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{{Short description|Empire in China from 221 to 263; one of the Three Kingdoms}}
The '''Kingdom of Shu''' (蜀 shǔ) (221 – 263) was one of the ] competing for control of ] after the fall of the ]. The other two kingdoms were the ] in Northern China and the ] in South and Southeast China. ]
{{distinguish|Shuhan (disambiguation){{!}}Shuhan|Book of Han{{!}}han shu}}
{{more footnotes needed|date=January 2013}}
{{Infobox country
| native_name = {{nobold|{{lang|zh-Hant|漢|nocat=true}}}}
| conventional_long_name = Han
| common_name = Shu Han <br> {{lang|zh-Hant|蜀漢|nocat=true}}
| era = Three Kingdoms
| status = Empire
| government_type = ]
| event_start =
| date_start =
| year_start = May 221
| event_end = ]
| date_end =
| year_end = {{circa}}Dec 263
| p1 = Han dynasty#Eastern Han{{!}}Eastern Han
| s1 = Cao Wei
| image_map = Three Kingdoms.png
| image_map_alt =
| image_map_caption = The territories of Shu Han (in light pink), as of 262 A.D.
| capital = ]
| latd =
| latm =
| latNS =
| longd =
| longm =
| longEW =
| common_languages = ]<br>]
| religion = ], ], ]
| currency = ], ]
| leader1 = ]
| leader2 = ]
| year_leader1 = 221 – 223
| year_leader2 = 223 – 263
| title_leader = ]
<!-- Area and population of a given year -->| stat_year1 = 221<ref name=zou>Zou Jiwan ({{zh|t=鄒紀萬|links=no}}), ''Zhongguo Tongshi – Weijin Nanbeichao Shi'' {{lang|zh-hant|中國通史·魏晉南北朝史}}, (1992).</ref>
| stat_area1 = <!-- area in square kilometres (w/o commas or spaces), area in square miles is calculated -->
| stat_pop1 = 900,000
| stat_year2 = 263<ref name=zou />
| stat_area2 = <!-- area in square kilometres (w/o commas or spaces), area in square miles is calculated -->
| stat_pop2 = 1,082,000
| footnotes = <!-- Accepts wikilinks -->
| today = ]<br>]
}}
{{Chinese
| t = {{linktext|蜀漢}}
| s = {{linktext|蜀汉}}
| p = Shǔ Hàn
| mi = {{IPAc-cmn|sh|u|3|-|h|an|4}}
| w = Shu<sup>3</sup> Han<sup>4</sup>
| tp = Shǔ Hàn
| gr = Shuu Hann
| bpmf = ㄕㄨˇ&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;ㄏㄢˋ
| showflag = p
| y = Suhk Hon
| ci = {{IPAc-yue|s|uk|6|-|h|on|3}}
| j = Suk6 Hon3
}}
{{History of China}}
'''Han''' ({{lang|zh-Hant|漢}}; 221–263), known in historiography as '''Shu Han''' ({{Lang|zh-Hant|蜀漢}} {{IPAc-cmn|AUD|Shu Han.ogg|sh|u|3|-|h|an|4}}) or '''Ji Han''' ({{lang|zh-Hant|季漢}} "Junior Han"),<ref>], '']'', "Book of Shu: Accounts of ], ], ], & ]", : quote: "戲以延熙四年著《'''季漢'''輔臣贊》"; translation: " Xi, in the fourth year of ] , composed 'Praises for the Supportive Ministers of '''Ji Han'''.'"</ref> or often shortened to '''Shu''' ({{lang-zh|t=蜀|p=Shǔ}}; ]: ''Su{{sup|2}}'' < ]: *''źjowk'' < ]: *''dźok''<ref>Schuessler, Axel. (2009) Minimal Old Chinese and Later Han Chinese. Honolulu: University of Hawai'i. 157</ref>), was a ] and one of the three major states that competed for supremacy over China in the ] period. The state was based in the area around present-day ], ], ], ], ], and north ], an area historically referred to as "Shu" based on the name of the past ], which also occupied this approximate geographical area. Its core territory also coincided with ] ], the precursor of the ].


Shu Han's founder, ] (Emperor Zhaolie), had named his dynasty "Han", as he considered it a ] of the Han dynasty and thus the legitimate successor to the Han throne, while the prefix "Shu" was first used by the rival state of ] to delegitimize the orthodoxy claims of the Shu Han state.<ref>An example is a quote by Wei general ]: "事成，可得天下；不成，退保'''蜀漢'''，不失作劉備也。" tr: "If we'd succeed, we'd have ]; if we'd not succeed, we'd retreat and defend '''Shu Han''' and not lose, just as Liu Bei did." in ''Sanguozhi'' vol. 28</ref> Later on when writing the ], the historian, ], also used the prefix "Shu" to describe Liu Bei's state of Han as a historiographical prefix to differentiate it from the many other states officially named "]" throughout Chinese history.<ref>{{cite journal |author=小平 |year=2012 |title=三国蜀汉政权国号 "汉" 考论 |journal=西华师范大学学报（哲学社会科学版） |issue=1 |pages=63–66 }}</ref>
During the decline of the Han Dynasty, ], a distant relative of the Emperor, gathered together many capable men and conquered ], ] and ] and from these territories, established his place in the China of the ] period. After ] of the ] seized the imperial throne in ] from ] and proclaimed the Wei Dynasty, ] proclaimed himself to be the next Han emperor and the real ruler of China. Therefore the Kingdom of Shu is also known as the '''Kingdom of Shu-Han'''. Although Liu Bei is said to be the founder of the ''Shu-Han dynasty'', he himself never claimed to be the founder of a new dynasty; rather, he claimed to continue the heritage of the earlier Han Emperors.


