Misplaced Pages

Nootropic: Difference between revisions

Article snapshot taken from Wikipedia with creative commons attribution-sharealike license. Give it a read and then ask your questions in the chat. We can research this topic together.
Browse history interactively← Previous editContent deleted Content addedVisualWikitext
Revision as of 13:45, 11 June 2007 editEggplantWizard (talk | contribs)202 edits →Brain energy and improved oxygen supply: I've seen a study that came to this conclusion before, but I don't have a cite handy← Previous edit Latest revision as of 18:47, 1 January 2025 edit undoUrielAcosta (talk | contribs)Extended confirmed users26,318 edits Removed unsourced claims based on weasel wordsTags: Mobile edit Mobile web edit 
Line 1: Line 1:
{{Short description|Compound intended to improve cognitive function}}
'''Nootropics''', popularly referred to as "'''smart drugs'''" and "'''smart nutrients'''", are substances which boost ] ] abilities (the functions and capacities of the ]). The word '''nootropic''' was coined in 1964 by the ] Dr. ], derived from the ] words ''noos'', or "mind," and ''tropein'' meaning "to bend/turn." Typically, nootropics are alleged to work by increasing the brain's supply of neurochemicals (], ], and ]), by improving the brain's ] supply, or by stimulating nerve growth.
{{cs1 config|name-list-style=vanc}}
{{Use mdy dates|date=March 2023}}
{{multiple image
<!-- Essential parameters -->
| align = right
| direction = vertical
| width = 300
<!-- Extra parameters -->
| image1 = Coffea arabica - Köhler–s Medizinal-Pflanzen-189.jpg
| caption1 = ] from the '']'' plant is the world's most consumed nootropic.
| alt1 = Illustration of Coffea arabica plant and seeds
| image2 =
| caption2 =
| alt2 =
}}


'''Nootropics''' ({{IPAc-en|n|oʊ|.|ə|ˈ|t|r|oʊ|p|ᵻ|k|s}} {{respell|noh|ə|TROHP|iks}} or {{IPAc-en|n|oʊ|.|ə|ˈ|t|r|ɒ|p|ᵻ|k|s}} {{respell|noh|ə|TROP|iks}}),<ref name="Lexico">{{cite encyclopedia |title=Shubham |url=https://www.oed.com/search/advanced/Meanings?scope=HistoricalThesaurus&q=nootropic|encyclopedia=Oxford English Dictionary|date=2024|accessdate=14 January 2024 |language=en}}</ref> colloquially '''brain supplements''', '''smart drugs''' and '''cognitive enhancers''', are natural, semisynthetic or synthetic ] which purportedly improve ]s, such as ], ] or ].
Most alleged nootropic substances are nutrients or plant components (], ], ], ], etc.), available ] at ] and ], and are used as nutritional supplements. Some nootropics are drugs, used to treat people with cognitive learning difficulties, neural degradation (] or ]), and for cases of oxygen deficit to prevent ]. These drugs have a variety of ] applications as well, are marketed heavily on the ], and are used by many people in personal cognitive enhancement regimens.{{Fact|date=May 2007}}


While commonly in the form of ]s, ]s or ]s,<ref name="NeuroClin"/> some nootropic compounds are ] and non-prescription drugs in various countries.
With some nootropics the effects are subtle and gradual, such as with most nerve growth inducers, and may take weeks or even months before any cognitive improvement is noticed. At the other end of the spectrum are nootropics which have effects that are immediate, profound, and obvious. While scientific studies support some of the claimed benefits, it is worth noting that many of the claims attributed to a variety of nootropics have not been formally tested. Citations are provided in the article where information is available.


In the United States, nootropics are commonly advertised with unproven claims of effectiveness for improving cognition. The ] and ] have warned manufacturers and consumers about possible ] and ] concerning nootropic supplements.<ref name="ftc" /><ref name="fda-fraud" />
==General strategies==


==History of term==
] support - supplying the body with the ] and ] it needs to produce neurotransmitters. Keeping the brain's neurotransmitters at high levels improves concentration, mental focus, calculation ability, memory encoding, recall, creativity, mood, and cures and prevents most depressions. The four main neurotransmitters are ], ], ], and ].
The term ''nootropic'' is derived {{ety|grc|''{{wikt-lang|grc|νόος}}'' (nóos)|mind||''{{wikt-lang|grc|τροπή}}'' (tropḗ)|turning}}.<ref name="Lexico"/><ref name="Giurgea1972">{{cite journal | vauthors = Giurgea C | title = | language = fr | journal = Actualites Pharmacologiques | volume = 25 | pages = 115–156 | date = 1972 | pmid = 4541214 }}</ref><ref name="Giurgea1977">{{cite journal| vauthors = Giurgea C, Salama M |date=January 1, 1977|title=Nootropic drugs|journal=Progress in Neuro-Psychopharmacology |volume=1 |issue=3 |pages=235–247 |doi=10.1016/0364-7722(77)90046-7 |quote=The term "nootropic" (noos = mind; tropein = towards) was proposed by us (Giurgea, 1972,1973) to designate psychotropic drugs}}</ref>


The first documented use of "nootropic" in reference to substances purported to increase cognitive functions was by ] in 1972.<ref name="Giurgea1972"/><ref name="Giurgea1977"/><ref name="malik">{{cite journal | vauthors = Malík M, Tlustoš P | title = Nootropics as Cognitive Enhancers: Types, Dosage and Side Effects of Smart Drugs | journal = Nutrients | volume = 14 | issue = 16 | page = 3367 | date = August 2022 | pmid = 36014874 | pmc = 9415189 | doi = 10.3390/nu14163367 | doi-access = free }}</ref> When researching a new compound, Giurgea found a spectrum of effects that did not align with any psychotropic drug category, leading to his proposal of a new category and the concept of the term nootropic.<ref name="Giurgea1977"/>
<!--Improve oxygen supply -


Giurgea stated that nootropic drugs should have the following characteristics:
Increase brain energy -
-->
Note that ] performed on a regular basis also has nootropic effects, by increasing the body's capacity to supply brain cells with oxygen. Exercise is highly synergistic with nutritional supplementation, and a health regimen is incomplete without it.


# They should enhance ] and ].
==Nootropic substances==
# They should enhance the resistance of learned behaviors or memories to conditions which tend to disrupt them (e.g. ], ]).
# They should protect the brain against various physical or chemical injuries.
# They should increase the efficacy of the tonic ] control mechanisms.
# They should lack the usual pharmacology of other ] drugs (e.g. ], motor stimulation) and possess few ]s and low ].


However, there is no globally accepted or clinical definition of a nootropic. Most compounds described as nootropic do not correspond to Giurgea's characteristics.<ref name="malik" />
Nootropic drugs are generally only available by prescription or through personal importation. The other nootropic substances listed below are either nutritional supplements or plant components, and are generally available over the counter at health food and grocery stores. The term "drug" here is used as a legal designation, and does not indicate greater ]. With nootropics, the effects, effectiveness, and potency differ from substance to substance and from individual to individual. See the substance descriptions below for more detail.


==Unproven marketing claims==
===Replenishing and increasing neurotransmitters===
In the United States, nootropics are commonly advertised with unproven claims of effectiveness for improving cognition. Manufacturers' marketing claims for dietary supplements are usually not formally tested and verified by independent entities.<ref>{{cite web|title=Dietary Supplements: What You Need to Know|url=https://www.fda.gov/Food/DietarySupplements/UsingDietarySupplements/ucm109760.htm|publisher=US Food and Drug Administration|access-date=February 14, 2015}}</ref> In 2019, the US FDA and ] ] manufacturers and consumers about possible advertising fraud and marketing scams concerning nootropic supplement products.<ref name="ftc">{{cite web |date=February 11, 2019 |title=FTC and FDA Send Warning Letters to Companies Selling Dietary Supplements Claiming to Treat Alzheimer's Disease and Remediate or Cure Other Serious Illnesses Such as Parkinson's, Heart Disease, and Cancer |url=https://www.ftc.gov/news-events/press-releases/2019/02/ftc-fda-send-warning-letters-companies-selling-dietary |access-date=May 11, 2019 |publisher=US Food and Drug Administration, US Federal Trade Commission}}</ref><ref name="fda-fraud">{{cite web |date=December 22, 2018 |title=Health fraud scams: Unproven Alzheimer's disease products |url=https://www.fda.gov/consumers/health-fraud-scams/unproven-alzheimers-disease-products |access-date=May 11, 2019 |publisher=US Food and Drug Administration}}</ref><ref name="fda">{{cite web |url=https://www.fda.gov/inspections-compliance-enforcement-and-criminal-investigations/warning-letters/peak-nootropics-llc-aka-advanced-nootropics-565256-02052019 |title=FDA Warning Letter: Peak Nootropics LLC aka Advanced Nootropics | vauthors = Correll Jr WA |date=February 5, 2019 |publisher=Office of Compliance, Center for Food Safety and Applied Nutrition, Inspections, Compliance, Enforcement, and Criminal Investigations, US Food and Drug Administration |access-date=May 11, 2019}}</ref><ref name="fda2">{{cite web |url=https://www.fda.gov/inspections-compliance-enforcement-and-criminal-investigations/warning-letters/tek-naturals-565026-02042019 |title=FDA Warning Letter: TEK Naturals | vauthors = Correll Jr WA |date=February 5, 2019 |publisher=Office of Compliance, Center for Food Safety and Applied Nutrition, Inspections, Compliance, Enforcement, and Criminal Investigations, US Food and Drug Administration |access-date=May 11, 2019}}</ref> The FDA and FTC stated that some nootropic products had not been ] as a prescription drug effective for any medical purpose, were not proven to be safe, and were illegally marketed in the United States under violation of the ].<ref name=ftc/><ref name=fda-fraud/>
] is a biologically demanding task. It involves the firing of ], which requires ample neurotransmitters, and even though these are reuseable to some extent, they do get depleted. Depletion of neurotransmitters generally results in reduced ], which may include difficulty ], slowed reasoning, decreased ] efficiency, impaired ], reduced coordination, lowered ], inability to ], decreased response times, and mental fatigue. This also generally increases the likelihood of human error on tasks and activities performed. ] causes neurotransmitters to be depleted even faster. The brain's neurotransmitters need to be replenished frequently, made by the body from substances ingested in the diet. Maintaining neurochemicals at optimal levels has a corresponding effect on brain performance, supporting improved mental agility and stamina, even beyond the individual's normal limits.


