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Margaret Sanger
Sanger in 1922
Born	Margaret Louise Higgins (1879-09-14)September 14, 1879 Corning, New York, U.S.
Died	September 6, 1966(1966-09-06) (aged 86) Tucson, Arizona, U.S.
Occupation(s)	Social reformer, sex educator, writer, nurse
Spouses	William Sanger ​ ​(m. 1902; div. 1921)​ James Noah H. Slee ​ ​(m. 1922; died 1943)​
Children	3
Relatives	Ethel Byrne (sister) Bob Higgins (brother) Alexander C. Sanger (grandson)

Margaret Higgins Sanger (born Margaret Louise Higgins; September 14, 1879 – September 6, 1966), also known as Margaret Sanger Slee, was an American birth control activist, sex educator, writer, and nurse. She opened the first birth control clinic in the United States, founded Planned Parenthood, and collaborated in the development of the first birth control pill. Sanger is regarded as a founder and leader of the birth control movement.

Sanger worked as a nurse in the slums of New York City, which exposed her to a large number of mothers desperate to avoid additional children. Out of these experiences arose her lifelong dedication to improving the health of woman by giving them the power to determine if and when to have children. Her drive to promote birth control was influenced by Malthusian concerns about the dangerous effects of overpopulation. She was an adherent of the eugenic movement, and believed that birth control would help reduce the number of "unfit" people.

She felt that education was a valuable tool to promote birth control, and she wrote many pamphlets, periodicals, and books on the subject. Sanger frequently provoked arrest by distributing birth control literature in contravention of the law. She was arrested eight times, hoping to get favorable legal rulings that would overturn laws that impeded birth control. She was responsible for several major legal victories, culminating with the Griswold v Connecticut decision which legalized contraception nationwide.

Early life

Sanger was born Margaret Louise Higgins in 1879 in Corning, New York, to Irish Catholic parents Michael Hennessey Higgins and Anne Purcell Higgins. Michael immigrated to the United States at the age of 14, and joined the Union army in the Civil War as a drummer at 15. Upon leaving the army, he studied medicine and phrenology but ultimately became a stonecutter, chiseling angels and saints on tombstones. Michael was a free-thinker, an atheist and an activist for free public education and women's suffrage.

Anne accompanied her family to Canada during the Great Famine. She married Michael in 1869. In 22 years, Anne Higgins conceived 18 times, giving birth to 11 live babies before dying at the age of 49. Sanger was the sixth of 11 surviving children, spending her early years in a bustling household.

Supported by her two older sisters, Margaret Higgins attended Claverack College and Hudson River Institute, before enrolling in 1900 at White Plains Hospital as a student nurse. In 1902, she married architect William Sanger. Although she suffered from tuberculosis, she settled down to a quiet life in Westchester, New York and had three children.

Woman rebel

In 1911, after a fire destroyed their home in Hastings-on-Hudson, the Sangers abandoned the suburbs for a new life in New York City. Margaret Sanger worked as a visiting nurse in the slums of the East Side, while her husband worked as an architect and a house painter. The couple became active in local socialist politics. She joined the Women's Committee of the Socialist Party of New York, took part in the labor actions of the Industrial Workers of the World (including the notable 1912 Lawrence textile strike and the 1913 Paterson silk strike) and became involved with local intellectuals, left-wing artists, socialists and social activists, including John Reed, Upton Sinclair, Mabel Dodge and Emma Goldman.

Working as a nurse, Sanger visited many working-class immigrant women in their homes; many of them underwent frequent childbirth, miscarriages and self-induced abortions. Availability of contraceptive information was limited, due to the federal Comstock law and a host of state laws. Seeking to help these women, in 1913 Sanger visited public libraries, and later claimed she was unable to find information on contraception.

These difficulties were epitomized in a story that Sanger would recount in her speeches: while Sanger was working as a nurse, she was called to the apartment of a woman, "Sadie Sachs", who had a severe sepsis infection due to a self-induced abortion. Sadie begged the attending doctor to tell her how she could prevent this from happening again. The doctor laughed and said "You want your cake while you eat it too, do you? Well it can't be done. I'll tell you the only sure thing to do .... Tell Jake to sleep on the roof ." A few months later, Sanger was called back to Sadie's apartment – she had attempted yet another self-induced abortion. Sadie died shortly after Sanger arrived. Sanger would sometimes end the story by saying, "I threw my nursing bag in the corner and announced ... that I would never take another case until I had made it possible for working women in America to have the knowledge to control birth".

The Sadie Sachs tragedy was described by Sanger as the origin of her commitment to spare women from dangerous and illegal abortions. Sanger opposed abortion, not on theological grounds, but as a societal ill and public health danger – which would disappear, she believed, if women were able to prevent unwanted pregnancy.

Sanger's political interests, her emerging feminism and her nursing experience led her to write two series of columns on sex education which were titled "What Every Mother Should Know" (1911–12) and "What Every Girl Should Know" (1912–13) for the socialist magazine New York Call. By the standards of the day, Sanger's articles were extremely frank in their discussion of sexuality, and many New York Call readers were outraged by them. Other readers, however, praised the series for its candor. One stated that the series contained "a purer morality than whole libraries full of hypocritical cant about modesty". Both were published in book form in 1916.

Observing the connection between contraception and working-class empowerment, Sanger came to believe that only by liberating women from the risk of unwanted pregnancy would fundamental social change take place. Toward that end, she began a campaign to challenge governmental censorship of contraceptive information through confrontational actions. In 1914, Sanger launched The Woman Rebel, an eight-page monthly newsletter which promoted contraception using the slogan "No Gods, No Masters".

Sanger, collaborating with anarchist friends, popularized the term "birth control" as a more candid alternative to euphemisms such as "family limitation"; the term "birth control" was suggested in 1914 by a young friend, Otto Bobsein.

Sanger became estranged from her husband in 1913, and the couple's divorce was finalized in 1921.

Arrest and exile

Sanger's first priority was to educate women about contraception; but because disseminating educational material on that topic was illegal, she first had to fight a free speech battle. One of the goals of The Woman Rebel was to provoke a legal challenge to the federal anti-obscenity laws which banned dissemination of information about contraception. Though postal authorities suppressed five of its seven issues, Sanger continued publication, all the while preparing Family Limitation, another challenge to anti-birth control laws. This 16-page pamphlet contained detailed and precise information and graphic descriptions of various contraceptive methods. In August 1914, Sanger was indicted for violating federal obscenity laws by sending The Woman Rebel through the postal system. Rather than stand trial, she fled to Canada, where fellow activists forged a passport that permitted her to sail to England in early November.

Sanger spent most of her self-imposed exile in England, where contact with British Malthusians – such as Charles Vickery Drysdale and Bessie Drysdale – helped refine her socioeconomic justifications for birth control. She shared the concern of Malthusians that overpopulation led to poverty, famine and war. She would return to Europe in 1922 and become the first woman to chair a session at an International Neo-Malthusian Conference, and she organized the Sixth International Neo-Malthusian and Birth-Control Conference that took place in New York in 1925. Overpopulation would remain a concern of hers for the rest of her life.

During her sojourn, she was profoundly influenced by British physician Havelock Ellis, under whose tutelage she conceived the goal of making sex more pleasurable for women, in addition to safer. Marie Stopes, a British academic whose life would parallel Sanger's life in many ways, met Sanger and began a transatlantic collaboration that would last for several years.

Sanger returned from England in October 1915 to face trial. Before the December trial, her five-year old daughter died of pneumonia. She was offered a plea bargain, but refused, because she wanted to use the trial as a forum to advocate for the right of women to control their own destiny. The prosecutor dropped the charges.

Early in 1915, Sanger's estranged husband, William Sanger, gave a copy of Family Limitation to a representative of anti-vice politician Anthony Comstock. William Sanger was tried and convicted, spending thirty days in jail while attracting interest in birth control as an issue of civil liberty. Sanger's second husband, Noah Slee, also contributed to the birth control movement by smuggling diaphragms into New York from Canada. He later became the first legal manufacturer of diaphragms in the United States.

Origins of the birth control movement

Some northern European countries had more liberal policies towards contraception than the United States; when Sanger visited a Dutch birth control clinic in 1915, she encountered diaphragms and became convinced that they were a more effective means of contraception than the suppositories and douches that she had been distributing back in the United States. Diaphragms were generally unavailable in the United States due to the Comstock Act, so Sanger and others began importing them from Europe, in defiance of United States law.

On October 16, 1916, Sanger opened a family planning and birth control clinic – the first in the United States – in the Brownsville neighborhood of the Brooklyn borough of New York. Nine days after the clinic opened, Sanger was arrested for giving a birth control pamphlet to an undercover policewoman. After she bailed out of jail, she continued assisting women in the clinic until the police arrested her a second time. She and her sister, Ethel Byrne, were charged with distributing contraceptives in violation of New York state law.

Sanger and Byrne went to trial in January 1917. Byrne was convicted and sentenced to 30 days in a workhouse, where she went on a hunger strike. She was force-fed, the first woman hunger striker in the U.S. to be so treated. After ten days – when Sanger pledged that Byrne would never break the law – her sister was pardoned. Sanger was also convicted; the trial judge held that women did not have "the right to copulate with a feeling of security that there will be no resulting conception." Sanger was offered a more lenient sentence if she promised to not break the law again, but she refused and said: "I cannot respect the law as it exists today." She was sentenced to 30 days in a workhouse.

