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Equine intelligence, long described in myths and anecdotes, has been the subject of scientific study since the early 20th century. The worldwide fascination for clever horses, such as Clever Hans, gave rise to a long-running controversy over the cognitive abilities of this species. The discovery of the Clever Hans effect, followed by the development of ethological studies, has progressively revealed a high level of social intelligence, evident in horse's behavior. The scientific discipline that studies equine cognition, at the crossroads of ethology and animal psychology, is cognitive ethology.

Although the existence of consciousness among horses is yet to be proven, their remarkable memory has been recognized for centuries. Because of their wild herd lifestyle, horses also exhibit advanced cognitive abilities related to the theory of mind, enabling them to understand interactions with other individuals. They can recognize a human being by their facial features, communicate with them through body language, and learn new skills by observing a person's behavior. Horses are also adept at categorizing and conceptual learning. In terms of working intelligence, horses respond well to habituation, desensitization, classical conditioning, and operant conditioning. They can also improvise and adapt to suit their potential rider. Understanding how horses' cognitive abilities function has practical applications in the relationship between domesticated horses and humans, particularly in areas such as training, breeding, and day-to-day management, which can ultimately improve their well-being.

The perception of horse intelligence varies across cultures. While the influence of Christianity may have led to it being viewed as limited, except for some medieval literature, it is more widely recognized among people who value animals as much as humans. This intelligence is often portrayed as human-like in tales and legends about wise, talking horses, such as the Kyrgyz epic Er-Töshtük and the Russian tale of The Little Humpbacked Horse, as well as in novels, films, comics, and series for young people, including The Black Stallion, Jolly Jumper, and Black Beauty.

History

The horse has played an important socio-economic role across various historical periods, serving humans in labor, combat, sports, therapy, consumption, and religious practices. However, the intrinsic qualities of horses have sometimes been overlooked, with a variety of cultural narratives and perceptions surrounding them. Humans have shown interest in horses since prehistoric times, prior to their domestication, and the animal has inspired numerous written works since Antiquity. Vanina Deneux-le Barh observes a recurring theme in equestrian literature, both technical and literary: humans can train horses to become skilled fighters. This suggests that, in their shared lives with humans, horses are believed to demonstrate situational intelligence (or mètis, from the ancient Greek: μῆτις).

Many equestrian authors have expressed a desire for horses to demonstrate intelligence and dedication to work. Despite this, horses have often been subjected to harsh treatment. The oldest known equestrian treatise, written by Kikkuli of the kingdom of Mittani in the 14th century BC, is an instruction manual for the training chariot horses. This text is characterized by its stringent selection methods.

Xenophon (430-355 B.C.), the first European author whose equestrian writings have survived, frequently discusses horses in his works. He recognizes this situational intelligence in the warhorses of the city of Athens and strongly advocates against the use of violence in training:

What a horse does by force it does not learn, and that cannot be beautiful, any more than if one wanted to make a man dance with a whip and a goad: ill-treatment will never produce anything but clumsiness and bad grace.

— Xenophon, On Horsemanship, Book IX

From the Middle Ages to modern times

A significant portion of medieval technical literature consists of treatises on hippiatry, or veterinary care manuals. Arab and Muslim scholars made notable contributions to the knowledge of equine medicine, education, and training, in part due to the contributions of the translator Ibn Akhî Hizâm, who wrote around 895, and Ibn al-Awam, who advocated for non-violent methods and pioneered the application ofhabituation methods.

There are historical accounts of horses reported to be extraordinarily intelligent, such as the Catalan knight Giraud de Cabrières' horse, described by the medieval English chronicler Gervais de Tilbury as refined, invincible in races, capable of dancing, and even advising its knight. This horse was said to assist its master in achieving victories through unique communication. Similarly, the English horse Marocco (born around 1586, died around 1606), nicknamed "The Thinking Horse" or "The Talking Horse," was trained and performed in public shows.

