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{{Short description|War of succession just before the Spanish conquest}}
{{Unreferenced|date=June 2007}}
{{Use American English|date = March 2019}}
{{Infobox Military Conflict
{{Infobox military conflict
|conflict='''Inca Civil War'''
| conflict = Inca Civil War
|image=]
| image = ]
|caption=Emperor Atahualpa, the victorious brother, however, his reign as emperor was short.
| image_size = 400px
|date=1527<br>(hostilities begin)<br>to April 1532
| caption = Illustration by John Harris Valda, envisaging an encounter between ] and ] on a battlefield during the civil war
|place=] and ]
| date = 1529 – April 1532
|result=] and later destruction of the ] <br>(])
| place = ] and ]
|combatant1=] apart from northern territories, allied city-state ], ]
| result = Atahualpista victory
|combatant2=Confederate ] (1527-1532),<br>]
*Reunion of the ] under his rule
|commander1=], ] ] and claimant to the northern regions
*Execution of ]
|commander2=], Northern Inca emperor (legitimate)
*Starting of the ]
|strength1=~400,000, <br>100,000 from ], with another <br>2 million reservists
| combatant1 = ''']'''
|strength2=+50,000, later expanded up to 250,000
| combatant2 = ''']'''
|casualties1=~800,000 soldiers (in two battles and three city-captures), 100,000-1,000,000 civilians
| commander1 = ]{{executed}}<br/>]{{KIA}}<br/>Hango{{KIA}}<br/>]{{executed}}<br/>]{{KIA}}<br/>Tito Atauchi<br/>Uampa Yupanqui<br/>Guanca Auqui<br/>Agua Panti<br/>Paca Yupanqui
|casualties2=Casualties added to those placed to left
| commander2 = ]<br/>]<br/>]<br/>]<br/>]<br/>Tomay Rima{{KIA}}
| strength1 = ~400,000;<br/>100,000 ]s
| strength2 = Initially 50,000–100,000<br/>At peak some 250,000
| casualties1 = Possibly more than 100,000 killed<br/>] destroyed
| casualties2 = Unknown
| casualties3 = estimated 60,000 to 1,100,000 killed
}} }}
{{campaignbox Inca civil wars}} {{campaignbox Inca civil wars}}
{{Inca civilization}}


The '''Inca Civil War''', '''Inca Dynastic War''', or '''Inca War of Succession''', broke out in 1527 (fighting started in 1531) as a disagreement between the two brothers ] and ] and was&nbsp;— in a way&nbsp;— a war of ] of the Inca throne. However, it was Huáscar who started the war since he saw himself as the rightful heir of all Incas, while Atahualpa was revealed to be tactically superior to the mighty armies of Cusco. The '''Inca Civil War''', also known as the '''Inca Dynastic War''', the '''Inca War of Succession''', or, sometimes, the '''War of the Two Brothers,''' was fought between half-brothers ] and ], sons of ], over ] to the throne of the ].<ref name=Prescott>Prescott, W.H., 1827, ''The History of the Conquest of Peru,'' Digireads.com Publishing, {{ISBN|9781420941142}}</ref>{{rp|146–149}}<ref name="Hemming, The Conquest, p. 29">Hemming, ''The Conquest'', p. 29.</ref> The war followed Huayna Capac's death.