In 2018 in the United States, some nootropic supplements were identified as having misleading ingredients and illegal marketing.<ref name="schultz">{{cite web | vauthors = Schultz H |date=May 17, 2018 |title=Some shady ingredients find home in nootropics category |url=https://www.nutraingredients-usa.com/Article/2018/05/17/Some-shady-ingredients-find-home-in-nootropics-category# |access-date=May 11, 2019 |publisher=NutraIngredients-USA.com, William Reed Business Media Ltd}}</ref><ref name="heid">{{cite web | vauthors = Heid M |date=January 23, 2019 |title=Nootropics, or 'Smart Drugs,' Are Gaining Popularity. But Should You Take Them? |url=https://time.com/5509993/nootropics-smart-drugs-brain/ |access-date=May 12, 2019 |publisher=Time}}</ref> In 2019, the FDA and FTC warned manufacturers and consumers about possible advertising fraud and marketing scams concerning nootropic supplements.<ref name="ftc" /><ref name="fda-fraud" />
As the brain ages, its ability to produce and maintain youthful levels of neurotransmitters declines.<ref name="Stancheva et al. 1991">{{cite journal | author = Stancheva, S.L., Petkov, V.D., Hadjiivanova, C.I., and Petkov, V.V. | title = Age-related changes of the effects of a group of nootropic drugs on the content of rat brain biogenic monoamines. | journal = Gen. Pharmacol. ''(Department of Experimental Pharmacology, Bulgarian Academy of Sciences, Sofia)' | date = 1991 | volume = 22 | issue = 5 | pages = 873–7 | url = http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_uids=1761194&dopt=Citation}}</ref> Thus, the theory is that providing the brain with ample raw materials necessary to make neurotransmitters can restore them to more youthful levels and thus help maintain cognitive function at vigorous youthful levels as well.


Over the years 2010 to 2019, the FDA warned numerous supplement manufacturers about the illegal status of their products as unapproved drugs with no proven safety or efficacy at the doses listed on the products, together with misleading marketing.<ref name="ftc" /><ref name="fda-fraud" /><ref name="fda" /><ref name="fda2" /><ref name="cerebral">{{cite web |url=https://www.fda.gov/ICECI/EnforcementActions/WarningLetters/2010/ucm198452.htm |archive-url=https://wayback.archive-it.org/7993/20170112195041/https://www.fda.gov/ICECI/EnforcementActions/WarningLetters/2010/ucm198452.htm |url-status=dead |archive-date=January 12, 2017 |title=FDA Warning Letter: Cerebral Health LLC | vauthors = Singleton ER |date=January 7, 2010 |publisher=Office of Compliance, Center for Food Safety and Applied Nutrition, Inspections, Compliance, Enforcement, and Criminal Investigations, US Food and Drug Administration |access-date=May 12, 2019}}</ref><ref name="unlimited" />
====Cholinergics====
] are substances that affect the neurotransmitter acetylcholine or the components of the nervous system that use acetylcholine. Acetylcholine facilitates memory, concentration, focus, and high-order thought processes (abstract thought, calculation, innovation, etc.). Increasing the availability of this neurotransmitter in the brain may improve these functions and increase the duration in which they may be engaged without slowing down or stopping. Oversupplying the brain with acetylcholine may have the opposite effect, temporarily reducing rather than improving mental performance. Cholinergic nootropics include acetylcholine precursors and cofactors, and ]:
<!--stimulus barrier, improved concentration, memory, mental stamina, anti-depressant-->
* ] - Amino acid. Precursor of acetylcholine (donating the acetyl portion to the acetylcholine molecule). It is synergistic with ].
* ] (Lucidril) - Drug. Cholinergic agent, enhances color perception{{Fact|date=May 2007}}.
* ] - precursor to acetylcholine (an essential component of the acetylcholine molecule).
** ] (]) - most effective choline precursor, readily crosses the blood-brain barrier.
** ] (]) - choline precursor, tends to be less expensive and similar in effect to Alpha GPC.
** ] - precursor of acetylcholine, anti-depressant.
** ] - precursor of the neurotransmitter acetylcholine, anti-depressant.
* ] - approved treatment for ], precursor of acetylcholine, ], removes ] from the brain, anti-depressant.
* ] - potent acetylcholinesterase inhibitor derived from Chinese club-moss.
* ] - contains ], precursor of acetylcholine.
* Pyrrolidone derivatives:
** ] (Nootropil) - ] (in Europe). The original (first),<ref name="McDaniel et al. 2002">{{cite journal | author = McDaniel, M.A., Maier, S.F., and Einstein, G.O. | title = Brain-Specific Nutrients: A Memory Cure? | journal = Psychological Science in the Public Interest ''(American Psychological Society)' | volume = 3 | issue = 1 | url = http://www.sciencedirect.com/science?_ob=ArticleURL&_udi=B6TB0-4B0KTYF-C&_coverDate=12%2F31%2F2003&_alid=448998985&_rdoc=1&_fmt=&_orig=search&_qd=1&_cdi=5128&_sort=d&view=c&_acct=C000050221&_version=1&_urlVersion=0&_userid=10&md5=f99a155c658f3be9a94cc485fbf37262| date = 2002}}</ref> and most commonly taken<ref name="Goldman et al., 1999 cited in McDaniel et al. 2002">{{cite book | author = Goldman, R., Klatz, R., and Berger, L. | title = Brain fitness | location = New York | publisher = Doubleday | year = 1999}}</ref><ref name="McDaniel et al. 2002"/> nootropic drug. It is a cholinergic agent, synergistic with DMAE, centrophenoxine, choline, and ]. Increases brain cell metabolism and energy levels,<ref name="Gabryel & Trzeciak 1994, cited in McDaniel et al. 2002">{{cite journal | author = Gabryel, B. and Trzeciak, H.I. | title = Nootropics: Pharmacological properties and therapeutic use. | journal = Polish Journal of Pharmacology | year = 1994 | volume = 46 | pages = 383–394 | url = http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_uids=7894524&dopt=Citation}}</ref><ref name="McDaniel et al. 2002"/> and speeds up interhemispheric flow of information (left-right brain hemisphere communication). Increases ],<ref name="Saletu & Grunberger 1985">{{cite journal | author = Saletu, B. and Grunberger, J. | title = Memory dysfunction and vigilance: neurophysiological and psychopharmacological aspects. | journal = Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences | volume = 444 | issue = 1 | pages = 406–27 | url = http://www.annalsnyas.org/cgi/content/abstract/444/1/406 | date = 1985}}</ref> improves concentration, and enhances memory. Protects neurons from hypoxia,<ref name="McDaniel et al. 2002"/> and stimulates growth of acetylcholine receptors. May also cause nerves to regenerate. Piracetam markedly decreases the formation of neuronal lipofuscin.<ref name="Paula-Barbosa et al. 1991">{{cite journal | author = Paula-Barbosa, M.M., Brandao, F., Pinho, M.C., Andrade, J.P., Madeira, M.D., and Cadete-Leite, A. | title = The effects of piracetam on lipofuscin of the rat cerebellar and hippocampal neurons after long-term alcohol treatment and withdrawal: a quantitative study. | journal = Alcohol Clin. Exp. Res. | date = 1991-10-01 | volume = 15 | issue = 5 | pages = 834–8 | url = http://www.blackwell-synergy.com/doi/abs/10.1111/j.1530-0277.1991.tb00610.x}}</ref> It improves posture in elderly people.<ref name="Riedel et al. 1998">{{cite journal | author = Riedel, W.J., Peters, M.L., Van Boxtel, M.P.J., and O'Hanlon, J.F. | title = The influence of piracetam on actual driving behaviour of elderly subjects | journal = Human Psychopharmacology: Clinical & Experimental | volume = 13 | issue = S2 | pages = S108–14 | url = http://www3.interscience.wiley.com/cgi-bin/abstract/4292/ABSTRACT?CRETRY=1&SRETRY=0 | date = 1998-12-04}}</ref> It is not regulated in the US.
** ] - Drug. Analog of piracetam, and 4 to 8 times more potent. Like piracetam, aniracetam protects against some memory impairing chemicals, such as diethyldithiocarbamate and clonidine.<ref name="Genkova-Papasova & Lazarova-Bakurova 1988">{{cite journal | author = Genkova-Papasova, M. and Lazarova-Bakurova, M. | title = Influence of nootropic drugs on the memory-impairing effect of diethyldithiocarbamate and clonidine in "step down" passive avoidance in albino rats. | url = http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_uids=2854355&dopt=Citation | journal = Acta Physiol. Pharmacol. Bulg. ''(Institute of Physiology, Bulgarian Academy of Sciences)' | date = 1988 | volume = 14 | issue = 4 | pages = 36–41}}</ref> Also like piracetam, aniracetam may enhance memory in aging adults by increasing levels of brain biogenic monoamines, which are beneficial to learning and memory.<ref name="Stancheva et al. 1991"/> Both racetams have possible therapeutic use in treating ].<ref name="Vaglenova & Petkov 2001">{{cite journal | author = Vaglenova, J. and Petkov, V.V. | title = Can nootropic drugs be effective against the impact of ethanol teratogenicity on cognitive performance? | journal = European Neuropsychopharmacology | date = Feb. 2001 | volume = 11 | issue = 1 | pages = 33–8 | url = http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_uids=11226810&dopt=Citation}}</ref> Aniracetam increases ].<ref name="Saletu & Grunberger 1985"/>
** ] - It increases vigilance.<ref name="Saletu & Grunberger 1985"/>
** ] - Drug. Analog of piracetam, and facilitates hippocampal neurotransmission.<ref name="Nomura & Nishizaki 2000">{{cite journal | author = Nomura, T. and Nishizaki, T. | title = Nefiracetam facilitates hippocampal neurotransmission by a mechanism independent of the piracetam and aniracetam action. | journal = Brain Res. ''(Department of Physiology, Kobe University School of Medicine. Kobe, Japan)' | date = 2000-07-07 | volume = 870 | issue = 1–2 | pages = 157–62 | url = http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_uids=10869513&dopt=Citation}}</ref>
** ] - Drug. Analog of piracetam, and 2 to 4 times stronger. Improves memory, concentration, and vigilance. When fed to pregnant rats, the offspring of those rats were more intelligent than the offspring of rats fed a saline solution placebo.


