the world from two asuras (demons), Madhu-Kaitabha. When Vishnu woke up he started a war against the two asuras. After a long battle with Vishnu, the two demons were undefeated and Mahakali took the form of Mahamaya to enchant the two asuras. When Madhu and Kaitabha were enchanted by Mahakali, Vishnu killed them.

In later chapters, the story of two asuras who were destroyed by Kali can be found. Chanda and Munda attack the goddess Kaushiki. Kaushiki responds with such anger that it causes her face to turn dark, resulting in Kali appearing out of her forehead. Kali's appearance is dark blue, gaunt with sunken eyes, wearing a tiger skin sari and a garland of human heads. She immediately defeats the two asuras. Later in the same battle, the asura Raktabija is undefeated because of his ability to reproduce himself from every drop of his blood that reaches the ground. Countless Raktabija clones appear on the battlefield. Kali eventually defeats him by sucking his blood before it can reach the ground, and eating the numerous clones. Kinsley writes that Kali represents "Durga's personified wrath, her embodied fury".

Other origin stories involve Parvati and Shiva. Parvati is typically portrayed as a benign and friendly goddess. The Linga Purana describes Shiva asking Parvati to defeat the asura Daruka, who received a boon that would only allow a female to kill him. Parvati merges with Shiva's body, reappearing as Kali to defeat Daruka and his armies. Her bloodlust gets out of control, only calming when Shiva intervenes. The Vamana Purana has a different version of Kali's relationship with Parvati. When Shiva addresses Parvati as Kali, "the dark blue one", she is greatly offended. Parvati performs austerities to lose her dark complexion and becomes Gauri, the golden one. Her dark sheath becomes Kaushiki, who while enraged, creates Kali.

In the Devi Bhagavata Purana, Kali turns black out of rage, while battling the demons Shumbha and Nishumbha.

Slayer of Raktabīja

In Kāli's most famous legend, Durga and her assistants, the Matrikas, wound the demon Raktabīja, in various ways and with a variety of weapons in an attempt to destroy him. They soon find that they have worsened the situation for with every drop of blood that drips from Raktabīja, he reproduces a duplicate of himself. The battlefield becomes increasingly filled with his duplicates. Durga summons Kāli to combat the demons. This episode is described in the Devi Mahatmyam, Kali is depicted as being fierce, clad in a tiger's skin and armed with a sword and noose. She has deep, red eyes with tongue lolling out as she catches drops of Raktabīja's blood before they fall to the ground and create duplicates.

Kali consumes Raktabīja and his duplicates, and dances on the corpses of the slain. In the Devi Mahatmya version of this story, Kali is also described as a Matrika and as a Shakti or power of Devi. She is given the epithet Cāṃuṇḍā (Chamunda), that is, the slayer of the demons Chanda and Munda. Chamunda is very often identified with Kali and is very much like her in appearance and habit.

Iconography and forms

The goddess Kali is regarded as the most famous female deity of all the numerous Hindu goddesses. The uncommon appearance of Kali is explained as a cause of her popularity. Kali is iconographically depicted as a "terrifying emaciated woman"; with black skin, long tangled hair, red eyes and a long lolling tongue. She is naked barring a grim set of ornamentation: "a necklace of skulls or freshly decapitated heads, a skirt of severed arms and jewellery made from the corpses of infants." The "wildness" is a defining aspect of her character. The terrifying iconography of Kali is considered symbolic of her role as a protector and a bestower of freedom to devotees, of whom she shall take care of if they come to her in the "attitude of a child." Devotional songs and poems that glorify the motherly nature of Kali are popular in Bengal, where she is most extensively worshipped.

In the Devi Mahatmya, where Kali first appeared as a personification of the rage of goddess Durga, an aspect of Kali's character was her thirst for blood and fondness to stay at places of death and destruction. In original depictions, Kali was often pictured in a cremation ground or battlefield standing on the corpse of Shiva, which symbolized her manifestation as Shakti. Kali represents the goddess embracing and encompassing the grim worldly realities of "blood, death and destruction".