Starting in the Renaissance, the printing press revolutionized the production and dissemination of equestrian literature. These writings primarily focused on methods to achieve obedience and maneuverability in horses. The Italian horseman Federico Grisone, for instance, promoted the use of physical punishment to control horses he considered difficult to train.

With the rise of philosophical debates in France, René Descartes' concept of the "animal machine" contrasted with Montaigne's perspective, which viewed animals as possessing intelligence and virtues. Antoine de Pluvinel, influenced by Xenophon, acknowledged the sensitivity, individuality, and psychology of horses, emphasizing the importance of understanding "the brain." François Robichon de La Guérinière (1733) also recognized a form of intelligence in horses, noting that some horses exhibited challenging behaviors or appeared indecisive. According to Sophie Barreau and zootechnician-sociologist Jocelyne Porcher, Guérinière was among the first to reject harsh methods, prioritizing the horse's cooperation over submission.

In the 19th century

From the 19th century onwards, numerous equestrian treatises acknowledged the intelligence of horses. People who interacted with horses daily observed their ability to communicate and their sensitivity. The era's interest in animal intelligence was reflected in the organization of numerous horse-focused performances, which became a common feature of circus shows during the mid-19th century, especially at Victor Franconi's circus, which was inaugurated in Paris in 1845. In 1868, the Spanish writer Carlos Frontaura observed the "great intelligence" (gran inteligencia) of the horses pulling Parisian omnibuses, praising their initiative.

François Baucher included a detailed discussion of the term "intelligence" in his Dictionnaire raisonné d'équitation (1833), where he expressed his firm belief in the horse's intelligence:

The horse has perception as it has sensation, comparison, and memory: it, therefore, has judgment and memory; it, therefore, has intelligence

— François Baucher, Dictionnaire raisonné d'équitation

The structured education system promoted by Baucher emphasized engaging with the horse's intelligence. Similarly, zoologist Ernest Menault also recognized "signs of intelligence" in horses, though his observations were less grounded in scientific evidence. Gustave Le Bon was one of the early researchers in horse psychology, and his 1892 equestrian treatise acknowledged the horse's intellectual abilities.

According to Jocelyne Porcher, 19th- and 20th-century zootechnicians applied the "animal machine" hypothesis to horses, drawing on the ideas of Descartes, Malebranche, and Bacon. This perspective held that horses could not think, feel pain, or possess consciousness and emotions. Social pressures discouraged researchers from challenging these views, as their findings might not be well received, given that the "animal machine" concept was easier to defend in the context of industrialized farming practices. In 1892, T. B. Redding reported in the magazine Science on a societal divide: some attributed intelligence and reason to horses, while others dismissed their actions as purely instinctual.

Additionally, common misconceptions persisted. One of the most widely disputed misconceptions, according to equestrian journalist Maria Franchini, was the belief—circulating since at least 1898—that a horse's obedience stems from seeing humans as seven times taller than they actually are.

The worldwide popularity of "Learned Horses"

Until the mid-20th century, discussions about animal intelligence were framed through ontological comparison with human cognition. In 1901, French military veterinarian Adolphe Guénon published a comparative psychology study titled L'Âme du cheval, where he characterized the horse's brain as relatively simple compared to that of humans. Starting in the late 19th century, there was a global interest in animals believed to demonstrate intelligence. These horses, described as "calculating," were equipped with specially designed tools—such as cubes, sticks, and boards—and demonstrated patience in performing tasks.

Manifestations of the "learned horse" craze

• Beautiful Jim Key presented as an attraction at the 1904 World's Fair.
• Entrance to the attraction around Beautiful Jim Kay.
• Clever Hans performing with Karl Krall in 1909.
• The mare Lady Wonder, photographed in 1940 for Life magazine.
• Sign photographed in 1952, indicating Lady Wonder's ability to read minds.

Numerous journalists wrote articles about the intelligence of horses. In 1904, C. Mader questioned the view of the horse as a "living machine"; in 1912, Remy de Gourmont commented on the growing fascination with horse intelligence in a society that had previously considered horses to be of average intellect at best; and in 1913, a writer for The New York Times published an article asking whether horses were capable of "thinking".

