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] (], ], and ]) seated on lotuses with their consorts, the ] (], ], and ]).]]
{{Use Indian English|date=August 2015}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=April 2015}}
{{Hinduism}}
] elopes with Princess ]]]
] slays ]]]
]'s ] avatar, a prominent Hindu myth.]]
{{Hindu mythology}}
{{Mythology}}


'''Hindu mythology''' is the body of ]{{efn|{{Myth FAQ}}}} attributed to, and espoused by, the adherents of the ], found in ] such as the ],{{sfn|Macdonell|1978|p=1–9}} the ] (the ] of the '']'' and '']'',{{sfn|Washburn Hopkins|1986|pp=1–3}}) the ],{{sfn|Bonnefoy|1993|p=90–101}} and mythological stories specific to a particular ethnolinguistic group like the ] '']'' and ], and the '']'' of Bengal. Hindu myths are also found in widely translated popular texts such as the fables of the '']'' and the '']'', as well as in ]n texts.{{sfn|Olivelle|1999|p=xii–xiii}}{{sfn|Waldau|Patton|2009|p=186, 680}}
{{Hindu scriptures}}
'''Hindu mythology''' is a term used by modern scholarship for a large body of Indian literature that details the lives and times of legendary personalities, deities and ] on earth interspersed with often large sections of philosophical and ethical discourse. Despite connotations of fiction in common usage, the term ''myth'', in theological and academic studies, does not necessarily imply that a narrative is untrue. The use of the term mythology is a western construct applied primarily to non-Judeo-Christian religious literature{{Fact|date=June 2007}}.


== Meaning of "myth" ==
It must be noted that many of the topics that fall under the category of ''Hindu mythology'' are cherished beliefs of Hindus. All ancient religions contain stories that are accepted as literal truth by some, and as philosophical or allegorical insights by others. Thus, the biblical stories may be similarly construed as ] or ].
'''Myth''' is a ] of ] or ] consisting primarily of ]s that play a fundamental role in a society, such as foundational tales or ]s. For folklorists, historians, philosophers or theologians this is very different from the use of "myth" simply indicating that something is not true. Instead, the truth value of a myth is not a defining criterion.<ref>Deretic, Irina. “Why are myths true: Plato on the veracity of myths.” Vestnik of Saint Petersburg University. Philosophy and Conflict Studies (2020): vol. 36, issue 3, pp. 441–451.</ref>


Hindu myths can be found in the ], the ] (] and ]), and the major ]. Other sources include the Bengali literature, such as ], and the ], such as ], ] and the ]. These narratives play a crucial role in the Hindu tradition and are considered real and significant within their cultural and spiritual context, offering profound insights into the beliefs and values of Hinduism.
The mythological literature is intertwined with the ethos of ancient ] and ], and fundamentally constructed with ] systems of philosophy.


== Definition and misconception== == Origins and development ==


=== Indus Valley Civilisation ===
Though they are often classified as 'Hindu' or 'Indian' 'mythology,' the label does not capture the centrality of religious and spiritual affiliations of the texts that ring true today for most Hindus. They are replete with long philosophical discourses and are often seen as sourcebooks for Hindu ethics and practice. It is also to be noted that historical evidence of many acts or places of Hindu narratives have been found, establishing them as historical facts. However, evidence is extremely limited and only allows for the possibility of myths being history.
{{See also|Religion of the Indus Valley civilization}}


According to ], the ] (2600–1900 BCE) may have left traces in the beliefs and traditions of Hinduism. Artefacts have revealed motifs that are also employed and revered by Hindus today, such as primary male deities worshipped by a ruling elite, mother goddesses, nature spirits, ] worship, as well as the reverence of other theriomorphic (animal-shaped) beings.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Opler |first1=Morris E. |last2=Campbell |first2=Joseph |date=January 1962 |title=The Masks of God: Primitive Mythology |journal=The Journal of American Folklore |volume=75 |issue=295 |pages=82 |doi=10.2307/537862 |jstor=537862 |issn=0021-8715 }}</ref> These themes would be maintained by the ] even after the decline of its parent civilisation around 1800 BCE.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Decline of the Indus River Valley Civilization (c. 3300–1300 BCE) |url=https://www.science.smith.edu/climatelit/decline-of-the-indus-river-valley-civilization-c-3300-1300-bce/ |access-date=2022-07-31 |website=Climate in Arts and History |language=en-US |archive-date=31 July 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220731074042/https://www.science.smith.edu/climatelit/decline-of-the-indus-river-valley-civilization-c-3300-1300-bce/ |url-status=live }}</ref>
==Vedic mythology==
{{Main|Vedic mythology}}
{{See also|Indian mythology}}


=== Vedic Period ===
The roots of mythology that evolved from classical ] come from the times of the ], from the ancient ].
{{Main articles|Historical Vedic religion}}


A major factor in the development of Hinduism was the Vedic religion. The ] brought their distinct beliefs to the Indian subcontinent, where the ] were composed around 1500 BCE. The Indo-Aryans Vedic pantheon of deities included the chief god ], the sun deity ], ], as well as ].{{sfn|Williams|2003|pp=6-7}}<ref>{{Cite book |last=Macdonell |first=Arthur Anthony |url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/1951729 |title=Vedic mythology |date=1974 |publisher=Motilal Banarsidass |isbn=0-8426-0674-2 |edition=Reprint, 1995 |location=Delhi |oclc=1951729}}</ref>
The characters, theology, philosophy and stories that make up ancient Vedic myths are indelibly linked with Hindu beliefs. The Vedas are said to be four in number, namely RigVeda, YajurVeda, SamaVeda, and the AtharvaVeda. Some of these texts mention mythological concepts and machines very much similar to modern day scientific theories and machines.