== Availability and prevalence ==
** ] - Drug. Fifteen times stronger than piracetam{{Fact|date=May 2007}}, of which it is an analog.
In 2008, stimulants, such as caffeine, were the most commonly used nootropic agent.<ref name="Nature2008">{{cite journal | vauthors = Greely H, Sahakian B, Harris J, Kessler RC, Gazzaniga M, Campbell P, Farah MJ | title = Towards responsible use of cognitive-enhancing drugs by the healthy | journal = Nature | volume = 456 | issue = 7223 | pages = 702–705 | date = December 2008 | pmid = 19060880 | doi = 10.1038/456702a | s2cid = 3598099 | bibcode = 2008Natur.456..702G | oclc = 01586310 | url = https://pure.manchester.ac.uk/ws/files/28322116/POST-PEER-REVIEW-PUBLISHERS.PDF }}</ref> In 2016, the ] adopted a policy to discourage prescriptions of nootropics for healthy people, on the basis that the cognitive effects appear to be highly variable among individuals, are dose-dependent, and limited or modest at best.<ref name="ama">{{cite web |title=AMA confronts the rise of nootropics |url=https://www.ama-assn.org/press-center/press-releases/ama-confronts-rise-nootropics |publisher=American Medical Association |access-date=May 12, 2019 |date=June 14, 2016}}</ref> ], ] and ] have been sold as dietary supplements.<ref name="NeuroClin"/><ref name="JAMAIM"/><ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Cohen PA, Avula B, Khan I | title = The unapproved drug centrophenoxine (meclofenoxate) in cognitive enhancement dietary supplements | journal = Clinical Toxicology | volume = 60 | issue = 10 | pages = 1156–1158 | date = October 2022 | pmid = 35959800 | doi = 10.1080/15563650.2022.2109485 | s2cid = 251516603 }}</ref>
* ] - cofactor in the conversion of choline into acetylcholine, cholinergic agent, increases ] (including mental stamina).


==Adverse effects==
Excess acetylcholine is considered by many to be potentially harmful; see ].
The main concern with ]s and dietary supplements are ]s. Long-term safety evidence is typically unavailable for many nootropic compounds. ], piracetam and other compounds that are structurally related to piracetam, have few serious adverse effects and low ], but there is little evidence that they enhance cognition in people having no cognitive impairments.<ref name="Racetam efficacy review 2010">{{cite journal | vauthors = Malykh AG, Sadaie MR | title = Piracetam and piracetam-like drugs: from basic science to novel clinical applications to CNS disorders | journal = Drugs | volume = 70 | issue = 3 | pages = 287–312 | date = February 2010 | pmid = 20166767 | doi = 10.2165/11319230-000000000-00000 | s2cid = 12176745 }}</ref>


In the United States, dietary supplements may be marketed if the manufacturer can show that the supplement is ], and if the manufacturer does not make any claims about using the supplement to treat or prevent any disease or condition; supplements that contain drugs or advertise ]s are illegal under US law.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Goldman P | title = Herbal medicines today and the roots of modern pharmacology | journal = Annals of Internal Medicine | volume = 135 | issue = 8 Pt 1 | pages = 594–600 | date = October 2001 | pmid = 11601931 | doi = 10.7326/0003-4819-135-8_Part_1-200110160-00010 | s2cid = 35766876 }}</ref>
====Dopaminergics====
] are substances that affect the neurotransmitter ] or the components of the nervous system that use dopamine. Dopamine is produced in the synthesis of all ] neurotransmitters, and is the rate limiting step for this synthesis. Dopaminergic nootropics include dopamine precursors and cofactors, and ]:


==Types==
* ] - Prescription drug. Precursor to the neurotransmitter dopamine, anti-depressant.
{{anchor|Drugs}}
* ] (requires ] and ]) - ]. Precursor to dopamine, anti-depressant, sleep reducer.
<!-- PLEASE DO NOT insert this anchor into the section header (between the equal signs), because that will disable the ] to ]. This Anchor tag serves to provide a permanent target for incoming section links. Please do not remove it, nor modify it, except to add another appropriate anchor. If you modify the section title, please anchor the old title. It is always best to anchor an old section header that has been changed so that links to it will not be broken. See ] for details. This text is produced using {{subst:Anchor comment}} -->
* ] - Found in tea. Increases serotonin and dopamine levels in the brain. Increases alpha-wave based alert relaxation.
* ] (requires Vitamin B6 and Vitamin C) - ]. Precursor to dopamine, anti-depressant, sleep reducer.
* ]- improves cardiovascular elasticity and integrity, membrane stabilizer and major anti-oxidant (protects brain cells and prevents brain cell death), cofactor in the production of the neurotransmitters dopamine and ].
* ] - co-factor used by the body to produce dopamine.
* ] - Bark. Boosts dopamine levels as much as 80%{{Fact|date=February 2007}}, though how it does this is not yet understood. Aphrodisiac. Yohimbe poses some health risks through its side-effects: it is a neuro-paralytic which slows down breathing and induces ], some symptoms of which are malaise, nausea, and vomiting. Contraindicated for users of megadoses of acidic vitamins or nutrients.
* ] - Inhibits MAO B (an enzyme that breaks down dopamine) thus raising dopamine by partially inhibiting its breakdown.
*] - Inhibits ] (an enzyme that breaks down the neurotransmitters dopamine, epinephrine, and norepinephrine) and increases performance in tasks depending on ] in individuals with the val/val and val/met genotype of the val158Met polymorphism of the catechol-O-methyltransferase gene, while decreasing it in presence of the met/met version. Tolcapone presents the risk of deadly side effects.
<!--If there's no cite for "contraindicated for", consider removing the last line -- wikipedia isn't a venue for health advice-->


=== Central nervous system stimulants {{anchor|Xanthines|Stimulants}} ===
====Serotonergics====
]s and ] of ] using low doses of certain ] stimulants found that these drugs may enhance cognition in healthy people.<ref name="Unambiguous PFC D1 A2" /><ref name="Cognitive and motivational effects">{{cite journal | vauthors = Ilieva IP, Hook CJ, Farah MJ | title = Prescription Stimulants' Effects on Healthy Inhibitory Control, Working Memory, and Episodic Memory: A Meta-analysis | journal = Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience | volume = 27 | issue = 6 | pages = 1069–1089 | date = June 2015 | pmid = 25591060 | doi = 10.1162/jocn_a_00776 | s2cid = 15788121 | url = https://repository.upenn.edu/neuroethics_pubs/130 }}</ref><ref name="Systematic 2014 – Amph, MPH, Modafinil">{{cite journal | vauthors = Bagot KS, Kaminer Y | title = Efficacy of stimulants for cognitive enhancement in non-attention deficit hyperactivity disorder youth: a systematic review | journal = Addiction | volume = 109 | issue = 4 | pages = 547–557 | date = April 2014 | pmid = 24749160 | pmc = 4471173 | doi = 10.1111/add.12460 }}</ref> In particular, the classes of stimulants that demonstrate possible cognition-enhancing effects in humans have evidence ] as ] or ]s of ] or ].<ref name="Unambiguous PFC D1 A2">{{cite journal | vauthors = Spencer RC, Devilbiss DM, Berridge CW | title = The cognition-enhancing effects of psychostimulants involve direct action in the prefrontal cortex | journal = Biological Psychiatry | volume = 77 | issue = 11 | pages = 940–950 | date = June 2015 | pmid = 25499957 | pmc = 4377121 | doi = 10.1016/j.biopsych.2014.09.013 }}</ref><ref name="Cognitive and motivational effects" /><ref name="Continuum">{{cite journal | vauthors = Wood S, Sage JR, Shuman T, Anagnostaras SG | title = Psychostimulants and cognition: a continuum of behavioral and cognitive activation | journal = Pharmacological Reviews | volume = 66 | issue = 1 | pages = 193–221 | date = January 2014 | pmid = 24344115 | pmc = 3880463 | doi = 10.1124/pr.112.007054 }}</ref><ref name="NHMH_3e-Higher Cognitive Function">{{cite book | vauthors = Malenka RC, Nestler EJ, Hyman SE, Holtzman DM | title = Molecular Neuropharmacology: A Foundation for Clinical Neuroscience | year = 2015 | publisher = McGraw-Hill Medical | location = New York | isbn = 9780071827706 | edition = 3| chapter = 14: Higher Cognitive Function and Behavioral Control}}</ref> Relatively high doses of stimulants cause cognitive deficits.<ref name="Continuum" /><ref name="NHMH_3e-Higher Cognitive Function" />
] are substances that affect the neurotransmitter ] or the components of the nervous system that use serotonin. Serotonergic nootropics include serotonin precursors and cofactors, and ]:
* ]{{snd}} systematic reviews and meta-analyses report that low-dose amphetamine may improve cognitive functions (e.g., ], ], ], and aspects of ]) in healthy people and in individuals with ].<ref name="Unambiguous PFC D1 A2" /><ref name="Cognitive and motivational effects" /><ref name="Systematic 2014 – Amph, MPH, Modafinil" /><ref name="NHMH_3e-Higher Cognitive Function" /> A 2014 systematic review noted that low doses of amphetamine also improve ], in turn leading to improved ] in non-ADHD youth.<ref name="Systematic 2014 – Amph, MPH, Modafinil" /> It also improves ] (motivation to perform a task) and performance on tedious tasks that required a high degree of effort.<ref name="Cognitive and motivational effects" /><ref name="Continuum" /><ref name="NHMH_3e-Higher Cognitive Function" />
* ] - more bioavailable form of ]{{Fact|date=February 2007}}, precursor to the neurotransmitter serotonin, promotes relaxed poise and sound sleep{{Fact|date=February 2007}}.
* ]{{snd}} a meta-analysis found an increase in alertness and attentional performance.<ref name="caffeine and theanine">{{cite journal | vauthors = Camfield DA, Stough C, Farrimond J, Scholey AB | title = Acute effects of tea constituents L-theanine, caffeine, and epigallocatechin gallate on cognitive function and mood: a systematic review and meta-analysis | journal = Nutrition Reviews | volume = 72 | issue = 8 | pages = 507–522 | date = August 2014 | pmid = 24946991 | doi = 10.1111/nure.12120 | doi-access = free }}</ref><ref name="Continuum" />
:*] a natural source of ] (an alternative in countries where 5-HTP not legal, freely available.)
* ] (] and ]){{snd}} are classified as "wakefulness-promoting agents"; modafinil may increase alertness, particularly in ] individuals, and may improve reasoning and problem solving in non-ADHD youth.<ref name="Systematic 2014 – Amph, MPH, Modafinil" /> In a systematic review of small, preliminary studies where the effects of modafinil were examined, when simple psychometric assessments were considered, modafinil intake enhanced executive function.<ref name="Modafinil SystRev">{{cite journal | vauthors = Battleday RM, Brem AK | title = Modafinil for cognitive neuroenhancement in healthy non-sleep-deprived subjects: A systematic review | journal = European Neuropsychopharmacology | volume = 25 | issue = 11 | pages = 1865–1881 | date = November 2015 | pmid = 26381811 | doi = 10.1016/j.euroneuro.2015.07.028 | s2cid = 23319688 }}</ref> Modafinil does not improve mood or motivation in sleep-deprived or non-sleep deprived individuals.<ref>{{cite book | vauthors = Mohamed AD | chapter = Does modafinil improve cognitive functioning in healthy individuals? | veditors = ter Meulen R, Hall W, Mohammed AD |title=Rethinking Cognitive Enhancement |date=2017 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=9780198727392 |page=116 | chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=aAIXDgAAQBAJ&pg=PA116 }}</ref>
* ] (requires Vitamin B6 and Vitamin C) - Essential amino acid. Precursor to serotonin, found in high concentration in bananas and poultry (especially turkey), also in milk, promotes relaxed poise and sound sleep.
* ]{{snd}} a ] derivative that may improve ], ], and ], aspects of ], and planning latency in healthy people.<ref name="Unambiguous PFC D1 A2" /><ref name="Systematic 2014 – Amph, MPH, Modafinil" /> It also may improve task saliency and performance on tedious tasks.<ref name="NHMH_3e-Higher Cognitive Function" /> At above optimal doses, methylphenidate has off–target effects that decrease learning.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Urban KR, Gao WJ | title = Performance enhancement at the cost of potential brain plasticity: neural ramifications of nootropic drugs in the healthy developing brain | journal = Frontiers in Systems Neuroscience | volume = 8 | pages = 38 | date = 2014 | pmid = 24860437 | pmc = 4026746 | doi = 10.3389/fnsys.2014.00038 | doi-access = free }}</ref>
* 5HT<sub>2A</sub> agonists such as ] and ] have been shown to produce nootropic effects when used at a dose much lower than a hallucinogenic dose. (e.g. 10 μg for LSD and 1 mg 2C-T-7, 1/25 of a normal recreational dose )
* ]{{snd}} has been associated with improved alertness, attention, memory, and motor performance, according to a ].<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Heishman SJ, Kleykamp BA, Singleton EG | title = Meta-analysis of the acute effects of nicotine and smoking on human performance | journal = Psychopharmacology | volume = 210 | issue = 4 | pages = 453–469 | date = July 2010 | pmid = 20414766 | pmc = 3151730 | doi = 10.1007/s00213-010-1848-1 }}</ref> However, a 2020 systematic review raised concerns about potential conflicts of interest, noting industry funding in many studies and inconsistent results regarding nicotine's cognitive effects. This review found that over half of the studies published after 2010 had tobacco industry affiliations, often undisclosed.<ref name="pmid32547048">{{cite journal |last1=Pasetes |first1=Sarah V. |last2=Ling |first2=Pamela M. |last3=Apollonio |first3=Dorie E. |title=Cognitive performance effects of nicotine and industry affiliation: a systematic review |journal=Substance Abuse: Research and Treatment |date=January 2020 |volume=14 |pages=117822182092654 |doi=10.1177/1178221820926545 |pmid=32547048 |language=en |issn=1178-2218 |pmc=7271274}}</ref>


