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{{Short description|Process of pairing in biology}}{{about|sexual reproduction|the mating of mechanical components|Engineering fit|the 1991 American novel|Mating (novel)}}
{{selfref|'Mounting' redirects here. For other uses of the term, see ]}}
{{refimprove|date=November 2013}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=February 2024}}
]<br>(''Ischnura elegans'') mating]]


In ], '''mating''' is the pairing of either opposite-sex or ] ]s for the purposes of ]. '']'' is the fusion of two ].<ref>{{cite web|last=The Free Dictionary|title='Fertilization' – definition of|url=http://www.thefreedictionary.com/fertilization|publisher=Farlex, Inc.|access-date=25 January 2014|archive-date=28 May 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220528130546/https://www.thefreedictionary.com/fertilization|url-status=live}}</ref> '']'' is the union of the ]s of two sexually reproducing animals for ] and subsequent ].<ref>{{Cite book |last=Naguib |first=Marc |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=KgTeDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA69 |title=Advances in the Study of Behavior |date=2020-04-19 |publisher=Academic Press |isbn=978-0-12-820726-0 |language=en}}</ref> Mating may also lead to ], as seen in ], fishes and plants. For most species, mating is between two individuals of opposite sexes. However, for some hermaphroditic species, copulation is not required because the parent organism is capable of self-fertilization (]); for example, ]s.
] mating]]
In ], '''mating''' is the pairing of opposite-] or ] ] ]s for copulation and, in ]s, also to raise their ]. Mating methods include ], ], ], or a ].


The term ''mating'' is also applied to related processes in bacteria, ] and viruses. Mating in these cases involves the pairing of individuals, accompanied by the pairing of their ] and then exchange of genomic information leading to formation of ] progeny (see ]).
In some birds, for example, it includes ]-building and ]ing offspring. The human practice of making ] animals mate and of ] them is part of ].


==Animals==
'''Copulation''' is the union of the ]s of two ] animals for ] and subsequent ]. The two individuals may be of opposite sexes or ], as is the case with, for example, ]s.
{{Main|Animal sexual behaviour}}
{{See also|Copulation (zoology)|Human mating strategies}}


For animals, mating strategies include ], ], ], or a ]. In some birds, it includes behaviors such as ]-building and ]ing offspring. The human practice of mating and ] is part of ].
Animals initially lived only in water and reproduced by ] in the water. Certain animals started migrating from oceans to the land during the ] epoch about 450 million years ago, necessitating internal fertilization to maintain ]s in a liquid medium.


In some ] ]s, including insects representing ] (primitive) ] clades, the male deposits ] on the substrate, sometimes stored within a special structure. ] involves inducing the female to take up the sperm package into her genital opening without actual copulation. Courtship is often facilitated through forming groups, called ], in flies and many other insects. For example, male '']'' forms swarms dancing in the air to attract females. In groups such as ] and many spiders, males extrude sperm into secondary copulatory structures removed from their genital opening, which are then used to inseminate the female (in dragonflies, it is a set of modified ]s on the second abdominal segment; in spiders, it is the male ]s). In advanced groups of insects, the male uses its ], a structure formed from the terminal segments of the abdomen, to deposit sperm directly (though sometimes in a capsule called a "]") into the female's reproductive tract.
In ]s, the male uses its ] to deposit a capsule of ], called a '']'', into the female's ].


Other animals reproduce sexually with external fertilization, including many ] ]s. Vertebrates reproduce with internal fertilization through ]l copulation (in reptiles, some fish, and most birds)<ref name="Hyman1992" /> or ] of ] through the ] into the female's ] (in ]).<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Birkhead |first1=Tim R. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=FhvmHW972mAC&pg=PA701 |title=Sperm Competition and Sexual Selection |last2=Møller |first2=Anders Pape |date=1998-08-12 |publisher=Elsevier |isbn=978-0-08-054159-4 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Dixson |first=Alan F. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=whcvEAAAQBAJ |title=Mammalian Sexuality: The Act of Mating and the Evolution of Reproduction |date=2021-06-03 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-1-108-69949-5 |language=en}}</ref><ref name="Hyman1992">{{cite book|author=Libbie Henrietta Hyman|title=Hyman's Comparative Vertebrate Anatomy|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=VKlWjdOkiMwC|date=15 September 1992|publisher=University of Chicago Press|isbn=978-0-226-87013-7|access-date=21 November 2016|archive-date=1 August 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230801092954/https://books.google.com/books?id=VKlWjdOkiMwC|url-status=live}}</ref>
Many other animals reproduce sexually with external fertilization, including many ] ]s. Many vertebrates (such as ]s and most ]s) reproduce with internal fertilization through ]l copulation (see also ]), while ]s copulate ]lly.