=== Brahmanical Period ===
==Sources==
{{Main articles|Brahminism}}
This period saw the composition of commentaries referred to as the ]s.{{sfn|Williams|2003|p=7}}


=== Upanishad Period ===
It is believed that the Hindu mythology dates back to around 7200 BC when the first hymns of the ] were sung praising the elements of nature, namely, the air, the water, the thunder, the sun, the fire, etc. They found expression in early Vedic Gods, namely, ], ], ], ] and ]. According to modern scholars over a period of time several Vedic Gods were conceptualized. Over next several millennia, in the post-Vedic period, and during the period of the ], the Gods were personified and assumed specific shapes and characteristics, with individual endowments.
{{See also|Upanishads}}
According to Williams, from 900 to 600 BCE, the protests of the populace against sacrifices made towards the Vedic gods and rebellions against the Brahmin class led to the embrace of reform by the latter and the composition of the ] and the ] texts. About half of the Upanishads were mystical and unitive, speaking of experiencing the divine as the one (ekam), while the other half promoted devotion to one or more deities. New gods and goddesses were celebrated, and devotional practices began to be introduced.<ref name=":0"/>


===Sramanic movements===
]This was followed by the period of the epics, when the ] and the ] were composed. It is believed that they capture and depict, to a large extent, historical events and happenings, and certain modern findings also seem to corroborate this, like the finding of an ancient bridge constructed between India and Sri Lanka. Are you fucking crazy???
Elements such as those emerging from ] and ] made their "heteroprax" contributions to later Hindu mythology, such as temples, indoor shrines, and rituals modeled after service to a divine king. Renunciate traditions contributed elements that questioned sacrifices and the killing of animals, and promoted asceticism and vegetarianism. All of these themes would be incorporated by the Brahmin classes into the later ], which developed in response to the sramanic movements between ca. 500–300 BCE and 500 CE, and also found their way into Hindu mythology.<ref name=":0">{{Cite book |date=2004-05-01 |title=Handbook of Hindu mythology |pages=10 }}</ref>
Bridge built??? Look at the real scientific pages, fucking fundamentalists!!


=== Epic Period ===
However, more archaeological evidence is required to further substantiate the actual occurrence of the events around which the two epics are based.
{{Main articles|Ramayana|Mahabharata}}
The era from 400 BCE to 400 CE was the period of the compilation of India’s great epics, the ] and ]. These were central manifestations of the newly developing Hindu synthesis, contributing to a specific Hindu mythology, emphasising divine action on earth in ]'s incarnations and other divine manifestations. The lore of the ] and the ]s expanded. Epic mythology foreshadowed the rich polytheism of the next two periods. The Mahabharata contained two appendices that were extremely important sources for later mythological development, the ] and the ].


=== Puranic Period ===
The Puranas deal with stories that are "mythologically" older than the epics and are set in the "Kritha" or "Sathya" yuga, the first of the four great time periods said to compose what is called the Divya yuga lasting over 4,320,000 years.
{{Main articles|Puranas}}


According to Williams, the mythology of the ] can be broken into three periods (300–500; 500–1000; 1000–1800), or the whole period may simply be referred to as the Hindu Middle Ages. This age saw the composition of the major Puranic texts of the faith, along with the rise of sectarianism, with followers amassing around the cults of ], ], or ]. The three denominations within this period help locate in time historical developments within the sectarian communities, the rise and decline of Tantrism and its influence on mainstream mythology, the tendencies in Puranic mythologising of subordinating Vedic gods and past heroes to ever-increasing moral weaknesses, going on to be identified as a period of exuberant polytheism. However, this was also accompanied with the belief in monotheism, the idea that all paths lead to the Ultimate Reality, ].<ref name=":0" />
The epics themselves are set in different "yugas" or periods of time in Hindu mythology. The Ramayana, written by the poet Valmiki, describes the life and times of Lord Rama (the seventh avatar of Lord Vishnu) and occurs in the Tretha yuga, while the Mahabharatha that describes the life and times of the Pandavas, occurs in the Dwapara yuga, a period in which Lord Krishna (the eighth avatar of Lord Vishnu)
took birth.


== Epics == === Tantric Period ===
{{See also|Tantras (Hinduism)}}
The ] are the supreme set of Hindu documents. There are four of them: ], ], ], and ]. The first three provide the rules of daily conduct for all Hindus (both individuals and institutions such as temples). Every ] family ''belongs'' one of these vedas in the sense that they conduct all their religious activities according to the rules specified by that veda.
The next most important work of Hindu mythology are the eighteen volumes of documents known as the '']''. Each purana describes the story of one or more of the gods (the list of gods is described later).


According to Williams, during the Tantric period from 900 to 1600 CE, the mythology of ] and ] revived and enriched blood sacrifice and the pursuit of pleasure as central themes. Tantra’s stories differed radically in meaning from those of epic mythology, which favored devotion, asceticism, and duty. There was either a revival or emphasis that was placed on the shakti or the cosmic energy of goddesses, a concept that had emerged during the Indus Valley Civilisation.<ref name=":0" />
The ] (also referred to as ] or ]) is probably the most read and popular of the puranas. It chronicles the story of the god Vishnu and his incarnations (]s) on earth.