An initial appeal was rejected, but in a subsequent court proceeding in 1918 (after Sanger had completed her sentence) the birth control movement secured a major victory when Judge Frederick E. Crane of the New York appeals court issued a ruling which allowed doctors to dispense contraceptives. The publicity surrounding Sanger's arrest, trial, and appeal sparked birth control activism across the United States and earned the support of numerous donors, who would provide her with funding for future endeavors.

In February 1917, Sanger began publishing the monthly periodical Birth Control Review, functioning as its editor until 1929. The magazine was published monthly until 1940.

In 1920–21, and intermittently until his death in 1946, she had a love affair with the English novelist H.G. Wells. In 1922, she married her second husband, James Noah H. Slee.

American Birth Control League era

After World War I, Sanger continued to be frustrated by the inverted priorities of charities: they provided free obstetric and post-birth care to indigent women, yet failed to provide birth control or assistance in raising the children. She wrote: "The poor woman is taught how to have her seventh child, when what she wants to know is how to avoid ... her eighth." She saw a societal need to limit births by those least able to afford children: the affluent and educated already limited their childbearing, yet the poor and uneducated lacked access to contraception and information about birth control.

Support from wealthy donors in the early 1920s enabled Sanger to expand her reach beyond local, small-scale activism, and allowed her to organize the American Birth Control League (ABCL). The founding principles of the ABCL were:

We hold that children should be (1) Conceived in love; (2) Born of the mother's conscious desire; (3) And only begotten under conditions which render possible the heritage of health. Therefore we hold that every woman must possess the power and freedom to prevent conception except when these conditions can be satisfied.

The 1918 New York court decision had created an exception to "contraceptives are illegal" law: contraceptives could be obtained, provided they were dispensed by a physician. To exploit this loophole, she established the Clinical Research Bureau (CRB) in 1923. The CRB was the first legal birth control clinic in the United States, and was staffed entirely by female doctors and social workers. The clinic received extensive funding from John D. Rockefeller Jr. and his family, who continued to make anonymous donations to Sanger's causes in subsequent decades.

In 1922, Sanger traveled to Asia, visiting Korea, Japan and China. She ultimately visited Japan six times, working with Japanese feminist Kato Shidzue to promote birth control. In China, she observed that the primary method of family planning was female infanticide. Chinese feminists inspired by Sanger's visit went on to be significantly involved in the subsequent Chinese debates on birth control and eugenics. She later worked with Pearl Buck to establish a family planning clinic in Shanghai in 1935.

In 1928, conflict within the birth control movement leadership led Sanger to resign as the president of the ABCL and take full control of the CRB, renaming it the Birth Control Clinical Research Bureau (BCCRB), marking the beginning of a schism that would last until 1939. By the 1930s, the BCCRB was serving over 10,000 patients per year, providing a range of gynecological services, conducting research, and training physicians and students.

Education and outreach

Sanger invested a great deal of effort communicating with the general public. From 1916 onward, she lectured in churches, women's clubs, homes, and theaters; her audience included workers, churchmen, liberals, socialists, scientists, and upper-class women. She once lectured on birth control to the women's auxiliary of the Ku Klux Klan (KKK) in Silver Lake, New Jersey. Explaining her decision to address them, she wrote "Always to me any aroused group was a good group." She described the experience as "weird" and reported that she had the impression that the audience were all half-wits, and, therefore, spoke to them in the simplest possible language, as if she were talking to children.

She wrote several books in the 1920s which had a nationwide impact in promoting the cause of birth control. Between 1920 and 1926, 567,000 copies of Woman and the New Race and The Pivot of Civilization were sold. She wrote two autobiographies, both aimed at promoting birth control: Margaret Sanger: My Fight for Birth Control published in 1931; and Margaret Sanger An Autobiography published in 1938.

During the 1920s, Sanger received hundreds of thousands of letters, many of them written in desperation by women begging for information on how to prevent unwanted pregnancies. Many of the letters were printed in the monthly Birth Control Review, and five hundred of these letters were compiled into the 1928 book, Motherhood in Bondage.

Work with the African American community

Sanger worked with African American leaders and professionals who saw a need for birth control in their communities. In 1929, James H. Hubert, a Black social worker and the leader of New York's Urban League, asked Sanger to open a clinic in Harlem. Sanger secured funding from the Julius Rosenwald Fund and opened the clinic in 1930. The clinic was directed by an all African American advisory board consisting of 15 Black doctors, nurses, clergy, journalists, and social workers; the clinic exclusively employed Black doctors, nurses, and social workers. The clinic was publicized in the African American press as well as in Black churches, and it received the approval of W.E.B. Du Bois, the co-founder of the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP) and the editor of its magazine, The Crisis.

Sanger did not tolerate bigotry among her staff, nor would she tolerate any refusal to work within interracial projects. The Harlem clinic provided contraceptives and information to thousands of African American women until it closed in the mid 1940's.

From 1939 to 1942, Sanger was an honorary delegate of the Birth Control Federation of America, which included a supervisory role – alongside Mary Lasker and Clarence Gamble – in the Negro Project, an effort to deliver information about birth control to poor Black people. Sanger advised Gamble on the utility of hiring a Black physician for the Negro Project. She also advised him on the importance of reaching out to Black ministers, writing:

The ministers work is also important and also he should be trained, perhaps by the Federation as to our ideals and the goal that we hope to reach. We do not want word to go out that we want to exterminate the Negro population and the minister is the man who can straighten out that idea if it ever occurs to any of their more rebellious members.

When academic Angela Davis analyzed that quote, she interpreted the passage "We do not want word to go out" as evidence that Sanger led a secretive effort to reduce the Black population against its will. This interpretation has been widely repeated in the anti-abortion community, leading many to believe Sanger was racist. However, most scholars interpret the passage as Sanger's effort to prevent the spread of unfounded rumors about nefarious purposes; and they find no evidence that Sanger was a racist.

Martin Luther King Jr. praised Sanger's work with minorities in his acceptance speech for the Margaret Sanger award: " went into the slums and set up a birth control clinic, and for this deed she went to jail because she was violating an unjust law.... She launched a movement which is obeying a higher law to preserve human life under humane conditions.... Our sure beginning in the struggle for equality by nonviolent direct action may not have been so resolute without the tradition established by Margaret Sanger."

Planned Parenthood

In 1929, Sanger formed the National Committee on Federal Legislation for Birth Control to lobby for legislation to overturn restrictions on contraception. The lobbying did not produce results, so Sanger changed tack and ordered a diaphragm from Japan in order to provoke a decisive battle in the courts. The diaphragm was confiscated by the U.S. government, and Sanger's subsequent legal challenge of the Comstock laws led to a 1936 court decision which created a nationwide exception and permitted physicians to dispense contraceptives.. This court victory motivated the American Medical Association in 1937 to adopt contraception as a normal medical service and a key component of medical school curriculums.

This 1936 contraception court victory was the culmination of Sanger's birth control efforts, and she took the opportunity, now in her late 50s, to move to Tucson, Arizona, intending to play a less critical role in the birth control movement. In spite of her original intentions, she remained active in the movement through the 1950s.

In 1937, Sanger became chairman of the newly formed Birth Control Council of America, and attempted to resolve the schism between the ABCL and the BCCRB. Her efforts were successful, and the two organizations merged in 1939 as the Birth Control Federation of America. Although Sanger continued in the role of president, she no longer wielded the same power as she had in the early years of the movement, and in 1942, more conservative forces within the organization changed the name to Planned Parenthood Federation of America, a name Sanger objected to because she considered it too euphemistic.

In 1948, Sanger helped found the International Committee on Planned Parenthood, which evolved into the International Planned Parenthood Federation in 1952, and soon became the world's largest non-governmental international women's health, family planning and birth control organization. Sanger was the organization's first president and served in that role until she was 80 years old.

In the early 1950s, Sanger encouraged philanthropist Katharine McCormick to provide funding for biologist Gregory Pincus to develop the first birth control pill, which was eventually sold under the name Enovid. Pincus recruited John Rock, Harvard gynecologist, to investigate clinical use of progesterone to prevent ovulation. Pincus would often say that he never could have done it without Sanger, McCormick, and Rock.

The Japanese government invited Sanger to Tokyo in 1954 to address the National Diet – she was the first foreigner to do so – where she gave a speech on the subject "Population Problems and Family Planning".

Death

Faced with declining health, Sanger moved into a convalescent home at age 83. Before her death, the U.S. Supreme Court decided Griswold v. Connecticut, which struck down state laws prohibiting birth control in the United States. The plaintiff in that case, Estelle Griswold, was the director of the Connecticut affiliate of Planned Parenthood. A year before she died, the Japanese government bestowed upon Sanger the Order of the Precious Crown in recognition of her contributions to Japanese society. She died of congestive heart failure in 1966 in Tucson, Arizona, aged 86. Sanger was Episcopalian, and her funeral was held at St. Philip's in the Hills Episcopal Church in Tucson, followed a month later by a memorial service at St. George's Episcopal Church in Manhattan. Sanger is buried in Fishkill, New York, next to her sister, Nan Higgins, and her second husband, Noah Slee. One of her surviving brothers was College Football Hall of Fame player and Pennsylvania State University Head Football coach Bob Higgins.

Views

Sexuality

While researching information on contraception, Sanger read treatises on sexuality, and was heavily influenced by The Psychology of Sex by the English psychologist Havelock Ellis. While traveling in Europe in 1914, she conducted research under Ellis' guidance, and she came to adopt his view of sexuality as a powerful, liberating force. This view provided another argument in favor of birth control, because it would enable women to fully enjoy sexual relations without fear of unwanted pregnancy. Sanger believed that sexuality, along with birth control, should be discussed with more candor.

