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| ==Prelude== | ==Prelude== | ||
| ]showing Ibn Battuta (center) and his guide (left) in ]]]}} | ]showing Ibn Battuta (center) and his guide (left) in ]]]}} | ||
| ], the ] traveler, visited ] in 1342 CE and documented the early history of the ]. ], the founder of the Sultanate, was assassinated in 1340 CE after a five-year reign. He was succeeded by Ala-ud-din Udaiji, who ruled for approximately a year before being killed. Udaiji's son-in-law, Qutb-ud-din, briefly held power but was murdered after just forty days. The throne subsequently passed to Ghiyas-ud-din Dhamaghani (1341–43 CE), under whom Ibn Battuta visited Madurai.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Devakunjari |first=D. |url=https://books.google. |
], the ] traveler, visited ] in 1342 CE and documented the early history of the ]. ], the founder of the Sultanate, was assassinated in 1340 CE after a five-year reign. He was succeeded by Ala-ud-din Udaiji, who ruled for approximately a year before being killed. Udaiji's son-in-law, Qutb-ud-din, briefly held power but was murdered after just forty days. The throne subsequently passed to Ghiyas-ud-din Dhamaghani (1341–43 CE), under whom Ibn Battuta visited Madurai.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Devakunjari |first=D. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=bjJuAAAAMAAJ |title=Madurai Through the Ages: From the Earliest Times to 1801 A.D. |date=1979 |publisher=Society for Archaeological, Historical, and Epigraphical Research |page=162 |language=en}}</ref> | ||
| ], the first ruler of the ]]]}} | ], the first ruler of the ]]]}} | ||
| During Ghiyas-ud-din’s reign, the ] king ] launched an invasion, defeating the Sultanate’s forces at the ] and besieging Kobban fort for six months. However, Ghiyas-ud-din launched a surprise counterattack, capturing and executing Veera Ballala III in 1342 CE. | During Ghiyas-ud-din’s reign, the ] king ] launched an invasion, defeating the Sultanate’s forces at the ] and besieging Kobban fort for six months. However, Ghiyas-ud-din launched a surprise counterattack, capturing and executing Veera Ballala III in 1342 CE. | ||
| ], witnessing the event noted the Sultan's harsh rule. Around this time, an epidemic swept through ], claiming the Sultan’s life. His nephew, Nasir-ud-din, succeeded him in 1343–44 CE, shortly before Ibn Battuta left the region.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Devakunjari |first=D. |url=https://books.google. |
], witnessing the event noted the Sultan's harsh rule. Around this time, an epidemic swept through ], claiming the Sultan’s life. His nephew, Nasir-ud-din, succeeded him in 1343–44 CE, shortly before Ibn Battuta left the region.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Devakunjari |first=D. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=bjJuAAAAMAAJ |title=Madurai Through the Ages: From the Earliest Times to 1801 A.D. |date=1979 |publisher=Society for Archaeological, Historical, and Epigraphical Research |pages=162–163 |language=en}}</ref> | ||
| ] as ], 1st quarter of the 12th century, ] period, probably ], |
] as ], 1st quarter of the 12th century, ] period, probably ], ]]]}} | ||
| The later history of the Sultanate is poorly documented, with a gap in coinage between 1343 and 1356 CE suggesting instability. Historian Afif records that during Sultan ]’s rule in Delhi, a firman sent to ] found it without a ruler. The local population reportedly chose Qurbat Hasan Kangu as king, but he was considered an ineffective leader. Meanwhile, the foundation of the ] in 1336 CE marked the beginning of resistance against ] rule in the ] and ], eventually leading to the decline of the ].<ref>{{Cite book |last=Devakunjari |first=D. |url=https://books.google. |
The later history of the Sultanate is poorly documented, with a gap in coinage between 1343 and 1356 CE suggesting instability. Historian Afif records that during Sultan ]’s rule in Delhi, a firman sent to ] found it without a ruler. The local population reportedly chose Qurbat Hasan Kangu as king, but he was considered an ineffective leader. Meanwhile, the foundation of the ] in 1336 CE marked the beginning of resistance against ] rule in the ] and ], eventually leading to the decline of the ].<ref>{{Cite book |last=Devakunjari |first=D. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=bjJuAAAAMAAJ |title=Madurai Through the Ages: From the Earliest Times to 1801 A.D. |date=1979 |publisher=Society for Archaeological, Historical, and Epigraphical Research |page=163 |language=en}}</ref> | ||