=== Modern Period ===
The two great ], the '']'' and the '']'' tell the story of two specific incarnations of Vishnu (the Rama-avataar and Krishna-avataar, respectively). These two works are known as '']''. The epics ''Mahabharata'' and ''Ramayana'' are very much ] scriptures. Their stories are deeply embedded in ] and serve as ]s and sources of devotion for ].
In the contemporary era, the mythologies of the dominant traditions of ], ], and ] prevail.<ref>{{Citation |last=Bishara |first=Azmi |title=Ibn Khaldun's 'Asabiyya and Sects |date=2021-08-01 |work=Sectarianism without Sects |pages=199–220 |publisher=Oxford University Press |doi=10.1093/oso/9780197602744.003.0007 |isbn=978-0-19-760274-4 }}</ref> Several myths were found or invented to make tribals or former "outcastes" Hindus and bring them within the cultural whole of a reconstructed Hindu mythological community.


==Mythical themes and types==
==Cosmology==
]
{{main|Hindu cosmology}}
Hinduism presents a number of accounts pertaining to ], and several explanations have been given as regards the origin of the universe. The most popular belief is that the universe emerged from ], meaning the ''golden womb''. Hiranyagarbha floated around in water in the emptiness and the darkness of non-existence. Ultimately, this golden egg split and the ] was created. ] emerged from the golden upper part of the Hiranyagarbha, whereas ] came out from the silver coloured lower half part.


Academic studies of ] often define mythology as deeply valued stories that explain a society's existence and world order: those narratives of a society's creation, the society's origins and foundations, their god(s), their original heroes, mankind's connection to the "divine", and their narratives of ] (what happens in the "after-life"). This is a very general outline of some of the basic sacred stories with those themes. In its broadest academic sense, the word ''myth'' simply means a traditional story. However, many scholars restrict the term "myth" to sacred stories.<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.faculty.de.gcsu.edu/~mmagouli/defmyth.htm#SACRED |title=What is a Myth? |access-date=2007-06-17 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070807181158/http://www.faculty.de.gcsu.edu/~mmagouli/defmyth.htm#SACRED |archive-date=2007-08-07 |url-status=dead }}</ref> ] often go further, defining myths as "tales believed as true, usually sacred, set in the distant past or other worlds or parts of the world, and with extra-human, inhuman, or heroic characters".<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.faculty.de.gcsu.edu/~mmagouli/defmyth.htm#DEFINING%20MYTH |title=Defining myth |access-date=2007-06-17 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070807181158/http://www.faculty.de.gcsu.edu/~mmagouli/defmyth.htm#DEFINING%20MYTH |archive-date=2007-08-07 |url-status=dead }}</ref>
== The wars ==


In ], ''muthos'', from which the English word ''myth'' derives, meant "story, narrative." Hindu mythology does not often have a consistent, monolithic structure. The same myth typically appears in various versions, and can be represented differently across different regional and socio-religious traditions.{{sfn|Suthren Hirst|1998}} Many of these legends evolve across these texts, where the character names change or the story is embellished with greater details.{{sfn|Suthren Hirst|1998}}{{sfn|Doniger O'Flaherty|1975|p=11, 21–22}} According to Suthren Hirst, these myths have been given a complex range of interpretations.{{sfn|Suthren Hirst|1998}} While according to Doniger O'Flaherty, the central message and moral values remain the same.{{sfn|Doniger O'Flaherty|1975|p=11, 21–22}} They have been modified by various philosophical schools over time, and are taken to have deeper, often symbolic, meaning.{{sfn|Suthren Hirst|1998}}
''Main article: ]''


===The weapons=== == Cosmology ==
{{Main|Hindu cosmology}}
{{Expand section|date=May 2021}}
{{div col}}
* ] The Ultimate Reality in ]
* ] The abode of Brahma
* ] The golden egg from which creation emerges
* ] The abode of Vishnu
* ] The abode of Radha Krishna
* ] The abode of Shiva
* ] The Hindu name for Earth.
* ] The netherworld
* ] The Hindu concept of "heaven", but not strictly related to afterlife, but more like "utopia" in real world.
* ] The Hindu concept of "hell", but not a site of permanent damnation


{{div col end}}
There are several weapons which were believed to be used by the Gods of the Hindu mythology, some of which are ], ], ], Garudastra, ], ], ], ], ], ], ], ], ], and ]. A particular weapon was generally associated with a particular God.


== The Deluge == === Deities ===
{{Expand section|date=July 2021}}
''']'''
*] The Ultimate Reality


''']''' (Vishnu-centric)
The story of a great flood is mentioned in ancient Hindu texts, particularly the ]. It is compared to the accounts of the ] found in several religions and cultures. ] was informed of the impending flood and was protected by the ] ] of Lord ], who had manifested himself in this form to rid the world of morally depraved human beings and protect the pious, as also all animals and plants.
*] The God of Preservation
*] The Goddess of Prosperity
*] Ten incarnations of Vishnu, chiefly ] and ]


''']''' (Shiva-centric)
After the flood the Lord inspires the ], largely based upon the ], which details the moral code of conduct, of living and the division of society according to the ].
*] The God of Destruction
*] The Goddess of Power
*] The God of Auspiciousness
*] The God of Victory and War


''']''' (Goddess-centric)
== The Peoples of the Epics ==
*] Supreme Goddess
*] Goddess of Wisdom
*] Goddess of Prosperity
*] Goddess of Power
*] Goddess of War
*] Goddess of time and destruction


Hindu mythology is not only about Gods and men, but classifies a host of different kinds of celestial, ethereal and earthly beings.