The case of Clever Hans (German: Kluger Hans) is a notable example of this interest. This black horse, raised in Germany, became an international sensation in the early 20th century due to his supposed ability to solve complex arithmetic problems by tapping his hoof to indicate answers:

Crowds flock daily to the inner courtyard of Griebenow Street in northern Berlin, where his master puts him to work, to witness the extraordinary performance of the one who would henceforth be known as "Clever Hans".

— Vinciane Despret, Hans: the horse that could count

Belgian philosopher Vinciane Despret notes the prolonged scientific debate sparked by Hans’s abilities, questioning whether horses possess conceptual intelligence. German psychologist Oskar Pfungst later revealed that Hans was not actually calculating but was instead highly attuned to human body language, stopping his hoof taps when he detected subtle cues. This discovery contributed to the development of the Clever Hans Effect.

Another notable example is Beautiful Jim Key, a horse who was trained to perform complex tasks and gained widespread fame in the early 20th century. Similarly, the case of the mare Lady Wonder sparked a debate about whether horses could communicate telepathically with humans. Despite doubts, some individuals continued to believe in equine telepathy well into the 1970s.

Implications of the Clever Hans case for equine cognition research

Dutch primatologist and ethologist Frans de Waal discusses the relevance of Morgan's Canon—a scientific principle stating that animal behavior should not be attributed to higher mental faculties if it can be explained by simpler processes—illustrated by the case of Clever Hans. According to Jocelyne Porcher, Morgan's Canon had a lasting impact on research into animal cognition.

De Waal also observes that the experiments on Hans were interpreted in ways that undermined his intelligence, even though the experiments demonstrated his ability to read and interpret human body language. Ethologist Léa Lansade emphasizes that, at the time and up until the 1960s, animals were considered "intelligent" only if they demonstrated human-like abilities—such as calculating or learning sign language—even though these skills were not necessarily aligned with their natural behaviors.

The Clever Hans case had a significant impact on subsequent studies of animal cognition, contributing to the adoption of more rigorous experimental protocols. As Deneux-Le Barh notes, "experimental sciences aim to minimize the influence of the mètis (cunning intelligence) of the individuals being studied."

In the first half of the 20th century, research was primarily focused on behaviorism. Over time, this field divided into two main currents: ethology and cognitive animal psychology, which later converged into cognitive ethology.

Highlighting the cognitive faculties of the horse

The behaviorist hypothesis that horses are merely "machines" reacting to stimuli has been critically reassessed, partly due to Maurice Hontang's Psychology of the Horse (1954) and subsequent scientific studies. Early research in equine ethology began with Pearl Gardner in the 1930s, where horses were initially tested under controlled conditions commonly used for laboratory animals, using mechanisms that granted access to food. These experiments were later refined, incorporating visual discrimination tasks and maze tests to evaluate learning abilities.

Recent studies have shown that horses do not simply follow "pre-programmed routines" but engage in cognitive processes to solve problems, indicating cognitive flexibility. The number of scientific publications on animal intelligence has increased steadily since the 2000s, particularly as cognitive ethology began including horses among its subjects of study.

Knowledge still incomplete

Despite these advancements, there are still gaps in knowledge about equine mental faculties. In 2022, psychologist and neuroscientist Michel-Antoine Leblanc observed significant gaps in research, noting the relatively small number of scientific publications, particularly before 2005. Many earlier studies were anecdotal or speculative rather than systematic.

Horses have been the subject of less research compared to other species. While primates have benefited from groundbreaking studies like those of Jane Goodall, and dogs are the primary focus among domestic animals, equine cognition has been less studied in comparison. In 2016, researchers Lauren Brubaker and Monique A.R. Udell noted that studies on rat cognition outnumber those on horse cognition by a factor of seven. The question of whether horses possess consciousness remains unresolved.