| ==Background== | ==Background== | ||
| During ]'s reign, a defining achievement was the overthrow of the ] by his son, ].<ref name=":3" /> After securing peace following the siege of Vijayanagara, ] resumed his plans for the conquest of ], motivated by several pressing concerns. The region, once under the ], had fallen into disorder due to internecine conflicts among local chiefs, endangering life and property. Additionally, the Sultanate of Madurai posed a significant threat to ], with desecrated temples and disrupted religious institutions calling for a savior. ] sought to fulfill ]'s uncompleted mission of reconquest and restoration.<ref name=":0" /> | During ]'s reign, a defining achievement was the overthrow of the ] by his son, ].<ref name=":3" /> After securing peace following the siege of Vijayanagara, ] resumed his plans for the conquest of ], motivated by several pressing concerns. The region, once under the ], had fallen into disorder due to internecine conflicts among local chiefs, endangering life and property. Additionally, the Sultanate of Madurai posed a significant threat to ], with desecrated temples and disrupted religious institutions calling for a savior. ] sought to fulfill ]'s uncompleted mission of reconquest and restoration.<ref name=":0" /> | ||
| ] decorating the ].]]}} | ] decorating the ].]]}} | ||
| Acting on ]’s directives, ], as the viceroy of the southern territories, launched a series of campaigns to expand ]’s dominion. With the support of distinguished generals like ] and Suva Mangu (identified as Mangappa Dandanatha, an ancestor of ]),<ref name=":0">{{Cite book |last=Sharma |first=M. H. Rāma |url=https://books.google. |
Acting on ]’s directives, ], as the viceroy of the southern territories, launched a series of campaigns to expand ]’s dominion. With the support of distinguished generals like ] and Suva Mangu (identified as Mangappa Dandanatha, an ancestor of ]),<ref name=":0">{{Cite book |last=Sharma |first=M. H. Rāma |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Fw5DAAAAYAAJ |title=The History of the Vijayanagar Empire: Beginnings and expansion, 1308-1569 |date=1978 |publisher=Popular Prakashan |page=31 |language=en}}</ref> he first subdued the ] of North and ], securing their allegiance for the larger campaign.<ref name=":3">{{Cite book |last=Sastri |first=Kallidaikurichi Aiyah Nilakanta |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=FjxuAAAAMAAJ |title=A History of South India from Prehistoric Times to the Fall of Vijayanagar |date=1976 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-560686-7 |page=256 |language=en}}</ref><ref name=":4">{{Cite book |last=Stein |first=Burton |url=https://books.google.co.in/books?id=OpxeaYQbGDMC&printsec=frontcover&redir_esc=y#v=onepage&q&f=false |title=The New Cambridge History of India: Vijayanagara |date=1990 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-0-521-26693-2 |page=42 |language=en}}</ref> | ||
| ]}} | ]}} | ||
| ] then advanced into ], ruled by Sambava Raya (also known as Champa Raya). Establishing his base at ], he besieged and captured Sambava Raya’s stronghold after defeating him in a duel.<ref name=":0" /> Following this victory, ] marched to ], where he supported local temples with significant benefactions and stationed a garrison to maintain order. He advanced further south to launch an invasion against the ].<ref name=":0" /> | ] then advanced into ], ruled by Sambava Raya (also known as Champa Raya).<ref name=":4" /> Establishing his base at ], he besieged and captured Sambava Raya’s stronghold after defeating him in a duel.<ref name=":0" /> Following this victory, ] marched to ], where he supported local temples with significant benefactions and stationed a garrison to maintain order. He advanced further south to launch an invasion against the ].<ref name=":0" /> | ||
| ==Conquest of Madurai== | ==Conquest of Madurai== | ||
| ], the son of ], the second ruler of the ], led a series of successful campaigns that resulted in the gradual overthrow of ] rule across southern India.<ref name=":3" /> His conquest of Rajagambhira Rajya, the territory of the ], around 1362 CE marked the beginning of his southern expeditions.<ref name=":2" /> After this victory, ] moved further south and restored the image of God ] to its temple in ], which had been removed for safety during the ] incursions.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Devakunjari |first=D. |url=https://books.google. |