'''] and ]'''
=== Sapta Rishis ===
* ] The God of Creation
* ] The God of Preservation
* ] The God of Destruction
* ] The King of the Devas and Svarga
* ] The Goddess of Wisdom
* ] The Goddess of Prosperity
* ] The Goddess of Power
* ] The God of Auspiciousness
* ] The God of love and protection
* ] The goddess of love, chief consort of Krishna
* ] The first queen consort and principal wife of Krishna<ref>{{Cite book |last=Vemsani |first=Lavanya |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=4fw2DAAAQBAJ&pg=PA91 |title=Krishna in History, Thought, and Culture: An Encyclopedia of the Hindu Lord of Many Names: An Encyclopedia of the Hindu Lord of Many Names |date=2016-06-13 |publisher=ABC-CLIO |isbn=978-1-61069-211-3 |pages=91 |language=en |access-date=2 March 2023 |archive-date=26 March 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230326164823/https://books.google.com/books?id=4fw2DAAAQBAJ&pg=PA91 |url-status=live }}</ref>
* ] The third queen consort of Krishna
* ] one of the main sacred river goddesses in Hinduism and the fourth queen consort of Krishna
* ] Goddess of the Earth
* ] (Murugan) God of Victory and War
* ] The seventh incarnation of ]
* ] A terrible aspect of ]
* ] A principal aspect of Mahadevi
* ] Twin gods of medicine
* ] God of Fire
* ] God of the storm
* ] Personification of power
* ] God of the wind
* ] God of the Sun
* ] God of the oceans
* ] Younger Brother of Rama
* ] Highest devotee of Rama
* ] Consort of Rama and incarnation of Lakshmi
* ] An incarnation of the goddess ]
* ] God of Wealth
* ] The sixth incarnation of ]
* ] God of Death and the Underworld
* ] God of the Moon
* ] incarnation of ] and in some traditions an avatar of Vishnu
* ] Creator deity
* ] Prophesied final incarnation of Vishnu
* ] (Ten Incarnations of ])
* ] Divine sage, messenger of gods
* ] Daughter of Vishnu, consort of Murugan
* ] Daughter of Vishnu, consort of Murugan
* ] The God of love and desire
* ] The Goddess of love and desire
* ] Divine Personification of the planet saturn
'']''' (Indigenous Dravidian faith)


* ] Mother goddess
Lord ], out of his thought, creates seven sages, or '']'', to help him in his act of creation. ''Sapta Rishis'' (''sapta'' means seven and ''rishis'' means sages in ]). They are ''], ], ], ], ], ]'', and '']''. The other meaning of Saptarishis is ] of ] (]).
* ] Guardian deity
* ] God of Dharma


=== Connections to other belief systems ===
===Pitrs===
{{Expand section|date=July 2021}}
The Pitrs, or fathers, were the first humans. Pitrs comes from the word Pita(In Hindi and Sanskrit) or Father. So it is about paternity and paternal relations.
] shares ]s with ], ], and ].


== The Worlds == ==See also==
{{Portal|India|Hinduism}}
Hindu mythology defines fourteen worlds (not to be confused with planets) - seven higher worlds (heavens) and seven lower ones (hells). (The earth is considered the lowest of the seven higher worlds.) All the worlds except the earth are used as temporary places of stay as follows: upon one's death on earth, ], the god of death (officially called 'Yama Dharma Raajaa' - Yama, the lord of justice) tallies the person's good/bad deeds while on earth and decides if the soul goes to heaven and/or hell, for how long, and in what capacity. Some versions of the mythology state that good and bad deeds neutralize each other and the soul therefore spends time in either a heaven or a hell, but not both, whereas according to another school of thought, the good and bad deeds don't cancel out each other. In either case, the soul acquires a body as appropriate to the worlds it enters. At the end of the soul's time in those worlds, it returns to the earth (is reborn as a life form on the earth). It is considered that only from the earth, and only after a human life, can the soul reach supreme salvation ], the state free from the cycle of birth and death and the place beyond the fourteen worlds where the eternal god lives.
{{div col|small=yes}}
* ]
* ]
* ]
* ]
* ]
* ]
* ]
* ]
* ]
* ]
* ]
* ]
{{div col end}}


==Notes==
===The Higher Worlds===
{{noteslist}}
] is the third among the seven higher worlds. In common usage, Swarga is used to refer to the 'higher worlds' or heavens in general.


== Citations ==
The higher worlds (except the earth) are populated with a variety of beings called ]s, consisting of several sub-divisions: ], ], ], ], ], and so on. In general, beings of a higher heavenly world can freely visit a lower one.
{{Reflist|30em}}


== General sources ==
All the posts (kings, etc.) in the heavenly worlds are awarded based on the good deeds one performs while on earth.
{{Refbegin}}

<!-- B -->
===The Lower Worlds===
* {{cite book|last=Bonnefoy|first=Yves|year=1993|title=Asian Mythologies|publisher=University of Chicago Press|isbn=978-0-226-06456-7|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=r4I-FsZCzJEC|access-date=28 December 2017|archive-date=24 April 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230424033253/https://books.google.com/books?id=r4I-FsZCzJEC|url-status=live}}
The term ] indicates the various lower worlds. The lower worlds are filled with ]s.
<!-- D -->

* {{Citation | last =Doniger O'Flaherty | first =Wendy | year =1975 | title =Hindu epics: A Sourcebook translated from the Sanskrit | publisher =Penguin | isbn =978-0140449907}}
== Gods and Goddesses ==
<!-- H -->