In domesticated animals, there are various type of mating methods being employed to mate animals like pen mating (when female is moved to the desired male into a pen) or paddock mating (where one male is let loose in the paddock with several females).
In ]s, unlike most animals, copulation may or may not be related to reproduction. In most cases people copulate for pleasure; this behaviour is also seen in some animal species, for example ]s are known to copulate when the female is not fertile, presumably for pleasure, which in turn strengthens social bonds. See also ] and ].


<gallery heights="150" widths="200">
==See also==
File:Bagmati River, Pashupatinath, Nepal Animal sex バグマティ川とパシュパティナート火葬場 サルの交尾 5835.JPG|]s mating
File:オオカミ（Gray wolf） (5339403526).jpg|]
File:LionsMating.jpg|]
File:Snails mating.jpg|] snails ('']'') ]
File:Tortoise mating.jpg|African spurred tortoises ('']'') mating
File:Chalkhill blue butterflies (Polyommatus coridon) mating 1.jpg|Chalkhill blue butterflies ('']'') mating
File:Hoverflies mating midair.jpg|] ('']'') mating in midair
File:Joined moths.JPG|Poplar hawk-moths ('']'') mating
File:Ladybird-Coccinellidae-mating.jpg|]s mating
File:Aphrophora alni mating.jpg|Spittlebugs ('']'') mating
File:Dogs mating.jpg|] mating
File:Goats mating.jpg|] mating
File:Two cats mating (September 2021).jpg|] mating
File:Gråsparv (Passer domesticus) - Ystad-2024.jpg|] mating.
File:Sexually explicit flies..jpg|Flies mating
File:Moth sex.jpg|Moths mating on a handle
</gallery>

==Plants and fungi==
{{Main|Mating systems#In plants|Mating in fungi|Mating of yeast}}

Like in animals, mating in other Eukaryotes, such as plants and ], denotes {{clarify span|sexual conjugation|date=April 2013}}. However, in vascular plants this is mostly achieved without physical contact between mating individuals (see ]), and in some cases, e.g., in fungi no distinguishable male or female organs exist (see ]); however, ]s in some fungal species are somewhat analogous to ] in animals, and determine whether or not two individual isolates can mate. '']'' are ] ]s classified in the ] ], with 1,500 ] currently described.<ref name="YeastRef2">{{cite web |url=http://www.yeastgenome.org/VL-what_are_yeast.html |title=What are yeasts? |work=Yeast Virtual Library |date=13 September 2009 |access-date=28 November 2009 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090226151906/http://www.yeastgenome.org/VL-what_are_yeast.html |archive-date=26 February 2009 }}</ref> In general, under high stress conditions like ] starvation, ] cells will die; under the same conditions, however, ] cells of '']'' can undergo sporulation, entering sexual reproduction (]) and produce a variety of haploid ]s, which can go on to ] (conjugate) and reform the ].<ref name=Neiman2005>{{cite journal |author=Neiman, A.M. |title=Ascospore formation in the yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae |journal=Microbiology and Molecular Biology Reviews |volume=69 |issue=4 |pages=565–584 |year=2005 |pmid=16339736 |pmc=1306807 |doi=10.1128/MMBR.69.4.565-584.2005}}</ref>

==Protists==

Protists are a large group of diverse ] ]s, mainly ] animals and plants, that do not form ].<ref name="pmid11452306">{{cite journal |vauthors=Javaux EJ, Knoll AH, Walter MR |title=Morphological and ecological complexity in early eukaryotic ecosystems |journal=Nature |volume=412 |issue=6842 |pages=66–9 |year=2001 |pmid=11452306 |doi=10.1038/35083562 |bibcode=2001Natur.412...66J |s2cid=205018792 }}</ref> The earliest eukaryotes were likely protists. Mating and sexual reproduction are widespread among extant eukaryotes including protists such as '']'' and '']''. In many eukaryotic species, mating is promoted by ] including the protist ''].'' Based on a phylogenetic analysis, Dacks and Roger<ref name="pmid10229582">{{cite journal |vauthors=Dacks J, Roger AJ |title=The first sexual lineage and the relevance of facultative sex |journal=J. Mol. Evol. |volume=48 |issue=6 |pages=779–83 |year=1999 |pmid=10229582 |doi= 10.1007/pl00013156|bibcode=1999JMolE..48..779D |s2cid=9441768 }}</ref> proposed that facultative sex was present in the common ancestor of all eukaryotes.