The Kalika Purana describes Kali as "possessing a soothing dark complexion, as perfectly beautiful, riding a lion, four-armed, holding a sword and blue lotus, her hair unrestrained, body firm and youthful". The goddess has two depictions: the popular four-armed form and the ten-armed Mahakali avatar. In both, she is described as being black in colour, though she is often seen as blue in popular Indian art. Her eyes are described as red with intoxication and rage. Her hair is disheveled, small fangs sometimes protrude out of her mouth, and her tongue is lolling. Sometimes she dons a skirt made of demon arms and a garland of demon heads. Other times, she is seen wearing a tiger skin. She is also accompanied by serpents and a jackal while standing on the calm and prostrate Shiva, usually right foot forward to symbolize the more popular dakṣiṇācāra ("right-hand path"), as opposed to the more infamous and transgressive vamachara ("left-hand path"). Her mount, or vahana, is the lion.

Popular form

A Tamil depiction of Kali.

Kali is depicted with four arms, which symbolize the circle of creation and dissolution. Her left hands are depicted holding a severed head and a sword. The sword signifies divine knowledge and the human head signifies human ego which must be slain by divine knowledge in order to attain moksha. The right hands are usually depicted in the abhaya (fearlessness) and varada (blessing) mudras, which means her initiated devotees (or anyone worshipping her with a true heart) will be saved as she will guide them here and in the hereafter.

She wears a garland of demon heads, variously enumerated at 108 (an auspicious number in Hinduism and the number of countable beads on a japa mala or rosary for repetition of mantras) or 51, which represents Varnamala or the Garland of letters of the Sanskrit alphabet, Devanagari. Hindus believe Sanskrit is a language of dynamism, and each of these letters represents a form of energy, or a form of Kali. Therefore, she is generally seen as the mother of language, and all mantras.

She is often depicted naked which symbolizes her being beyond the covering of Maya since she is pure (nirguna) being-consciousness-bliss and far above Prakriti. She is shown as very dark as she is Brahman in its supreme unmanifest state. She has no permanent qualities—she will continue to exist even when the universe ends. It is therefore believed that the concepts of color, light, good, and bad do not apply to her.

Mahakali

Main article: Mahakali
Mahakali, goddess of time and death, depicted with a black complexion with ten heads, arms and legs.

Mahakali (Sanskrit: Mahākālī, Devanagari: महाकाली, Bengali: মহাকালী, Gujarati: મહાકાળી), literally translated as "Great Kali", is sometimes considered as a greater form of Kali, identified with the Ultimate reality of Brahman. It can also be used as an honorific of the Goddess Kali,. Mahakali symbolizes absolute night and the power of time. She is depicted with five or ten heads, each with three eyes and holding different weapons. Mahakali is known as the origin of all things, her consort is Mahakala.

The Skanda Purana mentions that Kali took the form of Mahakali at the instruction of Shiva who wanted her to destroy the world during the time of universal destruction.

In the ten-armed form of Mahakali, she is depicted as shining like a blue stone. She has ten faces, ten feet, and three eyes for each head. She has ornaments decked on all her limbs. There is no association with Shiva.

Dakshinakali

Dakshina Kali, with Shiva devotedly at her foot.

Dakshinakali is the most popular form of Kali in Bengal. She is the benevolent mother, who protects her devotees and children from mishaps and misfortunes. There are various versions for the origin of the name Dakshinakali. Dakshina refers to the gift given to a priest before performing a ritual or to one's guru. Such gifts are traditionally given with the right hand. Dakshinakali's two right hands are usually depicted in gestures of blessing and giving of boons. One version of the origin of her name comes from the story of Yama, lord of death, who lives in the south (dakshina). When Yama heard Kali's name, he fled in terror, and so those who worship Kali are said to be able to overcome death itself.

Dakshinakali is typically shown with her right foot on Shiva's chest—while depictions showing Kali with her left foot on Shiva's chest depict the even more fearsome Vamakali. Vamakali is usually worshipped by non-householders.