Sanger opposed excessive sexual indulgence. She wrote that "every normal man and woman has the power to control and direct his sexual impulse. Men and women who have it in control and constantly use their brain cells thinking deeply, are never sensual." Sanger said that birth control would elevate women away from the position of being objects of lust and elevate sex away from an activity that was purely being engaged in for the purpose of satisfying lust. She believed that women had the ability to control their sexual impulses, and they should utilize that control avoid relationships that were not marked by "confidence and respect". She felt that exercising such control would lead to the "strongest and most sacred passion."

Although she did not promote excessive sex, Sanger did believe that women should control their own bodies. She developed the concept of the "feminine spirit," theorizing that the internal urge of womanhood causes desires for freedom. Sanger asserted that it was futile to attempt to restrict this freedom and controlling fertility; the most efficient action, she believed, would be to align these internal desires with human law and give women access to contraception.

Sanger believed that masturbation was a pernious habit and, if carried to extremes, was revolting.

Sanger maintained links with members of the British Society for the Study of Sex Psychology (which contained a number of high-profile gay men and sexual reformers as members), and gave a speech to the group on the topic of sexual continence, explaining how birth control would reduce the need for abstinence.

Abortion

In the early 1900s, when Sanger started on her path as an activist, abortion was illegal in all 50 states, though physicians were able to legally perform therapeutic (medically necessary) abortions in some states. Despite the fact that abortion was illegal, it was widespread: in 1930, there were an estimated 800,000 illegal abortions performed in the U.S., resulting in between 8,000 to 17,000 women's deaths from complications. An estimated 17% to 28% of pregancies ended in abortion.

Sanger was acutely aware of the class divide that governed how women obtained abortions: wealthy and middle-class women could afford to pay doctors for abortions, but the poorer women that Sanger was concerned with often had to resort to back-alley abortions. Ignorance about abortion was widespread, and many women conflated contraception and abortion, and thought they were the same thing; this was one of the motivations for Sanger's campaign to educate women about birth control.

Faced with high rates of morbidity and death from back-alley abortions, Sanger did not try to make abortion safer; instead she aimed to reduce the number of abortions by promoting contraception, thus avoid pregnancies in the first place. The vast majority of educational material that Sanger produced was focused on contraception, and abortion was rarely mentioned. In 1914, in the first edition of her Family Limitation pamphlet, she wrote that every woman is entitled to make a choice of whether to have an abortion or not, and she suggested (incorrectly) that quinine could be used to induce abortion. She removed that advice (and any mention of abortion) in later editions. By 1916, when she opened her first birth control clinic, she was employing harsh rhetoric against abortion: flyers she distributed to women exhorted them in all capitals: "Do not kill, do not take life, but prevent."

Abortions were never performed at clinics managed by Sanger; in fact, for the first 16 years of operation the staff were not even permitted to refer patients to physicians (outside the clinic) for therapeutic abortions. It was not until 1932 that Sanger authorized the staff to refer patients to hospitals for abortions when the examining physician determined that the woman's health was in jeopardy. Planned Parenthood would not offer abortions until 1970, several years after Sanger's death.

Early in her career, Sanger chose not to join with activists who sought to make abortion legal or safe, preferring instead to promote contraception. And later, when the campaign to make abortion legal was accelerating in the 1950s, Sanger continued to distance herself from those efforts.

Free speech

Although Sanger is regarded primarily as a feminist activist, much of her work can be described as advocacy for free speech. During the early years of her activism, it was illegal to send information about contraception through the mail, so Sanger initially tackled the birth control challenge as a free-speech issue, rather than a feminist issue. When she started publishing The Woman Rebel in 1914, she did so with the express goal of provoking a legal challenge to the Comstock laws banning dissemination of information about contraception. In New York, Emma Goldman introduced Sanger to members of the Free Speech League, such as Edward Bliss Foote and Theodore Schroeder, and subsequently the League provided funding and advice to help Sanger with legal battles.

The most significant opponent to birth control in the 1920s was the Catholic Church, which tried to stop Sanger from publicizing birth control. Catholics persuaded the Syracuse city council to ban Sanger from giving a speech in 1924; the National Catholic Welfare Conference lobbied against birth control; the Knights of Columbus boycotted hotels that hosted birth control events; the Catholic police commissioner of Albany prevented Sanger from speaking there; and several newsreel companies, succumbing to pressure from Catholics, refused to cover stories related to birth control. Sanger turned some of the boycotted speaking events to her advantage by inviting the press, and the resultant news coverage often generated public sympathy for her cause.

Numerous times in her career, local government officials prevented Sanger from speaking by shuttering a facility or threatening her hosts. In Boston in 1929, city officials under the leadership of James Curley threatened to arrest her if she spoke. In response she stood on stage, silent, with a gag over her mouth, while her speech was read by Arthur M. Schlesinger, Sr. Over the course of her career, Sanger was arrested eight times for speaking or publishing prohibited information.

Eugenics

Further information: Eugenics in the United States

Sanger found common ground between eugenics and her birth control movement: both endeavors would benefit if contraception were legal and readily available. In the early 1900's, eugenics was a very popular movement, promoted by major organizations, led by intellectuals and scientists, and funded by corporate sponsors. Sanger was surrounded by influential people who approved of eugenics, including close friends Havelock Ellis and H. G. Wells, and notables W.E.B. Du Bois and Winston Churchill (who supported the first ABCL conference in 1921).

Sanger adopted eugenics because it was another opportunity to advocate for the legalization of contraception – eugenics was a means to her end. According to some historians, Sanger did not sincerely believe in eugenic principles, but she calculated that if she joined with the eugenics movement, it would lend legitimacy to her own birth control endeavors.

Some eugenicists were racists who sought to preserve the purported supremacy of the white race by diminishing the population of certain ethnicities, such as Blacks, Jews, Asians, or Hispanics. Some proposed a negative eugenic policy of limiting the population growth of the "undesirable" ethnicities through contraception, abortion, or forced sterilization. Colleagues of Sanger that espoused racist eugenic policies included Charles Davenport and Lothrop Stoddard, a member of the KKK, who was also a founding board member of the ABCL and contributed an article to the Birth Control Review.

Sanger's approach to eugenics

Sanger's overarching goals were to improve the quality of life of women and to address overpopulation. This led Sanger to adopt a distinctly feminist version of eugenics which emphasized the welfare of mothers while – at the same time – attempting to reduce the number of "unfit" people in the world. Sanger's eugenic policies included free access to contraceptives, exclusionary immigration laws, freedom for able-minded families to determine how many children to have, compulsory segregation or sterilization for people that have severe hereditary defects, and use of birth control to reduce the number of "unfit" persons.

Sanger adopted the eugenic practice of dividing society into fit and unfit classes of people, defining the unfit class as people that had hereditary defects that  – in her opinion – harmed the health of the human race. After the U.S. Supreme court decided that involuntary sterilization was legal in 1927 – she began to endorse sterilization (in addition to her first choice, contraception) as a mechanism to improve the genetics of the human race, and even suggested involuntary sterilization in some situations.

Sanger deviated from mainstream eugenics in several ways: Whereas most eugenicists encouraged "fit" parents to produce many children, Sanger was concerned about overpopulation, and wanted even fit parents to limit the size of their families. Whereas many eugenicists claimed heredity was the sole cause of "unfitness", Sanger believed that environmental factors were also responsible. Whereas most eugenicists regarded sterilization as the primary way to avoid "unfit" children, Sanger preferred birth control. And whereas many eugenicists wanted the government to manage family planning, Sanger believed that mothers – with some exceptions – should wield that power.

The most significant way that Sanger differed from the majority of eugenicists was that her eugenic proposals never targeted specific ethnicities: instead, her goal was to improve the entire human race by reducing the reproduction of those who were considered unfit. When she used the word "race" in the context of eugenics, the word invariably meant the entire human race, rather than a specific ethnicity; when she used the word "unfit" she mean a hereditary defect, not an ethnicity.

The consensus of scholars is that Sanger was not racist, but her collaboration with eugenicists assisted racist causes. Academic Dorothy Roberts wrote "Sanger did not tie fitness for reproduction to any particular ethnic group. It appears that Sanger was motivated by a genuine concern to improve the health of poor mothers she served rather than a desire to eliminate their stock". Scholar Carole McCann wrote "although Sanger articulated birth control in terms of racial betterment ... she always defined fitness in individual rather than racial terms." Historian Peter Engelman concluded that Sanger was not a racist, but added: "Sanger quite effortlessly looked the other way when others spouted racist speech. She had no reservations about relying on flawed and overtly racist works to serve her own propaganda needs." Biographer Ellen Chesler wrote: "Margaret Sanger was never herself a racist, but she lived in a profoundly bigoted society, and her failure to repudiate prejudice unequivocally – especially when it was manifest among proponents of her cause – has haunted her ever since."

Legacy

Today, Sanger, along with Emma Goldman and Mary Dennett, is viewed as a founder and leader of the birth control movement. Sanger achieved her goal of improving the well-being of women around the world through family planning: contraception is now legal in the U.S., family planning clinics are commonplace, contraception is taught in medical schools, tens of millions of women have made use of Planned Parenthood services, and hundreds of millions of women around the globe have access to birth control pills.

Sanger's writings are curated by two universities: New York University's history department maintains the Margaret Sanger Papers Project, and Smith College's Sophia Smith Collection maintains the Margaret Sanger Papers collection.

Several biographers have documented Sanger's life, including David Kennedy, whose Birth Control in America: The Career of Margaret Sanger (1970) won the Bancroft Prize and the John Gilmary Shea Prize. Two television films have portrayed Sanger's life as well as two graphic novels.