===Racetams===
===Anti-depression, adaptogenic and mood stabilization===
{{Main|Racetam}}
] and ] negatively affect cognitive performance. Feelings of sadness, guilt, helplessness, hopelessness, ], and fear caused by depression detract from productive thought, while apathy (which is also induced by depression) is the lack of motivation and driving moods (like curiosity, interest, determination, etc.) Other symptoms include disturbed sleep patterns, mental fatigue and loss of energy, trouble concentrating or making decisions, and a generalized slowing and obtunding of cognition, including memory. Obviously, removing these effects improves intelligence and mental performance, and therefore, counteracting and preventing depression are effective nootropic strategies. There is a high correlation between depression and a reduction or depletion of neurotransmitters (dopamine, acetylcholine, and serotonin) in the brain, therefore it is no surprise that increasing the brain's supply of neurotransmitters alleviates (or at least reduces the symptoms of) most depressions. Stress is another major factor in neurotransmitter depletion, being both a cause and effect of it (creating a vicious downward spiral), therefore ] and anti-stress substances are also very useful nootropic strategies.
Racetams, such as piracetam, ], ], and ], are often marketed as cognitive enhancers and sold ].<ref name="NeuroClin">{{cite journal | vauthors = Cohen PA, Avula B, Wang YH, Zakharevich I, Khan I | title = Five Unapproved Drugs Found in Cognitive Enhancement Supplements | journal = Neurology. Clinical Practice | volume = 11 | issue = 3 | pages = e303–e307 | date = June 2021 | pmid = 34484905 | pmc = 8382366 | doi = 10.1212/CPJ.0000000000000960 }}</ref><ref name="JAMAIM">{{cite journal | vauthors = Cohen PA, Zakharevich I, Gerona R | title = Presence of Piracetam in Cognitive Enhancement Dietary Supplements | journal = JAMA Internal Medicine | volume = 180 | issue = 3 | pages = 458–459 | date = March 2020 | pmid = 31764936 | pmc = 6902196 | doi = 10.1001/jamainternmed.2019.5507 }}</ref> A 2019 study found that piracetam supplements sold in the United States were inaccurately labeled.<ref name="JAMAIM"/> Racetams are often referred to as nootropics, but this property is not well established in humans, and nootropics are not consistently found in all racetams.<ref name="NHM">{{cite book |vauthors=Malenka RC, Nestler EJ, Hyman SE |veditors=Sydor A, Brown RY | title = Molecular Neuropharmacology: A Foundation for Clinical Neuroscience | year = 2009 | publisher = McGraw-Hill Medical | location = New York | isbn = 9780071481274 | page = 454 | edition = 2 }}</ref> The racetams have poorly understood ], although piracetam and aniracetam are known to act as ]s of ]s and appear to modulate ] systems.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Gualtieri F, Manetti D, Romanelli MN, Ghelardini C | title = Design and study of piracetam-like nootropics, controversial members of the problematic class of cognition-enhancing drugs | journal = Current Pharmaceutical Design | volume = 8 | issue = 2 | pages = 125–138 | year = 2002 | pmid = 11812254 | doi = 10.2174/1381612023396582 }}</ref>


According to the FDA,
All of the "nergics" listed above have been found to increase stress tolerance and alleviate depression (by replenishing or increasing the brain's supply of specific neurotransmitters), especially when used in precursor/co-factor combinations.


<blockquote>Piracetam is not a ], mineral, ], herb or other ], or dietary substance for use by humans to supplement the diet by increasing the total dietary intake. Further, piracetam is not a concentrate, metabolite, constituent, extract or combination of any such dietary ingredient. Accordingly, these products are drugs, under section 201(g)(1)(C) of the Act, 21 U.S.C. § 321(g)(1)(C), because they are not foods and they are intended to affect the structure or any function of the body. Moreover, these products are new drugs as defined by section 201(p) of the Act, 21 U.S.C. § 321(p), because they are not generally recognized as safe and effective for use under the conditions prescribed, recommended, or suggested in their labeling.<ref name="unlimited">{{cite web|url=https://www.fda.gov/ICECI/EnforcementActions/WarningLetters/2010/ucm225605.htm|archive-url=https://wayback.archive-it.org/7993/20170112004501/https://www.fda.gov/ICECI/EnforcementActions/WarningLetters/2010/ucm225605.htm|url-status=dead|archive-date=12 January 2017|title=FDA Warning Letter: Unlimited Nutrition|author=John Gridley|date=30 August 2010|publisher=Office of Compliance, Center for Food Safety and Applied Nutrition, Inspections, Compliance, Enforcement, and Criminal Investigations, US Food and Drug Administration |access-date=5 April 2016}}</ref></blockquote>
Below are additional more nootropics which affect mood and stress:


===Cholinergics===
* ] - Root. Also known as Indian ginseng. ] used as a tonic to normalize body processes and reduce stress and anxiety.
{{Main|Cholinergic}}
* ] - Is a B-vitamin like substance with anti-anxiety effects. It is believed to produce its anti-anxiety effects by improving the binding of ] to ]. Inositol is a sugar, and is therefore an alternative energy source for brain and muscle tissues. It produces a sugar high without a sugar low, making it especially suited for sweetening tea (instead of sugar). It is also a membrane stabilizer which can strengthen (and therefore help protect) neurons.
Some supposed nootropic substances are compounds and analogues of ], a ] of acetylcholine (a ]) and ] (a structural component of ]s).
* ] - Herb. Anti-depressant.
* ] – L-alpha glycerylphosphorylcholine has been studied only in the context of cognitive performance alongside other substances such as caffeine.<ref>{{cite journal| vauthors = Parker AG, Byars A, Purpura M, Jäger R |date=September 21, 2015|title=The effects of alpha-glycerylphosphorylcholine, caffeine or placebo on markers of mood, cognitive function, power, speed, and agility|journal=Journal of the International Society of Sports Nutrition|volume=12|issue=Suppl 1|pages=P41|doi=10.1186/1550-2783-12-S1-P41|issn=1550-2783|pmc=4595381 |doi-access=free }}</ref>
* ] - Herb. Adaptogen; elevates mood, alleviates depression. Promotes mental energy and stamina, reduces fatigue.
* ] – Choline bitartrate is a ] salt containing choline (41% choline by molecular weight). One meta-analysis found choline bitartrate to be ineffective at improving any measure of cognitive performance.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Lippelt DP, van der Kint S, van Herk K, Naber M | title = No Acute Effects of Choline Bitartrate Food Supplements on Memory in Healthy, Young, Human Adults | journal = PLOS ONE | volume = 11 | issue = 6 | pages = e0157714 | date = June 24, 2016 | pmid = 27341028 | pmc = 4920398 | doi = 10.1371/journal.pone.0157714 | doi-access = free | bibcode = 2016PLoSO..1157714L }}</ref>
* ] - Herb. The active components: hypericin and hyperforin, are clinically indicated to be effective in cases of mild to medium depression.
* ] – Compound consisting of choline and ]. A meta-analysis found that it may be effective for improving memory and learning in older people with mild cognitive decline, and in people recovering from a stroke.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Fioravanti M, Buckley AE | title = Citicoline (Cognizin) in the treatment of cognitive impairment | journal = Clinical Interventions in Aging | volume = 1 | issue = 3 | pages = 247–251 | date = September 2006 | pmid = 18046877 | pmc = 2695184 | doi = 10.2147/ciia.2006.1.3.247 | doi-access = free }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Franco-Maside A, Caamaño J, Gómez MJ, Cacabelos R | title = Brain mapping activity and mental performance after chronic treatment with CDP-choline in Alzheimer's disease | journal = Methods and Findings in Experimental and Clinical Pharmacology | volume = 16 | issue = 8 | pages = 597–607 | date = October 1994 | pmid = 7760585 }}</ref>
* ] ('']'') - Root. Anti-anxiety adaptogen that normalizes physical stress and mental consequences.
* ] - Along with Piracetam and Meclofenoxate, Deprenyl decreases the amount of lipofuscin pigment and ceroid pigment accumulations in the brain by improving cellular recycling activities.<ref name="Riga & Riga 1995">{{cite journal | author = Riga, D. and Riga, S. | title = Brain lipofuscinolysis and ceroidolysis--to be or not to be. | journal = Gerontology ''(Institute of Neurology and Psychiatry, Bucharest, Romania)' | volume = 41 | issue = S2 | pages = 271–81 | url = http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_uids=8821338&dopt=Abstract | date = 1995 }}</ref> Therefore, these nootropics may slow age-related diseases in the brain.
* '']'' - Herb. Adaptogen, blood detoxifier.
* ] - Herb. Contains ] and theanine. Increases alpha-wave based alert relaxation (relieves stress).
* ] - Amino acid. Found in tea. Increases serotonin and dopamine levels in the brain. Increases alpha-wave based alert relaxation.
* ] - Drug. ] produced by the ] which improves both memory encoding and recall. Rapidly counters chronic apathy syndrome and drug-induced vasopressin depletion.
* ] - Essential nutrient. Mild enhancer of concentration and memory. ]. Mood stabilizer, with a powerful anti-anxiety effect &mdash; perhaps the best and most immediate stress reliever available (note that other forms of vitamin B do not have this effect). Side effects: gastric upset (which is easily prevented and relieved with antacids), reduced blood pressure and flushing of the skin (caused by vasodilation), and itchy sensation in the skin caused by histamine release.