The pose shows the conclusion of an episode in which Kali was rampaging out of control after destroying many demons. Vishnu confronted Kali in an attempt to cool her down. She was unable to see beyond the limitless power of her rage and Vishnu had to move out of her way. Seeing this the devas became more fearful, afraid that in her rampage, Kali would not stop until she destroyed the entire universe. Shiva saw only one solution to prevent Kali's endless destruction. Shiva lay down on the battlefield so that Goddess Mahakali would have to step on him. When she saw her consort under her foot, Kali realized that she had gone too far. Filled with grief for the damage she had done, her blood-red tongue hung from her mouth, calming her down. In some interpretations of the story, Shiva was attempting to receive Kali's grace by receiving her foot on his chest.

The goddess is generally worshipped as Dakshina Kali (with her right feet on Shiva) in Bengal during Kali Puja.

According to Rachel Fell McDermott, the poets portrayed Shiva as "the devotee who falls at feet in devotion, in the surrender of his ego, or in hopes of gaining moksha by her touch." In fact, Shiva is said to have become so enchanted by Kali that he performed austerities to win her, and having received the treasure of her feet, held them against his heart in reverence.

The popularity of the worship of the Dakshinakali form of Goddess Kali is often attributed to Krishnananda Agamavagisha. He was a noted 17th-century Bengali Tantra thinker and author of Tantrasara. Devi Kali reportedly appeared to him in a dream and told him to popularize her in a particular form that would appear to him the following day. The next morning he observed a young woman making cow dung patties. While placing a patty on a wall, she stood in the alidha pose, with her right foot forward. When she saw Krishnananda watching her, she was embarrassed and put her tongue between her teeth, Agamavagisha realized that this was the divine form of maa kali he was looking for. Krishnananda Agamavagisha was also the guru of the Kali devotee and poet Ramprasad Sen.

Samhara Kali

Samhara Kali, also called Vama Kali, is the embodiment of the power of destruction. The chief goddess of Tantric texts, Samhara Kali is the most dangerous and powerful form of Kali. Samhara Kali takes form when Kali steps out with her left foot holding her sword in her right hand. She is the Kali of death, destruction and is worshipped by tantrics. As Samhara Kali she gives death and liberation. According to the Mahakala Samhita, Samhara Kali is two armed and black in complexion. She stands on a corpse and holds a freshly cut head and a plate to collect the dripping blood. She is worshipped by warriors, tantrics – the followers of Tantra.

Other forms

Other forms of Kali popularly worshipped in Bengal include Raksha Kali (form of Kali worshipped for protection against epidemics and drought), Bhadra Kali and Guhya Kali. Kali is said to have 8, 12, or 21 different forms according to different traditions. The popular forms are Adya Kali, Chintamani Kali, Sparshamani Kali, Santati Kali, Siddhi Kali, Dakshina Kali, Rakta Kali, Bhadra Kali, Smashana Kali, Adharvana Bhadra Kali, Kamakala Kali, Guhya Kali, Hamsa Kali, Shyama Kali, and Kalasankarshini Kali. In Gujarat, Khodiyar is a regional form of Mahakali.

Symbolism

In Bengal and Odisha, Kali's extended tongue is widely seen as expressing embarrassment over the realization that her foot is on her husband's chest. Above: idol of Kali at the Dakshineshwar Kali Temple.

Interpretations of the symbolic meanings of Kali's appearance vary depending on Tantric or devotional approach, and on whether one views her image in a symbolic, allegorical or mystical fashion. There are many varied depictions of the different forms of Kali. The most common form shows her with four arms and hands, showing aspects of both creation and destruction. The two right hands are often held out in blessing, one in a mudra saying "fear not" (abhayamudra), the other conferring boons. Her left hands hold a severed head and blood-covered sword. The sword severs the bondage of ignorance and ego (tamas), represented by the severed head. One interpretation of Kali's tongue is that the red tongue symbolizes the rajasic nature being conquered by the white (symbolizing sattvic) nature of the teeth. Her blackness represents that she is nirguna, beyond all qualities of nature, and transcendent. Kali's lolling tongue is interpreted as her being angry, enraged; while many in India interpret it as "biting the tongue" in shame.

The most widespread interpretation of Kali's extended tongue involve her embarrassment over the sudden realization that she has stepped on her husband's chest. Kali's sudden "modesty and shame" over that act is the prevalent interpretation among Odia Hindus. The biting of the tongue conveys the emotion of lajja or modesty, an expression that is widely accepted as the emotion being expressed by Kali. In Bengal also, Kali's protruding tongue is "widely accepted... as a sign of speechless embarrassment: a gesture very common among Bengalis."