], the son of ], the second ruler of the ], led a series of successful campaigns that resulted in the gradual overthrow of ] rule across southern India.<ref name=":3" /> His conquest of Rajagambhira Rajya, the territory of the ], around 1362 CE marked the beginning of his southern expeditions.<ref name=":2" /> After this victory, ] moved further south and restored the image of God ] to its temple in ], which had been removed for safety during the ] incursions.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Devakunjari |first=D. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=bjJuAAAAMAAJ |title=Madurai Through the Ages: From the Earliest Times to 1801 A.D. |date=1979 |publisher=Society for Archaeological, Historical, and Epigraphical Research |page=164 |language=en}}</ref> | ||
| ]}} | ]}} | ||
| ] campaigns reached their peak with his invasion of ], where he decisively defeated the Sultan, bringing an end to nearly fifty years of ] rule in the region.<ref name=":2">{{Cite book |last=Kalidos |first=Raju |url=https://books.google. |
] campaigns reached their peak with his invasion of ], where he decisively defeated the Sultan, bringing an end to nearly fifty years of ] rule in the region.<ref name=":2">{{Cite book |last=Kalidos |first=Raju |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=zG1uAAAAMAAJ |title=History and Culture of the Tamils: From Prehistoric Times to the President's Rule |date=1976 |publisher=Vijay Publications |pages=214–217 |language=en}}</ref> This campaign not only extended ]'s influence over ] but also brought stability, restored religious practices, and revitalized cultural institutions, leaving a lasting legacy on the region’s history.<ref name=":0" /> | ||
| ]}} | ]}} | ||
| The ] epic '']'' written by his wife ], recounts that ] was inspired by a divine vision while in ]. In the vision, the goddess of the ] country lamented the suffering of the land under ] and granted him a sword symbolizing ] sovereignty. This event, which took place between 1365 and 1370 CE, marked the liberation of ] from ] control.<ref name=":3" /> | The ] epic '']'' written by his wife ], recounts that ] was inspired by a divine vision while in ]. In the vision, the goddess of the ] country lamented the suffering of the land under ] and granted him a sword symbolizing ] sovereignty. This event, which took place between 1365 and 1370 CE, marked the liberation of ] from ] control.<ref name=":3" /> | ||
| ] in Madurai]]}} | ] in Madurai]]}} | ||
| After the fall of ], ] continued his march south to ] and ], where he restored temples and ensured their proper worship. By 1371 CE, his conquests had extended to the ].<ref name=":0" /> Despite a failed appeal for help from the defeated ] to Delhi, ] solidified ]'s dominance over the region.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Devakunjari |first=D. |url=https://books.google. |
After the fall of ], ] continued his march south to ] and ], where he restored temples and ensured their proper worship. By 1371 CE, his conquests had extended to the ].<ref name=":0" /> Despite a failed appeal for help from the defeated ] to Delhi, ] solidified ]'s dominance over the region.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Devakunjari |first=D. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=bjJuAAAAMAAJ |title=Madurai Through the Ages: From the Earliest Times to 1801 A.D. |date=1979 |publisher=Society for Archaeological, Historical, and Epigraphical Research |page=164 |language=en}}</ref> | ||
| ==Aftermath== | ==Aftermath== | ||
| ] spent the next two years organizing the administration in the south, ensuring stability, before returning to ] in 1373 CE to conclude his campaigns. His efforts not only ended ] rule in the south but also restored ] religious practices and consolidated ]’s control over the region. ] passed away in 1374 CE, leaving behind a lasting legacy immortalized in the ].<ref name=":0" /> | ] spent the next two years organizing the administration in the south, ensuring stability, before returning to ] in 1373 CE to conclude his campaigns. His efforts not only ended ] rule in the south but also restored ] religious practices and consolidated ]’s control over the region. ] passed away in 1374 CE, leaving behind a lasting legacy immortalized in the '']''.<ref name=":0" /> | ||
| The conquest of ] stands as one of the greatest achievements in the history of the ], elevating what was once a small principality to the status of an empire. ] marked this remarkable achievement by adopting the titles of "]" and "Lord of Three Seas." In addition, he sent an embassy to the Emperor of ], Tai-tsu, further solidifying his empire's stature. The capital, previously known as Vidyanagara, was renamed ], meaning "City of Victory," in commemoration of ]'s extraordinary conquests.<ref name=":0" /> | The conquest of ] stands as one of the greatest achievements in the history of the ], elevating what was once a small principality to the status of an empire. ] marked this remarkable achievement by adopting the titles of "]" and "Lord of Three Seas." In addition, he sent an embassy to the Emperor of ], Tai-tsu, further solidifying his empire's stature. The capital, previously known as Vidyanagara, was renamed ], meaning "City of Victory," in commemoration of ]'s extraordinary conquests.<ref name=":0" /> | ||
| [[File:Harihara and Bukka meeting Vidyaranya.jpg|thumb|270px|{{center|Harihara and Bukka meeting Vidyaranya | [[File:Harihara and Bukka meeting Vidyaranya.jpg|thumb|270px|{{center|Harihara and Bukka meeting Vidyaranya | ||
| Alongside the political advancements, the ]]]}} experienced a flourishing of religious and literary activities. Under the patronage of King ] and with his encouragement, ] embarked on extraordinary efforts to revive religious learning, transcending religious boundaries. He invited scholars from across the land, providing them with resources and support to work on diverse subjects such as logic, grammar, ], ], and ].<ref name=":1">{{Cite book |last=Sharma |first=M. H. Rāma |url=https://books.google. |
Alongside the political advancements, the ]]]}} experienced a flourishing of religious and literary activities. Under the patronage of King ] and with his encouragement, ] embarked on extraordinary efforts to revive religious learning, transcending religious boundaries. He invited scholars from across the land, providing them with resources and support to work on diverse subjects such as logic, grammar, ], ], and ].<ref name=":1">{{Cite book |last=Sharma |first=M. H. Rāma |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Fw5DAAAAYAAJ |title=The History of the Vijayanagar Empire: Beginnings and expansion, 1308-1569 |date=1978 |publisher=Popular Prakashan |page=32 |language=en}}</ref> | ||
| ]}} | ]}} | ||
| The volume of scholarly work produced under his guidance became renowned throughout ]. Notable works from this period include '']'', '']'', ''Parasara Madhaveeya'', ''] Vyākhyāna'', ''Jaimineeya-Dhaluvritti'', ''Vinarana Prameya'', '']'', '']'', ''Vyavahāra Mādhava'' and various stotras. ]'s brother, ], was an equally distinguished scholar, contributing over 113 works.<ref name=":1" /> | The volume of scholarly work produced under his guidance became renowned throughout ]. Notable works from this period include '']'', '']'', ''Parasara Madhaveeya'', ''] Vyākhyāna'', ''Jaimineeya-Dhaluvritti'', ''Vinarana Prameya'', '']'', '']'', ''Vyavahāra Mādhava'' and various stotras. ]'s brother, ], was an equally distinguished scholar, contributing over 113 works.<ref name=":1" /> | ||
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Latest revision as of 14:40, 9 January 2025
| Kampana's invasion of Madurai | |||||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Part of Battles involving the Vijayanagara Empire | |||||||||
| |||||||||
| Belligerents | |||||||||
| Vijayanagara Empire | Madurai Sultanate | ||||||||
| Commanders and leaders | |||||||||
|
Kumara Kampana Gopana Suva Mangu | Qurbat Hasan † | ||||||||
| Casualties and losses | |||||||||
| Unknown | Heavy | ||||||||
  class=notpageimage| Madurai Battle field Location | |||||||||
Kumara Kampana, son of Bukka I of the Vijayanagara Empire, led a series of campaigns that overthrew Muslim rule in southern India, culminating in the conquest of Madurai around 1370 CE. His victories restored stability, revived religious practices, and extended Vijayanagara's influence to the southern ocean. Kampana's achievements, including the restoration of the Ranganatha temple and the liberation of Ma'bar, are immortalized in the Sanskrit epic Madhura Vijayam by his wife, Ganga Devi.
Prelude
Ibn Battuta, the Moorish traveler, visited Madurai in 1342 CE and documented the early history of the Madurai Sultanate. Jalaluddin Ahsan Khan, the founder of the Sultanate, was assassinated in 1340 CE after a five-year reign. He was succeeded by Ala-ud-din Udaiji, who ruled for approximately a year before being killed. Udaiji's son-in-law, Qutb-ud-din, briefly held power but was murdered after just forty days. The throne subsequently passed to Ghiyas-ud-din Dhamaghani (1341–43 CE), under whom Ibn Battuta visited Madurai.