==Herbs==
=== Brain energy and improved oxygen supply ===
* '']''{{snd}} A 2017 meta-analysis showed no significant improvement in cognitive function.<ref name="pmid28878245">{{cite journal | vauthors = Puttarak P, Dilokthornsakul P, Saokaew S, Dhippayom T, Kongkaew C, Sruamsiri R, Chuthaputti A, Chaiyakunapruk N | title = Effects of Centella asiatica (L.) Urb. on cognitive function and mood related outcomes: A Systematic Review and Meta-analysis | journal = Scientific Reports | volume = 7 | issue = 1 | pages = 10646 | date = September 2017 | pmid = 28878245 | pmc = 5587720 | doi = 10.1038/s41598-017-09823-9 | bibcode = 2017NatSR...710646P }}</ref> Clinical efficacy and safety have not been scientifically confirmed for this herb.<ref name="drugs">{{cite web|title=Gotu kola|url=https://www.drugs.com/npp/gotu-kola.html|publisher=Drugs.com|access-date=21 September 2023|date=23 January 2023}}</ref>
* ] - Amino acid. Transports fatty acids through cellular membranes and cytosol into cells' mitochondria, where the fats undergo oxidation to produce ], the universal energy molecule. Synergistic with ].
* '']''{{snd}} An extract of ''Ginkgo biloba'' leaf is marketed in ] form with claims it can enhance ] in people without known cognitive problems, although there is no high-quality evidence to support such effects on memory or attention in healthy people.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Laws KR, Sweetnam H, Kondel TK | title = Is Ginkgo biloba a cognitive enhancer in healthy individuals? A meta-analysis | journal = Human Psychopharmacology | volume = 27 | issue = 6 | pages = 527–533 | date = November 2012 | pmid = 23001963 | doi = 10.1002/hup.2259 | s2cid = 6307491 }}</ref><ref name="nccih">{{cite web|url=http://nccih.nih.gov/health/ginkgo/ataglance.htm|date=September 2016|title=Ginkgo|publisher=National Center for Complementary and Integrative Health, US National Institutes of Health|access-date=July 9, 2018}}</ref>
* ]- stabilises blood sugar levels promoting concentration.
* '']''{{snd}} A ] found possible "improvement of some aspects of cognitive function, behavior and quality of life", but concluded that "there is a lack of convincing evidence to show a cognitive enhancing effect of ''Panax ginseng'' in healthy participants and no high quality evidence about its efficacy in patients with dementia."<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Geng J, Dong J, Ni H, Lee MS, Wu T, Jiang K, Wang G, Zhou AL, Malouf R | title = Ginseng for cognition | journal = The Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews | issue = 12 | pages = CD007769 | date = December 2010 | pmid = 21154383 | doi = 10.1002/14651858.CD007769.pub2 }}</ref>
* ] syn. Ubiquinone - increases oxygen transport through the mitochondria of the cells. Appears to slow age-related ]{{fact}}.
* ] - increases brain energy levels via ATP production.
* ] -
* ] - synergistic with Acetyl-L-carnitine.
* ] - improves alertness, blood flow, oxygen supply, and stroke recovery.
* ] (Enerbol) - Drug. Enhances oxygen and glucose uptake in the brain, and allows glucose to pass more easily through the blood-brain barrier. It is also a powerful anti-oxidant which scavenges ] created in the very processes it is involved in.
* ] - micro-circulation enhancer, improves oxygen supply to brain cells.


==Nutrients and dietary supplements==
=== Mental agility, concentration, stamina, and focus ===
<!--"nergics", stimulus barriers, ADD/ADHD treatments, etc. all work for this.-->
* ] (Olmifon) - Drug.
* ] - improves concentration, idea production, but hinders memory encoding. Also produces the jitters. Caffeine is the most widely used psychoactive substance in the world.
* ] - Bean. Contains caffeine; brewed coffee is high in ].
* ] - Drug. Nicergoline is an ergoloid mesylate derivative used to treat senile dementia. It has also been found to increase mental agility and enhance clarity and perception. It increases vigilance.<ref name="Saletu & Grunberger 1985"/> Increases arterial flow and use of oxygen and glucose in the brain.
* ] - stimulus barrier (aids in concentration). Stimulus barrier rebound effect (an unpleasant side effect).
* ] - Drug
* ] (Ritalin) - Drug
* ] - (Adderall, Dexedrine) - Drug
* ] - (Provigil) - Drug.
* ] - improves alertness, socialization, and co-operation in the brain impaired from age, dementia, and reduced blood flow.
* ] -
* ] -
* ] -


* ]{{snd}} no cognition-enhancing effects in ] and older adults without ].<ref name="Systematic rev – B vitamins">{{cite journal | vauthors = Forbes SC, Holroyd-Leduc JM, Poulin MJ, Hogan DB | title = Effect of Nutrients, Dietary Supplements and Vitamins on Cognition: a Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis of Randomized Controlled Trials | journal = Canadian Geriatrics Journal | volume = 18 | issue = 4 | pages = 231–245 | date = December 2015 | pmid = 26740832 | pmc = 4696451 | doi = 10.5770/cgj.18.189 }}</ref>
=== Purported memory enhancement and learning improvement ===
* ]: ] and ]{{snd}} two ] reviews on the use of supplemental omega-3 fatty acids for ADHD and learning disorders conclude that there is limited evidence of treatment benefits for either disorder.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Gillies D, Leach MJ, Perez Algorta G | title = Polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFA) for attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) in children and adolescents | journal = The Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews | volume = 2023 | issue = 4 | pages = CD007986 | date = April 2023 | pmid = 37058600 | pmc = 10103546 | doi = 10.1002/14651858.CD007986.pub3 }}</ref><ref name="Cochrane LD">{{cite journal | vauthors = Tan ML, Ho JJ, Teh KH | title = Polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFAs) for children with specific learning disorders | journal = The Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews | volume = 12 | pages = CD009398 | date = December 2012 | pmid = 23235675 | doi = 10.1002/14651858.CD009398.pub2 | veditors = Tan ML }}</ref> Two other systematic reviews found no cognition-enhancing effects in the general population.<ref name="Systematic rev – B vitamins" /><ref name="Systematic review: Omega-3s">{{cite journal | vauthors = Cooper RE, Tye C, Kuntsi J, Vassos E, Asherson P | title = Omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acid supplementation and cognition: A systematic review and meta-analysis | journal = Journal of Psychopharmacology | volume = 29 | issue = 7 | pages = 753–763 | date = July 2015 | pmid = 26040902 | doi = 10.1177/0269881115587958 | s2cid = 358375 | url = https://kclpure.kcl.ac.uk/portal/en/publications/dcd51fd9-ba02-4e7c-b84e-6b2086ae91af }}</ref>
All of the "nergics" listed above are purported to improve memory (encoding and recall), As do all nootropics which improve general brain performance in categories such as the brain energy and oxygen supply, and nerve growth stimulantion and protection. Other agents purported to have these specific benefits are mentioned in their own sections.
* ]{{snd}} no cognition-enhancing effects in middle-aged and older adults without ].<ref name="Systematic rev – B vitamins" />

* ]{{snd}} no cognition-enhancing effects in middle-aged and older adults without ].<ref name="Systematic rev – B vitamins" />
Other nootropics with specific effects on memory encoding and recall include:
* ]{{snd}} no cognition-enhancing effects in middle-aged and older adults without ].<ref name="Systematic rev – B vitamins" />
* '']'' (Brahmi) - Herb. Elevates curiosity, enhances memory and concentration.<ref name="Singh & Dhawan 1997">{{cite journal | author = Singh, H.K. and Dhawan, B.N. | title = Neuropsychopharmacological effects of the Ayurvedic nootropic ''Bacopa monniera'' Linn. (Brahmi) | journal = Indian Journal of Pharmacology | volume = 29 | issue = 5 | pages = 359–65| url = http://ijp-online.com/article.asp?issn=0253-7613;year=1997;volume=29;issue=5;spage=359;epage=365;aulast=Singh;type=0 | date = 1997}}</ref> Brahmi also protects against amnesia inducing chemicals such as scopolamine or loss of memory due to electro convulsive shocks.<ref name="Singh & Dhawan 1997"/> It is a traditional ] medicine.
* ] - improves memory, Alzheimer's, dementia, ] and ]
* ] - Herb. Rosemary has a very old, albeit unverified, reputation for improving memory.
* ] - Hormone, prescription drug.
* ]- Adderall, Dexedrine.<ref name="Dextroamphetamine">{{cite journal | author = Rapoport, J.L., Buchsbaum, M.S., Zahn, T.P., Weingartner, H., Ludlow, C., and Mikkelsen, E.J. | title = Dextroamphetamine: cognitive and behavioral effects in normal prepubertal boys | journal = Science | volume = 199 | issue = 4328 | pages = 560–3}}</ref>

=== Nerve growth stimulation and brain cell protection ===
* ] - Amino acid. Inhibits ] formation.
* '']'' (Brahmi) - Herb. Improves protein synthesis in brain cell repair and new dendritic growth.
* ] (Deprenyl) - Drug. Brain cell protectant, delays ] of brain cells, proven to increase maximum life span in laboratory rats.
* ] (Hydergine) - Drug. Mimics ] (NGF), and is a powerful anti-oxidant capable of delaying brain death in cases of heart failure and stroke by several minutes with regular use. It increases vigilance.<ref name="Saletu & Grunberger 1985"/>
* ] - stimulates nerve growth, and has same effects as Coenzyme q-10 - boosters claim that CoQ10 has "harmful side-effects", a claim which has not been demonstrated in published peer-reviewed studies.{{Fact|date=February 2007}}
* ] - Membrane stabilizer. Strengthens neurons, making them less susceptible to damage.
* ] (Enerbol) - Drug. Powerful anti-oxidant which scavenges hydroxyl radicals. Also enhances oxygen and glucose uptake in the brain, and allows glucose to pass more easily through the blood-brain barrier.{{Fact|date=February 2007}} Improves general brain function.{{Fact|date=February 2007}}
* ] (Azilect) - Drug. Treats Parkinson’s disease either as monotherapy (by itself) or in addition to levodopa therapy. Promotes increased and sustained levels of dopamine by selectively inhibiting an enzyme, monoamine oxidase-B.
* ] - Membrane stabilizer, involved in ] synthesis. Strengthens neurons{{Fact|date=February 2007}}, making them less susceptible to damage{{Fact|date=February 2007}}. Vitamin C is also a co-factor in the brain's production of dopamine, and therefore it also has general nootropic effects.
<!--* Hgh -
* IGF-1 -
-->