The twin earrings of Kali are small embryos. This is because Kali likes devotees who have childlike qualities in them. The forehead of Kali is seen to be as luminous as the full moon and eternally giving out ambrosia.

Kali is often shown standing with her right foot on Shiva's chest. This represents an episode where Kali was out of control on the battlefield, such that she was about to destroy the entire universe. Shiva pacified her by laying down under her foot to pacify and calm her. Shiva is sometimes shown with a blissful smile on his face. She is typically shown with a garland of severed heads, often numbering fifty. This can symbolize the letters of the Sanskrit alphabet and therefore as the primordial sound of Aum from which all creation proceeds. The severed arms which make up her skirt represent her devotee's karma that she has taken on.

There are several interpretations of the symbolism behind the commonly represented image of Kali standing on Shiva's supine form. A common interpretation is that Shiva symbolizes purusha, the universal unchanging aspect of reality, or pure consciousness. Kali represents Prakriti, nature or matter, sometimes seen as having a feminine quality of creation of life. The merging of these two qualities represent ultimate reality.

A tantric interpretation sees Shiva as consciousness and Kali as power or energy. Consciousness and energy are dependent upon each other, since Shiva depends on Shakti, or energy, in order to fulfill his role in creation, preservation, and destruction. In this view, without Shakti, Shiva is a corpse—unable to act.

Worship

Mantras

Kali is closely associated with transcendent knowledge and is regarded as the first of the ten Mahavidyas, an amalgamation of goddesses who provide liberating knowledge. Kali is primarily worshipped in the Kalikula worship tradition. The closest way of direct worship is to the forms of Mahakali or Bhadrakali (Bhadra in Sanskrit means 'gentle'). One mantra for Kali worship is:

सर्वमङ्गलमाङ्गल्ये शिवे सर्वार्थसाधिके । शरण्ये त्र्यम्बके गौरि नारायणि नमोऽस्तु ते ॥
ॐ जयंती मंगला काली भद्रकाली कपालिनी । दुर्गा क्षमा शिवा धात्री स्वाहा स्वधा नमोऽस्तु‍ते ॥

Sarvamangal-māngalyē śivē sarvārthasādhikē. Śaraṇyē tryambakē Gauri nārāyaṇi namō'stu tē.
Oṃ jayantī mangala kālī bhadrakālī kapālinī . Durgā kṣamā śivā dhātrī svāhā svadhā namō'stu‍tē.
ॐ काली काली महाकाली कालिके परमेश्वरी । सर्वानन्दकरी देवी नारायणि नमोऽस्तुते ।।

Tantra

Kali Yantra

In Tantrism the cause of reality is the mutual interaction between male and female or Shiva and Shakti. As a result, goddesses play an important role in the study and practice of Tantra Yoga and are essential in understanding the nature of reality. Kali is often mentioned in Tantric iconography, texts and rituals even though Parvati received Shiva's wisdom in the form of Tantras. Kali is revered are the highest reality or greatest of all deities in many Tantric texts. The Niruttara-tantra and the Picchila-tantra state that among all mantras Kali's mantras are the greatest. The Kdmadd-tantra mentions that Kali is sacciddnanda or imperishable bliss and Brahman. In other texts like theYogini-tantra, Kamakhya-tantra and the Niruttara-tantra Kali is referred to as an essential form of Mahadevi.

In Tantric practice, Kali's figure represents death itself. The Karpuradi-stotra, dated to approximately 10th century CE, describes the Pancatattva ritual which is performed on cremation grounds (Samahana-sadhan). It states that a sadhaka that meditates on the terrible aspects of Kali's form and confronts her can attain salvation.

The Karpuradi-stotra also describes Kali's gentler form that is young, with a smiling face and with two right hands to dispel fear and offer boons. She is also described as the supreme being of the universe. In this benign form, Kali becomes the goddess who grants salvation when fear is overcome and goes from being a symbol of death to being a symbol of triumph over death.