However, to many biologists it seemed unlikely until recently, that mating and sex could be a primordial and fundamental characteristic of eukaryotes. A principal reason for this view was that mating and sex appeared to be lacking in certain ]ic protists whose ancestors branched off early from the eukaryotic family tree. However, several of these protists are now known to be capable of, or to recently have had, the capability for ] and hence mating. To cite one example, the common intestinal parasite '']'' was once considered to be a descendant of a protist lineage that predated the emergence of meiosis and sex. However, ''G. intestinalis'' was recently found to have a core set of genes that function in meiosis and that are widely present among sexual eukaryotes.<ref name="pmid15668177">{{cite journal |vauthors=Ramesh MA, Malik SB, Logsdon JM |title=A phylogenomic inventory of meiotic genes; evidence for sex in Giardia and an early eukaryotic origin of meiosis |journal=Curr. Biol. |volume=15 |issue=2 |pages=185–91 |year=2005 |pmid=15668177 |doi=10.1016/j.cub.2005.01.003 |s2cid=17013247 |doi-access=free |bibcode=2005CBio...15..185R }}</ref> These results suggested that ''G. intestinalis'' is capable of meiosis and thus mating and sexual reproduction. Furthermore, direct evidence for meiotic recombination, indicative of mating and sexual reproduction, was also found in ''G. intestinalis''.<ref name="pmid17980591">{{cite journal |vauthors=Cooper MA, Adam RD, Worobey M, Sterling CR |title=Population genetics provides evidence for recombination in Giardia |journal=Curr. Biol. |volume=17 |issue=22 |pages=1984–8 |year=2007 |pmid=17980591 |doi=10.1016/j.cub.2007.10.020 |s2cid=15991722 |doi-access=free |bibcode=2007CBio...17.1984C }}</ref> Other protists for which evidence of mating and sexual reproduction has recently been described are parasitic protozoa of the genus '']'',<ref name="pmid19359589">{{cite journal |vauthors=Akopyants NS, Kimblin N, Secundino N, Patrick R, Peters N, Lawyer P, Dobson DE, Beverley SM, Sacks DL |title=Demonstration of genetic exchange during cyclical development of Leishmania in the sand fly vector |journal=Science |volume=324 |issue=5924 |pages=265–8 |year=2009 |pmid=19359589 |pmc=2729066 |doi=10.1126/science.1169464 |bibcode=2009Sci...324..265A }}</ref> '']'',<ref name="pmid18663385">{{cite journal |vauthors=Malik SB, Pightling AW, Stefaniak LM, Schurko AM, Logsdon JM |title=An expanded inventory of conserved meiotic genes provides evidence for sex in Trichomonas vaginalis |journal=PLOS ONE |volume=3 |issue=8 |pages=e2879 |year=2008 |pmid=18663385 |pmc=2488364 |doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0002879 |bibcode=2008PLoSO...3.2879M |doi-access=free }}</ref> and ].<ref name="pmid25800982">{{cite journal |vauthors=Khan NA, Siddiqui R |title=Is there evidence of sexual reproduction (meiosis) in Acanthamoeba? |journal=Pathog Glob Health |volume=109 |issue=4 |pages=193–5 |year=2015 |pmid=25800982 |doi=10.1179/2047773215Y.0000000009 |pmc=4530557 }}</ref>

Protists generally reproduce asexually under favorable environmental conditions, but tend to reproduce sexually under stressful conditions, such as starvation or heat shock.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Fowler |first1=Samantha |last2=Roush |first2=Rebecca |last3=Wise |first3=James |title=Concepts of Biology |date=2013 |publisher=OpenStax |url=https://opentextbc.ca/conceptsofbiologyopenstax/chapter/protists/ |access-date=13 November 2020 |chapter=Chapter 13: Diversity of Microbes, Fungi, and Protists |archive-date=19 April 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210419032453/https://opentextbc.ca/conceptsofbiologyopenstax/chapter/protists/ |url-status=dead }}</ref>

== See also ==


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==External links== ==References==
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== External links ==
{{Commons|Animal sex}}
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{{Authority control}}
<gallery>
Image:Lion_sex.jpg|A pair of ] copulating in the ], ]
Image:DirkvdM love-bugs.jpg|]s mating
Image:Testudo_Marginata.jpg|] mating
Image:Elephant_Sex.jpg|] mating
Image:Green darner mating med.jpg|] mating
Image:DirkvdM copulating black butterflies.jpg|] mating
Image:Anthomyiidae sp. 1 (aka).jpg|] flies mating
</gallery>