* {{cite book|last=Washburn Hopkins|first=Edward|year=1986|title=Epic Mythology|publisher=Motilal Banarsidass|isbn=978-81-208-0227-8|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ingAMQAACAAJ|access-date=28 December 2017|archive-date=24 April 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230424033307/https://books.google.com/books?id=ingAMQAACAAJ|url-status=live}}
There are many layers of gods in Hinduism. At the top are the trinity: ] (the destroyer), ] (the protector), and ] (the creator), and their wives (goddesses in their own right): ] (also known as Paarvathi, Ambicaa) the goddess of courage and power, ] the goddess of all forms of wealth, and ] the goddess of learning. The children of the gods are also gods in their own right, such as ] and ].
<!-- M -->

* {{cite book | last =Macdonell | first =Arthur Anthony | year =1978 | title =Vedic Mythology | publisher =Motilal Banarsidass | edition =(reprint) | isbn =978-81-208-1113-3 | url =https://books.google.com/books?id=b7Meabtj8mcC | access-date =28 December 2017 | archive-date =24 April 2023 | archive-url =https://web.archive.org/web/20230424033251/https://books.google.com/books?id=b7Meabtj8mcC | url-status =live }}
Interestingly, Brahma is also considered the ruler of the highest of the heavens (the world called ''Sathya''), so in one sense, Brahma is not beyond the fourteen worlds as Shiva and Vishnu are.
<!-- O -->

* {{cite book | last =Olivelle | first =Patrick | author-link =Patrick Olivelle | year =1999 | title =Pañcatantra: The Book of India's Folk Wisdom | publisher =Oxford University Press | isbn =978-0-19-283988-6 | url =https://books.google.com/books?id=-BQj8cz0vvMC }}
Some gods are associated with specific elements or functions: ] (the god of thunder and lightning; he also rules the world of Swarga), ] (the god of the oceans), ] (the god of fire), ] (the treasurer of the gods), ] (the sun god), ] (the god of wind), and ] (the moon god).
<!-- S -->

* {{Citation | last =Suthren Hirst | first =Jacqueline | author-link =Jacqueline Suthren Hirst | year =1998 | chapter =Myth and history | editor-last =Bowen | editor-first =Paul | title =Themes and Issues in Hinduism | publisher =Cassell}}
Below these are semidivine being and demigods who have supernatural powers but otherwise are not considered gods.
<!-- W -->

* {{cite book|last1=Waldau|first1=Paul|last2=Patton|first2=Kimberley|year=2009|title=A Communion of Subjects: Animals in Religion, Science, and Ethics|publisher=Columbia University Press|isbn=978-0-231-13643-3|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=5k6rAgAAQBAJ}}
Swarga also has a set of famous heavenly dancers: ], ], ], and ] (all female), whose job is to entertain the heavenly court, and upon orders from the heavenly kings, to distract people on the earth from accumulating too much good deeds so as to become a threat to the heavenly kings.
* {{cite book |last1=Williams |first1=George M. |title=Handbook of Hindu Mythology |date=2003 |publisher=Oxford University Press |location=New York |isbn=978-0-19-533261-2 |language=en}}

{{Refend}}
Other notable inhabitants of the heavens include the celestial ], and ] the messenger of the gods.

Yama (the god of death and justice) is said to live in Kailash along with his master ]. He rules the lower world of Naraka with a band of emissaries called the ''Yama duta'' (messengers of Yama), who bring the souls of dead persons to Yama for evaluation. ] is one of those lower level celestial beings who functions as the karmic accountant of all the actions of the human beings on earth.

===Incarnations===
Several gods are believed to have had incarnations (]). As the protector of life, one of the duties of Vishu is to appear on the earth whenever a firm hand is required to set things right. The epic ] is the chronology of Vishnu's ten major incarnations (there are totally twenty six incarnations): ] (fish), ] (turtle), ] (boar), ] (lion-faced human), ] (an ascetic in the form of a midget), ] (a militant Brahmin), ], ],](later budhists separated themselves from hindus), ] (a predicted warrior on a white horse who would come in this yuga ) whose appearance also signals the beginning of the end of the epoch.

== House of Ikshvaku ==

] was the son of ],the first mortal man, and founder of the ].

== Bharatavarsha ==

The first king to conquer all of the world was ], son of ] and ]. All of this world, ], is named ], or ''The Land of Bharata'', or ''The Cherished Land''.

King Bharata's conquests are described to have stretched over all of modern ], and ], ] and ], as well as the ancient ] region of ]. No account has been known to exceed these geographical boundaries.

==See also==

* ]
* ]
* ]
* ]
* ]
* ]
* ]
* ]
* ]
** ]
**]
**]
* ]
*]
*]