In Bengali tradition

Statue of Kali trampling on Shiva, worshipped in Bengal.
Idol of goddess Kali kept near Nimtala ghat for Visarjan or Immersion in the waters of river Hooghly

Kali is a central figure in late medieval Bengal devotional literature, with such notable devotee poets as Kamalakanta Bhattacharya (1769–1821) and Ramprasad Sen (1718–1775). With the exception of being associated with Parvati as Shiva's consort, Kāli is rarely pictured in Hindu legends and iconography as a motherly figure until Bengali devotions beginning in the early eighteenth century. Even in Bengāli tradition her appearance and habits change little, if at all.

The Tantric approach to Kāli is to display courage by confronting her on cremation grounds in the dead of night, despite her terrible appearance. In contrast, the Bengali devotee adopts the attitude of a child, coming to love her unreservedly. In both cases, the goal of the devotee is to become reconciled with death and to learn acceptance of the way that things are. These themes are addressed in Rāmprasād's work. Rāmprasād comments in many of his other songs that Kāli is indifferent to his wellbeing, causes him to suffer, brings his worldly desires to nothing and his worldly goods to ruin. He also states that she does not behave like a mother should and that she ignores his pleas.

To be a child of Kāli, Rāmprasād asserts, is to be denied of earthly delights and pleasures. Kāli is said to refrain from giving that which is expected. To the devotee, it is perhaps her very refusal to do so that enables her devotees to reflect on dimensions of themselves and of reality that go beyond the material world.

A significant portion of Bengali devotional music features Kāli as its central theme and is known as Shyama Sangeet.

Kāli is especially venerated in the festival of Kali Puja in eastern India – celebrated when the new moon day of Ashwin month coincides with the festival of Diwali. The practice of animal sacrifice is still practiced during Kali Puja in Bengal, Orissa, and Assam, though it is rare outside of those areas. The Hindu temples where this takes place involves the ritual slaying of goats, chickens and sometimes male water buffalos. Throughout India, the practice is becoming less common. The rituals in eastern India temples where animals are killed are generally led by Brahmin priests. A number of Tantric Puranas specify the ritual for how the animal should be killed. A Brahmin priest will recite a mantra in the ear of the animal to be sacrificed, in order to free the animal from the cycle of life and death. Groups such as People for Animals continue to protest animal sacrifice based on court rulings forbidding the practice in some locations.

In Tantric Buddhism

Tröma Nagm in Tibetan Buddhism, shares some attributes of Kali.

Tantric Kali cults such as the Kaula and Krama had a strong influence on Tantric Buddhism, as can be seen in fierce-looking yoginis and dakinis such as Vajrayogini and Krodikali.

In Tibet, Krodikali (alt. Krodhakali, Kālikā, Krodheśvarī, Krishna Krodhini) is known as Tröma Nagmo (Classical Tibetan: ཁྲོ་མ་ནག་མོ་, Wylie: khro ma nag mo, English: "The Black Wrathful Lady"). She features as a key deity in the practice tradition of Chöd founded by Machig Labdron and is seen as a fierce form of Vajrayogini. Other similar fierce deities include the dark blue Ugra Tara and the lion-faced Simhamukha.

In Sinhala Buddhism

In Sri Lanka, Kali is venerated and called upon by Buddhists and Hindus. She is a type of mother goddess, sometimes invoked to fight disease, and a maid of the Goddess Pattini. In Sinhala Buddhism, her origin is explained through her arriving at Munneśvaram from South India, eating humans, and attempting to eat Pattini, who instead tames her.

She is regarded as having seven forms; Bhadrakāli (who is associated with business and gold trade, and prominently worshipped at the Tamil Hindu Munneśvaram temple, though over 80% of its patrons are Sinhala Buddhists. Bhadrakāli priests here interpret her tongue as symbolizing revenge, rather than embarrassment, and she tramples the demon of ignorance), Mahābhadrakāli, Pēnakāli, Vandurukāli (Hanumāpatrakāli), Rīrikāli, Sohonkāli, and Ginikāli. These forms are subordinate to Kāliammā (the mother of Kāli). Red flowers, silver coins, blood, and oil lamps with mustard oil are offered to her, and as Pattini's servant, she accepts offerings on her behalf. Sohonkāli is the form venerated in one of her most popular temples, the Mōdara Kāli temple in Colombo.