During Ghiyas-ud-din’s reign, the Hoysala king Veera Ballala III launched an invasion, defeating the Sultanate’s forces at the battle of Kannanur and besieging Kobban fort for six months. However, Ghiyas-ud-din launched a surprise counterattack, capturing and executing Veera Ballala III in 1342 CE. Ibn Battuta, witnessing the event noted the Sultan's harsh rule. Around this time, an epidemic swept through Madurai, claiming the Sultan’s life. His nephew, Nasir-ud-din, succeeded him in 1343–44 CE, shortly before Ibn Battuta left the region.
The later history of the Sultanate is poorly documented, with a gap in coinage between 1343 and 1356 CE suggesting instability. Historian Afif records that during Sultan Feroz Shah’s rule in Delhi, a firman sent to Ma’bar found it without a ruler. The local population reportedly chose Qurbat Hasan Kangu as king, but he was considered an ineffective leader. Meanwhile, the foundation of the Vijayanagara Empire in 1336 CE marked the beginning of resistance against Muslim rule in the Deccan and southern India, eventually leading to the decline of the Madurai Sultanate.
Background
During Bukka's reign, a defining achievement was the overthrow of the Madurai Sultanate by his son, Kumara Kampana. After securing peace following the siege of Vijayanagara, Bukka resumed his plans for the conquest of South India, motivated by several pressing concerns. The region, once under the Hoysala Kingdom, had fallen into disorder due to internecine conflicts among local chiefs, endangering life and property. Additionally, the Sultanate of Madurai posed a significant threat to Hindu culture, with desecrated temples and disrupted religious institutions calling for a savior. Bukka sought to fulfill Ballala's uncompleted mission of reconquest and restoration.
Acting on Bukka’s directives, Kampana, as the viceroy of the southern territories, launched a series of campaigns to expand Vijayanagara’s dominion. With the support of distinguished generals like Gopana and Suva Mangu (identified as Mangappa Dandanatha, an ancestor of Saluva Narasinga), he first subdued the Sambuvarayas of North and South Arcot, securing their allegiance for the larger campaign.
Kampana then advanced into Tondamandala, ruled by Sambava Raya (also known as Champa Raya). Establishing his base at Virinchipuram, he besieged and captured Sambava Raya’s stronghold after defeating him in a duel. Following this victory, Kampana marched to Kanchi, where he supported local temples with significant benefactions and stationed a garrison to maintain order. He advanced further south to launch an invasion against the Madurai Sultanate.
Conquest of Madurai
Kumara Kampana, the son of Bukka I, the second ruler of the Vijayanagara empire, led a series of successful campaigns that resulted in the gradual overthrow of Muslim rule across southern India. His conquest of Rajagambhira Rajya, the territory of the Sambuvarayas, around 1362 CE marked the beginning of his southern expeditions. After this victory, Kampana moved further south and restored the image of God Ranganatha to its temple in Srirangam, which had been removed for safety during the Muslim incursions.
Kampana’s campaigns reached their peak with his invasion of Madurai, where he decisively defeated the Sultan, bringing an end to nearly fifty years of Muslim rule in the region. This campaign not only extended Vijayanagara's influence over southern India but also brought stability, restored religious practices, and revitalized cultural institutions, leaving a lasting legacy on the region’s history.
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The Sanskrit epic Madhura Vijayam written by his wife Ganga Devi, recounts that Kampana was inspired by a divine vision while in Kanchipuram. In the vision, the goddess of the Pandya country lamented the suffering of the land under Muslim rule and granted him a sword symbolizing Pandyan sovereignty. This event, which took place between 1365 and 1370 CE, marked the liberation of Ma'bar from Muslim control.
After the fall of Madurai, Kampana continued his march south to Ramnad and Rameswaram, where he restored temples and ensured their proper worship. By 1371 CE, his conquests had extended to the southern ocean. Despite a failed appeal for help from the defeated Muslims to Delhi, Kampana solidified Vijayanagara's dominance over the region.