==Further reading== ==Further reading==
* {{cite book |last1=Bhairav |first1=J Furcifer |author2=Rakesh Khanna |year=2020 |title=Ghosts, Monsters, and Demons of India |url=https://www.blaft.com/collections/new-arrivals/products/ghosts-monsters-and-demons-of-india |publisher=Blaft Publications Private Limited |isbn=9789380636467 |oclc=1259298225}}
#] (ISBN 0-500-51088-1) by Anna L. Dallapiccola
* {{cite book |last=Brockington |first=J. L. |title=The Sanskrit Epics |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=HR-_LK5kl18C |year=1998 |publisher=BRILL Academic |isbn=90-04-10260-4}}
#] (ISBN 81-88234-15-X) for Children. Check the book out at http://www.a1books.com/cgi-bin/mktSearch?act=showDesc&ITEM_CODE=818823415X&WVSESSION_ID=386223192
* {{cite book |last1=Buitenen |first1=J. A. B. van |last2=Dimmitt |first2=Cornelia |year=1978 |title=Classical Hindu Mythology: A Reader in the Sanskrit Puranas |location=Philadelphia |publisher=Temple University Press |isbn=0-87722-122-7 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ZBUHAAAAQAAJ}}
#] ''Hindu World: An Encyclopedic Survey of Hinduism'', (Two Volumes), Allen & Unwin, London, 1968; Praeger, New York, 1968; Munshiram Manohar Lal, New Delhi, 1983; Harper Collins, New Delhi, 1985; Rupa, New Delhi, 2005, ISBN 81-291-0670-1.
* {{cite book |last=Campbell |first=Joseph |author-link=Joseph Campbell |year=2003 |title=Myths of Light: Eastern Metaphors of the Eternal |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=OWdqt29UDGYC |location=Novato, Calif. |publisher=New World Library |isbn=1-57731-403-4}}
* {{cite book |last=Dalal |first=Roshen |year=2010 |title=Hinduism: An Alphabetical Guide |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=DH0vmD8ghdMC |publisher=Penguin Books India |isbn=978-0-14-341421-6}}
* {{cite book |last=Dallapiccola |first=Anna L. |year=2002 |title=] |isbn=0-500-51088-1}}
* {{cite book |last=Dimitrova |first=Stefania |year=2017 |title=The Day of Brahma: The Myths of India—Epics of Human Destiny |publisher=Alpha-Omega |isbn=978-954-9694-27-7 }}
* {{cite book |last=Dowson |first=John |year=1888 |title=A Classical Dictionary of Hindu Mythology and Religion, Geography, History, and Literature |url=https://archive.org/stream/aclassicaldictio00dowsuoft#page/n27/mode/2up |location=London |publisher=Trubner & Co.}}
* {{cite book |last=Krishna |first=Nanditha |author-link=Nanditha Krishna |year=2009 |title=The Book of Vishnu |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=f9cSlaLMlgEC |publisher=Penguin Books India |isbn=978-0-14-306762-7}}
* {{cite book |last=Krishna |first=Nanditha |year=2010 |title=Sacred Animals of India |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=J3NU35nngxEC |publisher=Penguin Books India |isbn=978-0-14-306619-4}}
* {{cite book |last=Macdonell |first=Arthur Anthony |author-link=Arthur Anthony Macdonell |year=1995 |title=Vedic Mythology |publisher=Motilal Banarsidass |location=Delhi |isbn=81-208-1113-5 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=b7Meabtj8mcC}}
* {{cite book |last=Pattanaik |first=Devdutt |author-link=Devdutt Pattanaik |year=2003 |title=Indian Mythology: Tales, Symbols, and Rituals from the Heart of the Subcontinent |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=zdkswFlJtjQC |publisher=Inner Traditions/Bear & Company |isbn=0-89281-870-0}}
* {{cite book |last=Rao |first=T. A. Gopinatha |year=1914 |title=Elements of Hindu Iconography |volume=1: Part I |location=Madras |publisher=Law Printing House}}
* {{cite book |last=Walker |first=Benjamin |author-link=Benjamin Walker (author) |year=1968 |title=Hindu World: An Encyclopedic Survey of Hinduism |location=London |publisher=Allen & Unwin}}
* {{cite book |last=Wilkins |first=W. J. |year=1882 |title=Hindu Mythology, Vedic and Purānic |url=https://archive.org/details/hindumythologyv00wilkgoog |publisher=Thacker, Spink & Co.}}
* Goldberg, Philip. ''American Veda''. Harmony Books, 2010


== External links == == External links ==
{{Wikiquote}}
* publishes classical Indian literature, including the Mahabharata and Ramayana, with facing-page text and translation. Also offers searchable corpus and downloadable materials.
* : Documents in ITX format of Upanishads, Stotras etc.
*


* publishes classical Indian literature, including the Mahabharata and Ramayana, with facing-page text and translation. Also offers searchable corpus and downloadable materials.
{{Hindu Culture and Epics}} {{Hindu Culture and Epics}}
{{Hindudharma}}
{{Authority control}}


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Latest revision as of 11:07, 30 December 2024

The Trimurti (Brahma, Vishnu, and Shiva) seated on lotuses with their consorts, the Tridevi (Saraswati, Lakshmi, and Parvati).

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Hindu mythology is the body of myths attributed to, and espoused by, the adherents of the Hindu religion, found in Hindu texts such as the Vedas, the itihasa (the epics of the Mahabharata and Ramayana,) the Puranas, and mythological stories specific to a particular ethnolinguistic group like the Tamil Periya Puranam and Divya Prabandham, and the Mangal Kavya of Bengal. Hindu myths are also found in widely translated popular texts such as the fables of the Panchatantra and the Hitopadesha, as well as in Southeast Asian texts.

Meaning of "myth"

Myth is a genre of folklore or theology consisting primarily of narratives that play a fundamental role in a society, such as foundational tales or origin myths. For folklorists, historians, philosophers or theologians this is very different from the use of "myth" simply indicating that something is not true. Instead, the truth value of a myth is not a defining criterion.

Hindu myths can be found in the Vedas, the itihasa (Ramayana and Mahabharata), and the major Puranas. Other sources include the Bengali literature, such as Mangal-Kāvya, and the Tamil literature, such as Divya Prabandham, Tirumurai and the Five Great Epics. These narratives play a crucial role in the Hindu tradition and are considered real and significant within their cultural and spiritual context, offering profound insights into the beliefs and values of Hinduism.