It began in 1529, and lasted until 1532. Huáscar initiated the war; appointed as emperor and claiming the throne, he wanted to defeat Atahualpa's competition. Atahualpa was tactically superior to his brother in warcraft and to the mighty armies of ], which their father had stationed in the north part of the empire during the military campaign.<ref name="MacQuarrie, p. 50">MacQuarrie, ''The Last Days'', p. 50.</ref> Accounts from sources all vary in the exact details. Following Atahualpa's victory, Spanish forces led by ] invaded this region. He ultimately captured and killed Atahualpa, after receiving a ransom that was purportedly to free him.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Pizarro |first=Pedro |title=Relación del descubrimiento y conquista del Perú}}</ref>
==The division of an empire==
The ] was formed in the 1100s, but first in 1438, when ] (the world-shaker) took power, the small city-state of ] with 40,000 Inca inhabitants founded what would later become an empire. Around 1500, the empire stretched from ] and ] in central ] to the south and to ] and southern ] to the north. The capital was Cuzco (belly) in the center, from which the ] ruled all. The empire, at its peak under ] (1492-1527) had over 15 million inhabitants and controlled an area of more than 2 million square kilometers. However, the legacy of the Sapa Inca demanded he was the son of the former Sapa Inca and his sister, which invoked ], culminating in ].
], who was defeated in the war between him and his brother]]
In 1524-1526, the Spaniards under ] explored ]. What was suspected to be ] was taken to the continent, causing later disaster for the Incas. However, the Sapa Inca Huayna Capac went to the north to investigate about the unfamiliar men. He never met any Spaniards, but got smallpox and died in 1527. And what was worse, the eldest son and heir, ], died shortly before him. As no one was the clear heir, the choice stood between Huáscar, oldest pure heir, ], his younger brother, and Atahualpa. Atahualpa was Huayna Capac's favorite son but only of half noble blood, his mother was a normal woman and former mistress of Huayna Capac. Huáscar saw it as an insult that Atahualpa was up for question to inherit. Some sources say Atahualpa was offered the fringe by his father on his deathbed, if so, he refused.
<br>
The ] was, to Huáscar's great displeasure, split between him and Atahualpa. Huáscar received more than 90% of its area and some 80% of the population, capital Cusco, and its important temples. Atahualpa got the three important cities in the north, ], ] and ] and a small share of the area, mostly his mother's homelands.


== Causes of the division of the empire ==
==War begins&nbsp;— Huáscar invades==
] province]]
Huáscar, supported by the nobility in Cuzco as well as the religious and political principalists and main figures, saw it as a great insult that a "]"{{Fact|date=February 2007}} had inherited Huayna Capac, though Atahualpa had received only a small part of the empire. In 1531, Huáscar demanded Atahualpa to swear him ] to Huáscar, to make him a ]. He refused; this may have been an excuse for war, and the armies of Huáscar soon crossed the border.
], who was defeated in the war between him and his brother]]
In 1524–1526, the Spaniards, under the command of ], explored South America.<ref name="Davies, The Incas, p.186">Davies, ''The Incas'', p.186</ref> There were 62 horsemen and 106 foot soldiers.<ref name="Davies, The Incas, p.186"/> They are believed to have carried ] to the continent, as it had been ] among Europeans for centuries. The new infectious disease erupted in epidemics and caused high mortality and disaster for the Inca and other indigenous peoples, who had no immunity.


] was the favorite son of ]. The prince accompanied his father on every military expedition in the north. Huayna Capac wanting to test his military capabilities, he sent him on a military expedition to conquer the Pasto people. However, Atahualpa fled and received harsh treatment on his return.<ref name=":0">{{Cite book |last=Rostworowski Tovar de Diez Canseco |first=María |title=Le Grand Inca Pachacútec Inca Yupanqui |publisher=Tallandier |year=2008 |translator-last=Duran |translator-first=Simon}}</ref>
Out of the ]s standing army of 250,000, most were in Quito. However, since Huáscar alone had at least 12 million citizens under him, he could easily muster an army that outnumbered Atahualpa. Cajamarca, close to the border, was captured and shortly thereafter Atahualpa himself. However, Atahualpa escaped before Huáscar had the time to execute him, and united himself with his father's former generals in Quito, ] and ].


Huayna Capac, who was in Tumebamba, heard news of the strangers arriving at Tumbes. Although he did not personally encounter any Spaniards, he contracted smallpox and died in 1527. He named Ninan Cuyochi as his successor. A group of nobles was sent to Cusco to inform Ninan Cuyochi. However, Huayna Capac later instead appointed Huáscar as his heir. Since the auguries were negative, the great priest (Villaq Umu) returned to Tumebamba for Huayna Capac to make a new choice.<ref name=":1">{{Cite book |last=de Gamboa |first=Sarmiento |title=Historia de los Incas}}</ref> But at his arrival, the ] was already dead. Meanwhile, the group of nobles sent to Cusco learned of the death of ].<ref name="Davies, The Incas, p.181">Davies, ''The Incas'', p.181</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Cabello de Balboa |first=Miguel |title=Miscelánea antártica}}</ref> It was uncertain who should be the next Inca emperor; they had no clear rules of succession.<ref name="Davies, The Incas, p.181"/><ref>D'Altroy, 2015, p.107</ref> Two sons of Huayna Capac, Huáscar and Atahualpa, born of different mothers, both claimed the position.
Tumebamba, called "the second Cusco", defected and switched sides; the ciizens may have had two reasons. One was that Tumebamba was Canaris (Indian tribe, not Inca) and waited for a moment to regain independence after having been defeated by Huayna Capac earlier; another was that it seemed Huáscar would win the war and that it was madness to fight on Atahualpa's side. However, in the ], Huáscar's superior army was defeated and forced to retreat. As soon as Atahualpa reached Tumebamba, he showed no mercy but burned the city to the ground.


If the sovereign and his successor both died, then a new emperor was elected by the Inca nobles. And so Huáscar was supported by the nobility in Cuzco, by religious and political authorities and other main figures. He was, through his mother, a part of Capac Ayllu, the ] of ]. His parents, Huayna Capac and Chincha Ocllo, were siblings. As in some other cultures, the Inca violated incest rules to keep religious and political authority limited among a small elite.<ref>Von Hagen ''The Inca of Pedro'', p. 52.</ref> As to Atahualpa, sources disagree on his ascent. According to some sources, mainly ], he was the son of a woman from Quito. ] says his mother was ], the queen of Quito.<ref>{{Cite book |last=de Velasco |first=Juan |title=Historia del Reino de Quito en la América Meridional}}</ref> However the large majority of ] say that Atahualpa was the son of a woman from the panaka of ].<ref>{{Cite book |last=Cieza de León |first=Pedro |title=El Señorio de los Incas}}</ref><ref name=":1" /><ref>{{Cite book |last=de Betanzos |first=Juan |title=Suma y Narración de los Incas}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=de Santa Cruz Pachacuti Yamqui Salcamayhua |first=Juan |title=Relación de las antigüedades deste Reyno del Perú}}</ref> Therefore, the conflict was most likely a conflict between the panakas.<ref name=":0" /> According to the French historian Henri Favre the panaka of Topa Inca was in the Hurin (low) part of Cusco. According to him the conflict was not just opposing the two panakas but all the panakas of Cusco, depending on rather they were Hurin or Hanan (high).<ref name=":2">{{Cite book |last=Favre |first=Henri |title=Les Incas |publisher=Presses Universitaires de France}}</ref> Huáscar was described as ill-tempered, suspicious, and disrespectful of laws and customs. This made him unpopular with the Inca nobles in Cusco. Atahualpa, who already had got the support of the Inca armies stationed north, was now plotting against his brother.<ref name=":2" />
==Empire reunited==
Atahualpa was saluted as a hero; when recapturing Cajamarca, he stayed there with 80,000 troops (see ]) while his generals chased Huáscar to the south. In April 1532, only miles from Cusco, Huáscar's retreat was cut off, his army annihilated and disbanded, his family and supporters executed, Cusco seized, and himself captured (]). This marked the reunion of the Inca empire and so the end of the ] as Atahualpa with arms had taken control of it all, now on his way to Cusco to be crowned Sapa Inca and to put Huáscar to death.


== Movements during the war ==
The war was over by now as Huáscar was in captivity, his supporters (the Cusco nobility) and family executed, the capital held by generals Quizquiz and Chalicuchima, and Atahualpa's army of 250,000 men securing peace to the empire. However, before Atahualpa had the chance to move, he met up with conquistador ], once again on the move, and was captured by the Spaniards (]), not as a part of the finished civil war, but as a part of the ]. He had Huáscar ] from captivity, and was himself later ] at ], ].
Soon after Huáscar claimed the throne, he expected all subjects to swear allegiance to him. To announce his loyalty, Atahualpa sent his most trusted captains to ], along with generous gifts of gold and silver (as was customary). Suspicious, Huáscar refused Atahualpa's offering.<ref>Von Hagen ''The Incas of Pedro'', p. 80.</ref> Accusing the half-brother of rebellion, he ordered some of his messengers killed, and sent back his captains dressed as women. Atahualpa declared war against his brother.


Just before the Spaniards arrived in ], Atahualpa sent troops to Cusco to capture Huáscar, and headed south himself to execute him. (Later ] used this as one of the excuses to execute Atahualpa after Pizarro collected the ransom of gold and silver promised to him for his freedom.)
==Casualties==

Out of the 15 million in the population, half were concentrated in the war area (from Cusco to Chimborazo). Hundreds of thousands of warriors participated in the two great battles, and at least 100,000 soldiers (put together) died. However, the main victims were civilians as each brother acted very harshly to the civilian population of the other brother. Lesser cities were put to ruins, ] sacked and&nbsp;— as described above&nbsp;— the great town of ] destroyed and the citizens killed. An absolute minimum number of civilian killed is around 100,000, but it could be ten times higher. Captives were tortured and killed in the most gruesome way, mostly just in the name of the ], not fulfilling any real purpose such as terror, (as did ]). Villagers were massacred, and just hesitating in the field of battle often led to death of the soldier. As the war were over, the invading Spaniards saw the destruction and death as they marched across the empty and often burned plainlands.
Huáscar gathered his soldiers in preparation for attack. After getting stunned by his brother,<!-- What does this mean? ambushed? --> Huáscar proclaimed him a traitor.<ref>Von Hagen ''The Incas of Pedro'', p. 81.</ref> Generals ], ], and ] are believed to have been born in the northern part of the empire, and transferred their loyalty to Atahualpa.<ref name="Hemming, The Conquest, p. 29"/> He assembled the former imperial army in ], the Northern region left for his control. People loyal to Atahualpa created a new capital in Quito, so they could follow their preferred ruler and gain favor within the government. Atahualpa agreed to take the leadership role of Sapa Inca in this new capital.

According to chronicler ], at the moment of the civil war an Inca army was suppressing a rebellion in the ] lands of ].<ref name=Silva1983>{{cite journal |last1=Silva Galdames |first1=Osvaldo |date=1983 |title=¿Detuvo la batalla del Maule la expansión inca hacia el sur de Chile? |url=https://revistas.uchile.cl/index.php/CDH/article/download/46464/48492 |journal=Cuadernos de Historia|language=es |volume=3 |pages=7–25 |access-date=January 10, 2019}}</ref> With the rebellion brutally repressed and the Inca giving rebels "great chastise", the commander of the army departed north to support Huáscar, a cousin.<ref name=Silva1983/>

At this news, Huáscar and his army moved north in a surprise attack at ].<ref>Cobo, ''History'', p. 164.</ref> The local ] supported the attack, in order to expel the nearest source of power, with the aim to oust the Inca. Atahualpa was captured and imprisoned. While the army celebrated, they got drunk and allowed a woman in to meet Atahualpa. She secretly took a tool that he used that evening to drill a hole and escape.<ref name="Cobo, History, p. 165">Cobo, ''History'', p. 165.</ref> He immediately prepared a counterattack with his large, experienced army from Quito.<ref>Prescott, ''History of the Conquest'', p. 336.</ref>

From 1531 to 1532, the armies fought many battles.<ref>''The Hispanic American'', p. 414.</ref> Soon after his escape, Atahualpa moved his army south to the city of ].<ref name="Cobo, History, p. 165"/> There, on the plains of Mochacaxa, they found Huáscar's men, defeated them,<ref name="MacQuarrie, p. 50"/> and captured and killed many soldiers. Captives included the head general, ], whom they tortured with darts and arrows.<ref name="Cobo, History, p. 165"/> Atahualpa had his skull made into a "gilded drinking cup, which the Spaniards would note that Atahualpa was still using four years later."<ref>MacQuarrie, ''The Last Days'', p. 165.</ref>

Following this victory, Atahualpa strengthened his army and continued south into his brother's land, winning every encounter. Entering ], he added to his numbers. He first tried peaceful means to gain loyalty from Huáscar's men; when that did not work, he killed large numbers of opponents. The survivors were frightened into surrender. One report described how Atahualpa massacred the Cañari tribesmen because they pledged allegiance to Huáscar.<ref name="The Hispanic American, p. 415">''The Hispanic American'', p. 415.</ref> When he finally arrived in Cajamarca, Atahualpa sent the majority of his army ahead, led by his head generals, while he stayed in the safety of the city and explored rumors that the Spaniards were entering the land.<ref name="Cobo, History, p. 165"/>

Atahualpa's army pushed south through Huáscar's territory, winning at Bonbon and Jauja. The battle starting on the hillside of Vilcas seemed to favor Huáscar stationed in a stone fortress at the top of the hill, but eventually he retreated. Atahualpa's men won at Pincos, Andaguayias, at the battle between Curaguaci and Auancay northwest of Cuzco, at Limatambo, about 20 miles from Cuzco, and Ichubamba, where Huáscar's men fled.<ref>Cobo, ''History'', p. 166.</ref> In 1532, with Cuzco endangered, "Huáscar sent another army to meet Atahualpa's, but after precarious battles, his forces were routed," and Huáscar was captured.<ref name="The Hispanic American, p. 415"/> Atahualpa's army had won the war. The news traveled back to Atahualpa in Cajamarca, where the army learned about the ] incursion.

== Pizarro and the end of the Spanish conquest of Peru ==
{{campaignbox Spanish conquest of Peru}}
] representing the capture of
] in ].]]
Atahualpa was saluted as a hero; he recaptured Cajamarca, making camp outside the city with some 40,000 troops<ref>Cieza de Leon, ''The Discovery'', p. 192.</ref> while ] and ] chased Huáscar's army to the south. With a disastrous northern campaign, Huáscar had not only lost his best generals and many soldiers, but his army was shocked and demoralized. Huascar and Atahualpa's armies met. Although Huáscar had a dominant position, he did not use it, instead retreating across the Cotabambas River on the way to ].

Chalkuchimac had a plan of his own and predicted the action of ]. He divided his army in two, sending one contingent around Topa Atao's back, and enveloping and destroying the defenders. In January 1532, only miles from Cuzco, Huáscar's retreat was cut off at ], and his army was annihilated and disbanded.<ref>Kubler'',"The Behavior of Atahualpa",'' p. 417.</ref> Huáscar was captured and the capital Cuzco was seized by Quizquiz. He purged it of Huáscar's supporters in a massacre. Huáscar was executed the following year.<ref>Kubler, "The Behavior of Atahualpa," p. 417.</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=http://latinamericanhistory.about.com/od/theconquestofperu/a/08incacivilwar.htm|title=The War That Tore the Inca Empire Apart|access-date=2012-07-03|archive-date=2012-05-19|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120519060058/http://latinamericanhistory.about.com/od/theconquestofperu/a/08incacivilwar.htm|url-status=dead}}</ref>

During the course of the war, Atahualpa's army had grown to 250,000 men, all the strength of the Empire. However, before he could leave Cajamarca, the new emperor encountered the conquistador Francisco Pizarro, who had reached the city on 16 November 1532. Atahualpa was captured in the ensuing ].<ref>Kubler, "The Behavior of Atahualpa," p. 418.</</ref>

While holding Atahualpa in custody, Pizarro told him he would have Huáscar brought to Cajamarca and would determine which brother was the better ]. In response, Atahualpa ordered Huáscar killed, allegedly by drowning.<ref>Hymas, ''The Last of the Incas'', p. 232.</ref> Months later on August 29, 1533, Pizarro's men hanged Atahualpa at the plaza of Cajamarca.<ref>Means, ''Fall of the Inca Empire'', p. 44.</ref>

== Casualties ==
It is unknown how many Inca were killed or died during the civil war. The estimated population of the Inca empire before an epidemic (probably of a European disease) and the Spanish conquest is estimated at between 6 and 14 million people.<ref>McEwan, Gordon F. (2006), ''The Incas: New Perspective'', New York: W. W. Norton & Co., pp. 93-96</ref> The civil war, an epidemic, and the Spanish conquest resulted in a population decline over several decades estimated as 20:1 or 25:1, meaning that the population declined by 95 percent.<ref>Smith, ''Depopulation'', 453</ref>

<!---
Of the major battles fought, the Spanish ambushed the ] warriors at Cajamarca, killing an estimated 1,500 without suffering any losses.<ref>Bauer, ''An Inca Account'', p. 6</ref> There are no other hard numbers of Inca or Spanish death tolls at any of the other battles. Spanish and European disease caused widespread indigenous deaths across Latin America. ] was the first recorded epidemic in December 1518; on ]’ second voyage, an ] outbreak is believed to have killed large numbers, including Spanish. "Of the 1500 men who sailed from ] on September 25, 1493, scarcely 200 were alive a decade later."<ref>Lovell, ''Heavy Shadows'', p. 428</ref>
--->