Sanger has been recognized with numerous honors. Between 1953 and 1963, Sanger was nominated for the Nobel Peace Prize 31 times. In 1957, the American Humanist Association named her Humanist of the Year. In 1966, Planned Parenthood began issuing its Margaret Sanger Awards annually to honor "individuals of distinction in recognition of excellence and leadership in furthering reproductive health and reproductive rights". In 1981, Sanger was inducted into the National Women's Hall of Fame. In 1993, the United States National Park Service designated the Margaret Sanger Clinic – where she provided birth-control services in New York in the mid-twentieth century – as a National Historic Landmark. Government authorities and other institutions have memorialized Sanger by dedicating several landmarks in her name, including a residential building on the Stony Brook University campus, a room in Wellesley College's library, and Margaret Sanger Square in New York City's Noho area. There is a Margaret Sanger Lane in Plattsburgh, New York and an Allée Margaret Sanger in Saint-Nazaire, France. There is a bust of Sanger in the National Portrait Gallery, which was a gift from Cordelia Scaife May. Her speech "Children's Era", given in 1925, is listed as #81 in American Rhetoric's Top 100 Speeches of the 20th Century. Time magazine designated Sanger as one of the 100 most influential people of the 20th century. Sanger, a crater in the northern hemisphere of Venus, takes its name from Margaret Sanger.

Attacks by anti-abortion movement

Following the legalization of abortion in 1973, Sanger has become a lightning rod – attracting virulent attacks from opponents of abortion. The attacks usually repeat falsehoods, often attributing quotes to Sanger that are fabricated or presented out of context. Common falsehoods are that she was a Nazi sympathizer, that she supported the KKK, that she supported abortion, or that she was racist. The attacks sometimes mention that Sanger was a eugenicist, which she was, but such attacks often falsely imply that she applied eugenics in a racist manner.

One of the more common falsehoods is that Sanger designed her birth control policies with the intent to specifically decimate the African American population. In 2020, Planned Parenthood, hoping to improve relations with the African American community, took steps to distance itself from their founder: they published an editorial acknowledging Sanger's eugenic history, removed some mentions of Sanger from their website and renamed the Planned Parenthood building on Bleecker Street (which previously was named after Sanger). Essayist Katha Pollitt and Sanger biographer Ellen Chesner criticized Planned Parenthood for succumbing to pressure from the anti-abortion movement.

Works

Books and pamphlets

• Sanger, Margaret (1912). What Every Mother Should Know. Originally published in 1911 or 1912, based on a series of articles Sanger published in 1911 in the New York Call, which were, in turn, based on a set of lectures Sanger gave to groups of Socialist party women in 1910–1911. Multiple editions published starting in 1914 by Max N. Maisel and Sincere Publishing, with the title What Every Mother Should Know, or how six little children were taught the truth
• —— (1914). Family Limitation. Originally published 1914 as a 16-page pamphlet; revised and expanded in several later editions, including Sanger, Maragaret (2017). Family Limitation. CreateSpace Independent Publishing Platform. ISBN 9781977520722.
• —— (1916). What Every Girl Should Know.
• —— (1916). The Fight for Birth Control. New York. LCCN 2003558097.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link) Pamphlet.
• —— (1917). The Case for Birth Control: A Supplementary Brief and Statement of Facts. Modern art printing Company. ISBN 9780598730961. Filed with court to support a legal battle.
• —— (1920). Woman and the New Race. Truth Publishing. ISBN 9781414221984. Foreword by Havelock Ellis. Published in England with the title The New Motherhood.
• —— (1921). Debate on Birth Control. Haldeman-Julius Company. LCCN 2004563524. Transcript of a debate between several prominent figures: Sanger, Theodore Roosevelt, Winter Russell, George Bernard Shaw, Robert L. Wolf, and Emma Sargent Russell.
• —— (1922). The Pivot of Civilization. Brentanos. Online editions include: Sanger, Margaret (2006). The Pivot of Civilization.
• —— (1928). Motherhood in Bondage. Brentanos. LCCN 28028778. A collection of letters desperate women wrote to Sanger; edited by Sanger.
• —— (1931). My Fight for Birth Control. Farrar & Rinehart. LCCN 31028223. Memoir.
• —— (1938). Margaret Sanger An Autobiography. New York: W. W. Norton. Republished starting in 1971 under a different title The Autobiography of Margaret Sanger. Dover. 2012. ISBN 9780486120836.

Periodicals

• The Woman Rebel – Seven issues published monthly from March 1914 to August 1914. Sanger was publisher and editor.
• Birth Control Review – Published monthly from February 1917 to 1940. Sanger was editor until 1929, when she resigned from the ABCL. Not to be confused with Marie Stopes' Birth Control News, published by the London-based Society for Constructive Birth Control and Racial Progress.

Collections and anthologies

• Sanger, Margaret (2003). Esther Katz, Cathy Moran Hajo, Peter Engelman (ed.). The Selected Papers of Margaret Sanger, Volume 1: The Woman Rebel, 1900–1928. University of Illinois Press. ISBN 978-0252027376. OCLC 773147056.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: editors list (link)
• —— (2007). Esther Katz, Cathy Moran Hajo, Peter Engelman (ed.). The Selected Papers of Margaret Sanger, Volume 2: Birth Control Comes of Age, 1928–1939. University of Illinois Press. ISBN 9780252031373.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: editors list (link)
• —— (2010). Esther Katz, Cathy Moran Hajo, Peter Engelman (ed.). The Selected Papers of Margaret Sanger, Volume 3: The Politics of Planned Parenthood, 1939–1966. University of Illinois Press. ISBN 9780252033728.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: editors list (link)
• —— (2016). Esther Katz, Cathy Moran Hajo, Peter Engelman (ed.). The Selected Papers of Margaret Sanger, Volume 4: Round the World for Birth Control, 1920-1966. University of Illinois Press. ISBN 9780252098802.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: editors list (link)
• "The Margaret Sanger Papers at Smith College". Smith College.
• "The Margaret Sanger Papers Project at New York University". New York University.
• McElderry (1976). McElderry, Michael J. (ed.). Margaret Sanger: A Register of Her Papers in the Library of Congress. Manuscript Division, Library of Congress.

Speeches

• Sanger, Margaret (1921a). "The Morality of Birth Control".
• Sanger, Margaret (1925). "The Children's Era". Archived from the original on November 18, 2016.
• Sanger, Margaret (1937). "Woman and the Future". Archived from the original on March 26, 2016.