==History==
In ], the second largest conflict during the Three Kingdoms Period began. ] initiated an attack of 750,000 men upon the Kingdom of Wu in the ], in order to avenge his two brothers ] and ], who were killed by subordinates of Wu. However, because of a tactical mistake, his line of camps were burned to the ground and his numerically superior troops were decimated. He survived the attack and fled to ], but one year later he became ill and died there. He was succeeded by his incompetent son, ], who did not really care for government and left his kingdom in the hands of his government officials and eunuchs.
===Beginnings and founding===
{{further|End of the Han dynasty}}
{{Main|Liu Bei's takeover of Yi Province}}
Towards the end of the ], ], a warlord and distant relative of the Han imperial clan, rallied the support of many capable followers. Following the counsel of his advisor, ], and Zhuge's ], Liu Bei conquered parts of ] (covering present-day ] and ]) in 208 and 209, ] ] (covering present-day ] and ]) from the warlord ] between 212 and 214, and wrestled control of ] from his rival, ], in 219. Afterwards, Liu Bei proclaimed himself ].


From the territories he gained, Liu Bei established a position for himself in China during the final years of the Han dynasty. However, in 219, the alliance between Liu Bei and his ally, ], was broken when Sun sent his general, ], to ]. Liu Bei lost his territories in Jing Province to Sun Quan. ], the general guarding Liu Bei's assets in Jing Province, was captured and subsequently executed by Sun Quan's forces.
The prime minister of Shu, ] or ], whose name is synonymous with wisdom in China, made peace with Wu instead of taking revenge. He decided that it was more important to conquer the Kingdom of Wei and not only gain the fertile lands of the North but also to topple the Wei pretenders to the throne and restore legitimacy to the Shu-Han Dynasty. He invaded many times but failed each time in spite of his incredible strategic genius. He died of disease during his seventh attempt to conquer Wei. ], his successor, also tried many times but was pushed back each time. These efforts to conquer Wei exhausted the resources and military talents of the Kingdom of Shu.


Cao Cao died in 220, and was succeeded by his son, ], who forced the last Han ruler, ], to abdicate the throne in his favour. Cao Pi then established the state of ], and declared himself emperor. Liu Bei contested Cao Pi's claim to the throne, and proclaimed himself "Emperor of Han" in 221. Although Liu Bei is widely seen as the founder of Shu Han, he never claimed to be the founder of a new dynasty; rather, he viewed Shu Han as a continuation of the Han dynasty.
In ], Wei took advantage of Shu weakness and attacked. The brilliant strategies of the Wei generals, ] and ] led to the quick conquest of ] and the subsequent conquest of ]. The Shu general, ], surrendered to Wei and tried to incite ] to rebel, then revive the Shu-Han by killing him and bringing back the Emperor ], but his plan failed and he was killed along with ]. Afterwards, the Emperor Liu Shan was captured and taken to the capital of Wei, ]. The Wei emperor gave him the title ''Duke of Comfort'' and allowed him to retire in peace.


To distinguish the state from other historical Chinese states of the same name, historians have added a relevant character to the state's original name: the state that called itself "Han" (漢) is also known as "Shu Han" (蜀漢) or just "Shu" (蜀).
However, the Kingdom of Shu was not just a nation of war. During the rare times of peace, the Kingdom began many irrigation and road-building projects designed to improve the economy of Shu. Many of these public works still exist and are widely used. For example, the ] is still present near ] in ] province. These works helped improve the economy of Southwest China and can be credited with beginning the history of economic activity in the ] area.


===Liu Bei's reign===
==Important figures==
{{see also|Battle of Xiaoting}}


Liu Bei ruled as emperor for less than three years. In 222, he launched a campaign against ] to retake ] and avenge ], culminating in the ]. However, due to grave tactical mistakes, Liu Bei suffered a crushing defeat at the hands of Sun Quan's general, ], and lost the bulk of his army. He survived the battle and retreated to ], where he died from illness a year later.
*] (&#23004;&#32173;, &#23004;&#32500;)
*] (&#24278;&#21270;, &#24278;&#21270;)
*] (&#21129;&#20633;, &#21016;&#22791;)
*] (&#21129;&#31146;, &#21016;&#31109;)
*] (&#39340;&#35606;, &#39532;&#35873;)
*] (&#40848;&#32113;, &#24222;&#32479;)
*] (&#39759;&#24310;, &#39759;&#24310;)
*] (&#24464;&#24246;, &#24464;&#24246;)
*] (&#24373;&#23991;, &#24352;&#23991;)
*]
*] (&#35576;&#33883;&#20142;, &#35832;&#33883;&#20142;)
*]:
**] (&#38364;&#32701;, &#20851;&#32701;)
**] (&#40643;&#24544;, &#40644;&#24544;)
**] (&#39340;&#36229;, &#39532;&#36229;)
**] (&#24373;&#39131;, &#24352;&#39134;)
**] (&#36249;&#38642;, &#36213;&#20113;)