In 2023, Éditions Quæ published the first book dedicated to the intelligence of working horses. Jocelyne Porcher emphasized the potential insights gained from observing animals in work-related contexts, a field long overlooked by researchers despite its potential to reveal complex cognitive abilities.

Definition of equine intelligence

Michel-Antoine Leblanc highlights the long-standing debate over equine intelligence, which has generated a range of responses. He notes that there is no singular or unambiguous definition of intelligence, particularly when applied to horses. Historian and journalist Stephen Budiansky discusses the broader question of how intelligence itself is defined, as its meaning has evolved over time. Jocelyne Porcher and Sophie Barreau emphasize the importance of originality in behavioral responses as a characteristic of intelligence, distinguishing it from simple conditioned reactions. Instinctual behaviors in horses, such as their strategies for avoiding biting insects or seeking cooler areas during hot weather, are sometimes interpreted as signs of intelligence.

Modern interpretations of intelligence focus on the ability to solve problems, establish relationships between elements, and assimilate new information, rather than merely demonstrating good memory. Jocelyne Porcher underscores the subjective nature of these assessments, noting that horses possess "the intelligence that researchers are willing to attribute to them", as it is researchers who define the experimental conditions and cognitive tests. As human evaluators, researchers inherently influence the interpretation of equine cognition, particularly in comparisons with other mammal species.

To navigate these definitional challenges, some researchers, including Michel-Antoine Leblanc and Léa Lansade, focus on describing horses' cognitive processes without attempting to quantify their intellectual performance. Leblanc rejects efforts to measure an "IQ equivalent" for horses, as well as attempts to determine whether horses are "more" or "less" intelligent than other species like dogs or cats. Horses, as herbivorous prey animals, exhibit cognition and behavior that present different scientific questions compared to carnivorous domestic species like dogs and cats.

Intelligence studied through interaction with humans

Among domestic animals, horses hold a unique position. Their modern domestic lifestyle differs significantly from that of their wild ancestors, while their intensive training for roles in sport, work, or companionship involves learning tasks far removed from their natural instincts—for instance, a movie horse learning to simulate death. Beyond suppressing their innate flight responses in frightening situations, horses are trained to communicate and cooperate with humans, a species they might naturally associate with predators. Authors like Alexis L'Hotte, François Baucher, Aloïs Podhajsky, and Nuno Oliveira suggest that intelligence in equestrian work is closely associated with affectivity and mutual understanding:

Two living beings who are asked to collaborate harmoniously must understand each other to achieve a result.

—  Aloïs Podhajsky, L'équitation

A survey conducted in France by sociologist Vanina Deneux-le Barh, involving 800 professionals in the equestrian sector and published in 2021 and 2023, reveals that equestrian professionals often describe their horses as "partners". These professionals highlight situational intelligence in horses, recognizing their ability to adapt and take initiative. Notably, the mental demands placed on horses often correspond to the complexity of their tasks.

Respondents also stressed the importance of rewarding horses to foster cooperation and nurture their intelligence. Equine intelligence often reflects the skills and methods of their trainers, particularly when conditioning and positive reinforcement align with the horse's natural inclinations.

Examples of mobilizing equine intelligence through interaction with humans

• Learning the Spanish step with the help of a stick to give directions..
• Training two circus horses in Russia.
• Training a horse using clicker conditioning.
• Training a young horse alongside an older, more experienced one.
• Training a young horse for cattle work.
• Mounted Cadre Noir horse, jumping a table.
• Japanese horses trained in freedom.

The outcomes of horse-human collaboration highlight both the physical and cognitive contributions of horses to their activities. Deneux-le Barh describes equestrian disciplines as communities of practices that highlight the recognition of equine subjectivity and intelligence:

Driving, dressage, western riding, and so on, are disciplines that require not only exceptional mastery of each movement but also a synthetic and immediate understanding of the messages of the driver or rider.

— De l'intelligence des chevaux

Horses demonstrate intelligence through isopraxis—their ability to subtly perceive and respond to the movements of their riders. Furthermore, studies on equine cognition suggest that familiarity with humans or other partners may influence how a horse's cognitive abilities are expressed.