===Recreational drugs with purported nootropic effects===
{{seealso|Controlled substances act|Misuse of Drugs Act 1971}}
* ] (Adderall, Dexedrine) - ] / ] drugs. Prescribed for ], ], and certain cases of ]; and issued as an anti-fatigue pill for pilots in the armed forces. These also heighten alertness, mental focus, vigilance, stamina, and sex drive. They are highly addictive, and have ]. Personal importation is prohibited. Using these recreationally or for performance enhancement is illegal in most countries.
*] is reported to heighten the ability of the senses, as well as heighten alpha wave activity in the brain associated with creativity.
* ] - ] / ] drug. At minuscule doses (1 μg) the drug has effects similar to Hydergine. The ability of the senses are expanded to such an overwhelming degree that what is being sensed seems qualitatively different. Left brain and right brain activity is heightened to produce an extremely heightened creativity. Also produces ] and ] effects at doses as low as 20–30 μg (micrograms), with the likelihood of having a ] increasing as dose is increased if these effects are undesired. May also cause ], ], and ]. The drug sometimes spurs long-term or even permanent changes in a user's personality and life perspective. (''For more details, see ''.)
* ]
* ]
* ] and ] - Effects similar to that of LSD.
* ]

===Other nootropics===
<!--The following list contains nootropics and possible nootropics that haven't been relevancy-checked (are they all nootropics?), category checked, or which don't have a description yet. Before adding them to the article proper, make sure they are nootropics, and find out what kind of nootropics they are (to know what sections to place them in).-->
* ] - Has an anti-anxiety effect for rats<ref name="Petkov et al. 1987">{{cite journal | author = Petkov, V.D., Getova, D., and Mosharrof, A.H. | title = A study of nootropic drugs for anti-anxiety action. | journal = Acta Physiol. Pharmacol. Bulg. ''(Institute of Physiology, Bulgarian Academy of Sciences, Sofia)' | date = 1987 | volume = 13 | issue = 4 | pages = 25–30 | url = http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_uids=2896427&dopt=Citation}}</ref> and possibly the same for humans.
* '']'' - "The plant ''Butea frondosa'' has been indicated in the Indian system of medicine as a plant augmenting memory and as a rejuvenator. ... ''B. frondosa'' possesses anti-stress and weak nootropic activity."<ref name="Soman et al. 2004">{{cite journal | author = Soman, I., Mengi, S.A., and Kasture, S.B. | title = Effect of leaves of ''Butea frondosa'' on stress, anxiety, and cognition in rats. | journal = Pharmacology, Biochemistry & Behavior ''(C.U. Shah College of Pharmacy, SNDT University Santacruz, Mumbai, Maharashtra, India)' | date Sep. 2004 | volume = 79 | issue = 1 | pages = 11–6 | url = http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_uids=15388278&dopt=Citation | date = 2004}}</ref>
* ] - Injured animals treated with BMY-21502 at one week post-injury showed significant improvement in post-injury learning ability compared to injured animals treated with vehicle. Paradoxically, in uninjured control animals BMY-21502 treatment appeared to worsen learning scores. The results of this study indicate that BMY-21502 may be useful for attenuating the dysfunction in learning ability that occurs following TBI.
* ] (Dostinex) -
* '']'' - Herb.
* ] - A neuroprotective nootropic agent, might affect Alzheimer's disease pathology. Currently in clinical trials
* ] - It may also have potential use in prevention and treatment of ischemic retinopathy and retinal and optic nerve injury.
* ] (DDAVP) - Drug. Analog of ] (the anti-diuretic and memory hormone)
* ] - Hormone created by the adrenal glands; Precursor to Estrogen and Testosterone
* ] -
* ] -
* ]- ] (EPA) and ] (DPA) are the best known. EPA in particular, has an anti-depressant function and is positively indicated in trials with autism and learning difficulties.

* ] (Vigilor) - It protects against some memory impairing chemicals, such as diethyldithiocarbamate and clonidine.<ref name="Genkova-Papasova & Lazarova-Bakurova 1988"/>
* ] - Drug.
* ] -
* '']'' - Root. Increases blood flow to the extremities including the brain, nootropic effects are disputed.
* ] - Herb and root.
* ] - Has an anti-anxiety effect for rats<ref name="Petkov et al. 1987"/> and possibly the same for humans. Like Fipexide, it protects against some memory impairing chemicals, such as diethyldithiocarbamate and clonidine.<ref name="Genkova-Papasova & Lazarova-Bakurova 1988"/> Like many racetams, it may treat fetal alcohol syndrome.<ref name="Vaglenova & Petkov 2001"/>
* ] - Drug.
* ] -
* ] -
* ] (Neuromet) -
* ] (Dilantin) -
* ]- reduces age-related memory loss and promotes concentration.
* ] - Drug.
* ] -
* ] - Hormone; Precursor to DHEA;
* ] -
* ] - A neuropeptide (stimulator of the nervous system) developed from a short fragment of ACTH, Pro8-Gly9-Pro10 ACTH(4-10). Claims of significant increase in salvation of neurons are made
* ] -
* ] (Arcalion) - Drug.
* ] -

<!--==Legal issues==-->

== Brain foods ==

Some regular food items are rich sources of substances with alleged nootropic benefits:

*], in particular ], are rich sources of ] (ALA), a type of ]. A mixture of walnuts served with dried fruit pieces is known in some regions as ] (orig. German: ''Studentenfutter'') and is there popularily recommended as a snack for students and other mental workers.

*], such as ] or fresh ] (not tuna canned in oil) are also good sources of ] such as eicosapentaenoic acid and docosahexaenoic acid, whose lack in diet has been associated with increased risk of mental illnesses such as depression, aggressive behavior, schizophrenia, or hyper-activity in children.


== See also == == See also ==
{{Portal|Medicine|Psychology}}
* ]
* ]
* ]
* ]
* ]
* ]
* ]
* ]
* ]
* ]
* ]
* ]
* ]
* ] * ]
* ]
* ]


==References== == References ==
{{Reflist}}
<div class="references-small">
*{{cite journal | author = Gualtieri, F., Manetti, D., Romanelli, M.N., and Ghelardini, C. | title = Design and Study of Piracetam-like Nootropics, Controversial Members of the Problematic Class of Cognition-Enhancing Drugs. | journal = Current Pharmaceutical Design | year = 2002 | volume = 8 | pages = 125–38 | url = http://www.ingentaconnect.com/content/ben/cpd/2002/00000008/00000002/art00004}}
</div>
<div class="references-small"><references/></div>


== External links ==
==Further reading==
{{wiktionary|nootropic}}
* ''Brain Boosters. Foods And Drugs That Make You Smarter.'' (A quote from the book: "It's hard to distinguish between the health and anti-aging uses of the smart drugs and nutrients.") Beverly Potter & Sebastian Orfali. Ronin Publishing. 1993. Paperback, 257 pages. ISBN 0-914171-65-8
* {{Commons category-inline|Nootropics}}
* ''Brain Fitness. Anti-Aging Strategies To Fight Alzheimer's Disease, Supercharge Your Memory, Sharpen Your Intelligence, De-Stress Your Mind, Control Mood Swings, and Much More...'' Robert Goldman, M.D, D.O., Ph.D., With Ronald Klatz, M.D., D.O., and Liza Berger. Doubleday. 1999. Paperpack, 346pp. ISBN 0385488645

* ''Brain Longevity: The Breakthrough Medical Program that Improves Your Mind and Memory.'' Dharma Singh Khalsa.
{{Major Drug Groups}}
* ''Carved in Sand: When Attention Fails and Memory Fades in Midlife.'' Cathryn Jakobson Ramin. HarperCollins Publishers. 2007. Hardback, 311pp. ISBN 9780060598693
{{Authority control}}
* ''The Edge Effect. Reverse or prevent Alzheimer's, aging, memory loss, weight gain, sexual dysfunction and more.'' Eric R Braverman MD. ISBN-10: 1-4027-2247-8. ISBN-13: 978-1-4027-2247-9.
* ''Life Extension. A Practical Scientific Approach. Adding Years to Your Life and Life to Your Years.'' Durk Pearson and Sandy Shaw. Warner Books. 1982. Hardcover, 858pp. ISBN 0-446-51229-X
* ''Mind Boosters: A Guide to Natural Supplements that Enhance Your Mind, Memory, and Mood.'' Ray Sahelian. St. Martin's Griffin; 2000. Paperback, 300 pages. ISBN 0-312-19584-2
* ''Mind Food and Smart Pills. How To Increase Your Intelligence and Prevent Brain Aging.'' By Ross Pelton. 1986. Paperback, 170pp. ISBN 0-936809-00-0
* ''Smart Drugs & Nutrients. How To Improve Your Memory And Increase Your Intelligence Using The Latest Discoveries In Neuroscience.'' Ward Dean, M.D. and Joh Morgenthaler. B&J Publications. 1990. Paperback, 222pp. ISBN 0962741892
* ''Smart Drugs II: The Next Generation : New Drugs and Nutrients to Improve Your Memory and Increase Your Intelligence.'' Ward Dean (M.D.), John Morgenthaler, Steven Wm Fowkes. Smart Publications. 1993. Paperback, 287 pages. ISBN 0-9627418-7-6
* ''Your Personal Life-Extension Program. A Practical Guide to the New Science That Can Make You Stronger, Smarter, Sexier, More Energetic, and More Youthful.'' Saul Kent. Morrow. 1985. Hardcover, 384 pages. ISBN 0-688-00629-9


==External links==
*
* ], ]
*
*
*
*
* by Eugene Russo ], ]
] ]
]

] ]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]

Latest revision as of 18:47, 1 January 2025

Compound intended to improve cognitive function

Illustration of Coffea arabica plant and seedsCaffeine from the Coffea arabica plant is the world's most consumed nootropic.