{{Sex (biology)}}
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Latest revision as of 20:01, 4 January 2025

Process of pairing in biologyThis article is about sexual reproduction. For the mating of mechanical components, see Engineering fit. For the 1991 American novel, see Mating (novel).
This article needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.
Find sources: "Mating" – news · newspapers · books · scholar · JSTOR (November 2013) (Learn how and when to remove this message)

Blue-tailed damselflies
(Ischnura elegans) mating

In biology, mating is the pairing of either opposite-sex or hermaphroditic organisms for the purposes of sexual reproduction. Fertilization is the fusion of two gametes. Copulation is the union of the sex organs of two sexually reproducing animals for insemination and subsequent internal fertilization. Mating may also lead to external fertilization, as seen in amphibians, fishes and plants. For most species, mating is between two individuals of opposite sexes. However, for some hermaphroditic species, copulation is not required because the parent organism is capable of self-fertilization (autogamy); for example, banana slugs.

The term mating is also applied to related processes in bacteria, archaea and viruses. Mating in these cases involves the pairing of individuals, accompanied by the pairing of their homologous chromosomes and then exchange of genomic information leading to formation of recombinant progeny (see mating systems).

Animals

Main article: Animal sexual behaviour See also: Copulation (zoology) and Human mating strategies

For animals, mating strategies include random mating, disassortative mating, assortative mating, or a mating pool. In some birds, it includes behaviors such as nest-building and feeding offspring. The human practice of mating and artificially inseminating domesticated animals is part of animal husbandry.

In some terrestrial arthropods, including insects representing basal (primitive) phylogenetic clades, the male deposits spermatozoa on the substrate, sometimes stored within a special structure. Courtship involves inducing the female to take up the sperm package into her genital opening without actual copulation. Courtship is often facilitated through forming groups, called leks, in flies and many other insects. For example, male Tokunagayusurika akamusi forms swarms dancing in the air to attract females. In groups such as dragonflies and many spiders, males extrude sperm into secondary copulatory structures removed from their genital opening, which are then used to inseminate the female (in dragonflies, it is a set of modified sternites on the second abdominal segment; in spiders, it is the male pedipalps). In advanced groups of insects, the male uses its aedeagus, a structure formed from the terminal segments of the abdomen, to deposit sperm directly (though sometimes in a capsule called a "spermatophore") into the female's reproductive tract.

Other animals reproduce sexually with external fertilization, including many basal vertebrates. Vertebrates reproduce with internal fertilization through cloacal copulation (in reptiles, some fish, and most birds) or ejaculation of semen through the penis into the female's vagina (in mammals).

In domesticated animals, there are various type of mating methods being employed to mate animals like pen mating (when female is moved to the desired male into a pen) or paddock mating (where one male is let loose in the paddock with several females).

Plants and fungi

Main articles: Mating systems § In plants, Mating in fungi, and Mating of yeast

Like in animals, mating in other Eukaryotes, such as plants and fungi, denotes sexual conjugation. However, in vascular plants this is mostly achieved without physical contact between mating individuals (see pollination), and in some cases, e.g., in fungi no distinguishable male or female organs exist (see isogamy); however, mating types in some fungal species are somewhat analogous to sexual dimorphism in animals, and determine whether or not two individual isolates can mate. Yeasts are eukaryotic microorganisms classified in the kingdom Fungi, with 1,500 species currently described. In general, under high stress conditions like nutrient starvation, haploid cells will die; under the same conditions, however, diploid cells of Saccharomyces cerevisiae can undergo sporulation, entering sexual reproduction (meiosis) and produce a variety of haploid spores, which can go on to mate (conjugate) and reform the diploid.

Protists

Protists are a large group of diverse eukaryotic microorganisms, mainly unicellular animals and plants, that do not form tissues. The earliest eukaryotes were likely protists. Mating and sexual reproduction are widespread among extant eukaryotes including protists such as Paramecium and Chlamydomonas. In many eukaryotic species, mating is promoted by sex pheromones including the protist Blepharisma japonicum. Based on a phylogenetic analysis, Dacks and Roger proposed that facultative sex was present in the common ancestor of all eukaryotes.