Her worship in Sri Lanka dates back to at least the 9th century CE, and Dharmasena Thera created the Sadharma Ratnavaliya in the 13th century based on an older 5th century work, which actively recontextualizes Kali in a Buddhist context, exploring the nature of violence and vengeance and how they trap people in cycles until justification, guilt, and good and evil become irrelevant. Kali has been seen as both a demon (though a tamed one, thanks to Pattini) and a goddess in Sri Lanka. She and mythical Sinhala Buddhist kings both use demonic fury as a necessary condition of conquest.

Yantras are used in relation to her, sourced from the Pali Canon, later Buddhist paritta chants, and from non-Buddhist yantras and mantras. The Sādhakayantra is popular, and its corresponding mantra includes Arabic words and Islamic concepts.

Worship in the Western world

Theorized early worship

A form of Kali worship may have already been transmitted to the west in Medieval times by the wandering Romani. A few authors have drawn parallels between Kali worship and the ceremonies of the annual pilgrimage in honor of Saint Sarah, also known as Sara-la-Kali ("Sara the Black", Romani: Sara e Kali), held at Saintes-Maries-de-la-Mer, a place of pilgrimage for Roma in the Camargue, in southern France. Ronald Lee (2001) notes that the similarities in the ceremonies performed at the shrine if Sainte Sara (called Sara e Kali in Romani) indicate that Kali/Durga worship have been incorporated to a Christian figure.

In modern times

An academic study of modern-day western Kali enthusiasts noted that, "as shown in the histories of all cross-cultural religious transplants, Kali devotionalism in the West must take on its own indigenous forms if it is to adapt to its new environment." Rachel Fell McDermott, Professor of Asian and Middle Eastern Cultures at Columbia University and author of several books on Kali, has noted the evolving views in the West regarding Kali and her worship. In 1998 McDermott wrote that feminists and New Age spiritualists are drawn to Kali because they perceive her to be a symbol of repressed female power, sexuality, and healing but that this is a misinterpretation which stems from a lack of knowledge about Hindu religious tradition. By 2003, she amended this view stating that cross-cultural borrowing should be done thoughtfully and is natural due to religious globalization. She further stated that Kali enthusiasts since the early 1990s had sought to take on a more informed approach by incorporating more Indian perspective of her character than feminist and New Age interpretations.

The emergence of Kali in the modern times as an image of significance for many women, both Hindu and non-Hindu, has been noteworthy. Since the late twentieth century, various feminist movements in the West have associated Kali with women's empowerment. New age religious and spiritual movements have found in the iconographic representations and mythological stories of Kali an inspiration for theological and sexual liberation.

In Réunion

In Réunion, an island territory of France in the Indian Ocean, veneration for Saint Expeditus (French: Saint Expédit) is very popular. The Malbars have Tamil ancestry but are, at least nominally, Catholics. The saint is identified with Kali.

Comparative scholarship

Scholar Marvin H. Pope in 1965 argues that the Hindu goddess Kali, who is first attested in the 7th century CE, shares some characteristics with some ancient Near Eastern goddesses, such as wearing a necklace of heads and a belt of severed hands like Anat, and drinking blood like the Egyptian goddess Sekhmet and that therefore that her character might have been influenced by them.

Levantine Anat

The Bronze Age epic cycles of the Levantine city of Ugarit include a myth according to which the warrior goddess Anat started attacking warriors, with the text of the myth describing the goddess as gloating and her heart filling with joy and her liver with laughter while attaching the heads of warriors to her back and girding hands to her waist until she is pacified by a message of peace sent by her brother and consort, the god Baʿlu.

The Hindu goddess Kali similarly wore a necklace of severed heads and a girdle of severed hands, and was pacified by her consort, Śiva, throwing himself under her feet. The sickle sword wielded by Kali might also have been connected to similar sickle swords used in early dynastic Mesopotamia.

Egyptian Sekhmet

According to an Ancient Egyptian myth, called The Deliverance of Mankind from Destruction, the ancient Egyptian supreme god, the Sun-god Ra, suspected that mankind was plotting against him, and so he sent the goddess Hathor, who was the incarnation of his violent feminine aspect, the Eye of Ra, to destroy his enemies.