Conditions of experience and limits

Like all mammals, horses construct their understanding of the world through sensory information. However, their sensory perception and understanding of the world differ from that of humans. Any evaluation of equine intelligence should consider their unique perceptual capacities.

Horses are sometimes studied under experimental conditions suited to their species. Both Budiansky and Leblanc suggest that comparing the intelligence of different species may reflect cultural biases and may not fully account for differences in sensory perception and physical capabilities. For instance, while horses are sometimes considered "less intelligent" than octopuses or equated with the intelligence of three-year-old children, comparisons with octopuses often overlook the differences in their anatomical adaptations, particularly regarding their ability to manipulate objects:

Another major limitation in cognitive studies is the insufficient consideration of the horse's emotional state. Stress or discomfort can negatively influence performance in experiments. Ethologist Martine Hausberger and her team highlight the impact of living conditions on cognitive outcomes, noting that horses subjected to poor living conditions tend to exhibit diminished cognitive abilities.

Earlier studies, especially those conducted before the 2000s, did not always account for the potential influence of prior learning on experimental outcomes.

Although anthropomorphism has traditionally been viewed as inappropriate, it can occasionally help in understanding horses' cognitive abilities through comparisons with human behavior. However, attributing human-like emotions and reasoning to horses—such as jealousy or premeditated malice—may oversimplify their behaviors.

Factors influencing cognitive performance in horses

Leblanc also points out that expressions of intelligence can vary greatly within the same individual and species, depending on factors such as social preferences or the ability to engage in abstract thinking. There is no evidence to suggest that horses dominant in the social hierarchy are more intelligent than other members of their group. Young horses tend to demonstrate more investigative behavior and interact more with test devices than older horses, which may influence their learning in certain contexts. In addition to age, a lower hierarchical rank may be a factor that promotes learning, potentially due to reduced neophobia.

Breed differences

There are very few comparative studies on equine intelligence by breed, but Budiansky suggests that the Quarter Horse might perform differently from the Thoroughbred. This hypothesis is consistent with the findings of Lindberg et al., who propose that cold-blooded horses (such as ponies and draft horses) may complete conditioning tasks faster than warm-blooded horses (such as the Thoroughbred and the Arabian). In 1933, L. P. Gardner concluded that the Belgian Draft horse, under certain conditions, learned tasks more quickly than the Percheron.

Many older and more recent studies describe the Arabian as a breed with certain cognitive traits that are sometimes perceived as more 'intelligent' compared to other breeds. This view is expressed in The Illustrated Horse Management by Edward Mayhew, published in 1864:

The Arab horse is undoubtedly the most beautiful and the most intelligent specimen of its race.

— The Illustrated Horse Management, preface p.VI

French veterinarian Alexandre-Bernard Vallon (1863) considered oriental horses, such as the Arabian and the Barb, to be more intelligent than those of "common breeds." Maurice Hontang notes that the Arabian and Thoroughbred have been bred for their competitive nature, which might contribute to their psychological differences.

The Horse's Brain

As with other large mammals, the horse's brain regulates its nervous system, processing perceptions to help the animal respond to them. The brain has an ovoid shape, with a length greater than its width, and contains numerous tightly packed gyri. Some studies suggest that the right cerebral hemisphere may be more involved in processing communication signals, while the left cerebral hemisphere may play a greater role in categorization stimuli.

The brain of an adult horse weighs approximately 510 grams; however, brain size relative to body size is not considered a definitive factor in measuring intelligence. The encephalization quotient (EQ) for horses is 0.9%

Cognitive abilities of horses

As riding instructor Nicolas Blondeau observes, a horse possesses learning and adaptation abilities that enable them to acquire new skills. Training enables horses to acquire specific skills through repeated practice and reinforcement. Horses display intelligence in solving various daily tasks, such as finding food and managing social interactions. Discriminative learning is an important aspect to assess when studying horse cognition, as it provides insights into their abilities and contributes to understanding other cognitive domains.