Nootropics (/noʊ.əˈtroʊpɪks/ noh-ə-TROHP-iks or /noʊ.əˈtrɒpɪks/ noh-ə-TROP-iks), colloquially brain supplements, smart drugs and cognitive enhancers, are natural, semisynthetic or synthetic compounds which purportedly improve cognitive functions, such as executive functions, attention or memory.

While commonly in the form of dietary supplements, nutraceuticals or energy drinks, some nootropic compounds are prescription and non-prescription drugs in various countries.

In the United States, nootropics are commonly advertised with unproven claims of effectiveness for improving cognition. The Federal Trade Commission and FDA have warned manufacturers and consumers about possible advertising fraud and marketing scams concerning nootropic supplements.

History of term

The term nootropic is derived from Ancient Greek νόος (nóos) 'mind' and τροπή (tropḗ) 'turning'.

The first documented use of "nootropic" in reference to substances purported to increase cognitive functions was by Corneliu E. Giurgea in 1972. When researching a new compound, Giurgea found a spectrum of effects that did not align with any psychotropic drug category, leading to his proposal of a new category and the concept of the term nootropic.

Giurgea stated that nootropic drugs should have the following characteristics:

  1. They should enhance learning and memory.
  2. They should enhance the resistance of learned behaviors or memories to conditions which tend to disrupt them (e.g. electroconvulsive shock, hypoxia).
  3. They should protect the brain against various physical or chemical injuries.
  4. They should increase the efficacy of the tonic cortical control mechanisms.
  5. They should lack the usual pharmacology of other psychotropic drugs (e.g. sedation, motor stimulation) and possess few adverse effects and low toxicity.

However, there is no globally accepted or clinical definition of a nootropic. Most compounds described as nootropic do not correspond to Giurgea's characteristics.

Unproven marketing claims

In the United States, nootropics are commonly advertised with unproven claims of effectiveness for improving cognition. Manufacturers' marketing claims for dietary supplements are usually not formally tested and verified by independent entities. In 2019, the US FDA and FTC warned manufacturers and consumers about possible advertising fraud and marketing scams concerning nootropic supplement products. The FDA and FTC stated that some nootropic products had not been approved as a prescription drug effective for any medical purpose, were not proven to be safe, and were illegally marketed in the United States under violation of the Federal Food, Drug, and Cosmetic Act.

In 2018 in the United States, some nootropic supplements were identified as having misleading ingredients and illegal marketing. In 2019, the FDA and FTC warned manufacturers and consumers about possible advertising fraud and marketing scams concerning nootropic supplements.

Over the years 2010 to 2019, the FDA warned numerous supplement manufacturers about the illegal status of their products as unapproved drugs with no proven safety or efficacy at the doses listed on the products, together with misleading marketing.

Availability and prevalence

In 2008, stimulants, such as caffeine, were the most commonly used nootropic agent. In 2016, the American Medical Association adopted a policy to discourage prescriptions of nootropics for healthy people, on the basis that the cognitive effects appear to be highly variable among individuals, are dose-dependent, and limited or modest at best. Piracetam, noopept and meclofenoxate have been sold as dietary supplements.

Adverse effects

The main concern with pharmaceutical drugs and dietary supplements are adverse effects. Long-term safety evidence is typically unavailable for many nootropic compounds. Racetams, piracetam and other compounds that are structurally related to piracetam, have few serious adverse effects and low toxicity, but there is little evidence that they enhance cognition in people having no cognitive impairments.

In the United States, dietary supplements may be marketed if the manufacturer can show that the supplement is generally recognized as safe, and if the manufacturer does not make any claims about using the supplement to treat or prevent any disease or condition; supplements that contain drugs or advertise health claims are illegal under US law.

Types

Central nervous system stimulants

Systematic reviews and meta-analyses of clinical research using low doses of certain central nervous system stimulants found that these drugs may enhance cognition in healthy people. In particular, the classes of stimulants that demonstrate possible cognition-enhancing effects in humans have evidence in vitro as direct agonists or indirect agonists of dopamine receptor D1 or adrenoceptor A2. Relatively high doses of stimulants cause cognitive deficits.

  • Amphetamine – systematic reviews and meta-analyses report that low-dose amphetamine may improve cognitive functions (e.g., inhibitory control, episodic memory, working memory, and aspects of attention) in healthy people and in individuals with ADHD. A 2014 systematic review noted that low doses of amphetamine also improve memory consolidation, in turn leading to improved recall of information in non-ADHD youth. It also improves task saliency (motivation to perform a task) and performance on tedious tasks that required a high degree of effort.
  • Caffeine – a meta-analysis found an increase in alertness and attentional performance.
  • Eugeroics (armodafinil and modafinil) – are classified as "wakefulness-promoting agents"; modafinil may increase alertness, particularly in sleep-deprived individuals, and may improve reasoning and problem solving in non-ADHD youth. In a systematic review of small, preliminary studies where the effects of modafinil were examined, when simple psychometric assessments were considered, modafinil intake enhanced executive function. Modafinil does not improve mood or motivation in sleep-deprived or non-sleep deprived individuals.
  • Methylphenidate – a benzylpiperidine derivative that may improve working memory, episodic memory, and inhibitory control, aspects of attention, and planning latency in healthy people. It also may improve task saliency and performance on tedious tasks. At above optimal doses, methylphenidate has off–target effects that decrease learning.
  • Nicotine – has been associated with improved alertness, attention, memory, and motor performance, according to a meta-analysis. However, a 2020 systematic review raised concerns about potential conflicts of interest, noting industry funding in many studies and inconsistent results regarding nicotine's cognitive effects. This review found that over half of the studies published after 2010 had tobacco industry affiliations, often undisclosed.

Racetams

Main article: Racetam

Racetams, such as piracetam, oxiracetam, phenylpiracetam, and aniracetam, are often marketed as cognitive enhancers and sold over the counter. A 2019 study found that piracetam supplements sold in the United States were inaccurately labeled. Racetams are often referred to as nootropics, but this property is not well established in humans, and nootropics are not consistently found in all racetams. The racetams have poorly understood mechanisms, although piracetam and aniracetam are known to act as positive allosteric modulators of AMPA receptors and appear to modulate cholinergic systems.

According to the FDA,

Piracetam is not a vitamin, mineral, amino acid, herb or other botanical, or dietary substance for use by humans to supplement the diet by increasing the total dietary intake. Further, piracetam is not a concentrate, metabolite, constituent, extract or combination of any such dietary ingredient. Accordingly, these products are drugs, under section 201(g)(1)(C) of the Act, 21 U.S.C. § 321(g)(1)(C), because they are not foods and they are intended to affect the structure or any function of the body. Moreover, these products are new drugs as defined by section 201(p) of the Act, 21 U.S.C. § 321(p), because they are not generally recognized as safe and effective for use under the conditions prescribed, recommended, or suggested in their labeling.

Cholinergics

Main article: Cholinergic

Some supposed nootropic substances are compounds and analogues of choline, a precursor of acetylcholine (a neurotransmitter) and phosphatidylcholine (a structural component of cell membranes).

  • Alpha-GPC – L-alpha glycerylphosphorylcholine has been studied only in the context of cognitive performance alongside other substances such as caffeine.
  • Choline bitartrate – Choline bitartrate is a tartaric acid salt containing choline (41% choline by molecular weight). One meta-analysis found choline bitartrate to be ineffective at improving any measure of cognitive performance.
  • Citicoline – Compound consisting of choline and cytidine. A meta-analysis found that it may be effective for improving memory and learning in older people with mild cognitive decline, and in people recovering from a stroke.

Herbs

  • Centella asiatica – A 2017 meta-analysis showed no significant improvement in cognitive function. Clinical efficacy and safety have not been scientifically confirmed for this herb.
  • Ginkgo biloba – An extract of Ginkgo biloba leaf is marketed in dietary supplement form with claims it can enhance cognitive function in people without known cognitive problems, although there is no high-quality evidence to support such effects on memory or attention in healthy people.
  • Panax ginseng – A Cochrane review found possible "improvement of some aspects of cognitive function, behavior and quality of life", but concluded that "there is a lack of convincing evidence to show a cognitive enhancing effect of Panax ginseng in healthy participants and no high quality evidence about its efficacy in patients with dementia."