Aftermath
Kampana spent the next two years organizing the administration in the south, ensuring stability, before returning to Mulbagal in 1373 CE to conclude his campaigns. His efforts not only ended Muslim rule in the south but also restored Hindu religious practices and consolidated Vijayanagara’s control over the region. Kampana passed away in 1374 CE, leaving behind a lasting legacy immortalized in the Madhura Vijayam.
The conquest of southern India stands as one of the greatest achievements in the history of the Vijayanagara Empire, elevating what was once a small principality to the status of an empire. Bukka I marked this remarkable achievement by adopting the titles of "King of Kings" and "Lord of Three Seas." In addition, he sent an embassy to the Emperor of China, Tai-tsu, further solidifying his empire's stature. The capital, previously known as Vidyanagara, was renamed Vijayanagara, meaning "City of Victory," in commemoration of Bukka's extraordinary conquests.
experienced a flourishing of religious and literary activities. Under the patronage of King Bukka I and with his encouragement, Vidyaranya embarked on extraordinary efforts to revive religious learning, transcending religious boundaries. He invited scholars from across the land, providing them with resources and support to work on diverse subjects such as logic, grammar, astronomy, philosophy, and Vedic theology.
The volume of scholarly work produced under his guidance became renowned throughout India. Notable works from this period include Sarvadarsana Sangraha, Sankara Digvijaya, Parasara Madhaveeya, Manusmruti Vyākhyāna, Jaimineeya-Dhaluvritti, Vinarana Prameya, Vedanta Panchadashi, Desopanishad Deepika, Vyavahāra Mādhava and various stotras. Vidyaranya's brother, Sayanacharya, was an equally distinguished scholar, contributing over 113 works.
Among his notable contributions are Subhāshita Sudhānidhi, Alankāra Sudhānidhi, Kaivalyopanishad Deepikā, Dattaka Meemāmsa Pancharudriyātaka and Panineeya-Shikshā-Shāshya. Bhojanatha also made significant contributions with works like Maha Ganapathi Stotra, Rāmollāsa, Tripura Vijaya, Sringdra Manjari, Vashama-Mala and Govinda Sataka. Additionally, Vidyaranya and Sayanacharya oversaw the commentaries on all four Vedas, the Brahmanas, and many other sacred texts.
See also
References
- ^ Sastri, Kallidaikurichi Aiyah Nilakanta (1976). A History of South India from Prehistoric Times to the Fall of Vijayanagar. Oxford University Press. p. 256. ISBN 978-0-19-560686-7.
- Devakunjari, D. (1979). Madurai Through the Ages: From the Earliest Times to 1801 A.D. Society for Archaeological, Historical, and Epigraphical Research. p. 162.
- Devakunjari, D. (1979). Madurai Through the Ages: From the Earliest Times to 1801 A.D. Society for Archaeological, Historical, and Epigraphical Research. pp. 162–163.
- Devakunjari, D. (1979). Madurai Through the Ages: From the Earliest Times to 1801 A.D. Society for Archaeological, Historical, and Epigraphical Research. p. 163.
- ^ Sharma, M. H. Rāma (1978). The History of the Vijayanagar Empire: Beginnings and expansion, 1308-1569. Popular Prakashan. p. 31.
- ^ Stein, Burton (1990). The New Cambridge History of India: Vijayanagara. Cambridge University Press. p. 42. ISBN 978-0-521-26693-2.
- ^ Kalidos, Raju (1976). History and Culture of the Tamils: From Prehistoric Times to the President's Rule. Vijay Publications. pp. 214–217.
- Devakunjari, D. (1979). Madurai Through the Ages: From the Earliest Times to 1801 A.D. Society for Archaeological, Historical, and Epigraphical Research. p. 164.
- Schwartzberg, Joseph E. (1978). A Historical Atlas of South Asia. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. p. 146, map XIV.2 (b). ISBN 0226742210.
- Devakunjari, D. (1979). Madurai Through the Ages: From the Earliest Times to 1801 A.D. Society for Archaeological, Historical, and Epigraphical Research. p. 164.
- ^ Sharma, M. H. Rāma (1978). The History of the Vijayanagar Empire: Beginnings and expansion, 1308-1569. Popular Prakashan. p. 32.
- History of India
- 1300s conflicts
- 1300s in Asia
- 14th century in Asia
- 14th-century conflicts
- Military history of India
- 1365
- 1365 in Asia
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- 1370 in Asia
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- History of Tamil Nadu
- Madurai
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