===Liu Shan's reign===
==Rulers of the Kingdom of Shu or the Shu-Han Dynasty ] &ndash; ]==
{{see also|Zhuge Liang's Northern Expeditions|Jiang Wei's Northern Expeditions}}


] illustration of a battle between Wei and Shu at the banks of the ]. Many battles were fought between Shu and Wei in the Three Kingdoms period.]]
<table border="1" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="0">
]
Before Liu Bei's death, he appointed the ] and the general ] as regents to his son, ]. The young Liu Shan was only 16 years old, making him the youngest of the rulers of the Three Kingdom states, and Liu Bei expected the two regents to assist Liu Shan in managing state affairs. Zhuge Liang was the ''de facto'' head of the Shu government throughout Liu Shan's reign, and was responsible for most of Shu's policies during his regency.


When Liu Shan succeeded his father, Shu was the weakest of the three major powers. Following his father's defeat in 221, the portion of Jing Province previously held by Shu was now firmly under the control of Wu. Shu only included the western lands of ], while Wei controlled all of the northern lands, and Wu controlled all the lands from the east of Yi Province to the southern and eastern coastlines. Meanwhile, Shu's population was not large enough to stand against the rival state of Wei.<ref name="Wolfram">{{cite book|last1=Eberhard|first1=Wolfram|title=A History of China|date=1977|publisher=University of California Press|isbn=0520032683|page=112}}</ref> This greatly limited Shu in terms of resources and manpower; although the country could efficiently defend itself, Shu could not easily launch successful campaigns. As such, Zhuge Liang parleyed for peace with Wu, and reaffirmed the alliance between Sun Quan and Shu — with the former even recognising Sun Quan's legitimacy when the latter broke with Wei, and declared himself "Emperor of Wu" in 229. In order to strengthen the Shu Han state's authority in the remote southern region of ], Zhuge Liang also ] there in 225 to quell local rebellions, and the growing influence of the ] (literal: southern barbarians) in the region.
<tr>
<th style="background:#efefef;">]s</th>
<th style="background:#efefef;">] and ]</th>
<th style="background:#efefef;">Durations of reigns</th>
<th style="background:#efefef;">]s and their ranges of years</th>
</tr>


Zhuge Liang advocated an aggressive foreign policy towards Wei, because he strongly believed it was critical to the survival of Shu and its sovereignty. Between the years of 228 and 234, he launched a series of ] against Wei, with the aim of conquering ], a strategic city located on the road to the Wei capital, ]. Most of the battles were fought around present-day ] and ] provinces. However, aside from gaining ] as an officer in 228, Shu failed to achieve any significant victories or lasting gains in the five expeditions. During his final campaign where he fought against the Wei general, ], an already taxed and ill Zhuge Liang died under the strain of the long stalemate with the Wei forces at the ].
<tr>
<td colspan="4" align="center">''Convention: use family and first names''</td>
</tr>


After Zhuge Liang's death, the Shu government was then headed by ], ], and others, and Shu temporarily ceased its aggression towards Wei. In 244, the Wei regent, ], launched an invasion of Hanzhong. Despite being outnumbered 2-to-1, the Shu forces defeated the invading combatants at the ], with the humiliated Wei forces fleeing. Between 247 and 262, the Shu general, ], resumed Zhuge Liang's legacy by leading ] against Wei, but also failed to make any significant territorial gains.
<tr>
<td>Zhaolie (&#26157;&#28872; Zh&#257;oliè)</td>
<td>]</td>
<td>]-]</td>
<td>Zh&#257;ngw&#468; (&#31456;&#27494;) ]-]<br>
</td>
</tr>


===Fall of Shu===
<tr>
{{main|Conquest of Shu by Wei|Zhong Hui's Rebellion}}
<td>Houzhu (&#24460;&#20027; Hòuzh&#468;)</td>
<td>]</td>
<td>]-]</td>
<td>Jiànx&#299;ng (&#24314;&#33288;) ]-]<br>
Yánx&#299; (&#24310;&#29081;) ]-]<br>
J&#464;ngyào (&#26223;&#32768;) ]-]<br>
Yánx&#299;ng (&#28814;&#33288;) ]<br>
</td>
</tr>
</table>


In 263, armies led by the Wei generals ] and ] attacked Shu, and conquered its capital, ], without much struggle — the state having been exhausted by Jiang Wei's ill-fated campaigns. In the same year, Liu Shan surrendered to Deng Ai outside Chengdu, marking the end of Shu. In spite of this, Jiang Wei attempted to incite conflict between Deng Ai and Zhong Hui, in the hope of taking advantage of the situation to revive Shu. Zhong Hui captured Deng Ai, and openly rebelled against the Wei regent, ], but the revolt was suppressed by Wei forces. Jiang Wei, Zhong Hui, and Deng Ai were killed in the struggle.
]

]
Liu Shan was brought to ], where he met with Sima Zhao, and was awarded the title of "Duke of Anle." He lived a comfortable and peaceful life in Luoyang until the end of his days.
]

]
==Economy==
Shu was not merely a nation at war. During peacetime, the Shu state began many irrigation and road-building projects designed to improve the economy. Many of these public works still exist and are widely used. For example, the ] is still present near ], ]. These works helped improve the economy of southwestern China, and can be seen as the beginning of economic activity in Sichuan. It also promoted trade with southern China, which was then ruled by Eastern Wu.{{citation needed|date=March 2015}}

==List of territories==
{{col-start}}
{{col-break}}

{| class="wikitable sortable"
|+ Yi ] ({{nobold|{{lang|zh|益州}}}})
|-
!] !! Counties
|-
|rowspan=5| Shu<br>蜀 || Chengdu<br>成都
|-
|Fan<br>繁
|-
|Jiangyuan<br>江原
|-
|Linqiong<br>臨邛
|-
|Pi<br>郫
|-
|rowspan=5| Zitong<br>梓潼 || Zitong<br>梓潼
|-
|Fu<br>涪
|-
|Hande<br>漢德
|-
|Hanshou<br>漢壽
|-
|Boshui<br>白水
|-
|rowspan=5| Guanghan<br>廣漢 || Luo<br>雒
|-
|Shifang<br>什邡
|-
|Mianzhu<br>綿竹
|-
|Xindu<br>新都
|-
|Yangquan<br>陽泉
|-
|rowspan=4| Han<br>漢 || Qi<br>郪
|-
|Deyang<br>德陽
|-
|Wucheng<br>五城
|-
|Guanghan<br>廣漢
|-
|rowspan=8| Wenshan<br>汶山 || Wenshan<br>汶山
|-
|Jiandi<br>湔氐
|-
|Du'an<br>都安
|-
|Miansi<br>綿虒
|-
|Pingkang<br>平康
|-
|Canling<br>蠶陵
|-
|Guangrou<br>廣柔
|-
|Boma<br>白馬
|-
|rowspan=4| Ba<br>巴 || Jiangzhou<br>江州
|-
|Dianjiang<br>墊江
|-
|Linjiang<br>臨江
|-
|Zhi<br>枳
|-
|rowspan=7| Baxi<br>巴西 || Langzhong<br>閬中
|-
|Xichong (state)<br>西充國
|-
|Nanchong (state)<br>南充國
|-
|Hanchang<br>漢昌
|-
|Xuanhan<br>宣漢
|-
|Anhan<br>安漢
|-
|Dangqu<br>宕渠
|-
|rowspan=6| Badong<br>巴東 || Yong'an (Yufu)<br>永安 (魚復)
|-
|Quren<br>朐忍
|-
|Yangqu<br>羊渠
|-
|Beijing<br>北井
|-
|Handan<br>漢單
|-
|Wu<br>巫
|-
|rowspan=5| Fuling<br>涪陵 || Hanfu<br>漢復
|-
|Fuling<br>涪陵
|-
|Hanping<br>漢平
|-
|Hanjia<br>漢葭
|-
|Wanning<br>萬寧
|-
|rowspan=5| Jianwei<br>犍為 || Wuyang<br>武陽
|-
|Nan'an<br>南安
|-
|Bodao<br>僰道
|-
|Zizhong<br>資中
|-
|Niubing<br>牛鞞
|-
|rowspan=3| Jiangyang<br>江陽 || Jiangyang<br>江陽
|-
|Fu<br>符
|-
|Han'an<br>漢安
|-
|rowspan=4| Hanjia<br>漢嘉 || Hanjia<br>漢嘉
|-
|Xi<br>徙
|-
|Yandao<br>嚴道
|-
|Maoniu<br>旄牛
|}

{{col-break}}

{| class="wikitable sortable"
|+ Territories conquered by Shu from Wei
|-
!] !! Counties
|-
|rowspan=5| Hanzhong<br>漢中 || Nanzheng<br>南鄭
|-
|Baozhong<br>褒中
|-
|Mianyang<br>沔陽
|-
|Chenggu<br>成固
|-
|Nanxiang<br>南鄉
|-
|rowspan=6| Wudu<br>武都 || Xiabian<br>下辯
|-
|Hechi<br>河池
|-
|Ju<br>沮
|-
|Wudu<br>武都
|-
|Gudao<br>故道
|-
|Qiangdao<br>羌道
|-
|rowspan=2| Yinping<br>陰平 || Yinping<br>陰平
|-
|Pingguang<br>平廣
|}