Furthermore, Hathor appeared as the lion-goddess Sekhmet and carried out Ra's orders until she became so captured by her blood-lust that she would not stop despite Ra himself becoming distressed and wishing an end to the killing. Therefore, Ra concocted a ruse whereby a plain was flooded with beer which had been dyed red, which Sekhmet mistook for blood and drank until she became too inebriated to continue killing, thus saving humanity from destruction.

Similarly, while killing demons, Kālī became ecstatic with the joy of battle and slaughter and refused to stop, so that the Devas feared she would destroy the world, and she was stopped through ruse when her consort Śiva threw himself under her feet.

In popular culture

Ms. magazine cover, 1972

A 1939 American adventure film, Gunga Din, features a resurgent sect of Thuggees as worshippers of Kali who are at war with the British Raj. In the Beatles' 1965 film Help!, Ringo Starr is pursued by Kali worshippers intending to sacrifice him. In Indiana Jones and the Temple of Doom (1984), an action-adventure film which takes place in 1935, a Thuggee cult of Kali worshippers are villains. An Indian television series, Mahakali — Anth Hi Aarambh Hai (2017), has Parvati (Mahakali), Shiva's consort, assuming varied forms to destroy evil and protect the innocent.

A modern version of Kali was featured on the cover of the first issue of feminist magazine Ms., published in 1972, with Kali's many arms symbolizing the many tasks of the contemporary American woman. The tongue and lips logo of the band The Rolling Stones, created in 1971, was inspired by the stuck-out tongue of Kali.

Further reading

References

  1. ^ Reid-Bowen, Paul (2008). "KĀLĪ AND CAṆḌĪ". In Cush, Denise; Robinson, Catherine; York, Michael (eds.). Encyclopedia of Hinduism. Routledge. pp. 398–399. ISBN 978-0-7007-1267-0.
  2. "The Significance of Dus Mahavidya". The Times Of India. Retrieved 4 April 2019.
  3. ^ Foulston, Lynn (2008). "ŚAKTI". In Cush, Denise; Robinson, Catherine; York, Michael (eds.). Encyclopedia of Hinduism. Routledge. p. 730. ISBN 978-0-7007-1267-0.
  4. ^ "Kali". Encyclopædia Britannica. 31 July 2024.
  5. "Dakshin Kali Khadgamala Stotra: A Hymn to the Fierce and Compassionate Goddess from Rudrayamal Tantra - Aghori Stories". aghoristories.com. February 2024. Retrieved 6 May 2024.
  6. Hawley, John Stratton; Wulff, Donna Marie (1982). Sri Ramakrishna: The Spiritual Glow. Motilal Banarsidass. p. 152.
  7. ^ Harding, Elizabeth U. (1993). Kali: The Black Goddess of Dakshineswar. Nicolas Hays. ISBN 978-8120814509.
  8. ^ McDaniel, June (2004). Offering Flowers, Feeding Skulls: Popular Goddess Worship in West Bengal. Oxford University Press.
  9. ^ Jones, Constance; Ryan, James D. (2007). Encyclopedia of Hinduism. Encyclopedia of World Religions. New York: Infobase Publishing. pp. 220–221. ISBN 9780816054589.
  10. ^ Coburn, Thomas (1984). Devī-Māhātmya – Crystallization of the Goddess Tradition. Motilal Banarsidass, Delhi. ISBN 978-81-208-0557-6.
  11. McDermott, Rachel Fell (2001). Singing to the Goddess: Poems to Kali and Uma from Bengal. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0198030706.
  12. Urban, Hugh B. (2003). "India's Darkest Heart: Kali in the Colonial Imagination". In McDermott, Rachel Fell; Kripal, Jeffrey J. (eds.). Encountering Kali: In the Margins, at the Center, in the West. University of California Press. p. 171. ISBN 978-0-520-92817-6.
  13. Mohanty, Seema; Seema (July 2009). The Book of Kali. Penguin Books India. ISBN 978-0-14-306764-1.
  14. ^ Kinsley, David (1997). Tantric Visions of the Divine Feminine: The Ten Mahavidyas. Berkeley: University of California Press. pp. 70–76.
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