However, to many biologists it seemed unlikely until recently, that mating and sex could be a primordial and fundamental characteristic of eukaryotes. A principal reason for this view was that mating and sex appeared to be lacking in certain pathogenic protists whose ancestors branched off early from the eukaryotic family tree. However, several of these protists are now known to be capable of, or to recently have had, the capability for meiosis and hence mating. To cite one example, the common intestinal parasite Giardia intestinalis was once considered to be a descendant of a protist lineage that predated the emergence of meiosis and sex. However, G. intestinalis was recently found to have a core set of genes that function in meiosis and that are widely present among sexual eukaryotes. These results suggested that G. intestinalis is capable of meiosis and thus mating and sexual reproduction. Furthermore, direct evidence for meiotic recombination, indicative of mating and sexual reproduction, was also found in G. intestinalis. Other protists for which evidence of mating and sexual reproduction has recently been described are parasitic protozoa of the genus Leishmania, Trichomonas vaginalis, and acanthamoeba.

Protists generally reproduce asexually under favorable environmental conditions, but tend to reproduce sexually under stressful conditions, such as starvation or heat shock.

See also

References

  1. The Free Dictionary. "'Fertilization' – definition of". Farlex, Inc. Archived from the original on 28 May 2022. Retrieved 25 January 2014.
  2. Naguib, Marc (19 April 2020). Advances in the Study of Behavior. Academic Press. ISBN 978-0-12-820726-0.
  3. ^ Libbie Henrietta Hyman (15 September 1992). Hyman's Comparative Vertebrate Anatomy. University of Chicago Press. ISBN 978-0-226-87013-7. Archived from the original on 1 August 2023. Retrieved 21 November 2016.
  4. Birkhead, Tim R.; Møller, Anders Pape (12 August 1998). Sperm Competition and Sexual Selection. Elsevier. ISBN 978-0-08-054159-4.
  5. Dixson, Alan F. (3 June 2021). Mammalian Sexuality: The Act of Mating and the Evolution of Reproduction. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-1-108-69949-5.
  6. "What are yeasts?". Yeast Virtual Library. 13 September 2009. Archived from the original on 26 February 2009. Retrieved 28 November 2009.
  7. Neiman, A.M. (2005). "Ascospore formation in the yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae". Microbiology and Molecular Biology Reviews. 69 (4): 565–584. doi:10.1128/MMBR.69.4.565-584.2005. PMC 1306807. PMID 16339736.
  8. Javaux EJ, Knoll AH, Walter MR (2001). "Morphological and ecological complexity in early eukaryotic ecosystems". Nature. 412 (6842): 66–9. Bibcode:2001Natur.412...66J. doi:10.1038/35083562. PMID 11452306. S2CID 205018792.
  9. Dacks J, Roger AJ (1999). "The first sexual lineage and the relevance of facultative sex". J. Mol. Evol. 48 (6): 779–83. Bibcode:1999JMolE..48..779D. doi:10.1007/pl00013156. PMID 10229582. S2CID 9441768.
  10. Ramesh MA, Malik SB, Logsdon JM (2005). "A phylogenomic inventory of meiotic genes; evidence for sex in Giardia and an early eukaryotic origin of meiosis". Curr. Biol. 15 (2): 185–91. Bibcode:2005CBio...15..185R. doi:10.1016/j.cub.2005.01.003. PMID 15668177. S2CID 17013247.
  11. Cooper MA, Adam RD, Worobey M, Sterling CR (2007). "Population genetics provides evidence for recombination in Giardia". Curr. Biol. 17 (22): 1984–8. Bibcode:2007CBio...17.1984C. doi:10.1016/j.cub.2007.10.020. PMID 17980591. S2CID 15991722.
  12. Akopyants NS, Kimblin N, Secundino N, Patrick R, Peters N, Lawyer P, Dobson DE, Beverley SM, Sacks DL (2009). "Demonstration of genetic exchange during cyclical development of Leishmania in the sand fly vector". Science. 324 (5924): 265–8. Bibcode:2009Sci...324..265A. doi:10.1126/science.1169464. PMC 2729066. PMID 19359589.
  13. Malik SB, Pightling AW, Stefaniak LM, Schurko AM, Logsdon JM (2008). "An expanded inventory of conserved meiotic genes provides evidence for sex in Trichomonas vaginalis". PLOS ONE. 3 (8): e2879. Bibcode:2008PLoSO...3.2879M. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0002879. PMC 2488364. PMID 18663385.
  14. Khan NA, Siddiqui R (2015). "Is there evidence of sexual reproduction (meiosis) in Acanthamoeba?". Pathog Glob Health. 109 (4): 193–5. doi:10.1179/2047773215Y.0000000009. PMC 4530557. PMID 25800982.
  15. Fowler, Samantha; Roush, Rebecca; Wise, James (2013). "Chapter 13: Diversity of Microbes, Fungi, and Protists". Concepts of Biology. OpenStax. Archived from the original on 19 April 2021. Retrieved 13 November 2020.

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