{{col-break}}

{| class="wikitable sortable"
|+ ] ({{nobold|{{lang|zh|南中}}}})
|-
!] !! Counties
|-
|rowspan=5| Shushi<br>朱提 || Shushi<br>朱提
|-
|Nanguang<br>南廣
|-
|Hanyang<br>漢陽
|-
|Nanchang<br>南昌
|-
|Tanglang<br>堂狼
|-
|rowspan=11| Yuexi<br>越巂 || Huiwu<br>會無
|-
|Qiongdu<br>邛都
|-
|Beishui<br>卑水
|-
|Dingzha<br>定苲
|-
|Taideng<br>臺登
|-
|Anshang<br>安上
|-
|Xindao<br>新道
|-
|Qianjie<br>潛街
|-
|Sanfeng<br>三縫
|-
|Suqi<br>蘇祁
|-
|Chan<br>闡
|-
|rowspan=7| Zangke<br>牂柯 || Qielan<br>且蘭
|-
|Tanzhi<br>談指
|-
|Yelang<br>夜郎
|-
|Wulian<br>毋斂
|-
|Bi<br>鄨
|-
|Pingyi<br>平夷
|-
|Guangtan<br>廣談
|-
|rowspan=7| Yunnan<br>雲南 || Yunnan<br>雲南
|-
|Longdong<br>梇棟
|-
|Qingling<br>青蛉
|-
|Gufu<br>姑復
|-
|Xielong<br>邪龍
|-
|Yeyu<br>楪榆
|-
|Suijiu<br>遂久
|-
|rowspan=9| Xinggu<br>興古 || Juting<br>句町
|-
|Wanwen<br>宛溫
|-
|Louwo<br>漏臥
|-
|Bengu<br>賁古
|-
|Hanxing<br>漢興
|-
|Jincheng<br>進乘
|-
|Xifeng<br>西豐
|-
|Xisui<br>西隨
|-
|Duofeng<br>鐸封
|-
|rowspan=16| Jianning<br>建寧 || Wei<br>味
|-
|Cun (Mayi)<br>存 (馬邑)
|-
|Mudan<br>母單
|-
|Tonglai<br>同瀨
|-
|Muma<br>牧麻
|-
|Guchang<br>穀昌
|-
|Lianran<br>連然
|-
|Qinzang<br>秦臧
|-
|Shuangbai<br>雙柏
|-
|Yuyuan<br>俞元
|-
|Xiuyun<br>修雲
|-
|Dianchi<br>滇池
|-
|Tonglao<br>同勞
|-
|Tongjing<br>同井
|-
|Shengxiu<br>勝休
|-
|Jianling<br>建伶
|-
|rowspan=7| Yongchang<br>永昌 || Buwei<br>不韋
|-
|Yongshou<br>永壽
|-
|Bisu<br>比蘇
|-
|Nanfu<br>南涪
|-
|Suitang<br>巂唐
|-
|Ailao<br>哀牢
|-
|Bonan<br>博南
|}

{{col-end}}

==List of emperors==
{{see also|Shu Han family trees}}
{|class="wikitable"
|+ '''Shu Han rulers'''
|-
! ] !! ] !! ] (in bold) and ] !! Reign !! ]s and their year ranges !! Notes
|-
| Liezu<br>烈祖 || Emperor Zhaolie<br>昭烈皇帝 || ]<br>劉備 || 221–223 ||
* Zhangwu<br>章武 {{small|(221–223)}}
| Liu Bei is also referred to as the "Late Emperor" (先帝) in some historical texts.
|-
| (N/A) || Emperor Xiaohuai<br>孝懷皇帝 ||]<br>劉禪 || 223–263 ||
* Jianxing<br>建興 {{small|(223–237)}}
* Yanxi<br>延熙 {{small|(238–257)}}
* Jingyao<br>景耀 {{small|(258–263)}}
* Yanxing<br>炎興 {{small|(263)}}
| Liu Shan was posthumously granted the title of "Duke Si of Anle" (安樂思公) by the ]. He was later posthumously honoured as "Emperor Xiaohuai" (孝懷皇帝) by ], the founder of the ] state of the ]. He is also referred to as the "Later Lord" (後主) in some historical texts.
|-
|}

== See also ==
* ]
* ]
* ]

== References ==
{{Reflist}}

{{-}}
{{Three Kingdoms}}
{{People of Shu}}
{{Sichuan topics}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Han}}
]
]
]
]
]
]
]

Latest revision as of 10:43, 28 June 2024

Empire in China from 221 to 263; one of the Three Kingdoms Not to be confused with Shuhan or han shu.
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Han漢
May 221–c.Dec 263
The territories of Shu Han (in light pink), as of 262 A.D.The territories of Shu Han (in light pink), as of 262 A.D.
CapitalChengdu
Common languagesBa–Shu Chinese
Eastern Han Chinese
Religion Taoism, Confucianism, Chinese folk religion
GovernmentMonarchy
Emperor 
• 221 – 223 Liu Bei
• 223 – 263 Liu Shan
Historical eraThree Kingdoms
• Established May 221
• Conquest of Shu by Wei c.Dec 263
Population
• 221 900,000
• 263 1,082,000
CurrencyAncient Chinese coinage, Chinese cash
Preceded by Succeeded by
Eastern Han
Cao Wei
Today part ofChina
Myanmar
Shu Han
Traditional Chinese蜀漢
Simplified Chinese蜀汉
Hanyu PinyinShǔ Hàn
Transcriptions
Standard Mandarin
Hanyu PinyinShǔ Hàn
Bopomofoㄕㄨˇ   ㄏㄢˋ
Gwoyeu RomatzyhShuu Hann
Wade–GilesShu Han
Tongyong PinyinShǔ Hàn
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Yue: Cantonese
Yale RomanizationSuhk Hon
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Han (漢; 221–263), known in historiography as Shu Han (蜀漢 ) or Ji Han (季漢 "Junior Han"), or often shortened to Shu (Chinese: 蜀; pinyin: Shǔ; Sichuanese Pinyin: Su < Middle Chinese: *źjowk < Eastern Han Chinese: *dźok), was a dynastic state of China and one of the three major states that competed for supremacy over China in the Three Kingdoms period. The state was based in the area around present-day Hanzhong, Sichuan, Chongqing, Yunnan, Guizhou, and north Guangxi, an area historically referred to as "Shu" based on the name of the past ancient kingdom of Shu, which also occupied this approximate geographical area. Its core territory also coincided with Liu Bang's Kingdom of Han, the precursor of the Han dynasty.

Shu Han's founder, Liu Bei (Emperor Zhaolie), had named his dynasty "Han", as he considered it a rump state of the Han dynasty and thus the legitimate successor to the Han throne, while the prefix "Shu" was first used by the rival state of Cao Wei to delegitimize the orthodoxy claims of the Shu Han state. Later on when writing the Records of the Three Kingdoms, the historian, Chen Shou, also used the prefix "Shu" to describe Liu Bei's state of Han as a historiographical prefix to differentiate it from the many other states officially named "Han" throughout Chinese history.

History

Beginnings and founding

Further information: End of the Han dynasty Main article: Liu Bei's takeover of Yi Province

Towards the end of the Eastern Han dynasty, Liu Bei, a warlord and distant relative of the Han imperial clan, rallied the support of many capable followers. Following the counsel of his advisor, Zhuge Liang, and Zhuge's Longzhong Plan, Liu Bei conquered parts of Jing Province (covering present-day Hubei and Hunan) in 208 and 209, took over Yi Province (covering present-day Sichuan and Chongqing) from the warlord Liu Zhang between 212 and 214, and wrestled control of Hanzhong from his rival, Cao Cao, in 219. Afterwards, Liu Bei proclaimed himself King of Hanzhong.

From the territories he gained, Liu Bei established a position for himself in China during the final years of the Han dynasty. However, in 219, the alliance between Liu Bei and his ally, Sun Quan, was broken when Sun sent his general, Lü Meng, to invade Jing Province. Liu Bei lost his territories in Jing Province to Sun Quan. Guan Yu, the general guarding Liu Bei's assets in Jing Province, was captured and subsequently executed by Sun Quan's forces.

Cao Cao died in 220, and was succeeded by his son, Cao Pi, who forced the last Han ruler, Emperor Xian, to abdicate the throne in his favour. Cao Pi then established the state of Cao Wei, and declared himself emperor. Liu Bei contested Cao Pi's claim to the throne, and proclaimed himself "Emperor of Han" in 221. Although Liu Bei is widely seen as the founder of Shu Han, he never claimed to be the founder of a new dynasty; rather, he viewed Shu Han as a continuation of the Han dynasty.

To distinguish the state from other historical Chinese states of the same name, historians have added a relevant character to the state's original name: the state that called itself "Han" (漢) is also known as "Shu Han" (蜀漢) or just "Shu" (蜀).

Liu Bei's reign

See also: Battle of Xiaoting

Liu Bei ruled as emperor for less than three years. In 222, he launched a campaign against Sun Quan to retake Jing Province and avenge Guan Yu, culminating in the Battle of Xiaoting. However, due to grave tactical mistakes, Liu Bei suffered a crushing defeat at the hands of Sun Quan's general, Lu Xun, and lost the bulk of his army. He survived the battle and retreated to Baidicheng, where he died from illness a year later.

Liu Shan's reign

See also: Zhuge Liang's Northern Expeditions and Jiang Wei's Northern Expeditions
A Qing dynasty illustration of a battle between Wei and Shu at the banks of the Wei River. Many battles were fought between Shu and Wei in the Three Kingdoms period.
Pottery musician, Shu, Three Kingdoms.

Before Liu Bei's death, he appointed the chancellor Zhuge Liang and the general Li Yan as regents to his son, Liu Shan. The young Liu Shan was only 16 years old, making him the youngest of the rulers of the Three Kingdom states, and Liu Bei expected the two regents to assist Liu Shan in managing state affairs. Zhuge Liang was the de facto head of the Shu government throughout Liu Shan's reign, and was responsible for most of Shu's policies during his regency.