Notes

1. They became estranged in 1913, but the divorce was not finalized until 1921. Baker 2011, p. 126
2. Other discussions of the Sadie Sachs story:
   • Lader 1955, pp. 44–50.
   • Baker 2011, pp. 49–51.
   • Sanger 1917, p. 9 - A version of the story with the "threw my nursing bag" line.
3. Additional details at:
   • Blanchard 1992, p. 50.
   • Coates 2008, p. 49.
4. The slogan "No Gods, No Masters" originated in a flyer distributed by the IWW in the 1912 Lawrence textile strike. Her newsletter also employed the slogan: "Woman can never call herself free until she is mistress of her own body." Sanger, Margaret (February 1918). "Morality and Birth Control". NYU Margaret Sanger Papers Project.. Another version of the slogan is "Each woman should be the absolute mistress of her own body", also found in the Woman Rebel.
5. Sanger's son Grant was distraught, and blamed his mother for the girl's death, due to Sanger's long absence.
6. Additional details at:
   • Haight, Anne Lyon (1935). Banned books: informal notes on some books banned for various reasons at various times and in various places. New York: R.R. Bowker Company. p. 65. hdl:2027/uc1.b3921312.
   • "Anthony Comstock Dies in His Crusade". Reading Eagle. Reading, Pennsylvania. September 22, 1915. p. 6.
7. Street address: 46 Amboy Street, Brooklyn
8. Crane's ruling upheld Sanger's conviction, but declared that the anti-contraception law could not be applied to physicians.
9. Caption at the bottom of this July 1919 issue reads: "Must She Always Plead in Vain? 'You are a nurse—can you tell me? For the children's sake—help me!' "
10. These principles were adopted at the first meeting of the ABCL in late 1921, and were published in "Birth control: What it is, How it works, What it will do", The Proceedings of the First American Birth Control Conference, November 11, 12, 1921, pp. 207–8; and The Birth Control Review, Vol. V, No. 12, December 1921, Margaret Sanger (ed.), p. 18.
11. Her visit fueled the belief among elites in Nationalist-era China that the use of contraception would improve the "quality" of the Chinese people Following Sanger's visit, a wide range of texts on birth control and population issues were imported into China.Rodriguez 2023, p. 24
12. The number of letters is reported as "a quarter million", "over a million", or "hundreds of thousands" in various sources.
13. Additional details at:
    • Chesler 2007, p. 296.
    • "The Truth about Margaret Sanger". Planned Parenthood Federation of America. Archived from the original on March 17, 2010.
    • Muigai, Wangui (2010). "Looking Uptown: Margaret Sanger and the Harlem Branch Birth Control Clinic". NYU Margaret Sanger Papers Project.
14. Additional details at:
    • Valenza 1985
    • Margaret Sanger Papers Project (April 2010). "Smear-n-Fear". News & Sanger Sightings. New York University. Archived from the original on November 2, 2011.
15. King was unable to attend the award ceremony, so his wife, Coretta Scott King, read the speech.
16. The 1936 victory was similar to Sanger's 1918 New York Appeals Court victory (which permitted physicians in New York to receive and dispense contraceptives) but was more significant, because it was a federal decision, and applied to the entire country.
17. Date of merger recorded as 1938 (not 1939) in: O'Conner, Karen, Gender and Women's Leadership: A Reference Handbook, p. 743. O'Conner cites Gordon (1976).
18. The Griswold decision struck down one of the remaining contraception-related Comstock laws. However, it only applied to marital relationships. A later case, Eisenstadt v. Baird (1972), extended Griswold to unmarried persons as well.
19. The official cause of death was listed "abortion" for 2,700 women in 1930, accounting for 18% of maternal deaths that year. Gold, Rachel Benson (March 1, 2003). "Lessons from Before Roe: Will Past be Prologue?". Guttmacher Institute.
20. Sanger's views on abortion were expressed in many of her writings, including: "Why Not Birth-Control Clinics in America?". September 28, 2022. originally published in Sanger, Margaret (March 1919). "Why Not Birth Control Clinics in America?". American Medicine: 164–167.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: date and year (link) and Sanger, Margaret (January 27, 1932). "The Pope's Position on Birth Control". The Nation. 135 (3473): 102–104. Sanger wrote " is an alternative that I cannot too strongly condemn. Although abortion may be resorted to in order to save the life of the mother, the practice of it merely for limitation of offspring is dangerous and vicious. I bring up the subject here only because some ill-informed persons have the notion that when we speak of birth control we include abortion as a method. We certainly do not."
21. In the first edition of Family Limitation she wrote: "If you are going to have an abortion, make up your mind to it in the first stages, and have it done. On the other hand, there is often a feeling of the strongest desire to continue with the pregnancy. It is for each woman to decide this for herself, but act at once, whichever way you decide." "Margaret Sanger Answers Questions on Abortion". NYU Margaret Sanger Papers Project. Spring 2012.
22. The one and only time that she publicized a technique for abortion was in the first edition of her pamphlet Family Limitation which included a variety of methods related to contraception. The information was removed in later editions. Engelman 2011, p. 44.
23. Sanger's patients at that time were told "that abortion was the wrong way – no matter how early it was performed it was taking life; that contraception was the better way, the safer way – it took a little time, a little trouble, but it was well worth while in the long run, because life had not yet begun." Sanger 1938, p. 217.
24. Many contemporaries of Sanger, who were advocates for birth control, saw contraception and abortion as being inextricably linked, and called for legalization of abortion. These included Lawrence Lader, Frederick J. Taussig, and William J. Robinson.
25. In her 1919 essay "Birth Control and Racial Betterment" Sanger wrote: "Eugenists [sic] emphasize the mating of healthy couples for the conscious purpose of producing healthy children, the sterilization of the unfit to prevent their populating the world with their kind and they may, perhaps, agree with us that contraception is a necessary measure among the masses of the workers, where wages do not keep pace with the growth of the family and its necessities in the way of food, clothing, housing, medical attention, education and the like. We who advocate Birth Control, on the other hand, lay all our emphasis upon stopping not only the reproduction of the unfit but upon stopping all reproduction when there is not economic means of providing proper care for those who are born in health." Sanger 1919.
26. Eugenic efforts were generally categorized as positive measures which encouraged parents to reproduce if they are deemed "fit"; and negative measures which discouraged parents from reproducing (via sterilization, contraception, abortion, or financial incentives) if they are deemed "unfit".
27. Sources suggest that Sanger's connection to Davenport was tenuous, amounting to some correspondence, and attendance at conferences. Davenport disapproved of Sanger's emphasis on birth control. See Chesler 2007, p. 217 and "The Sanger-Hitler Equation"
28. In her 1921 speech "The Morality of Birth Control" – which notably did not include any reference to ethnicities – she divided society into three groups: the "educated and informed" class that regulated the size of their families; the "intelligent and responsible" who desired to control their families in spite of lacking the means or the knowledge; and the "irresponsible and reckless ones having little regard for the consequence of their acts, or whose religious scruples prevent their exercising control over their numbers." Sanger concluded "There is no doubt in the minds of all thinking people that the procreation of this group should be stopped. For if they are not able to support and care for themselves, they should certainly not be allowed to bring offspring into this world for others to look after. We do not believe that filling the earth with misery, poverty and disease is moral." Sanger 1921a.
29. In 1919 Sanger wrote: "eugenists [sic] imply or insist that a woman's first duty is to the state; we contend that her duty to herself is her duty to the state. We maintain that a woman possessing an adequate knowledge of her reproductive functions is the best judge of the time and conditions under which her child should be brought into the world. We further maintain that it is her right, regardless of all other considerations, to determine whether she shall bear children or not, and how many children she shall bear if she chooses to become a mother." Sanger 1919, pp. 11–12.
30. In the 1921 article "The Eugenic Value of Birth Control Propaganda" Sanger wrote: "First: we are convinced that racial regeneration like individual regeneration, must come from within. That is, it must be autonomous, self-directive, and not imposed from without.... Secondly: Not until the parents of the world are thus given control over their reproductive faculties will it ever be possible not alone to improve the quality of the generations of the future.... Thirdly: ... this education ... must be based upon the needs and demands of the people themselves. An idealistic code of sexual ethics, imposed from above ... can never be of the slightest value in effecting any changes." Sanger, Margaret (1921). "The Eugenic Value of Birth Control Propaganda" (PDF). Birth Control Review. Vol. 5, no. 10. The New York Women's Publishing Company. p. 5 – via The Margaret Sanger Papers Project.
31. In 1934, when the New Deal was in full swing, creating a vast number of agencies, regulations, and codes, Sanger wrote "America Needs a Code for Babies", an article that appeared in a weekly newspaper insert called American Weekly. The article begins "Under the 'New Deal' everybody and everybody's business is now regulated, coded, and licensed ... Even a peanut stand must be licensed; is the producer and caretaker of an American baby less important?" The article then lists a variety of rhetorical proposals, including one that requires couples to obtain a permit from the government before having a child. The article then states: "All that sounds highly revolutionary, and it might be impossible to put the scheme into practice. But for purposes of discussion...". Sanger, Margaret (May 27, 1934). "America Needs a Code for Babies". The Washington Herald (American Weekly insert). Washington DC. Retrieved January 16, 2025.
32. Additioanl sources discussing Sanger's eugenic policies:
    • Chesler 2007, pp. 195–6.
    • McCann 1994, pp. 13, 16–21, 117.
    • Valenza 1985.
    • "People & Events: Eugenics and Birth Control". PBS. 2003. Archived from the original on November 4, 2022. Retrieved January 20, 2023..
33. A typical example of how she used the terms "race" or "racial" can be found in her article: Sanger, Margaret (1921). "The Eugenic Value of Birth Control Propaganda" (PDF). Birth Control Review. Vol. 5, no. 10. The New York Women's Publishing Company. p. 5 – via The Margaret Sanger Papers Project.
34. Roberts wrote: "Even in her most eugenical book, The Pivot of Civilization, Sanger did not tie fitness for reproduction to any particular ethnic group. It appears that Sanger was motivated by a genuine concern to improve the health of poor mothers she served rather than a desire to eliminate their stock. Sanger believed that all their afflictions arose from their unrestrained fertility, not their genes or racial heritage. For this reason, I agree that Sanger’s views were distinct from those of her eugenecist colleagues. Sanger nevertheless promoted two of the most perverse tenets of eugenic thinking: that social problems are caused by reproduction of the socially disadvantaged and that their childbearing should therefore be deterred." Roberts 1998, p. 81.
35. Important legal decisions Sanger was responsible for include (1) 1916-1918 New York state case People v. Sanger which legalized contraceptives prescribed by physicians in New York; (2) 1932 federal case United States v. One Package of Japanese Pessaries which legalized prescriptions for contraceptives nationwide; and (3) Griswold v Connecticut which legalized contraception, without a physician's involvement.
36. Planned Parenthood stopped presenting the awards in 2016.
37. New York City removed the street sign designating the square in 2021.
38. A representative anti-abortion publication critical of Sanger is Catholic theologian Angela Franks' book: Franks, Angela (2005). Margaret Sanger's Eugenic Legacy: The Control of Female Fertility. McFarland. ISBN 9780786420117. An example of a pro-choice polemic responding to the falsehoods is: Feldt, Gloria (2007). The War on Choice: The Right-Wing Attack on Women's Rights and How to Fight Back. Random House. ISBN 9780307418616.
39. Examples of debunked falsehoods are found at:
    • "Did Margaret Sanger Decry Slavs and Jews as 'Human Weeds'?". Snopes. July 31, 2015.
    • Ibrahim, Nur (September 13, 2023). "Margaret Sanger Did Not Advocate 'Exterminating the Negro Population'". Snopes.
40. Scholars have concluded that Sanger was not associated with the Nazi party, nor a supporter of the KKK, nor a supporter of abortion, nor a racist.
41. Scholars have concluded that she did not apply eugenics to suppress any specific ethnic groups.