Origins and development

Indus Valley Civilisation

See also: Religion of the Indus Valley civilization

According to Joseph Campbell, the Indus Valley (2600–1900 BCE) may have left traces in the beliefs and traditions of Hinduism. Artefacts have revealed motifs that are also employed and revered by Hindus today, such as primary male deities worshipped by a ruling elite, mother goddesses, nature spirits, snake worship, as well as the reverence of other theriomorphic (animal-shaped) beings. These themes would be maintained by the Dravidian folk religion even after the decline of its parent civilisation around 1800 BCE.

Vedic Period

Main article: Historical Vedic religion

A major factor in the development of Hinduism was the Vedic religion. The Indo-Aryan migration brought their distinct beliefs to the Indian subcontinent, where the Vedas were composed around 1500 BCE. The Indo-Aryans Vedic pantheon of deities included the chief god Indra, the sun deity Surya, Ushas, as well as Agni.

Brahmanical Period

Main article: Brahminism

This period saw the composition of commentaries referred to as the Brahmanas.

Upanishad Period

See also: Upanishads

According to Williams, from 900 to 600 BCE, the protests of the populace against sacrifices made towards the Vedic gods and rebellions against the Brahmin class led to the embrace of reform by the latter and the composition of the fourth Veda and the Vedanta texts. About half of the Upanishads were mystical and unitive, speaking of experiencing the divine as the one (ekam), while the other half promoted devotion to one or more deities. New gods and goddesses were celebrated, and devotional practices began to be introduced.

Sramanic movements

Elements such as those emerging from Buddhism and Jainism made their "heteroprax" contributions to later Hindu mythology, such as temples, indoor shrines, and rituals modeled after service to a divine king. Renunciate traditions contributed elements that questioned sacrifices and the killing of animals, and promoted asceticism and vegetarianism. All of these themes would be incorporated by the Brahmin classes into the later Hindu synthesis, which developed in response to the sramanic movements between ca. 500–300 BCE and 500 CE, and also found their way into Hindu mythology.

Epic Period

Main articles: Ramayana and Mahabharata

The era from 400 BCE to 400 CE was the period of the compilation of India’s great epics, the Mahabharata and Ramayana. These were central manifestations of the newly developing Hindu synthesis, contributing to a specific Hindu mythology, emphasising divine action on earth in Vishnu's incarnations and other divine manifestations. The lore of the devas and the asuras expanded. Epic mythology foreshadowed the rich polytheism of the next two periods. The Mahabharata contained two appendices that were extremely important sources for later mythological development, the Bhagavad Gîta and the Harivamsa.

Puranic Period

Main article: Puranas

According to Williams, the mythology of the Puranas can be broken into three periods (300–500; 500–1000; 1000–1800), or the whole period may simply be referred to as the Hindu Middle Ages. This age saw the composition of the major Puranic texts of the faith, along with the rise of sectarianism, with followers amassing around the cults of Vishnu, Shiva, or Devi. The three denominations within this period help locate in time historical developments within the sectarian communities, the rise and decline of Tantrism and its influence on mainstream mythology, the tendencies in Puranic mythologising of subordinating Vedic gods and past heroes to ever-increasing moral weaknesses, going on to be identified as a period of exuberant polytheism. However, this was also accompanied with the belief in monotheism, the idea that all paths lead to the Ultimate Reality, Brahman.

Tantric Period

See also: Tantras (Hinduism)

According to Williams, during the Tantric period from 900 to 1600 CE, the mythology of Tantra and Shaktism revived and enriched blood sacrifice and the pursuit of pleasure as central themes. Tantra’s stories differed radically in meaning from those of epic mythology, which favored devotion, asceticism, and duty. There was either a revival or emphasis that was placed on the shakti or the cosmic energy of goddesses, a concept that had emerged during the Indus Valley Civilisation.

Modern Period

In the contemporary era, the mythologies of the dominant traditions of Vaishnavism, Shaivism, and Shaktism prevail. Several myths were found or invented to make tribals or former "outcastes" Hindus and bring them within the cultural whole of a reconstructed Hindu mythological community.

Mythical themes and types

Depictions of episodes from Hindu mythology

Academic studies of mythology often define mythology as deeply valued stories that explain a society's existence and world order: those narratives of a society's creation, the society's origins and foundations, their god(s), their original heroes, mankind's connection to the "divine", and their narratives of eschatology (what happens in the "after-life"). This is a very general outline of some of the basic sacred stories with those themes. In its broadest academic sense, the word myth simply means a traditional story. However, many scholars restrict the term "myth" to sacred stories. Folklorists often go further, defining myths as "tales believed as true, usually sacred, set in the distant past or other worlds or parts of the world, and with extra-human, inhuman, or heroic characters".

In classical Greek, muthos, from which the English word myth derives, meant "story, narrative." Hindu mythology does not often have a consistent, monolithic structure. The same myth typically appears in various versions, and can be represented differently across different regional and socio-religious traditions. Many of these legends evolve across these texts, where the character names change or the story is embellished with greater details. According to Suthren Hirst, these myths have been given a complex range of interpretations. While according to Doniger O'Flaherty, the central message and moral values remain the same. They have been modified by various philosophical schools over time, and are taken to have deeper, often symbolic, meaning.