Nutrients and dietary supplements

See also

References

  1. ^ "Shubham". Oxford English Dictionary. 2024. Retrieved January 14, 2024.
  2. ^ Cohen PA, Avula B, Wang YH, Zakharevich I, Khan I (June 2021). "Five Unapproved Drugs Found in Cognitive Enhancement Supplements". Neurology. Clinical Practice. 11 (3): e303 – e307. doi:10.1212/CPJ.0000000000000960. PMC 8382366. PMID 34484905.
  3. ^ "FTC and FDA Send Warning Letters to Companies Selling Dietary Supplements Claiming to Treat Alzheimer's Disease and Remediate or Cure Other Serious Illnesses Such as Parkinson's, Heart Disease, and Cancer". US Food and Drug Administration, US Federal Trade Commission. February 11, 2019. Retrieved May 11, 2019.
  4. ^ "Health fraud scams: Unproven Alzheimer's disease products". US Food and Drug Administration. December 22, 2018. Retrieved May 11, 2019.
  5. ^ Giurgea C (1972). "". Actualites Pharmacologiques (in French). 25: 115–156. PMID 4541214.
  6. ^ Giurgea C, Salama M (January 1, 1977). "Nootropic drugs". Progress in Neuro-Psychopharmacology. 1 (3): 235–247. doi:10.1016/0364-7722(77)90046-7. The term "nootropic" (noos = mind; tropein = towards) was proposed by us (Giurgea, 1972,1973) to designate psychotropic drugs
  7. ^ Malík M, Tlustoš P (August 2022). "Nootropics as Cognitive Enhancers: Types, Dosage and Side Effects of Smart Drugs". Nutrients. 14 (16): 3367. doi:10.3390/nu14163367. PMC 9415189. PMID 36014874.
  8. "Dietary Supplements: What You Need to Know". US Food and Drug Administration. Retrieved February 14, 2015.
  9. ^ Correll Jr WA (February 5, 2019). "FDA Warning Letter: Peak Nootropics LLC aka Advanced Nootropics". Office of Compliance, Center for Food Safety and Applied Nutrition, Inspections, Compliance, Enforcement, and Criminal Investigations, US Food and Drug Administration. Retrieved May 11, 2019.
  10. ^ Correll Jr WA (February 5, 2019). "FDA Warning Letter: TEK Naturals". Office of Compliance, Center for Food Safety and Applied Nutrition, Inspections, Compliance, Enforcement, and Criminal Investigations, US Food and Drug Administration. Retrieved May 11, 2019.
  11. Schultz H (May 17, 2018). "Some shady ingredients find home in nootropics category". NutraIngredients-USA.com, William Reed Business Media Ltd. Retrieved May 11, 2019.
  12. Heid M (January 23, 2019). "Nootropics, or 'Smart Drugs,' Are Gaining Popularity. But Should You Take Them?". Time. Retrieved May 12, 2019.
  13. Singleton ER (January 7, 2010). "FDA Warning Letter: Cerebral Health LLC". Office of Compliance, Center for Food Safety and Applied Nutrition, Inspections, Compliance, Enforcement, and Criminal Investigations, US Food and Drug Administration. Archived from the original on January 12, 2017. Retrieved May 12, 2019.
  14. ^ John Gridley (August 30, 2010). "FDA Warning Letter: Unlimited Nutrition". Office of Compliance, Center for Food Safety and Applied Nutrition, Inspections, Compliance, Enforcement, and Criminal Investigations, US Food and Drug Administration. Archived from the original on January 12, 2017. Retrieved April 5, 2016.
  15. Greely H, Sahakian B, Harris J, Kessler RC, Gazzaniga M, Campbell P, Farah MJ (December 2008). "Towards responsible use of cognitive-enhancing drugs by the healthy" (PDF). Nature. 456 (7223): 702–705. Bibcode:2008Natur.456..702G. doi:10.1038/456702a. OCLC 01586310. PMID 19060880. S2CID 3598099.
  16. "AMA confronts the rise of nootropics". American Medical Association. June 14, 2016. Retrieved May 12, 2019.
  17. ^ Cohen PA, Zakharevich I, Gerona R (March 2020). "Presence of Piracetam in Cognitive Enhancement Dietary Supplements". JAMA Internal Medicine. 180 (3): 458–459. doi:10.1001/jamainternmed.2019.5507. PMC 6902196. PMID 31764936.
  18. Cohen PA, Avula B, Khan I (October 2022). "The unapproved drug centrophenoxine (meclofenoxate) in cognitive enhancement dietary supplements". Clinical Toxicology. 60 (10): 1156–1158. doi:10.1080/15563650.2022.2109485. PMID 35959800. S2CID 251516603.
  19. Malykh AG, Sadaie MR (February 2010). "Piracetam and piracetam-like drugs: from basic science to novel clinical applications to CNS disorders". Drugs. 70 (3): 287–312. doi:10.2165/11319230-000000000-00000. PMID 20166767. S2CID 12176745.
  20. Goldman P (October 2001). "Herbal medicines today and the roots of modern pharmacology". Annals of Internal Medicine. 135 (8 Pt 1): 594–600. doi:10.7326/0003-4819-135-8_Part_1-200110160-00010. PMID 11601931. S2CID 35766876.
  21. ^ Spencer RC, Devilbiss DM, Berridge CW (June 2015). "The cognition-enhancing effects of psychostimulants involve direct action in the prefrontal cortex". Biological Psychiatry. 77 (11): 940–950. doi:10.1016/j.biopsych.2014.09.013. PMC 4377121. PMID 25499957.
  22. ^ Ilieva IP, Hook CJ, Farah MJ (June 2015). "Prescription Stimulants' Effects on Healthy Inhibitory Control, Working Memory, and Episodic Memory: A Meta-analysis". Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience. 27 (6): 1069–1089. doi:10.1162/jocn_a_00776. PMID 25591060. S2CID 15788121.
  23. ^ Bagot KS, Kaminer Y (April 2014). "Efficacy of stimulants for cognitive enhancement in non-attention deficit hyperactivity disorder youth: a systematic review". Addiction. 109 (4): 547–557. doi:10.1111/add.12460. PMC 4471173. PMID 24749160.
  24. ^ Wood S, Sage JR, Shuman T, Anagnostaras SG (January 2014). "Psychostimulants and cognition: a continuum of behavioral and cognitive activation". Pharmacological Reviews. 66 (1): 193–221. doi:10.1124/pr.112.007054. PMC 3880463. PMID 24344115.
  25. ^ Malenka RC, Nestler EJ, Hyman SE, Holtzman DM (2015). "14: Higher Cognitive Function and Behavioral Control". Molecular Neuropharmacology: A Foundation for Clinical Neuroscience (3 ed.). New York: McGraw-Hill Medical. ISBN 9780071827706.
  26. Camfield DA, Stough C, Farrimond J, Scholey AB (August 2014). "Acute effects of tea constituents L-theanine, caffeine, and epigallocatechin gallate on cognitive function and mood: a systematic review and meta-analysis". Nutrition Reviews. 72 (8): 507–522. doi:10.1111/nure.12120. PMID 24946991.
  27. Battleday RM, Brem AK (November 2015). "Modafinil for cognitive neuroenhancement in healthy non-sleep-deprived subjects: A systematic review". European Neuropsychopharmacology. 25 (11): 1865–1881. doi:10.1016/j.euroneuro.2015.07.028. PMID 26381811. S2CID 23319688.
  28. Mohamed AD (2017). "Does modafinil improve cognitive functioning in healthy individuals?". In ter Meulen R, Hall W, Mohammed AD (eds.). Rethinking Cognitive Enhancement. Oxford University Press. p. 116. ISBN 9780198727392.
  29. Urban KR, Gao WJ (2014). "Performance enhancement at the cost of potential brain plasticity: neural ramifications of nootropic drugs in the healthy developing brain". Frontiers in Systems Neuroscience. 8: 38. doi:10.3389/fnsys.2014.00038. PMC 4026746. PMID 24860437.
  30. Heishman SJ, Kleykamp BA, Singleton EG (July 2010). "Meta-analysis of the acute effects of nicotine and smoking on human performance". Psychopharmacology. 210 (4): 453–469. doi:10.1007/s00213-010-1848-1. PMC 3151730. PMID 20414766.
  31. Pasetes SV, Ling PM, Apollonio DE (January 2020). "Cognitive performance effects of nicotine and industry affiliation: a systematic review". Substance Abuse: Research and Treatment. 14: 117822182092654. doi:10.1177/1178221820926545. ISSN 1178-2218. PMC 7271274. PMID 32547048.
  32. Malenka RC, Nestler EJ, Hyman SE (2009). Sydor A, Brown RY (eds.). Molecular Neuropharmacology: A Foundation for Clinical Neuroscience (2 ed.). New York: McGraw-Hill Medical. p. 454. ISBN 9780071481274.
  33. Gualtieri F, Manetti D, Romanelli MN, Ghelardini C (2002). "Design and study of piracetam-like nootropics, controversial members of the problematic class of cognition-enhancing drugs". Current Pharmaceutical Design. 8 (2): 125–138. doi:10.2174/1381612023396582. PMID 11812254.
  34. Parker AG, Byars A, Purpura M, Jäger R (September 21, 2015). "The effects of alpha-glycerylphosphorylcholine, caffeine or placebo on markers of mood, cognitive function, power, speed, and agility". Journal of the International Society of Sports Nutrition. 12 (Suppl 1): P41. doi:10.1186/1550-2783-12-S1-P41. ISSN 1550-2783. PMC 4595381.
  35. Lippelt DP, van der Kint S, van Herk K, Naber M (June 24, 2016). "No Acute Effects of Choline Bitartrate Food Supplements on Memory in Healthy, Young, Human Adults". PLOS ONE. 11 (6): e0157714. Bibcode:2016PLoSO..1157714L. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0157714. PMC 4920398. PMID 27341028.
  36. Fioravanti M, Buckley AE (September 2006). "Citicoline (Cognizin) in the treatment of cognitive impairment". Clinical Interventions in Aging. 1 (3): 247–251. doi:10.2147/ciia.2006.1.3.247. PMC 2695184. PMID 18046877.
  37. Franco-Maside A, Caamaño J, Gómez MJ, Cacabelos R (October 1994). "Brain mapping activity and mental performance after chronic treatment with CDP-choline in Alzheimer's disease". Methods and Findings in Experimental and Clinical Pharmacology. 16 (8): 597–607. PMID 7760585.
  38. Puttarak P, Dilokthornsakul P, Saokaew S, Dhippayom T, Kongkaew C, Sruamsiri R, Chuthaputti A, Chaiyakunapruk N (September 2017). "Effects of Centella asiatica (L.) Urb. on cognitive function and mood related outcomes: A Systematic Review and Meta-analysis". Scientific Reports. 7 (1): 10646. Bibcode:2017NatSR...710646P. doi:10.1038/s41598-017-09823-9. PMC 5587720. PMID 28878245.
  39. "Gotu kola". Drugs.com. January 23, 2023. Retrieved September 21, 2023.
  40. Laws KR, Sweetnam H, Kondel TK (November 2012). "Is Ginkgo biloba a cognitive enhancer in healthy individuals? A meta-analysis". Human Psychopharmacology. 27 (6): 527–533. doi:10.1002/hup.2259. PMID 23001963. S2CID 6307491.
  41. "Ginkgo". National Center for Complementary and Integrative Health, US National Institutes of Health. September 2016. Retrieved July 9, 2018.
  42. Geng J, Dong J, Ni H, Lee MS, Wu T, Jiang K, Wang G, Zhou AL, Malouf R (December 2010). "Ginseng for cognition". The Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews (12): CD007769. doi:10.1002/14651858.CD007769.pub2. PMID 21154383.
  43. ^ Forbes SC, Holroyd-Leduc JM, Poulin MJ, Hogan DB (December 2015). "Effect of Nutrients, Dietary Supplements and Vitamins on Cognition: a Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis of Randomized Controlled Trials". Canadian Geriatrics Journal. 18 (4): 231–245. doi:10.5770/cgj.18.189. PMC 4696451. PMID 26740832.
  44. Gillies D, Leach MJ, Perez Algorta G (April 2023). "Polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFA) for attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) in children and adolescents". The Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews. 2023 (4): CD007986. doi:10.1002/14651858.CD007986.pub3. PMC 10103546. PMID 37058600.
  45. Tan ML, Ho JJ, Teh KH (December 2012). Tan ML (ed.). "Polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFAs) for children with specific learning disorders". The Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews. 12: CD009398. doi:10.1002/14651858.CD009398.pub2. PMID 23235675.
  46. Cooper RE, Tye C, Kuntsi J, Vassos E, Asherson P (July 2015). "Omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acid supplementation and cognition: A systematic review and meta-analysis". Journal of Psychopharmacology. 29 (7): 753–763. doi:10.1177/0269881115587958. PMID 26040902. S2CID 358375.

External links

Major chemical drug groups – based upon the Anatomical Therapeutic Chemical Classification System
gastrointestinal tract
/ metabolism (A)
blood and blood
forming organs (B)
cardiovascular
system (C)
skin (D)
genitourinary
system (G)
endocrine
system (H)
infections and
infestations (J, P, QI)
malignant disease
(L01–L02)
immune disease
(L03–L04)
muscles, bones,
and joints (M)
brain and
nervous system (N)
respiratory
system (R)
sensory organs (S)
other ATC (V)
Categories: