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{{main|Polish-Lithuanian relations}} {{Campaingbox Polish-Lithuanian ethnic Conflict}}
⚫ The issue of '''] and ]n relations during the ]''' is a controversial one, and some modern Lithuanian and Polish historians still differ in their interpretations of the related events, many of which are related to the ] with ] and the operations of ] of ] on territories inhabited by Lithuanians and Poles. In recent years a number of common ]s have started to bridge the gap between Lithuanian and Polish interpretations, but significant differences still remain.<ref>{{cite book | last = Dovile | first = Budryte | title = Taming Nationalism? | publisher = Ashgate Publishing, Ltd.| date = September 30, 2005| url = http://books.google.com/books?id=UJMzpeUHkQcC&pg=PA187&lpg=PA187&sig=ealL7IU7BZw8wkUq1YuBa9Mkhx0 |pages= 188-189| id = ISBN 0-7546-4281-X }}</ref>
{{Use British English|date=October 2024}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=October 2024}}
⚫ The issue of '''Polish and Lithuanian relations''' during the ''']''' is a controversial one, and some modern ]n and ] historians still differ in their interpretations of the related events, many of which are related to the ] with ] and the operations of ] of ] on territories inhabited by Lithuanians and Poles. Several common ]s started bridging the gap between Lithuanian and Polish interpretations, but significant differences remain.<ref>{{cite book | last = Dovile | first = Budryte | title = Taming Nationalism? | publisher = Ashgate Publishing, Ltd.| date = 30 September 2005| url = https://books.google.com/books?id=UJMzpeUHkQcC&pg=PA187 |pages= 188–189| isbn = 0-7546-4281-X }}</ref>


== Background == == Background ==
⚫ ] were strained during the ], mostly due to the conflict over the ] (which had a Polish majority but was seen by Lithuanians as their historical capital).<ref name="MacQueen_context">Michael MacQueen, ''The Context of Mass Destruction: Agents and Prerequisites of the Holocaust in Lithuania'', Holocaust and Genocide Studies, Volume 12, Number 1, pp. 27-48, 1998, </ref> This conflict resulted in enmity within local communities and the mutual harsh treatment of the Polish and Lithuanian ethnic minorities living in both countries. The tensions had begun to diminish by early spring of 1938 (see ]), when both nations restored normal relations, and telephone, mail, rail, and road communications were established.<ref> "This was followed by a period of relative harmony between the two states</ref> The ] was however stopped when Germany ] on the first day of September 1939. Germany had proposed Lithuania join in the invasion to gain control of the disputed Vilnius Region. However, despite Lithuania's antipathy towards Poland, the Lithuanian government was distrustful of Germany and refused.{{sfn|Mačiulis|Staliūnas|2015|p=171}} Lithuania thus remained neutral and independent in the initial days of ].
Polish-Lithuanian relations were strained during the ], mostly due to the
{{check quotation}}
⚫ conflict over the ] (which had a Polish majority but was seen by Lithuanians as their historical motherland).<ref name="MacQueen_context">Michael MacQueen, ''The Context of Mass Destruction: Agents and Prerequisites of the Holocaust in Lithuania'', Holocaust and Genocide Studies, Volume 12, Number 1, pp. 27-48, 1998, </ref> This conflict resulted in enmity within local communities and the mutual harsh treatment of the Polish and Lithuanian ethnic minorities living in both countries. The tensions had begun to diminish by 1938 and 1939 due to the changes in political situation in the region and in Europe.{{Fact|date=March 2008}} The re-approachment was however stopped when Germany and Soviet Union invaded Poland in September 1939. Lithuania remained independent at the beginning of ], however it was soon occupied by the Soviet Union, then by Germany and then again by the Soviet Union, which had earlier annexed it as one of its republics.
However, on September 17, the Soviet Union ] following its ]. The Vilnius Region was soon occupied by the ], which intended to place it inside the borders of the ]. On September 19, Lithuanian envoy in Moscow Ladas Natkevičius claimed Lithuanian rights to Vilnius, which was now occupied by the Red Army and was out of Polish control.{{sfn|Mačiulis|Staliūnas|2015|p=172}} After the new German-Soviet border was established on September 28, the Soviets invited the Lithuanians to talks. Negotiations lasted from October 3 to 10. The result of the talks was the "] and Transfer of Vilnius and Vilnius Region to Lithuania," under which, in exchange for Vilnius, Lithuania agreed to establish Soviet military bases on its territory.{{sfn|Mačiulis|Staliūnas|2015|p=173}} The agreement came as a result of immense Soviet pressure, and Lithuanian diplomats had no illusions that the presence of Soviet troops meant preparation for annexation. During negotiations, the Soviets threatened the possibility of annexing Vilnius to Soviet Belarus, and even the possibility of reconstituting the ].{{sfn|Mačiulis|Staliūnas|2015|p=173-174}}

The Polish envoy in Kaunas, Franciszek Charwat, submitted a protest note on behalf of the Polish government.{{sfn|Mačiulis|Staliūnas|2015|p=175}} The Lithuanian side responded that Vilnius was and is an inseparable part of Lithuania, which Poland ].{{Sfn|Wołkonowski|1996|p=10}} According to Polish military attaché {{Ill|Leon Mitkiewicz-Żołłtek|pl}}, the Lithuanians' response was even harsher, they were to state that they did not recognize the Polish government in Paris and for them Poland ceased to exist.{{Sfn|Wołkonowski|1996|p=10}} In response, Charwat left Lithuania, thus officially breaking off Polish-Lithuanian relations and restarting a strong feeling of hostility between the two countries.{{sfn|Mačiulis|Staliūnas|2015|p=176}} Nevertheless, the pressing matter for Lithuania now became resisting Soviet pressure: most of the better politically oriented Lithuanian intelligentsia realized that the takeover of the Vilnius region was merely a prelude to the occupation of Lithuania by Soviet forces.{{sfn|Mačiulis|Staliūnas|2015|p=174-175}} Ultimately, on 15 June, the Red Army ], soon followed up by invasions of the two other Baltic States, ] and ].<ref name="TM006241940">{{cite magazine |title=Five Years of Dates |url=http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,764071-2,00.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070930095701/http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,764071-2,00.html |archive-date=30 September 2007 |magazine=] |date=24 June 1940}}</ref> On 3 August, Lithuania was formally annexed to the USSR as the Lithuanian Socialist Soviet Republic.<ref name="Breslavskienė L 1993">Breslavskienė L, Lietuvos okupacija ir aneksija 1939-1940: dokumentų rinkinys, Vilnius: Mintis, 1993.</ref> Lithuania remained under the Soviet Union for nearly a year, until on 22 June 1941, ] began an ] and crossed the border into Lithuania, thereafter occupying it.{{sfn|Anušauskas|2005|p=161}}


== Conflicting ideologies == == Conflicting ideologies ==
The Vilnius Region had a complex ]. This was further aggravated by Germans forcibly relocating Lithuanian families to the region{{When|date=February 2009}} from western parts of Lithuania.{{Citation needed|date=December 2007}}


⚫ ]. Tens of thousands of Poles and Jews were executed there by Germans and their Lithuanian auxiliaries.]]
] had a mixed population of often conflicted Polish, Jewish, Belarusian and Lithuanian communities. This was further aggravated by Germans forcibly relocating Lithuanian families to the region{{when}} from Western parts of Lithuania.{{Fact|date=December 2007}} During the war these conflicts resulted in thousands of deaths, as groups on both sides used the opportunities offered by the war to commit violent acts against those they perceived as enemies.
A significant number of Lithuanians started collaborating with the German occupiers,<ref name="Piotrowski-163">Piotrowski, 1998, </ref><ref name="Snyd-84">Snyder, </ref><ref name="NSS">], ], ], ''The Vanished World of Lithuanian Jews'', Rodopi, 2004, {{ISBN|90-420-0850-4}},</ref><ref name="Donskis">], ''Identity and Freedom: mapping nationalism and social criticism in twentieth-century Lithuania'', Routledge, 2002, {{ISBN|0-415-27086-3}}, </ref> a prominent example being the ], many members of whom came from the ] whose pre-war slogan was 'Lithuania for Lithuanians'.<ref name="Piotrowski-163"/> The Lithuanian government, encouraged by the Germans, hoped that the Germans would grant Lithuania as much autonomy as it has granted ].<ref name="Piotrowski-163"/> Even through LAF faded after 1941, and Germans never granted the Lithuanians the autonomy they desired, elements within the Lithuanian government, collaborating with Germans, engaged in the program of ethnic and racial purification, targeting Jews, Poles and other non-Lithuanian ethnic minorities.<ref name="Snyd-82">Snyder, </ref> ] rhetoric and violence became common under the ] government in 1941 (followed by the role of ] as a puppet counsel to the German rulers).<ref name="Piotrowski-167"></ref> Kubiliūnas led the puppet-Council advising the German government of the "general District Lithuania" (]) led by Generalkommissar of Lithuania ].{{Clarify|date=February 2009}}<!--what governments, exactly?--> Some Lithuanian clergy called for ]s of Poles, stating that the Poles were worse than the Jews and offered ]s for killing Poles.<ref name="Piotrowski-167"/> A Lithuanian professor wrote a pamphlet on "Why Should we hate the Poles", and LAF campaigned for the establishment of ghettos for Poles, requirement for them to wear identifying badges, and reduction of their food rations, claiming that "under Soviets, we killed 50% of Poles, under Germans we will kill the other 50%".<ref name="Piotrowski-167"/> One of the most infamous series of incidents took place in the ] ({{Langx|pl|Ponary}}) district of ], where from 1941 to 1943 Germans and Lithuanians ].<ref name="Sak_Ard">Kazimierz Sakowicz, Yitzhak Arad, ''Ponary Diary, 1941-1943: A Bystander's Account of a Mass Murder'', Yale University Press, 2005, {{ISBN|0-300-10853-2}}, .</ref><ref name="Piotrowski_168">Piotrowski, 1998, </ref>


Around 1943, one of the political factions of the ] for the Vilnius region, the Vilnius Democratic Concentration ({{Langx|pl|Wileńska Koncentracja Demokratyczna|links=no}}) – the underground union of leftist Polish parties,<ref>{{in lang|pl}} Piotr Niwiński, </ref> partly because of the pro-Nazi stance of Lithuanian authorities, and partly influenced by the nationalist stance of Polish '']'' party, stated a plan to occupy Lithuania after the war, submit it under the rule of Polish General Commissariat and to re-educate "corrupt" Lithuanians.<ref name="bubnys_beginnings">{{in lang|lt}} Arūnas Bubnys. ''Armijos Krajovos ištakos ir ideologija Lietuvoje'' (Beginnings and ideology of Armia Krajowa in Lithuania). Armija Krajova Lietuvoje, pp. 6-13. A. Bubnys, K. Garšva, E. Gečiauskas, J. Lebionka, J. Saudargienė, R. Zizas (editors). Vilnius – Kaunas, 1995.</ref> On 1 March 1944, the Polish {{Interlanguage link|District Government Delegation of Vilnius|lt=Convent of Political Parties|pl|Okręgowa Delegatura Rządu Wilno}} issued declaration expressing preparation to fight for ] (Vilnius, ], ], ], ], and ]).<ref name="bubnys_beginnings"/> However, such declarations of local Polish politicians differed significantly from the official statement and actions of the ], which was the only country{{Clarify|date=February 2009}}<!-- what country? government in exile is not a country.--> among the anti-Nazi coalition which declared its support for the cause of Lithuanian post-war independence.<ref name="mfaL">. Article from ] reprinted on the pages by Polish Ministry of Foreign Affairs.</ref><ref name="MagW">{{in lang|pl}}. Anna Pisarczyk, , "MAGAZYN WILEŃSKI", 4/2006</ref>
⚫ ]]]
A significant number of Lithuanians started collaborating with the German occupiers
<ref name="Piotrowski-163">Piotrowski, 1998, </ref>
<ref name="Snyd-84">Snyder, </ref>
<ref name="NSS">], ], ], ''The Vanished World of Lithuanian Jews'', Rodopi, 2004, ISBN 9042008504,</ref>
<ref name="Donskis">], ''Identity and Freedom: mapping nationalism and social criticism in twentieth-century Lithuania'', Routledge, 2002, ISBN 0415270863, </ref>, a prominent example being the ] party, many members of whom came from the ] whose pre-war slogan was 'Lithuania for Lithuanians'
<ref name="Piotrowski-163"/>.
The Lithuanian government, encouraged by the Germans, and who hoped that the Germans would grant Lithuania as much autonomy as it has granted ]
<ref name="Piotrowski-163"/>.
Even through LAF faded after 1941, and Germans never granted the Lithuanians the autonomy they desired, elements within the Lithuanian government, collaborating with Germans, engaged in the program of ethnic and racial purification, targeting Jews, Poles and other non-Lithuanian ethnic minorities. <ref name="Snyd-82">Snyder, </ref>. ] rhetoric and violence became common under the ] government in 1944 (followed by the reign of ]).<ref name="Piotrowski-167">Piotrowski, 1998, </ref>
Some Lithuanian clergy called for ]s of Poles, stating that the Poles were worse than the Jews and offered ] for killing Poles.<ref name="Piotrowski-167"/> A Lithuanian professor wrote a pamphlet on "Why Should we Hate the Poles", and LAF campaigned for the establishment of Polish ghettos, requirement for them to wear identifying badges, and reduction of their food rations, claiming that "under Soviets, we killed 50% of Poles, under Germans we will kill the other 50%".<ref name="Piotrowski-167"/> One of the most infamous series of incidents took place in the ], where from 1941 to 1943 Germans and Lithuanians ].
<ref name="Sak_Ard">Kazimierz Sakowicz, Yitzhak Arad, Ponary Diary, 1941-1943: A Bystander's Account of a Mass Murder'', Yale University Press, 2005, ISBN 0300108532, .</ref>
<ref name="Piotrowski_168">Piotrowski, 1998, </ref>


⚫ Although Lithuanian and Polish resistance movements had common enemies – Nazi Germany and the Soviet Union – they never became allies. The main obstacle in allying was the question of Vilnius – the ] and the ] regarded Vilnius as part of Poland, while Lithuanian resistance regarded Vilnius as the capital of Lithuania. Lithuanian resistance saw the Soviet Union as the main enemy and Nazi Germany as its secondary enemy. Polish resistance saw Nazi Germany as the main enemy and was much more ambiguous on the Soviet Union. Only in 1944–1945, after the Soviet reoccupation, did Lithuanian and Polish resistance start cooperating in the fight against the Soviets.<ref>{{in lang|lt}} ]. (Lithuanian and Polish resistance movements 1942-1945), 30 January 2004</ref>
Around 1943 one of the political factions of the ] for the Vilnius region, the ] (''Wileńska Koncentracja Demokratyczna'') - the underground union of leftist Polish parties,<ref>{{pl icon}} Piotr Niwiński, </ref> partly because of the pro-Nazi stance of Lithuanian authorities, and partly influenced by the nationalist stance of Polish '']'' parties, stated a plan to occupy Lithuania after the war, submit it under the rule of Polish General Commissariat and to re-educate "corrupt" Lithuanians.
<ref name="bubnys_beginnings"> {{lt icon}} Arūnas Bubnys. ''Armijos Krajovos ištakos ir ideologija Lietuvoje'' (Beginnings and ideology of Armia Krajowa in Lithuania). Armija Krajova Lietuvoje, pp. 6-13. A. Bubnys, K. Garšva, E. Gečiauskas, J. Lebionka, J. Saudargienė, R. Zizas (editors). Vilnius – Kaunas, 1995. </ref>
On ], 1944, ] issued declaration expressing preparation to fight for Eastern territories (Vilnius, ], ], ], ], and ]).
<ref name="bubnys_beginnings"/> In 1944 Polish underground published letter of AK commander of Vilnius region demanding all Lithuanians to leave region.{{Fact|date=March 2008}} It must be noted, however, that such declarations of local Polish politicians differed significantly from the official statement and actions of the ], which was the only country among the anti-] coalition which declared its support for the cause of Lithuanian independence post-war.<ref name="mfaL"> . Article from ] reprinted on the pages by Polish Ministry of Foreign Affairs.</ref>
<ref name="MagW">{{pl icon}}. Anna Pisarczyk, , "MAGAZYN WILEŃSKI", 4/2006</ref>

⚫ Although Lithuanian and Polish resistance movements had the same enemies - Nazi Germany and Soviet Union - they never became allies. The main obstacle in forming an alliance was the question of Vilnius - the ] and the ] regarded Vilnius as part of Poland, while Lithuanian resistance regarded Vilnius as the capital of Lithuania and aimed for an independent Lithuania, which would include Vilnius. Lithuanian resistance saw Soviet Union as the main enemy and Nazi Germany as its secondary enemy. Polish resistance saw Nazi Germany as the main enemy and had no consensus on the Soviet Union. Only in 1944-1945, after the Soviet reoccupation, did Lithuanian and Polish resistance start cooperating in the fight against Soviet occupants and Soviet activists.
<ref>{{lt icon}} ]. (Lithuanian and Polish resistance movements 1942-1945), ] 2004]</ref>


== Armed conflict == == Armed conflict ==
] on ], ] in ].]]
Lithuanian authorities had been aiding Germans in their actions against Poles since the very beginning of German occupation in 1941, which resulted in the deaths of thousands of Poles<ref name="Piotrowski-163"/>. In autumn 1943 Armia Krajowa started operations against the Lithuanian collaborative organization, the ], which has been aiding Germans in their operation since its very creation.<ref name="Snyd-84"/> Soon a significant proportion of AK operations became directed against Germany-allied Lithuanian Police and local Lithuanian administration. During the first half of 1944 AK killed hundreds of mostly Lithuanian policemen, members of self-defence units, servants of local administration, soldiers of Lithuanian Nazi auxiliaries of ], teachers, foresters and farmers,<ref name="bubnys_beginnings"/> who were judged to be collaborators with the Nazi regime<ref name="Snyd-84"/>. In response, Lithuanian police, who had murdered hundreds of Polish civilians since 1941,<ref name="Piotrowski_168"> increased it's operations against the Poles, executing many Polish civilians; this further increased the ] and the previously simmering Polish-Lithuanian conflict over the Vilnius area deteriorated into a low-level ] under German occupation.<ref name="Snyd"/> In May 1944 in the ] AK dealt a significant blow to the of the ].<ref name="Piotrowski_MO">{{en icon}} {{cite book | author =] | coauthors = | title =Poland's Holocaust: Ethnic Strife, Collaboration with Occupying Forces and Genocide... | year =1997 | editor = | pages =165-166 | chapter = | chapterurl = | publisher =McFarland & Company | location = | id =ISBN 0-7864-0371-3| url =http://books.google.com/books?vid=ISBN0786403713&id=A4FlatJCro4C&pg=PA295&lpg=PA295&dq=1939+Soviet+citizenship+Poland&sig=qETeuFX3hbmM0VPSO13o0LmjgEc | format = | accessdate =2008-03-15 }} See also </ref>


]]]
⚫ In May of 1944, ], AK commander of Vilnius region, commanded over 9000 armed Armia Krajowa partisans. The relations between Lithuanians and Poles were detrimental. Thousands of Poles were killed by Lithuanian collaborators working with Nazis (like the German subordinated ]<ref name="GW_2001">], 2001-02-14, '' (Lithuanian prosecutor questioning AK veterans), last accessed on ] 2006]</ref> or the ] under the command of general ],<ref name="GW_2004">{{pl icon}} ], 2004-09-01, '' (Today in Vilnius veterans of Lithuanian army and AK will forgive each other), last accessed on ] 2006</ref> many more were deported into Germany as ].<ref name="Piotrowski-L">Piotrowski, , </ref>)
⚫ In return, members of Armia Krajowa often terrorised or killed Lithuanians judged to be collaborators and looted their property in Vilnius region.<ref>{{lt icon}} ]. (Armia Krajowa in Eastern Lithuania). "Atgimimas", ] 1989, No. 22 (35)]</ref> AK also targeted Lithuanian institutions, for example historian ] noted that AK was able to paralyze the activities of many Lithuanian educational institutions in 1943.<ref name="Buchaveckas"> {{lt icon}} Stanislovas Buchaveckas. ''Rytų Lietuvos Mokyklos ir Armija Krajova 1941-1944 m.'' (Schools in Eastern Lithuania and Armia Krajowa in 1941-1944). Armija Krajova Lietuvoje, pp. 40-56. A. Bubnys, K. Garšva, E. Gečiauskas, J. Lebionka, J. Saudargienė, R. Zizas (editors). Vilnius – Kaunas, 1995. </ref>


⚫ Lithuanian authorities had been aiding Germans in their actions against Poles since the very beginning of German occupation in 1941, which resulted in the deaths of thousands of Poles.<ref name="Piotrowski-163"/> Thousands of Poles were killed by Lithuanian collaborators working with Nazis (like the German subordinated ]<ref name="GW_2001">{{in lang|pl}} ], 2001-02-14, (Lithuanian prosecutor questioning AK veterans), last accessed on 7 June 2006]</ref> or the ] under the command of general ],<ref name="GW_2004">{{in lang|pl}} ], 2004-09-01, {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070311013108/http://serwisy.gazeta.pl/swiat/1%2C34234%2C2262779.html |date=2007-03-11 }} (Today in Vilnius veterans of Lithuanian army and AK will forgive each other), last accessed on 7 June 2006</ref> many more were deported into Germany as ].<ref name="Piotrowski-L">Piotrowski, , </ref>) ] notes that thousands of Poles died at the hand of Lithuanian collaborators, and tens of thousands were deported.<ref name="Piotrowski-L"/>]|left]]
]]]
In autumn 1943, Armia Krajowa started operations against the Lithuanian collaborative organization, the ], which had been aiding Germans in their operation since its very creation.<ref name="Snyd-84"/> Polish political and military underground cells were created all over Lithuania, Polish partisan attacks were usually not only in Vilnius Region but across the former demarcation line as well.<ref name="zizas19421944"/> Soon a significant proportion of AK operations became directed against ] allied Lithuanian Police and local Lithuanian administration. During the first half of 1944 AK killed hundreds of Lithuanians serving in Nazi auxiliary units or organizations: policemen, members of village self-defence units, servants of local administration, soldiers of the Lithuanian Territorial Defense Force and other Nazi collaborators.<ref name="Snyd-84"/><ref name="Piotrowski_MO"/> Civilians on both sides increasingly numbered among the casualties.<ref name="Piotrowski_168"/><ref name="bubnys_beginnings"/><ref>{{in lang|lt}} ]. {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070927205739/http://www.atgimimas.lt/ssi.php?id=1031308337&which=1&f_text= |date=2007-09-27 }} (Armia Krajowa in Eastern Lithuania). "Atgimimas", 9 June 1989, No. 22 (35)</ref>
⚫ On ], 1944, in response to an earlier massacre on June 20 of 37 Polish villagers in ] (Glinciszki) by Lithuanian self defence battalion<ref name="Piotrowski-L"/><ref name="GW_2001"/> rogue AK troops apparently acting against specific orders of Krzyżanowski which forbade reprisals against civilians<ref name="Piotrowski-L"/> but acting upon the order of commander of the ] ] "Łupaszko"<ref name="Piotrowski-L"/> committed a massacre of Lithuanian policemen and civilians, at ] (Dubinki), where 27 Lithuanians, including women and children were murdered.<ref name="GW_2001">{{pl icon}} ], 2001-02-14, '' (Lithuanian prosecutor questioning AK veterans), last accessed on ] 2006</ref> In total number of victims of Polish revenge action in the end of June of 1944 in Dubingiai and neighbouring towns of ], ], ], and ], was 70-100 Lithuanians, including many civilians.<ref name=KG></ref><ref name="bubnys_beginnings"/><ref name="zizas19421944"> {{lt icon}} Rimantas Zizas. ''Armijos Krajovos veikla Lietuvoje 1942-1944 metais'' (Acitivies of Armia Krajowa in Lithuania in 1942-1944). Armija Krajova Lietuvoje, pp. 14-39. A. Bubnys, K. Garšva, E. Gečiauskas, J. Lebionka, J. Saudargienė, R. Zizas (editors). Vilnius – Kaunas, 1995.</ref> Massacre at Dubingiai was the only widely known massacre carried out by units of AK,<ref name="GW_2001"/><ref name="Piotrowski-L"/> although even the connection of AK to that massacre is disputed as the involved Polish forces are considered extremists with connections to ]{{Fact|date=February 2007}} (although at that time closely allied to AK). AK forces in the region, in addition to "Łupaszko"'s group, consisted also of two other AK brigades, "Narocz" and "Brasławska", under ] "Węgielny", which Krzyżanowski recently ordered to enter the region to demonstrate their presence and discourage locals from any further anti-Polish actions.<ref name="Piotrowski-L"/>


⚫ In response, Lithuanian police, who had murdered hundreds of Polish civilians since 1941,<ref name="Piotrowski_168"/> increased its operations against the Poles, executing many Polish civilians; this further increased the ] and the previously simmering Polish–Lithuanian conflict over the Vilnius Region deteriorated into a low-level ] under German occupation.<ref name="Snyd">], Yale University Press, 2003, {{ISBN|0-300-10586-X}}, ''The Reconstruction of Nations: Poland, Ukraine, Lithuania, Belarus, 1569-1999''</ref> The scale of disruption grew over time; Lithuanian historian {{Interlanguage link|Stanislovas Buchaveckas|lt}} noted, for example, that AK was able to paralyze the activities of many Lithuanian educational institutions in 1943.<ref name="Buchaveckas">{{in lang|lt}} Stanislovas Buchaveckas. ''Rytų Lietuvos Mokyklos ir Armija Krajova 1941-1944 m.'' (Schools in Eastern Lithuania and Armia Krajowa in 1941-1944). Armija Krajova Lietuvoje, pp. 40-56. A. Bubnys, K. Garšva, E. Gečiauskas, J. Lebionka, J. Saudargienė, R. Zizas (editors). Vilnius – Kaunas, 1995.</ref>
⚫ The scale of other killings is a subject of disagreement. ] notes that thousands of Poles died at the hand of Lithuanian collaborators, and tens of thousands were deported.<ref name="Piotrowski-L"/> Polish historian ], living in Lithuania, puts the number of the Lithuanians killed by rogue AK elements at under 100.<ref name="GW_2001"/> An estimate by a Lithuanian investigator ] is that about 500 Lithuanian civilians were killed by Poles during the war.<ref>{{lt icon}} ], ''R.Bružas: Mano tikslas buvo sukelti istorikų diskusiją'' (R.Bružas: My aim was to initiate a discussion of historians), ], ] 2005</ref> Estimates of ] suggest even a higher number of 1000.<ref>{{lt icon}} ]. ''Vilniškės AK bendradarbiavimo su vokiečiais pirmtakas'' (The start of cooperation between Vilnian AK and Germans), Atgimimas, 1996, No. 8(372), p. 15</ref> On ], 1993. The nationalist<ref name="GW_2004"/> and extremist<ref name="GW_2001"/><ref name="Mudde">], ''Racist Extremism In Central And Eastern Europe'', Routledge, 2005, ISBN 0-415-35593-1, </ref> Lithuanian ] organization claims that AK killed 4000 residents in ethnic Lithuanian lands.<ref name=KG/> State commission was established by Government of Lithuania to evaluate activities of Armia Krajowa in Lithuania which had to present conclusions by ], 1993.<ref>{{lt icon}} Government of the Republic of Lithuania. '''' (Decision to establish commission for evaluating Armia Krajowa activities in Lithuania), No. 526p, ], 1993]</ref> Commission published conclusions that Armia Krajowa was acting against integrity of Lithuania and in Eastern Lithuania committed ], terrorised and killed innocent civilians, mostly Lithuanians.<ref name="VD">{{lt icon}} ]. '''' (Why the truth about Armia Krajowa cannot be said?), „]“ No.61(1264), ] 2004]</ref> Lithuanian General Prosecutor Office in 1999 established that "partisan units of AK, not recognising the return of Vilnius region in 1939, were performing genocide of the population of Lithuania, i.e. terrorised, robbed, murdered civilians of Lithuanian, Jewish and Russian ethnicities, hoping that these actions would help in the reoccupation of the area after the war."<ref name="VD"/>{{Dubious|date=March 2008}}. Despite the accusations, not a single member of Armia Krajowa, many veterans of which live in Lithuania, have been charged with any crimes as of 2001.<ref name="GW_2001"/> A Lithuanian historian ] admits that there were no ] carried by AK (with the only exception being Dubinki), but that AK was guilty of some war crimes against individuals or selected families; he also notes that any accusations of ] are false and have an underlying political motive, among them a counteraction to the accusations of widespread ] and crimes committed by units such as the ] (see also ]).<ref name="GW_2001"/> Polish political and military underground cells were created all over Lithuania, Polish partisan attacks were usual not only in Vilnius region but across demarcation line as well.<ref name="zizas19421944"/>


In May 1944, in the ] AK dealt a significant blow to the Lithuanian Territorial Defense Force which has been terrorizing local Polish population.<ref name="Piotrowski_MO">{{cite book | author =Tadeusz Piotrowski | author-link =Tadeusz Piotrowski (sociologist) | title =Poland's Holocaust: Ethnic Strife, Collaboration with Occupying Forces and Genocide... | year =1997 | pages =165–166 | publisher =McFarland & Company | isbn =0-7864-0371-3| url =https://books.google.com/books?id=A4FlatJCro4C&pg=PA295 | access-date =2008-03-15 }} See also </ref> At that time, ], AK commander of Vilnius region, commanded over 9000 armed Armia Krajowa partisans.{{fact|date=October 2024}}
Another issue of the AK's operation in Lithuania is related to incidents of co-operation with Nazis against the common enemy, the ]s. While most historians agree that AK was ''largely untainted'' in collaboration with Nazis in ],<ref name="Piotrowski">], ''Poland's Holocaust'', McFarland & Company, 1997, ISBN 0-7864-0371-3. , , </ref> During the negotiations between AK and Germans on 10-12 February, 1944, AK leaders agreed not to attack Germans and to help them fight Soviet partisans in Rūdninkai forest.<ref name="zizas19421944"/> Germans armed several AK units operating in the Lithuanian area, in order to encourage them to act against the Soviets, just as they did with such Lithuanian forces as the Local Lithuanian Detachment. Germans also did not allow ] to arrest known commanders of AK and often released arrested AK commanders from prison<ref name="Bubnys">{{lt icon}} {{cite book|author =] | coauthors = | title =Vokiečių ir lietuvių saugumo policija (1941–1944) (German and Lithuanian security police: 1941-1944)| year =2004 | publisher =Lietuvos gyventojų genocido ir rezistencijos tyrimo centras | location =Vilnius | url =http://www.genocid.lt/Leidyba/1/arunas1.htm | accessdate =2006-06-09 }}</ref> .


⚫ On 23 June 1944, in response to ] on 20 June of 37 Polish villagers in ] (Glinciszki) by Lithuanian Security Police<ref name="GW_2001"/><ref name="Piotrowski-L"/> rogue AK troops from the unit of the ] (under the command of ] "Łupaszko" who was not present at the events) <ref name="Piotrowski-L"/> committed ] of Lithuanian policemen and civilians, at ] (Dubinki), where 27 Lithuanians, including women and children, were murdered.<ref name="GW_2001"/> These rogue units were acting against specific orders of Krzyżanowski which forbade reprisals against civilians<ref name="Piotrowski-L"/> In total, the number of victims of Polish revenge actions at the end of June 1944 in Dubingiai and neighbouring towns of ], {{Interlanguage link|Inturkė|lt}}, {{Interlanguage link|Bijutiškis|lt}}, and ], was 70–100 Lithuanians, including many civilians.<ref name="bubnys_beginnings"/><ref name="zizas19421944">{{in lang|lt}} Rimantas Zizas. ''Armijos Krajovos veikla Lietuvoje 1942-1944 metais'' (Acitivies of Armia Krajowa in Lithuania in 1942-1944). Armija Krajova Lietuvoje, pp. 14-39. A. Bubnys, K. Garšva, E. Gečiauskas, J. Lebionka, J. Saudargienė, R. Zizas (editors). Vilnius – Kaunas, 1995.</ref> The Massacre at Dubingiai was the only known massacre carried out by units of AK.<ref name="GW_2001"/><ref name="Piotrowski-L"/> Further escalation by either side was cut short by the Soviet occupation of Vilnius region two weeks later.{{fact|date=October 2024}}
During the battles for Vilnius in 1944 after the nationwide Polish urprising - ] - started (see ]), the fighting resulted in the death of many soldiers and civilians, including Lithuanians, Jews, Poles, Russians and Germans.<ref name="zizas19421944"/>


⚫ Polish and Lithuanian historians have to yet reach an agreement on the number of victims. Polish-Lithuanian historian ] puts the number of Lithuanians killed by rogue AK elements at under 100.<ref name="GW_2001"/> An estimate by a Lithuanian investigator ] is that about 500 Lithuanian civilians were killed by Poles during the war.<ref>{{in lang|lt}} ], ''R.Bružas: Mano tikslas buvo sukelti istorikų diskusiją'' (R.Bružas: My aim was to initiate a discussion of historians), ], 14 March 2005</ref> A state commission was established by the Government of Lithuania to evaluate activities of Armia Krajowa in Lithuania which had to present conclusions by 1 December 1993.<ref>{{in lang|lt}} Government of the Republic of Lithuania. '''' (Decision to establish a commission for evaluating Armia Krajowa activities in Lithuania), No. 526p, 14 July 1993</ref>{{Clarify|date=March 2009}}<!--and what where they??--> Not a single member of Armia Krajowa, many veterans of which live in Lithuania, has been charged with any crimes as of 2001.<ref name="GW_2001"/> A Lithuanian historian ] stated that there were no ] carried out by AK (with the only exception being Dubingiai), but that AK was guilty of some war crimes against individuals or selected families; he also notes that any accusations of ] are false and have an underlying political motive, among them a counteraction to the accusations of widespread ] and crimes committed by units such as the Lithuanian Security Police (see also ]).<ref name="GW_2001"/>
The conflict continued even if the AK officially disbanded on ] 1945, until Soviets effectively destroyed former Armia Krajowa units in the fall of 1945.<ref name="bubnys_beginnings"/>


== Postwar developments == == Postwar developments ==
⚫ The postwar assessment of AK's activities in Lithuania was a matter of controversy. In ] the actions of AK in general, and particularly the actions of commanders and units operating in Lithuania,{{Citation needed|date=March 2022}} were presented in a very negative light (see ]). The Communist regime executed or imprisoned commanders of the AK ''en masse'' after the war for political reasons, preventing any fair legal examination of crimes they may have committed during wartime. ] "Łupaszka", after several years in the postwar underground, was arrested by the Polish Communist authorities, sentenced to death and executed on 8 February 1951, for his anti-communist activities. The assessment of his actions outside of Communist Poland was different, and in 1988 he was posthumously awarded the ], the highest Polish military award, by the Polish government in exile. Similarly, the Lithuanian general Povilas Plechavičius who was engaged in fighting the Polish and ] received a medal from the Lithuanian president in post-Soviet Lithuania.<ref name="PrzewK">{{in lang|pl}} ] (10/2004) by Grzegorz Górny. (Quarrel about a general). Last accessed on 7 June 2006.</ref> For these reasons, the AK is considered to be a controversial organisation in today's Lithuania in a manner somewhat similar to the view taken of ]. Similarly, in Lithuania, many heroes of Lithuanian resistance against the Soviets are blamed as Nazi collaborators who cooperated in the murder of the Poles and Lithuanian Jewry, which caused controversy in Poland.<ref>Daniel J. Walkowitz, Lisa Maya Knauer, ''Memory and the Impact of Political Transformation in Public Space'', Duke University Press, 2004, {{ISBN|0-8223-3364-3}}, </ref>


⚫ In 1993, Lithuanian Government established commission consisting from historians to evaluate Armia Krajowa activities in Lithuania. ] distanced himself from the commission and called it a "pathetic spectacle" and "anti-Polish propaganda campaign" in one of his essays.<ref name="Venclova">{{cite journal | author =Tomas Venclova | author-link =Tomas Venclova |date=November 1993 | issue=1993–11–19 | journal =] |language=lt}}, as cited in: {{cite book | author =Krzysztof Buchowski | title =Litwomani i polonizatorzy: mity, wzajemne postrzeganie i stereotypy w stosunkach polsko-litewskich w pierwszej połowie XX wieku | year =2006 | publisher =] Press | location =Białystok | isbn=978-83-7431-075-8 | url =http://pbc.biaman.pl/Content/2045/litwomani_i_polonizatorzy.pdf | access-date =2008-03-18 | page =348 |language=pl}}, see also </ref>
⚫ The postwar assessment of AK's activities in Lithuania was a matter of controversy. In Communist Poland the actions of AK in general, and particularly the actions of commanders and units operating in Lithuania, were presented in a very negative light (see ]). The Communist regime executed or imprisoned commanders of the AK en masse after the war for political reasons, preventing any fair legal examination of crimes they may have committed during wartime. Thus ] "Łupaszka", after several years in the postwar underground, was arrested by the Polish Communist authorities, sentenced to death and executed on ], ], in part for the crimes of his unit against civilians in the Vilnius region (thus including the massacre of Lithuanian civilians in ]) though the Communist indictment was much more broad and focused on his anti-communist activities. The assessment of his actions outside of Communist Poland was different, and in 1988 he was posthumously awarded the ], the highest Polish military award, by the Polish government in exile. Similarly the Lithuanian general ] who was engaged in fighting the Polish and ] received a medal from Lithuanian president in post-Soviet Lithuania.<ref name="PrzewK">{{pl icon}} ] (10/2004) by Grzegorz Górny. (Quarrel about a general). Last accessed on ] 2006.</ref> For these reasons, the AK is considered to be a controversial organisation in today's Lithuania in a manner somewhat similar to the view taken of ].


⚫ On 20 August 2004, Lithuanian government revoked the ban on using the name 'Armia Krajowa' in public spaces and allowed the renaming of the Polish veterans' organization to include the name of AK.<ref name="GW_2004"/> On 9 September 2004, veterans of AK and some veterans of Local Lithuanian Detachment signed a Declaration of Peace.<ref name="GW_2004"/> This initiative was encouraged by ] ], ] ] and ] ], whose representative, ], together with Lithuanian president and prime minister, was present at the reconciliation ceremony.<ref name="GW_2004"/> Veterans of Lithuanian Territorial Defense Force who signed the declaration did so without approval of ] ({{langx|lt|Lietuvos vietinės rinktinės karių sąjunga}}).<ref></ref>
⚫ On 1993 Lithuanian Government established commission consisting from historians to evaluate Armia Krajowa activities in ]. According to ], leader of the extremist ] organization, commission pronounced conclusions that subordinate of Polish government in Exile, Armia Krajowa threatened to Lithuania’s territorial integrity, made ], terrorized and killed civilians, mostly Lithuanians.<ref name=KG> {{lt icon}} Kazimieras Garšva. .2004 </ref><ref name=Voruta> {{lt icon}} ]. Kodėl negalima sakyti tiesos apie Armiją krajovą? 2005</ref> <ref>''Armija ...'' p.3</ref> On the other hand ] distanced himself from the commission and called it a "pathetic spectacle" and "anti-Polish propaganda campaign" in one of his essays<ref name="Venclova">{{lt icon}} {{cite journal | author =] | year =1993 | month =11 | title = | issue=1993-11-19 | journal =] }}, as cited in: {{pl icon}} {{cite book | author =Krzysztof Buchowski | title =Litwomani i polonizatorzy: mity, wzajemne postrzeganie i stereotypy w stosunkach polsko-litewskich w pierwszej połowie XX wieku | year =2006 | pages =348 | publisher =] Press | location =Białystok | isbn=9788374310758 | url =http://pbc.biaman.pl/Content/2045/litwomani_i_polonizatorzy.pdf | format =pdf | accessdate =2008-03-18 }}, see also </ref> On 1999 the ] finished its investigation and concluded that Armia Krajowa made ] of Lithuanian people, hoping to reoccupy ].{{Dubious|date=March 2008}}<ref name=Voruta/>


== See also ==
⚫ On 20 August 2004 Lithuanian government revoked the ban on using the name 'Armia Krajowa' in public spaces and allowed the renaming of Polish veterans organization to include the name of AK.<ref name="GW_2004"/> On September 9 2004 veterans of AK and some veterans of Local Lithuanian Detachment signed a Declaration of Peace.<ref name="GW_2004"/> This initiative was encouraged by ], ], ], ] and ], ], whose representative, ], together with Lithuanian president and prime minister, was present at the reconciliation ceremony.<ref name="GW_2004"/> Veterans of Local Lithuanian Detachment who signed the declaration did so without approval of ] ({{lang-lt|Lietuvos vietinės rinktinės karių sąjunga}}).
*]
<ref> </ref>


==Notes== ==Citations==
<!--See http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Misplaced Pages:Footnotes for an explanation of how to generate footnotes using the <ref(erences/)> tags--> <!--See https://web.archive.org/web/20091027041339/http://geocities.com/skrzydla/ for an explanation of how to generate footnotes using the <ref(erences/)> tags-->
{{Reflist|35em}}
<div class='references-small'>

<references/>
⚫ ==References==
</div>
⚫ * ], Yale University Press, 2003, {{ISBN|0-300-10586-X}}, ''The Reconstruction of Nations: Poland, Ukraine, Lithuania, Belarus, 1569-1999''
⚫ * ], ''Poland's Holocaust'', McFarland & Company, 1997, {{ISBN|0-7864-0371-3}}.
⚫ * {{in lang|lt}} A. Bubnys, K. Garšva, E. Gečiauskas, J. Lebionka, J. Saudargienė, R. Zizas (editors). ''Armija Krajova Lietuvoje''. Vilnius-Kaunas, 1995
*{{cite book | last = Anušauskas | first = Arvydas |author2=Česlovas Bauža |author3=Juozas Banionis |author4=Valentinas Brandišauskas |author5=Arūnas Bubnys |author6=Algirdas Jakubčionis |author7=Laurynas Jonušauskas |author8=Dalia Kuodytė |author9=Nijolė Maslauskienė |author10=Petras Stankeras |author10-link=Petras Stankeras |author11=Juozas Starkauskas |author12=Arūnas Streikus |author13=Vytautas Tininis |author14=Liudas Truska | title = Lietuva 1940–1990: okupuotos Lietuvos istorija | year = 2007 | isbn = 978-9955-601-47-0| page = 712 | publisher = Versus Aureus |language=lt}}
*{{Cite book |last1=Mačiulis |first1=Dangiras |title=Lithuanian Nationalism and the Vilnius Question, 1883-1940 |last2=Staliūnas |first2=Darius |year=2015 |isbn=978-3-87969-401-3 |location=Marburg}}
⚫ * {{cite book | last = Rojek | first = Wojciech | chapter = "Wielka Brytania wobec państwowej przynależności Wileńszczyzny. Sierpień 1939 - sierpień 1940" (Great Britain on the National Status of the Wilno Area. August 1939 - August 1940) | title = "Tygiel narodów" (Melting Pot of Nations) | publisher = ISP PAN / RYTM | language = pl | location = Warszawa / London | year = 2002 | isbn = 83-88794-72-8 }}
* {{Cite book |last=Wołkonowski |first=Jarosław |title=Okręg Wileński Związku Walki Zbrojnej Armii Krajowej w latach 1939-1945 |date=1996 |location=] |language=pl |trans-title=Vilnius District of the Union of Armed Struggle Home Army in 1939-1945}}


==External links== ==External links==
*{{pl icon}} Jan Sienkiewicz in "Kurier Wileński" on Zbigniew Kurcz, „Mniejszość polska na Wileńszczyźnie”, Parts 51-55 on WWII relations: , , , , *{{in lang|pl}} Jan Sienkiewicz in "Kurier Wileński" on Zbigniew Kurcz, „Mniejszość polska na Wileńszczyźnie", Parts 51–55 on World War II relations: , , , ,


{{Portal bar|Politics|Lithuania|Poland}}
⚫ ==References==
⚫ * {{en icon}} ], Yale University Press, 2003, ISBN 030010586X, ''The Reconstruction of Nations: Poland, Ukraine, Lithuania, Belarus, 1569-1999''
⚫ * {{en icon}} ], ''Poland's Holocaust'', McFarland & Company, 1997, ISBN 0786403713.
⚫ * {{lt icon}} A. Bubnys, K. Garšva, E. Gečiauskas, J. Lebionka, J. Saudargienė, R. Zizas (editors). ''Armija Krajova Lietuvoje''. Vilnius-Kaunas, 1995
⚫ * {{pl icon}} {{cite book | last = Rojek | first = Wojciech | chapter = "Wielka Brytania wobec państwowej przynależności Wileńszczyzny. Sierpień 1939 - sierpień 1940" (Great Britain on the National Status of the Wilno Area. August 1939 - August 1940) | title = "Tygiel narodów" (Melting Pot of Nations) | publisher = ISP PAN / RYTM | language = Polish | location = Warszawa / London | year = 2002 | isbn = 8388794728 }}


== Notes ==
]
{{noteslist}}
⚫ ]
] {{DEFAULTSORT:Polish-Lithuanian Relations During World War Ii}}
⚫ ]
]
]

Latest revision as of 15:29, 27 October 2024

Polish–Lithuanian ethnic Conflict

The issue of Polish and Lithuanian relations during the World War II is a controversial one, and some modern Lithuanian and Polish historians still differ in their interpretations of the related events, many of which are related to the Lithuanian collaboration with Nazi Germany and the operations of Polish resistance organization of Armia Krajowa on territories inhabited by Lithuanians and Poles. Several common academic conferences started bridging the gap between Lithuanian and Polish interpretations, but significant differences remain.

Background

Polish–Lithuanian relations were strained during the interwar period, mostly due to the conflict over the Vilnius Region (which had a Polish majority but was seen by Lithuanians as their historical capital). This conflict resulted in enmity within local communities and the mutual harsh treatment of the Polish and Lithuanian ethnic minorities living in both countries. The tensions had begun to diminish by early spring of 1938 (see 1938 Polish ultimatum to Lithuania), when both nations restored normal relations, and telephone, mail, rail, and road communications were established. The rapprochement was however stopped when Germany invaded Poland on the first day of September 1939. Germany had proposed Lithuania join in the invasion to gain control of the disputed Vilnius Region. However, despite Lithuania's antipathy towards Poland, the Lithuanian government was distrustful of Germany and refused. Lithuania thus remained neutral and independent in the initial days of World War II. However, on September 17, the Soviet Union invaded Poland from the East following its agreement with Germany. The Vilnius Region was soon occupied by the Red Army, which intended to place it inside the borders of the Belarusian Soviet Socialist Republic. On September 19, Lithuanian envoy in Moscow Ladas Natkevičius claimed Lithuanian rights to Vilnius, which was now occupied by the Red Army and was out of Polish control. After the new German-Soviet border was established on September 28, the Soviets invited the Lithuanians to talks. Negotiations lasted from October 3 to 10. The result of the talks was the "Treaty on Mutual Assistance and Transfer of Vilnius and Vilnius Region to Lithuania," under which, in exchange for Vilnius, Lithuania agreed to establish Soviet military bases on its territory. The agreement came as a result of immense Soviet pressure, and Lithuanian diplomats had no illusions that the presence of Soviet troops meant preparation for annexation. During negotiations, the Soviets threatened the possibility of annexing Vilnius to Soviet Belarus, and even the possibility of reconstituting the Lithuanian-Belarusian SSR.

The Polish envoy in Kaunas, Franciszek Charwat, submitted a protest note on behalf of the Polish government. The Lithuanian side responded that Vilnius was and is an inseparable part of Lithuania, which Poland occupied since 1920. According to Polish military attaché Leon Mitkiewicz-Żołłtek [pl], the Lithuanians' response was even harsher, they were to state that they did not recognize the Polish government in Paris and for them Poland ceased to exist. In response, Charwat left Lithuania, thus officially breaking off Polish-Lithuanian relations and restarting a strong feeling of hostility between the two countries. Nevertheless, the pressing matter for Lithuania now became resisting Soviet pressure: most of the better politically oriented Lithuanian intelligentsia realized that the takeover of the Vilnius region was merely a prelude to the occupation of Lithuania by Soviet forces. Ultimately, on 15 June, the Red Army invaded Lithuania, soon followed up by invasions of the two other Baltic States, Latvia and Estonia. On 3 August, Lithuania was formally annexed to the USSR as the Lithuanian Socialist Soviet Republic. Lithuania remained under the Soviet Union for nearly a year, until on 22 June 1941, Nazi Germany began an invasion of the Soviet Union and crossed the border into Lithuania, thereafter occupying it.

Conflicting ideologies

The Vilnius Region had a complex demographic history. This was further aggravated by Germans forcibly relocating Lithuanian families to the region from western parts of Lithuania.

Monument of Polish victims of Ponary massacre. Tens of thousands of Poles and Jews were executed there by Germans and their Lithuanian auxiliaries.

A significant number of Lithuanians started collaborating with the German occupiers, a prominent example being the Lithuanian Activist Front, many members of whom came from the National Unionists whose pre-war slogan was 'Lithuania for Lithuanians'. The Lithuanian government, encouraged by the Germans, hoped that the Germans would grant Lithuania as much autonomy as it has granted Slovakia. Even through LAF faded after 1941, and Germans never granted the Lithuanians the autonomy they desired, elements within the Lithuanian government, collaborating with Germans, engaged in the program of ethnic and racial purification, targeting Jews, Poles and other non-Lithuanian ethnic minorities. Anti-Polish rhetoric and violence became common under the Juozas Ambrazevičius government in 1941 (followed by the role of Petras Kubiliūnas as a puppet counsel to the German rulers). Kubiliūnas led the puppet-Council advising the German government of the "general District Lithuania" (Generalbezirk Litauen) led by Generalkommissar of Lithuania Theodor Adrian von Renteln. Some Lithuanian clergy called for pogroms of Poles, stating that the Poles were worse than the Jews and offered indulgences for killing Poles. A Lithuanian professor wrote a pamphlet on "Why Should we hate the Poles", and LAF campaigned for the establishment of ghettos for Poles, requirement for them to wear identifying badges, and reduction of their food rations, claiming that "under Soviets, we killed 50% of Poles, under Germans we will kill the other 50%". One of the most infamous series of incidents took place in the Paneriai (Polish: Ponary) district of Vilnius, where from 1941 to 1943 Germans and Lithuanians massacred tens of thousands of Jews and Poles.

Around 1943, one of the political factions of the Government Delegation for Poland for the Vilnius region, the Vilnius Democratic Concentration (Polish: Wileńska Koncentracja Demokratyczna) – the underground union of leftist Polish parties, partly because of the pro-Nazi stance of Lithuanian authorities, and partly influenced by the nationalist stance of Polish Endecja party, stated a plan to occupy Lithuania after the war, submit it under the rule of Polish General Commissariat and to re-educate "corrupt" Lithuanians. On 1 March 1944, the Polish Convent of Political Parties [pl] issued declaration expressing preparation to fight for Eastern Borderlands (Vilnius, Grodno, Lviv, Lida, Novogrudok, and Pinsk). However, such declarations of local Polish politicians differed significantly from the official statement and actions of the Polish government-in-exile, which was the only country among the anti-Nazi coalition which declared its support for the cause of Lithuanian post-war independence.

Although Lithuanian and Polish resistance movements had common enemies – Nazi Germany and the Soviet Union – they never became allies. The main obstacle in allying was the question of Vilnius – the Polish government in exile and the Polish resistance regarded Vilnius as part of Poland, while Lithuanian resistance regarded Vilnius as the capital of Lithuania. Lithuanian resistance saw the Soviet Union as the main enemy and Nazi Germany as its secondary enemy. Polish resistance saw Nazi Germany as the main enemy and was much more ambiguous on the Soviet Union. Only in 1944–1945, after the Soviet reoccupation, did Lithuanian and Polish resistance start cooperating in the fight against the Soviets.

Armed conflict

Lithuanian authorities had been aiding Germans in their actions against Poles since the very beginning of German occupation in 1941, which resulted in the deaths of thousands of Poles. Thousands of Poles were killed by Lithuanian collaborators working with Nazis (like the German subordinated Lithuanian Security Police or the Lithuanian Territorial Defense Force under the command of general Povilas Plechavičius, many more were deported into Germany as slave labour.) Tadeusz Piotrowski notes that thousands of Poles died at the hand of Lithuanian collaborators, and tens of thousands were deported.

Aleksander Krzyżanowski

In autumn 1943, Armia Krajowa started operations against the Lithuanian collaborative organization, the Lithuanian Security Police, which had been aiding Germans in their operation since its very creation. Polish political and military underground cells were created all over Lithuania, Polish partisan attacks were usually not only in Vilnius Region but across the former demarcation line as well. Soon a significant proportion of AK operations became directed against Nazi Germany allied Lithuanian Police and local Lithuanian administration. During the first half of 1944 AK killed hundreds of Lithuanians serving in Nazi auxiliary units or organizations: policemen, members of village self-defence units, servants of local administration, soldiers of the Lithuanian Territorial Defense Force and other Nazi collaborators. Civilians on both sides increasingly numbered among the casualties.

In response, Lithuanian police, who had murdered hundreds of Polish civilians since 1941, increased its operations against the Poles, executing many Polish civilians; this further increased the vicious circle and the previously simmering Polish–Lithuanian conflict over the Vilnius Region deteriorated into a low-level civil war under German occupation. The scale of disruption grew over time; Lithuanian historian Stanislovas Buchaveckas [lt] noted, for example, that AK was able to paralyze the activities of many Lithuanian educational institutions in 1943.

In May 1944, in the battle of Murowana Oszmianka AK dealt a significant blow to the Lithuanian Territorial Defense Force which has been terrorizing local Polish population. At that time, Aleksander Krzyżanowski, AK commander of Vilnius region, commanded over 9000 armed Armia Krajowa partisans.

On 23 June 1944, in response to an earlier massacre on 20 June of 37 Polish villagers in Glitiškės (Glinciszki) by Lithuanian Security Police rogue AK troops from the unit of the 5th Vilnian Home Army Brigade (under the command of Zygmunt Szendzielarz "Łupaszko" who was not present at the events) committed a massacre of Lithuanian policemen and civilians, at Dubingiai (Dubinki), where 27 Lithuanians, including women and children, were murdered. These rogue units were acting against specific orders of Krzyżanowski which forbade reprisals against civilians In total, the number of victims of Polish revenge actions at the end of June 1944 in Dubingiai and neighbouring towns of Joniškis, Inturkė [lt], Bijutiškis [lt], and Giedraičiai, was 70–100 Lithuanians, including many civilians. The Massacre at Dubingiai was the only known massacre carried out by units of AK. Further escalation by either side was cut short by the Soviet occupation of Vilnius region two weeks later.

Polish and Lithuanian historians have to yet reach an agreement on the number of victims. Polish-Lithuanian historian Jarosław Wołkonowski puts the number of Lithuanians killed by rogue AK elements at under 100. An estimate by a Lithuanian investigator Rimas Bružas is that about 500 Lithuanian civilians were killed by Poles during the war. A state commission was established by the Government of Lithuania to evaluate activities of Armia Krajowa in Lithuania which had to present conclusions by 1 December 1993. Not a single member of Armia Krajowa, many veterans of which live in Lithuania, has been charged with any crimes as of 2001. A Lithuanian historian Arūnas Bubnys stated that there were no mass murders carried out by AK (with the only exception being Dubingiai), but that AK was guilty of some war crimes against individuals or selected families; he also notes that any accusations of genocide are false and have an underlying political motive, among them a counteraction to the accusations of widespread Lithuanian collaboration with Germany and crimes committed by units such as the Lithuanian Security Police (see also Holocaust in Lithuania).

Postwar developments

The postwar assessment of AK's activities in Lithuania was a matter of controversy. In Communist Poland the actions of AK in general, and particularly the actions of commanders and units operating in Lithuania, were presented in a very negative light (see Cursed soldiers). The Communist regime executed or imprisoned commanders of the AK en masse after the war for political reasons, preventing any fair legal examination of crimes they may have committed during wartime. Zygmunt Szendzielarz "Łupaszka", after several years in the postwar underground, was arrested by the Polish Communist authorities, sentenced to death and executed on 8 February 1951, for his anti-communist activities. The assessment of his actions outside of Communist Poland was different, and in 1988 he was posthumously awarded the Virtuti Militari, the highest Polish military award, by the Polish government in exile. Similarly, the Lithuanian general Povilas Plechavičius who was engaged in fighting the Polish and Soviet partisans received a medal from the Lithuanian president in post-Soviet Lithuania. For these reasons, the AK is considered to be a controversial organisation in today's Lithuania in a manner somewhat similar to the view taken of Soviet partisans. Similarly, in Lithuania, many heroes of Lithuanian resistance against the Soviets are blamed as Nazi collaborators who cooperated in the murder of the Poles and Lithuanian Jewry, which caused controversy in Poland.

In 1993, Lithuanian Government established commission consisting from historians to evaluate Armia Krajowa activities in Lithuania. Tomas Venclova distanced himself from the commission and called it a "pathetic spectacle" and "anti-Polish propaganda campaign" in one of his essays.

On 20 August 2004, Lithuanian government revoked the ban on using the name 'Armia Krajowa' in public spaces and allowed the renaming of the Polish veterans' organization to include the name of AK. On 9 September 2004, veterans of AK and some veterans of Local Lithuanian Detachment signed a Declaration of Peace. This initiative was encouraged by President of Lithuania Valdas Adamkus, Prime Minister of Lithuania Algirdas Brazauskas and President of Poland Aleksander Kwaśniewski, whose representative, Andrzej Majkowski, together with Lithuanian president and prime minister, was present at the reconciliation ceremony. Veterans of Lithuanian Territorial Defense Force who signed the declaration did so without approval of Union of the Lithuanian Territorial Defense Force's soldiers (Lithuanian: Lietuvos vietinės rinktinės karių sąjunga).

See also

Citations

  1. Dovile, Budryte (30 September 2005). Taming Nationalism?. Ashgate Publishing, Ltd. pp. 188–189. ISBN 0-7546-4281-X.
  2. Michael MacQueen, The Context of Mass Destruction: Agents and Prerequisites of the Holocaust in Lithuania, Holocaust and Genocide Studies, Volume 12, Number 1, pp. 27-48, 1998,
  3. A study of crisis By Michael Brecher, Jonathan Wilkenfeld, page 255 "This was followed by a period of relative harmony between the two states
  4. Mačiulis & Staliūnas 2015, p. 171.
  5. Mačiulis & Staliūnas 2015, p. 172.
  6. Mačiulis & Staliūnas 2015, p. 173.
  7. Mačiulis & Staliūnas 2015, p. 173-174.
  8. Mačiulis & Staliūnas 2015, p. 175.
  9. ^ Wołkonowski 1996, p. 10.
  10. Mačiulis & Staliūnas 2015, p. 176.
  11. Mačiulis & Staliūnas 2015, p. 174-175.
  12. "Five Years of Dates". Time. 24 June 1940. Archived from the original on 30 September 2007.
  13. Breslavskienė L, Lietuvos okupacija ir aneksija 1939-1940: dokumentų rinkinys, Vilnius: Mintis, 1993.
  14. Anušauskas 2005, p. 161. sfn error: no target: CITEREFAnušauskas2005 (help)
  15. ^ Piotrowski, 1998, p.163
  16. ^ Snyder, p.84
  17. Alvydas Nikžentaitis, Stefan Schreiner, Darius Staliunas, The Vanished World of Lithuanian Jews, Rodopi, 2004, ISBN 90-420-0850-4,Google Print, p.3
  18. Leonidas Donskis, Identity and Freedom: mapping nationalism and social criticism in twentieth-century Lithuania, Routledge, 2002, ISBN 0-415-27086-3, Google Print, p.74
  19. Snyder, p.82
  20. ^ Piotrowski, 1998
  21. Kazimierz Sakowicz, Yitzhak Arad, Ponary Diary, 1941-1943: A Bystander's Account of a Mass Murder, Yale University Press, 2005, ISBN 0-300-10853-2, Google Print.
  22. ^ Piotrowski, 1998, p.168
  23. (in Polish) Piotr Niwiński, Okręgowa Delegatura Rządu w Wilnie
  24. ^ (in Lithuanian) Arūnas Bubnys. Armijos Krajovos ištakos ir ideologija Lietuvoje (Beginnings and ideology of Armia Krajowa in Lithuania). Armija Krajova Lietuvoje, pp. 6-13. A. Bubnys, K. Garšva, E. Gečiauskas, J. Lebionka, J. Saudargienė, R. Zizas (editors). Vilnius – Kaunas, 1995.
  25. Antypolski film w litewskiej telewizji. Article from Rzeczpospolita reprinted on the pages by Polish Ministry of Foreign Affairs.
  26. (in Polish). Anna Pisarczyk, Wyboista droga do pojednania, "MAGAZYN WILEŃSKI", 4/2006
  27. (in Lithuanian) Arūnas Bubnys. Lietuvių ir lenkų pasipriešinimo judėjimai 1942–1945 m.: sąsajos ir skirtumai (Lithuanian and Polish resistance movements 1942-1945), 30 January 2004
  28. ^ (in Polish) Gazeta Wyborcza, 2001-02-14, Litewska prokuratura przesłuchuje weteranów AK (Lithuanian prosecutor questioning AK veterans), last accessed on 7 June 2006]
  29. ^ (in Polish) Gazeta Wyborcza, 2004-09-01, W Wilnie pojednają się dziś weterani litewskiej armii i polskiej AK Archived 2007-03-11 at the Wayback Machine (Today in Vilnius veterans of Lithuanian army and AK will forgive each other), last accessed on 7 June 2006
  30. ^ Piotrowski, p.168, p.169
  31. ^ (in Lithuanian) Rimantas Zizas. Armijos Krajovos veikla Lietuvoje 1942-1944 metais (Acitivies of Armia Krajowa in Lithuania in 1942-1944). Armija Krajova Lietuvoje, pp. 14-39. A. Bubnys, K. Garšva, E. Gečiauskas, J. Lebionka, J. Saudargienė, R. Zizas (editors). Vilnius – Kaunas, 1995.
  32. ^ Tadeusz Piotrowski (1997). Poland's Holocaust: Ethnic Strife, Collaboration with Occupying Forces and Genocide... McFarland & Company. pp. 165–166. ISBN 0-7864-0371-3. Retrieved 15 March 2008. See also review
  33. (in Lithuanian) Arūnas Bubnys. Armija Krajova Rytų Lietuvoje Archived 2007-09-27 at the Wayback Machine (Armia Krajowa in Eastern Lithuania). "Atgimimas", 9 June 1989, No. 22 (35)
  34. Timothy Snyder, Yale University Press, 2003, ISBN 0-300-10586-X, The Reconstruction of Nations: Poland, Ukraine, Lithuania, Belarus, 1569-1999
  35. (in Lithuanian) Stanislovas Buchaveckas. Rytų Lietuvos Mokyklos ir Armija Krajova 1941-1944 m. (Schools in Eastern Lithuania and Armia Krajowa in 1941-1944). Armija Krajova Lietuvoje, pp. 40-56. A. Bubnys, K. Garšva, E. Gečiauskas, J. Lebionka, J. Saudargienė, R. Zizas (editors). Vilnius – Kaunas, 1995.
  36. (in Lithuanian) Rimas Bružas, R.Bružas: Mano tikslas buvo sukelti istorikų diskusiją (R.Bružas: My aim was to initiate a discussion of historians), ELTA, 14 March 2005
  37. (in Lithuanian) Government of the Republic of Lithuania. Potvarkis dėl komisijos Armijos Krajovos veiklai Lietuvoje įvertinti (Decision to establish a commission for evaluating Armia Krajowa activities in Lithuania), No. 526p, 14 July 1993
  38. (in Polish) Przewodnik Katolicki (10/2004) by Grzegorz Górny. Awantura o generała (Quarrel about a general). Last accessed on 7 June 2006.
  39. Daniel J. Walkowitz, Lisa Maya Knauer, Memory and the Impact of Political Transformation in Public Space, Duke University Press, 2004, ISBN 0-8223-3364-3, Google Print, p.188
  40. Tomas Venclova (November 1993). Lietuvos Rytas (in Lithuanian) (1993–11–19). {{cite journal}}: Missing or empty |title= (help), as cited in: Krzysztof Buchowski (2006). Litwomani i polonizatorzy: mity, wzajemne postrzeganie i stereotypy w stosunkach polsko-litewskich w pierwszej połowie XX wieku (PDF) (in Polish). Białystok: University of Białystok Press. p. 348. ISBN 978-83-7431-075-8. Retrieved 18 March 2008., see also review
  41. (in Lithuanian) Romas Bacevičius. Dievo pagalba išvengęs mirties (Saved from death by God). Sidabrinė gija, 11 February 2005, No. 1 (11)

References

  • Timothy Snyder, Yale University Press, 2003, ISBN 0-300-10586-X, The Reconstruction of Nations: Poland, Ukraine, Lithuania, Belarus, 1569-1999
  • Tadeusz Piotrowski, Poland's Holocaust, McFarland & Company, 1997, ISBN 0-7864-0371-3.
  • (in Lithuanian) A. Bubnys, K. Garšva, E. Gečiauskas, J. Lebionka, J. Saudargienė, R. Zizas (editors). Armija Krajova Lietuvoje. Vilnius-Kaunas, 1995
  • Anušauskas, Arvydas; Česlovas Bauža; Juozas Banionis; Valentinas Brandišauskas; Arūnas Bubnys; Algirdas Jakubčionis; Laurynas Jonušauskas; Dalia Kuodytė; Nijolė Maslauskienė; Petras Stankeras; Juozas Starkauskas; Arūnas Streikus; Vytautas Tininis; Liudas Truska (2007). Lietuva 1940–1990: okupuotos Lietuvos istorija (in Lithuanian). Versus Aureus. p. 712. ISBN 978-9955-601-47-0.
  • Mačiulis, Dangiras; Staliūnas, Darius (2015). Lithuanian Nationalism and the Vilnius Question, 1883-1940. Marburg. ISBN 978-3-87969-401-3.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link)
  • Rojek, Wojciech (2002). ""Wielka Brytania wobec państwowej przynależności Wileńszczyzny. Sierpień 1939 - sierpień 1940" (Great Britain on the National Status of the Wilno Area. August 1939 - August 1940)". "Tygiel narodów" (Melting Pot of Nations) (in Polish). Warszawa / London: ISP PAN / RYTM. ISBN 83-88794-72-8.
  • Wołkonowski, Jarosław (1996). Okręg Wileński Związku Walki Zbrojnej Armii Krajowej w latach 1939-1945 [Vilnius District of the Union of Armed Struggle Home Army in 1939-1945] (in Polish). Warsaw.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link)

External links

  • (in Polish) Jan Sienkiewicz in "Kurier Wileński" on Zbigniew Kurcz, „Mniejszość polska na Wileńszczyźnie", Parts 51–55 on World War II relations: 51, 52, 53, 54, 55
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