Cosmology

Main article: Hindu cosmology
This section needs expansion. You can help by adding to it. (May 2021)
  • Brahman The Ultimate Reality in Hinduism
  • Satyaloka The abode of Brahma
  • Hiranyagarbha The golden egg from which creation emerges
  • Vaikuntha The abode of Vishnu
  • Goloka The abode of Radha Krishna
  • Kailasa The abode of Shiva
  • Bhumi The Hindu name for Earth.
  • Patala The netherworld
  • Svarga The Hindu concept of "heaven", but not strictly related to afterlife, but more like "utopia" in real world.
  • Naraka The Hindu concept of "hell", but not a site of permanent damnation

Deities

This section needs expansion. You can help by adding to it. (July 2021)

Pantheism

Vaishnavism (Vishnu-centric)

Shaivism (Shiva-centric)

Shaktism (Goddess-centric)


Henotheism and Polytheism

  • Brahma The God of Creation
  • Vishnu The God of Preservation
  • Shiva The God of Destruction
  • Indra The King of the Devas and Svarga
  • Saraswati The Goddess of Wisdom
  • Lakshmi The Goddess of Prosperity
  • Parvati The Goddess of Power
  • Ganesha The God of Auspiciousness
  • Krishna The God of love and protection
  • Radha The goddess of love, chief consort of Krishna
  • Rukmini The first queen consort and principal wife of Krishna
  • Satyabhama The third queen consort of Krishna
  • Yamuna one of the main sacred river goddesses in Hinduism and the fourth queen consort of Krishna
  • Bhudevi Goddess of the Earth
  • Kartikeya (Murugan) God of Victory and War
  • Rama The seventh incarnation of Vishnu
  • Kali A terrible aspect of Parvati
  • Durga A principal aspect of Mahadevi
  • Ashvins Twin gods of medicine
  • Agni God of Fire
  • Rudra God of the storm
  • Shakti Personification of power
  • Vayu God of the wind
  • Surya God of the Sun
  • Varuna God of the oceans
  • Lakshmana Younger Brother of Rama
  • Hanuman Highest devotee of Rama
  • Sita Consort of Rama and incarnation of Lakshmi
  • Sati An incarnation of the goddess Shakti
  • Kubera God of Wealth
  • Parshurama The sixth incarnation of Vishnu
  • Yama God of Death and the Underworld
  • Chandra God of the Moon
  • Balarama incarnation of Shesha and in some traditions an avatar of Vishnu
  • Prajapati Creator deity
  • Kalki Prophesied final incarnation of Vishnu
  • Dashavatara (Ten Incarnations of Vishnu)
  • Narada Divine sage, messenger of gods
  • Sundaravalli Daughter of Vishnu, consort of Murugan
  • Devasena Daughter of Vishnu, consort of Murugan
  • Kamadeva The God of love and desire
  • Rati The Goddess of love and desire
  • Shani Divine Personification of the planet saturn

Dravidian folk religion' (Indigenous Dravidian faith)

Connections to other belief systems

This section needs expansion. You can help by adding to it. (July 2021)

Hinduism shares mythemes with Buddhism, Jainism, and Sikhism.

See also

Notes

  1. The term myth is used here in its academic sense, meaning "a traditional story consisting of events that are ostensibly historical, though often supernatural, explaining the origins of a cultural practice or natural phenomenon." It is not being used to mean "something that is false".

Citations

  1. Macdonell 1978, p. 1–9.
  2. Washburn Hopkins 1986, pp. 1–3.
  3. Bonnefoy 1993, p. 90–101.
  4. Olivelle 1999, p. xii–xiii.
  5. Waldau & Patton 2009, p. 186, 680.
  6. Deretic, Irina. “Why are myths true: Plato on the veracity of myths.” Vestnik of Saint Petersburg University. Philosophy and Conflict Studies (2020): vol. 36, issue 3, pp. 441–451.
  7. Opler, Morris E.; Campbell, Joseph (January 1962). "The Masks of God: Primitive Mythology". The Journal of American Folklore. 75 (295): 82. doi:10.2307/537862. ISSN 0021-8715. JSTOR 537862.
  8. "Decline of the Indus River Valley Civilization (c. 3300–1300 BCE)". Climate in Arts and History. Archived from the original on 31 July 2022. Retrieved 31 July 2022.
  9. Williams 2003, pp. 6–7.
  10. Macdonell, Arthur Anthony (1974). Vedic mythology (Reprint, 1995 ed.). Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass. ISBN 0-8426-0674-2. OCLC 1951729.
  11. Williams 2003, p. 7.
  12. ^ Handbook of Hindu mythology. 1 May 2004. p. 10.
  13. Bishara, Azmi (1 August 2021), "Ibn Khaldun's 'Asabiyya and Sects", Sectarianism without Sects, Oxford University Press, pp. 199–220, doi:10.1093/oso/9780197602744.003.0007, ISBN 978-0-19-760274-4
  14. "What is a Myth?". Archived from the original on 7 August 2007. Retrieved 17 June 2007.
  15. "Defining myth". Archived from the original on 7 August 2007. Retrieved 17 June 2007.
  16. ^ Suthren Hirst 1998.
  17. ^ Doniger O'Flaherty 1975, p. 11, 21–22.
  18. Vemsani, Lavanya (13 June 2016). Krishna in History, Thought, and Culture: An Encyclopedia of the Hindu Lord of Many Names: An Encyclopedia of the Hindu Lord of Many Names. ABC-CLIO. p. 91. ISBN 978-1-61069-211-3. Archived from the original on 26 March 2023. Retrieved 2 March 2023.

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