References

1. Baker 2011, pp. 9–12.
2. Sanger 1938, pp. 11–20.
3. Rosenberg 2008, p. 82.
4. Baker 2011, pp. 3, 11.
5. Baker 2011, p. 10.
6. Cooper, James L.; Cooper, Sheila McIsaac, eds. (1973). The Roots of American Feminist Thought. Boston: Allyn and Bacon. p. 219. OCLC 571338996 – via Internet Archive.
7. ^ Engelman 2011, p. 28.
8. Chesler 2007, pp. 58–90.
9. Sanger 1938, pp. 68–85.
10. Kennedy 1970, pp. 18–19. Kennedy points out that some materials on birth control actually were available in New York libraries in 1913.
11. Sanger 1938, p. 93.
12. Kennedy 1970, pp. 16–18.
13. Chesler 2007, p. 63 - Chesler concluded that Sachs may have been "an imaginative, dramatic composite" of several women. Engelman concurred (Engelman 2011, p. 29).
14. Engelman 2011, p. 29.
15. Streitmatter, Rodger (2001). Voices of revolution: the dissident press in America. New York: Columbia University Press. ISBN 978-0-231-12248-1.
16. Chesler 2007, p. 63-65.
17. Baker 2011, pp. 65–71.
18. Chesler 2007, p. 66.
19. Engelman (2011), p. 32.
20. Kennedy 1970, pp. 1, 22. See also Sanger 1938, pp. 111–112.
21. Chesler 2007, p. 97. See also Sanger 2003, p. 70.
22. Cox 2004, p. 76.
23. McCann 2010, pp. 750–51.
24. Kennedy 1970, pp. 17–24.
25. Douglas 1970, p. 57.
26. Chesler 2007, p. 103.
27. ^ Baker 2011, p. 268.
28. Baker 2011, p. 178.
29. Chesler 2007, pp. 225, 235, 279.
30. Kennedy 1970, p. 101.
31. Chesler 2007, p. 182.
32. Baker 2011, p. 91.
33. Chesler 2007, p. 139.
34. Chesler 2007, pp. 133–134.
35. Shechtman, Paul (August 23, 2024). "The Story of 'United States v. Margaret Sanger'". New York Law Journal. Retrieved January 10, 2025.
36. Chesler 2007, pp. 126–128.
37. Chesler 2007, p. 255.
38. Quindlen, Anna (2010). Thinking Out Loud: On the Personal, the Political, the Public and the Private. Random House Publishing Group. ISBN 978-0307763556 – via Google Books.
39. "Margaret Sanger—20th Century Hero" (PDF). Planned Parenthood. p. 8. Archived from the original (PDF) on July 10, 2014.
40. Cox 2004, p. 56.
41. Chesler 2007, pp. 228, 261, 276.
42. Baker 2011, p. 115.
43. Cox 2004, p. 7.
44. Chesler 2007, pp. 152–153.
45. Engelman 2011, p. 101.
46. "First woman in US given English dose". The Seattle Star. January 27, 1917. p. 1. Retrieved November 16, 2014.
47. "Mrs. Byrne pardoned; pledged to obey law;" (PDF). New York Times. February 2, 1917. Retrieved November 16, 2014.
48. Lepore, Jill (November 14, 2011). "Birthright: What's next for Planned Parenthood?". The New Yorker. Retrieved November 13, 2011.
49. ^ Cox 2004, p. 65.
50. Engelman 2011, pp. 101–3.
51. ^ Vullo, Maria (June 1, 2013). "People v. Sanger & the Birth of Family Planning in America" (PDF). Judicial Notice: A Periodical of New York Court History. 9 (1): 43–57.
52. People v. Sanger, 222 N.Y. 192, 195, 118 N.E. 637, 638 New York Appeals Court
53. McCann 2010, p. 751.
54. ^ "Birth Control Review History". NYU Margaret Sanger Papers Project.
55. "The Passionate Friends: H. G. Wells and Margaret Sanger", at the Margaret Sanger Paper Project.
56. Douglas 1970, p. 178–80.
57. Levy, B.S. (2000). War and Public Health. American Public Health Association. p. 352. ISBN 9780875530239. LCCN 00106713. Quote originally in Sanger 1922, p. 342.
58. Engelman 2011, p. 130.
59. ^ Kevles 1985, pp. 90–96.
60. Engelman 2011, p. 129-130.
61. Johnson, Joan Marie (2017). Funding Feminism: Monied Women, Philanthropy, and the Women's Movement, 1870--1967. Gender and American Culture. University of North Carolina Press. p. 186. ISBN 9781469634708. LCCN 2017004067.
62. Chesler 2007, pp. 273–275.
63. Baker 2011, p. 196.
64. Baker 2011, pp. 196–97. See also Sanger 2007, p. 54.
65. Harr, John Ensor; Johnson, Peter J. (1988). The Rockefeller Century: Three Generations of America's Greatest Family. New York: Charles Scribner's Sons. pp. 191, 461–462. ISBN 978-0684189369.
66. Chesler 2007, pp. 277, 293, 425, 558.
67. Baker 2011, p. 275.
68. Katō, Shidzue, Facing Two Ways: the story of my life, Stanford University Press, 1984, p. xxviii.
69. D'Itri, Patricia Ward, Cross Currents in the International Women's Movement, 1848–1948, Popular Press, 1999, pp. 163–67.
70. Rodriguez 2023, p. 64.
71. Rodriguez 2023, p. 10.
72. Rodriguez 2023, p. 24.
73. Rodriguez 2023, p. 28.
74. Cohen 2009, pp. 64–65.
75. McCann 1994, pp. 177–8.
76. "Birth Control Clinical Research Bureau". NYU Margaret Sanger Papers Project. October 18, 2005. Retrieved October 7, 2009.
77. "Birth Control Organizations - Birth Control Clinical Research Bureau Birth Control Clinical Research Bureau - History". NYU Margaret Sanger Papers Project.
78. ^ Engelman 2011, pp. 151–152. Also: Sanger 1938, pp. 361, 366–7.
79. Baker 2011, p. 161.
80. Sanger 1931.
81. Sanger 1938.
82. Cohen 2009, p. 65. Referenced book is: Sanger 1928.
83. Baker 2011, p. 200.
84. Hajo 2010, pp. 84–6.
85. Wangui Muigai (Spring 2010). "Looking Uptown: Margaret Sanger and the Harlem Branch Birth Control Clinic". The Newsletter. No. #54. The Margaret Sanger Papers Project.
86. Klapper, Melissa R. (2014). Ballots, Babies, and Banners of Peace: American Jewish Women's Activism, 1890–1940. NYU Press. pp. 137–138. ISBN 978-1479850594.
87. Hajo 2010, p. 85.
88. Baker 2011, pp. 200–202.
89. McCann 1994, pp. 150–4, Bigotry: p. 153. See also Sanger 2003, p. 45.
90. Engelman 2011, p. 160.
91. Engelman 2011, p. 175.
92. "Birth Control or Race Control? Sanger and the Negro Project". Margaret Sanger Papers Project Newsletter (28). Margaret Sanger Papers Project. November 14, 2002. Retrieved January 25, 2009.
93. Sanger, Margaret (December 10, 1939). "Letter from Margaret Sanger to Dr. C.J. Gamble". Letter to Clarence Gamble. Smith Libraries Exhibits (libex.smith.edu). p. 2. Archived from the original on April 12, 2023. Retrieved December 13, 2024.
94. Davis, Angela (2011). Women, Race, & Class. Knopf Doubleday. pp. 212–216. ISBN 9780307798497. The chapter on birth control, titled "Racism, Birth Control and Reproductive Rights", was originally published in 1982.
95. ^ Gandy, Imani (August 20, 2015). "How False Narratives of Margaret Sanger Are Being Used to Shame Black Women". Rewire News Group. Retrieved January 14, 2025.
96. "The Demonization of Margaret Sanger". Margaret Sanger Papers Project Newsletter (16). 1997. Retrieved November 27, 2016.
97. "Birth Control or Race Control? Sanger and the Negro Project". Margaret Sanger Papers Project Newsletter (28). Margaret Sanger Papers Project. November 14, 2002. Retrieved January 25, 2009.
98. ^ "Opposition Claims About Margaret Sanger" (PDF). Planned Parenthood. Archived (PDF) from the original on March 8, 2017. Retrieved November 5, 2015.
99. Planned Parenthood Federation of America (2004). "The Reverend Martin Luther King Jr. Upon Accepting the Planned Parenthood Sanger Award". Archived from the original on July 14, 2014. Retrieved March 11, 2016.
100. "National Committee on Federal Legislation on Birth Control". NYU Margaret Sanger Papers Project
101. Rose, Melody, Abortion: a documentary and reference guide, ABC-CLIO, 2008, p. 29.
102. ^ "'Biographical Note', Smith College, Margaret Sangers Papers". Asteria.fivecolleges.edu. September 6, 1966. Archived from the original on September 12, 2006. Retrieved March 12, 2012.
103. "The Margaret Sanger Papers Project". sanger.hosting.nyu.edu. Retrieved January 18, 2025.
104. Chesler 2007, p. 393.
105. Ford, Lynne E., Encyclopedia of Women and American Politics, p. 406.
106. Esser-Stuart, Joan E., "Margaret Higgins Sanger", in Encyclopedia of Social Welfare History in North America, Herrick, John and Stuart, Paul (eds), SAGE, 2005, p. 323.
107. Engelman, Peter, "McCormick, Katharine Dexter", in Encyclopedia of Birth Control Vern L. Bullough (ed.), ABC-CLIO, 2001, pp. 170–1.
108. Fritz, Marc A.; Speroff, Leon (2011). Clinical Gynecologic Endocrinology and Infertility. Lippincott Williams & Wilkins. pp. 959–960. ISBN 9781469834504.
109. Eig 2014.
110. Eig 2014, p. 312: " would often go out of his way to say that he never could have done it without McCormick, Sanger, Rock, M. C. Chang, Edris Rice-Wray, and many others."
111. ^ "The Heart to go to Japan". New York University: The Margaret Sanger Papers Project. Spring 1996.
112. Tipton, Elise K. (September 1997). "Ishimoto Shizue: The Margaret Sanger of Japan". Women's History Review. 6 (3): 337–355. doi:10.1080/09612029700200151. ISSN 0961-2025.
113. Cleere, Jan (June 24, 2022). "The Tucson history of Margaret Sanger, Planned Parenthood founder". Arizona Daily Star.
114. "Estelle Griswold". Connecticut Women's Hall of Fame.
115. ""Interview with Margaret Sanger, 1957 September 21, Harry Ransom Center, University of Texas Austin".
116. "Margaret Sanger is Dead at 82; Led Campaign for Birth Control".
117. Baker 2011, p. 307.
118. "Margaret Sanger obituary". The Blade. Toledo, Ohio. Associated Press. September 7, 1966. Retrieved July 27, 2014.
119. Baker 2011, p. 61.
120. ^ Chesler 2007, pp. 13–14.
121. Cox 2004, p. 55.
122. Chesler 2007, pp. 111–117.
123. Kennedy 1970, p. 127.
124. Sanger, Margaret (December 29, 1912), "What Every Girl Should Know: Sexual Impulses—Part II", New York Call – via The Margaret Sanger Papers Project
125. ^ Bronski 2011, p. 100.
126. Sanger 1922, p. 204.
127. Quotes from Sanger, "What Every Girl should know: Sexual Impulses Part II", in New York Call, December 29, 1912; also in the subsequent book What Every Girl Should Know, pp. 40–48; reprinted in Sanger 2003, pp. 41–5 (quotes on p. 45).
128. McCann 1994, pp. 30–33, 48.
129. Bronski 2011, p. 100. See also: Margaret Sanger, "What Every Girl Should Know: Sexual Impulse—Part I", December 22, 1912.
130. Craig 2013, p. 63.
131. Lewis, Karen J. (January 2, 2001). Abortion Law Development: A Brief Overview (PDF). Report for Congress, Order Code # 95-724 A (Report). Congressional Research Service - The Library of Congress. p. CRS-2. Retrieved January 19, 2025.