When Liu Shan succeeded his father, Shu was the weakest of the three major powers. Following his father's defeat in 221, the portion of Jing Province previously held by Shu was now firmly under the control of Wu. Shu only included the western lands of Yi Province, while Wei controlled all of the northern lands, and Wu controlled all the lands from the east of Yi Province to the southern and eastern coastlines. Meanwhile, Shu's population was not large enough to stand against the rival state of Wei. This greatly limited Shu in terms of resources and manpower; although the country could efficiently defend itself, Shu could not easily launch successful campaigns. As such, Zhuge Liang parleyed for peace with Wu, and reaffirmed the alliance between Sun Quan and Shu — with the former even recognising Sun Quan's legitimacy when the latter broke with Wei, and declared himself "Emperor of Wu" in 229. In order to strengthen the Shu Han state's authority in the remote southern region of Nanzhong, Zhuge Liang also launched an expeditionary force there in 225 to quell local rebellions, and the growing influence of the Nanman (literal: southern barbarians) in the region.

Zhuge Liang advocated an aggressive foreign policy towards Wei, because he strongly believed it was critical to the survival of Shu and its sovereignty. Between the years of 228 and 234, he launched a series of five military campaigns against Wei, with the aim of conquering Chang'an, a strategic city located on the road to the Wei capital, Luoyang. Most of the battles were fought around present-day Gansu and Shaanxi provinces. However, aside from gaining Jiang Wei as an officer in 228, Shu failed to achieve any significant victories or lasting gains in the five expeditions. During his final campaign where he fought against the Wei general, Sima Yi, an already taxed and ill Zhuge Liang died under the strain of the long stalemate with the Wei forces at the Battle of Wuzhang Plains.

After Zhuge Liang's death, the Shu government was then headed by Jiang Wan, Fei Yi, and others, and Shu temporarily ceased its aggression towards Wei. In 244, the Wei regent, Cao Shuang, launched an invasion of Hanzhong. Despite being outnumbered 2-to-1, the Shu forces defeated the invading combatants at the Battle of Xingshi, with the humiliated Wei forces fleeing. Between 247 and 262, the Shu general, Jiang Wei, resumed Zhuge Liang's legacy by leading a series of military campaigns against Wei, but also failed to make any significant territorial gains.

Fall of Shu

Main articles: Conquest of Shu by Wei and Zhong Hui's Rebellion

In 263, armies led by the Wei generals Deng Ai and Zhong Hui attacked Shu, and conquered its capital, Chengdu, without much struggle — the state having been exhausted by Jiang Wei's ill-fated campaigns. In the same year, Liu Shan surrendered to Deng Ai outside Chengdu, marking the end of Shu. In spite of this, Jiang Wei attempted to incite conflict between Deng Ai and Zhong Hui, in the hope of taking advantage of the situation to revive Shu. Zhong Hui captured Deng Ai, and openly rebelled against the Wei regent, Sima Zhao, but the revolt was suppressed by Wei forces. Jiang Wei, Zhong Hui, and Deng Ai were killed in the struggle.

Liu Shan was brought to Luoyang, where he met with Sima Zhao, and was awarded the title of "Duke of Anle." He lived a comfortable and peaceful life in Luoyang until the end of his days.

Economy

Shu was not merely a nation at war. During peacetime, the Shu state began many irrigation and road-building projects designed to improve the economy. Many of these public works still exist and are widely used. For example, the Zipingpu Dam is still present near Chengdu, Sichuan. These works helped improve the economy of southwestern China, and can be seen as the beginning of economic activity in Sichuan. It also promoted trade with southern China, which was then ruled by Eastern Wu.

List of territories

Yi Province (益州)
Commandery Counties
Shu
蜀		 Chengdu
成都
Fan
繁
Jiangyuan
江原
Linqiong
臨邛
Pi
郫
Zitong
梓潼		 Zitong
梓潼
Fu
涪
Hande
漢德
Hanshou
漢壽
Boshui
白水
Guanghan
廣漢		 Luo
雒
Shifang
什邡
Mianzhu
綿竹
Xindu
新都
Yangquan
陽泉
Han
漢		 Qi
郪
Deyang
德陽
Wucheng
五城
Guanghan
廣漢
Wenshan
汶山		 Wenshan
汶山
Jiandi
湔氐
Du'an
都安
Miansi
綿虒
Pingkang
平康
Canling
蠶陵
Guangrou
廣柔
Boma
白馬
Ba
巴		 Jiangzhou
江州
Dianjiang
墊江
Linjiang
臨江
Zhi
枳
Baxi
巴西		 Langzhong
閬中
Xichong (state)
西充國
Nanchong (state)
南充國
Hanchang
漢昌
Xuanhan
宣漢
Anhan
安漢
Dangqu
宕渠
Badong
巴東		 Yong'an (Yufu)
永安 (魚復)
Quren
朐忍
Yangqu
羊渠
Beijing
北井
Handan
漢單
Wu
巫
Fuling
涪陵		 Hanfu
漢復
Fuling
涪陵
Hanping
漢平
Hanjia
漢葭
Wanning
萬寧
Jianwei
犍為		 Wuyang
武陽
Nan'an
南安
Bodao
僰道
Zizhong
資中
Niubing
牛鞞
Jiangyang
江陽		 Jiangyang
江陽
Fu
符
Han'an
漢安
Hanjia
漢嘉		 Hanjia
漢嘉
Xi
徙
Yandao
嚴道
Maoniu
旄牛


Territories conquered by Shu from Wei
Commandery Counties
Hanzhong
漢中		 Nanzheng
南鄭
Baozhong
褒中
Mianyang
沔陽
Chenggu
成固
Nanxiang
南鄉
Wudu
武都		 Xiabian
下辯
Hechi
河池
Ju
沮
Wudu
武都
Gudao
故道
Qiangdao
羌道
Yinping
陰平		 Yinping
陰平
Pingguang
平廣


Nanzhong (南中)
Commandery Counties
Shushi
朱提		 Shushi
朱提
Nanguang
南廣
Hanyang
漢陽
Nanchang
南昌
Tanglang
堂狼
Yuexi
越巂		 Huiwu
會無
Qiongdu
邛都
Beishui
卑水
Dingzha
定苲
Taideng
臺登
Anshang
安上
Xindao
新道
Qianjie
潛街
Sanfeng
三縫
Suqi
蘇祁
Chan
闡
Zangke
牂柯		 Qielan
且蘭
Tanzhi
談指
Yelang
夜郎
Wulian
毋斂
Bi
鄨
Pingyi
平夷
Guangtan
廣談
Yunnan
雲南		 Yunnan
雲南
Longdong
梇棟
Qingling
青蛉
Gufu
姑復
Xielong
邪龍
Yeyu
楪榆
Suijiu
遂久
Xinggu
興古		 Juting
句町
Wanwen
宛溫
Louwo
漏臥
Bengu
賁古
Hanxing
漢興
Jincheng
進乘
Xifeng
西豐
Xisui
西隨
Duofeng
鐸封
Jianning
建寧		 Wei
味
Cun (Mayi)
存 (馬邑)
Mudan
母單
Tonglai
同瀨
Muma
牧麻
Guchang
穀昌
Lianran
連然
Qinzang
秦臧
Shuangbai
雙柏
Yuyuan
俞元
Xiuyun
修雲
Dianchi
滇池
Tonglao
同勞
Tongjing
同井
Shengxiu
勝休
Jianling
建伶
Yongchang
永昌		 Buwei
不韋
Yongshou
永壽
Bisu
比蘇
Nanfu
南涪
Suitang
巂唐
Ailao
哀牢
Bonan
博南

List of emperors

See also: Shu Han family trees
Shu Han rulers
Temple name Posthumous name Family name (in bold) and personal name Reign Era names and their year ranges Notes
Liezu
烈祖		 Emperor Zhaolie
昭烈皇帝		 Liu Bei
劉備		 221–223
  • Zhangwu
    章武 (221–223)
 Liu Bei is also referred to as the "Late Emperor" (先帝) in some historical texts.
(N/A) Emperor Xiaohuai
孝懷皇帝		 Liu Shan
劉禪		 223–263
  • Jianxing
    建興 (223–237)
  • Yanxi
    延熙 (238–257)
  • Jingyao
    景耀 (258–263)
  • Yanxing
    炎興 (263)
 Liu Shan was posthumously granted the title of "Duke Si of Anle" (安樂思公) by the Jin dynasty. He was later posthumously honoured as "Emperor Xiaohuai" (孝懷皇帝) by Liu Yuan, the founder of the Han-Zhao state of the Sixteen Kingdoms. He is also referred to as the "Later Lord" (後主) in some historical texts.

See also

References

  1. ^ Zou Jiwan (Chinese: 鄒紀萬), Zhongguo Tongshi – Weijin Nanbeichao Shi 中國通史·魏晉南北朝史, (1992).
  2. Chen Shou, Records of the Three Kingdoms, "Book of Shu: Accounts of Deng, Zhang, Zong, & Yang", section Yang Xi: quote: "戲以延熙四年著《季漢輔臣贊》"; translation: " Xi, in the fourth year of Yanxi era , composed 'Praises for the Supportive Ministers of Ji Han.'"
  3. Schuessler, Axel. (2009) Minimal Old Chinese and Later Han Chinese. Honolulu: University of Hawai'i. 157
  4. An example is a quote by Wei general Zhong Hui: "事成，可得天下；不成，退保蜀漢，不失作劉備也。" tr: "If we'd succeed, we'd have all under Heaven; if we'd not succeed, we'd retreat and defend Shu Han and not lose, just as Liu Bei did." in Sanguozhi vol. 28
  5. 小平 (2012). "三国蜀汉政权国号 "汉" 考论". 西华师范大学学报（哲学社会科学版） (1): 63–66.
  6. Eberhard, Wolfram (1977). A History of China. University of California Press. p. 112. ISBN 0520032683.
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