132. Garrow, D.J. (1998). Liberty and Sexuality: The Right to Privacy and the Making of Roe V. Wade. University of California Press. pp. 271–272. ISBN 9780520213029. LCCN 97052173. Garrow obtained his estimates from data collected by Alan Frank Guttmacher and Frederick J. Taussig.
133. Engelman 2011, pp. 119, 144 Engelman provides the estimates as ratios: ranging from one abortion per five live births, to one abortion per 2.5 live births.
134. Chesler 2007, p. 63.
135. Engelman 2011, p. 18.
136. ^ Mehren, Elizabeth (November 30, 1995). "Champion of Choice : Lawrence Lader's 1966 book launched a crusade for reproductive rights. Now 76, he's backing an abortion drug for the U.S. market". Los Angeles Times.
137. Engelman 2011, p. 53.
138. Baker 2011, pp. 86, 112.
139. Chesler 2007, p. 271.
140. Engelman 2011, p. 82. Quote is from Sanger 1931, p. 155.
141. Chesler 2007, pp. 300–302. Chesler states that there is evidence that staff sometimes did refer patients to physicians outside the clinic for abortions.
142. Chesler 2007, pp. 300–302.
143. "History of Planned Parenthood". Planned Parenthood.
144. Baker 2011, pp. 86.
145. Baker 2011, p. 302.
146. Lader 1955, p. 53.
147. Lader 1969, pp. 36–39.
148. McCann 2010, pp. 750–751.
149. Wood, Janice Ruth, ed. (2012). The struggle for free speech in the United States, 1872 - 1915: Edward Bliss Foote, Edward Bond Foote, and anti-Comstock operations. Studies in American popular history and culture (1. issued in paperback ed.). New York: Routledge. ISBN 978-0-415-54276-0.
150. Engelman 2011, pp. 146–147.
151. Engelman 2011, pp. 147–148.
152. Chesler 2007, p. 220.
153. Engelman 2011, p. 148.
154. Kennedy 1970, p. 149.
155. Melody, Michael E.; Peterson, Linda M. (1999). Teaching America about sex: marriage guides and sex manuals from the late Victorians to Dr. Ruth. New York London: New York University Press. p. 53. ISBN 978-0-8147-5532-7.
156. Davis, Tom (2005). Sacred work: Planned Parenthood and its clergy alliances. New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers Univ. Press. p. 213. ISBN 978-0-8135-3493-0.
157. ^ "Every Child a Wanted Child (Obituary)". Time. Vol. 88, no. 12. September 16, 1966. p. 96.
158. ^ Engelman 2011, p. 131.
159. Leonard, Thomas C. (2005). Eugenics and Economics in the Progressive Era. Journal of Economic Perspectives. Retrieved January 29, 2022.
160. Freeden, Michael (February 11, 2009). Eugenics and Progressive Thought: a Study in Ideological Affinity. Cambridge University Press. Retrieved January 29, 2022.
161. McCann 1994, p. 104.
162. Engelman 2011, p. 48.
163. "The Passionate Friends: H. G. Wells and Margaret Sanger". NYU Margaret Sanger Papers Project. 1996.
164. Lombardo, Paul A. (2011). A Century of Eugenics in America: From the Indiana Experiment to the Human Genome Era. Indiana University Press. pp. 74–75. ISBN 9780253222695.
165. Levering, Lewis David (2001). W. E. B. Du Bois: The Fight for Equality and the American Century 1919–1963. Owl Books. p. 223. ISBN 978-0-8050-6813-9. Sources are not clear if Churchill attended the conference, or simply supported it from afar.
166. Lombardo, Paul A. (2023). "A Vigorous Campaign against Abortion": Views of American Leaders of Eugenics v. Supreme Court Distortions". Journal of Law, Medicine & Ethics. 51 (3): 473–479. doi:10.1017/jme.2023.90. PMID 38088609.
167. Engelman 2011, p. 131 - List of notables.
168. Engelman 2011, pp. 130, 132.
169. Engelman 2011, p. 132.
170. "American Experience - Eugenics and Birth Control". www.pbs.org. PBS. Retrieved March 23, 2024.
171. McCann 1994, p. 100-101.
172. Wilkinson, Stephen A. (2010). "On the distinction between positive and negative eugenics". In Matti Häyry (ed.). Arguments and analysis in bioethics. Amsterdam: Rodopi. pp. 115–128. doi:10.1163/9789042028036_011. ISBN 978-90-420-2803-6.
173. Spektorowski, Alberto; Ireni-Saban, Liza (2013). Politics of Eugenics: Productionism, Population, and National Welfare. London: Routledge. p. 24. ISBN 9780203740231. Archived from the original on October 19, 2021. Retrieved January 16, 2017.
174. Buchanan, Allen; Brock, Dan W.; Daniels, Norman; Wikler, Daniel (2000). From Chance to Choice: Genetics and Justice. Cambridge University Press. pp. 104–155. ISBN 9780521669771. OCLC 41211380.
175. Gillette, Aaron (2007). Eugenics and the Nature-Nurture Debate in the Twentieth Century. New York: Palgrave Macmillan. pp. 123–124. ISBN 9780230608900..
176. ^ "The Sanger-Hitler Equation", Margaret Sanger Papers Project Newsletter, #32, Winter 2002/3. New York University Department of History
177. Gordon 2002, p. 197.
178. Jane Carey (2012). "The Racial Imperatives of Sex: birth control and eugenics in Britain, the United States and Australia in the interwar years". Women's History Review. 21 (5). Routledge: 733–752. doi:10.1080/09612025.2012.658180. Stoddard contributed an article to Birth Control Review, "Population Problems in Asia", in 1922.
179. ^ Engelman 2011, p. 133.
180. Cooper 2023 - "A lifelong campaigner for women’s rights, she gradually abandoned her anarchist and socialist convictions in favor of a distinctly feminist version of eugenics. Frustrated with the lack of interest in women’s reproductive autonomy among feminists and labor activists, Sanger turned to the science of eugenics."
181. ^ Engelman 2011, p. 133 Engelman writes that when Sanger used the term "unfit", she meant sickly or defective, and was not referring to ethnic traits: "It is important to note that Sanger understood 'unfit' to indicate 'physical or mental defects.' She wrote that 'if unfit refers to race or religions, then that is another matter which I frankly deplore.'"
182. Sanger, Margaret (April 1932). "A Plan for Peace". Birth Control Review. 16 (4): 107–108. This article was originally presented as a speech to the New History Society in January 1932.
183. Baker 2011, pp. 222–223.
184. Engelman 2011, pp. 131, 134.
185. ^ Roberts 2009, p. 201.
186. Engelman 2011, pp. 134.
187. Baker 2011, p. 165.
188. Cox 2004, p. 80.
189. ^ Roberts 1998, p. 81.
190. Engelman 2011, pp. 133, 135.
191. ^ Katz 1995, p. 46-47.
192. McCann 1994, p. 117. McCann writes that Sanger stressed limiting the number of births, and to live within one's economic ability to raise and support healthy children, which in her view would lead to a betterment of society and the human race.
193. ^ Engelman 2011, p. 135.
194. Chesler 2007, p. 15.
195. Baker 2011, p. 70.
196. Chesler 2007, pp. 144, 149, 245.
197. Chesler 2007, pp. 445, 482.
198. "Birth Control Has Expanded Opportunity for Women - In Economic Advancement, Educational Attainment, and Health Outcomes" (PDF). Planned Parenthood. Retrieved January 12, 2025.
199. "About the Project". NYU Margaret Sanger Papers Project. February 7, 2007. Retrieved March 12, 2012.
200. "Smith College collection web site". Asteria.fivecolleges.edu. Archived from the original on May 27, 2011. Retrieved March 12, 2012.
201. "Portrait of a Rebel: The Remarkable Mrs. Sanger". IMDb.com. April 22, 1980.
202. Choices of the Heart: The Margaret Sanger Story – 1995 television film directed by Paul ShapiroPages displaying wikidata descriptions as a fallback
203. "The Margaret Sanger Story". Comics.org.
204. "Our Lady of Birth Control: A Cartoonist's Encounter with Margaret Sanger". Comics.org.
205. "Nomination Database". Nobel Prize. April 2020.
206. "Annual Humanist Awardees". August 12, 2023.
207. "Rockefeller 3d Wins Sanger Award". The New York Times. October 9, 1967. Archived from the original on November 6, 2012. Retrieved February 14, 2011.
208. "Sanger, Margaret". National Women's Hall of Fame.
209. "National Historic Landmark Program". National Park Service, National Historic Landmarks Program. September 14, 1993. Archived from the original on March 18, 2012. Retrieved March 12, 2012.
210. "Friends of the Library Newsletter" (PDF). Wellesley.edu. Archived from the original (PDF) on June 17, 2015. Retrieved March 12, 2012.
211. Kayton, Bruce (2003). Radical Walking Tours of New York City. New York: Seven Stories Press. p. 111. ISBN 1-58322-554-4. Retrieved December 29, 2010.
212. Lauren Hodges (August 27, 2015). "National Portrait Gallery Won't Remove Bust of Planned Parenthood Founder : The Two-Way". NPR. Retrieved June 30, 2016.
213. Michael E. Eidenmuller (February 13, 2009). "Top 100 Speeches of the 20th Century by Rank". American Rhetoric. Retrieved October 27, 2015.
214. "Margaret H Sanger—Women's Political Communication Archives". Archived from the original on November 18, 2016. Retrieved October 27, 2015.
215. "TIME 100 Persons Of The Century". Time. Vol. 153, no. 23. June 14, 1999.
216. "VENUS – Sanger" in Gazetteer of Planetary Nomenclature USGS https://planetarynames.wr.usgs.gov/Feature/5307
217. Baker 2011, pp. 3–4.
218. ^ Cooper 2023.
219. Engelman 2011, p. 134. Provides an example of a false quote used in attacks.
220. Kelly, Amita (August 14, 2015). "Fact Check: Was Planned Parenthood Started To 'Control' The Black Population?". NPR.
221. Stewart, Nikita (July 21, 2020). "Planned Parenthood in N.Y. Disavows Margaret Sanger Over Eugenics". The New York Times. ISSN 0362-4331. Retrieved January 14, 2025.
222. Johnson, Alexis McGill (April 17, 2021). "I'm the Head of Planned Parenthood. We're Done Making Excuses for Our Founder". Opinion. The New York Times. ISSN 0362-4331. Retrieved April 17, 2021.
223. Chesner, Ellen (April 20, 2021). "Opinion | Defending Margaret Sanger, Planned Parenthood's Founder". The New York Times. ISSN 0362-4331. Retrieved January 8, 2025.
224. Pollitt, Katha (August 20, 2020). "Canceling Margaret Sanger Only Helps Abortion Opponents". The Nation (published September 7, 2020). ISSN 0027-8378. Retrieved January 14, 2025.
225. Coates 2008, p. 48.
226. Hoolihan, Christopher (2004). An Annotated Catalogue of the Edward C. Atwater Collection of American Popular Medicine and Health Reform, Vol. 2 (M–Z). University Rochester Press. p. 299. ISBN 9781580460989.

Bibliography

• Baker, Jean (2011). Margaret Sanger: A Life of Passion. New York: Hill and Wang. ISBN 978-1-4299-6897-3. OCLC 863501288, 1150293235.
• Blanchard, Margaret (1992), Revolutionary Sparks: Freedom of Expression in Modern America, New York: Oxford University Press, ISBN 978-0-19-505436-1
• Bronski, Michael (2011), A Queer History of the United States, Boston: Beacon Press, ISBN 978-0-8070-4439-1
• Chesler, Ellen (2007), Woman of Valor: Margaret Sanger and the Birth Control Movement in America, New York: Simon and Schuster, ISBN 978-1-4165-4076-2. Originally published in 1992 (Anchor ISBN 978-0385469807), it was republished in 2007 with a new afterward.
• Coates, Patricia (2008), Margaret Sanger and the Origin of the Birth Control Movement, 1910–1930: The Concept of Women's Sexual Autonomy, Lewiston, New York: Edwin Mellen Press, ISBN 978-0-7734-5099-8
• Cohen, Warren (2009). Profiles in Humanity: The Battle for Peace, Freedom, Equality, and Human Rights. Lanham, MD: Rowman & Littlefield. ISBN 978-0-7425-6703-0. OCLC 434016837.
• Coigney, Virginia (1969), Margaret Sanger: Rebel With a Cause, Doubleday
• Cooper, Melinda (January 1, 2023). "The Anti-Abortion Movement and the Ghost of Margaret Sanger". Dissent. 70 (Winter 2023): 60–73. doi:10.1353/dss.2023.0031. Retrieved January 20, 2023.
• Cox, Vicki (2004). Margaret Sanger: Rebel for Women's Rights. Philadelphia: Chelsea House Publishers. ISBN 978-1-4381-0759-2. OCLC 613206381. Year of publication sometimes reported as 2005.
• Craig, Layne (2013), When Sex Changed Birth Control Politics and Literature between the World Wars, Rutgers University Press, ISBN 978-0-8135-6212-4
• Douglas, E.T. (1970), Margaret Sanger; Pioneer of the Future, Holt, Rinehart and Winston, ISBN 9780030818448
• Eig, Jonathan (2014). The birth of the pill: how four crusaders reinvented sex and launched a revolution. New York: W. W. Norton & Company. ISBN 978-0-393-07372-0.
• Engelman, Peter (2011). A History of the Birth Control Movement in America. Santa Barbara, CA: Praeger. ISBN 978-0-313-36510-2. OCLC 728097821.
• Gordon, Linda (2002). The Moral Property of Women: A History of Birth Control Politics in America. University of Illinois Press. ISBN 9780252027642.
• Hajo, Cathy (2010), Birth control on main street: organizing clinics in the United States, 1916–1939, Urbana: University of Illinois Press, ISBN 978-0-252-07725-8
• Katz, Esther (1995). "The Editor as Public Authority: Interpreting Margaret Sanger". The Public Historian. 17 (1): 41–50. doi:10.2307/3378350. ISSN 0272-3433. JSTOR 3378350.
• Kennedy, David (1970). Birth Control in America: The Career of Margaret Sanger. New Haven: Yale University Press. ISBN 978-0-300-01202-6. OCLC 70781307.
• Kevles, Daniel (1985), In the name of eugenics: genetics and the uses of human heredity, Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press, ISBN 978-0-520-05763-0
• Lader, Lawrence (1955). The Margaret Sanger Story and the Fight for Birth Control. Garden City, NY: Doubleday. OCLC 910372158. Reprinted in 1975 by Greenwood Press ISBN 978-0-8371-7076-3
• Lader, Lawrence (1969). Margaret Sanger: pioneer of birth control. Ty Crowell. ISBN 978-0690519341.
• McCann, Carole R (1994). Birth control politics in the United States, 1916-1945. Cornell University Press. ISBN 978-0-8014-8612-8. OCLC 988564989.
• McCann, Carole (2010). "Women as Leaders in the Contraceptive Movement". In O'Connor, Karen (ed.). Gender and Women's Leadership: A Reference Handbook. Vol. 2. Thousand Oaks, Calif: SAGE Reference. ISBN 978-1-84972-763-1. OCLC 568741234.
• Roberts, Dorothy (1998). Killing the Black Body: Race, Reproduction, and the Meaning of Liberty. Knopf Doubleday. ISBN 9780679758693. LCCN 97002383.
• Roberts, Dorothy (2009). "Margaret Sanger and the Racial Origins of the Birth Control Movement". In Baum, Bruce (ed.). Racially Writing the Republic: Racists, Race Rebels, and Transformations of American Identity. Duke University Press. ISBN 9780822392156.
• Rodriguez, Sarah Mellors (2023). Reproductive realities in modern China: birth control and abortion, 1911–2021. Cambridge, United Kingdom: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-1-009-02733-5. OCLC 1366057905.
• Rosenberg, Rosalind (2008), Divided Lives: American women in the twentieth century, New York: Hill and Wang, ISBN 978-0-8090-1631-0
• Sanger, Margaret (1919). "Birth Control and Racial Betterment". Birth Control Review. Vol. 3, no. 2. The New York Women's Publishing Company. pp. 11–12 – via The Margaret Sanger Papers Project.
• Valenza, Charles (1985), "Was Margaret Sanger a Racist?", Family Planning Perspectives, 17 (1), Guttmacher Institute: 44–46, doi:10.2307/2135230, JSTOR 2135230, PMID 3884362

External links

• Works by Margaret Sanger at Project Gutenberg
• Works by or about Margaret Sanger at the Internet Archive
• Works by Margaret Sanger at LibriVox (public domain audiobooks)
• Works by Margaret Sanger at Open Library
• Michals, Debra "Margaret Sanger". National Women's History Museum. 2017.
• Portrait of a Rebel: The Remarkable Mrs. Sanger at IMDb  – 1980 television film directed by Virgil W. Vogel
• Bagge, Peter (2013). The Woman Rebel: The Margaret Sanger Story. Montréal: Drawn & Quarterly. ISBN 978-1770461260. OCLC 841710267.
• Jones, Sabrina (2016). Our Lady of Birth control: A Cartoonist's Encounter with Margaret Sanger. Berkeley, CA: Soft Skull Press, an imprint of Counterpoint. ISBN 978-1619028111. OCLC 957604758.