== Notes ==
{{reflist}}

== Bibliography ==
* {{Cite book |last=Cieza de León |first=Pedro de |author-link=Pedro Cieza de León |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=qEzNS10nF1YC |title=The discovery and conquest of Peru: chronicles of the New World encounter |date=1998 |publisher=] |isbn=978-0-8223-2146-0 |editor-last=Cook |editor-first=Alexandra Parma |series=Latin America in translation, en traducción, em tradução |location=Durham, NC; London |editor-last2=Cook |editor-first2=Noble David}}
* {{Cite book |last=Cobo |first=Bernabé |author-link=Bernabé Cobo |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=kKHk1k6ztWAC |title=History of the Inca empire: an account of the Indians' customs and their origin together with a treatise on Inca legends, history, and social institutions |publisher=] |year=2000 |isbn=978-0-292-73025-0 |editor-last=Hamilton |editor-first=Roland |edition=7th |series=The Texas Pan-American series |location=Austin, TX |pages=164–166 |orig-date=1979}}
* {{Cite book |last=D'Altroy |first=Terence N. |title=The Incas |date=2003 |publisher=] |isbn=978-0-631-17677-0 |series=Peoples of America |location=Malden, MA; Oxford; Victoria}}
* {{Cite book |last=Davies |first=Nigel |author-link=Nigel Davies (historian) |title=The Incas |date=1995 |publisher=] |isbn=978-0-87081-360-3 |location=Niwot}}
* {{Cite book |last=de León |first=Pedro de Cieza |author-link=Pedro Cieza de León |title=The Incas, of Pedro de Cieza de Leon |publisher=] |year=1959 |editor-last=von Hagen |editor-first=Victor Wolfgang |editor-link=Victor Wolfgang von Hagen |publication-place=Norman, OK |pages=52, 80, 81, 251 |translator-last=de Onis |translator-first=Harriet |oclc=1296972805}}
* {{Cite book |last=de la Vega |first=Garcilaso |author-link=Garcilaso de la Vega (poet) |title=Royal commentaries of the Incas, and general history of Peru |publisher=University of Texas Press |year=1966 |editor-last=Livermore |editor-first=H. V. |location=Austin |oclc=978186770}}
* {{Cite book |last=Hemming |first=John |author-link=John Hemming (explorer) |title=The conquest of the Incas |date=1973 |publisher=] |isbn=978-0-15-122560-6 |series=A Harvest book |location=New York |pages=28–29 |orig-date=1970}}
* {{Cite book |last1=Hyams |first1=Edward |author-link=Edward Hyams |title=The Last of the Incas: The Rise and Fall of an American Empire |last2=Ordish |first2=George |publisher=] |year=1963 |location=New York |oclc=491324634}}
* {{Cite journal |last=Kubler |first=George |author-link=George Kubler |date=November 1945 |title=The Behavior of Atahualpa, 1531-1533 |journal=] |volume=25 |issue=4 |pages=413–427 |doi=10.2307/2508231 |jstor=2508231}}
* {{Cite journal |last=Lovell |first=W. George |date=September 1992 |title='Heavy Shadows and Black Night': Disease and Depopulation in Colonial Spanish America |journal=] |volume=82 |issue=3 |pages=426–443 |doi=10.1111/j.1467-8306.1992.tb01968.x |issn=0004-5608}}
* {{Cite book |last=MacQuarrie |first=Kim |author-link=Kim MacQuarrie |title=The last days of the Incas |date=2008 |publisher=] |isbn=978-0-743-26050-3 |location=New York |page=50}}
* {{Cite book |last=Means |first=Philip Ainsworth |author-link=Philip Ainsworth Means |title=Fall of the Inca empire and the Spanish rule in Peru: 1530-1780 |publisher=] |year=1932 |location=New York |oclc=716374563}}
* {{Cite journal |last=Powers |first=Karen Vieira |date=Autumn 2000 |title=Andeans and Spaniards in the Contact Zone: A Gendered Collision |journal=] |volume=24 |issue=4 |pages=511–536 |doi=10.1353/aiq.2000.0025 |issn=1534-1828 |s2cid=161418762}}
* {{Cite book |last=Prescott |first=William Hickling |author-link=William H. Prescott |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=e6UOAAAAIAAJ |title=History of the Conquest of Peru: With a Preliminary Review of the Civilization of the Incas |publisher=] |year=1874 |editor-last=Kirk |editor-first=John Foster |editor-link=John Foster Kirk |publication-place=Philadelphia, PA |page=336}}
* {{Cite journal |last1=Smith |first1=C. T. |last2=Bushnell |first2=G. H. S. |author-link2=Geoffrey Bushnell |last3=Dobyns |first3=Henry F. |author-link3=Henry F. Dobyns |last4=McCorkle |first4=Thomas |last5=Murra |first5=John V. |author-link5=John Victor Murra |date=October–December 1970 |title=Depopulation of the Central Andes in the 16th Century |journal=] |volume=11 |issue=4–5 |pages=453–464 |doi=10.1086/201146 |s2cid=144381832}}
* {{Cite book |last=Tito Cusi Yupanqui |first=Diego de Castro |author-link=Titu Cusi |title=An Inca account of the conquest of Peru |date=2005 |publisher=] |isbn=978-0-87081-807-3 |editor-last=Bauer |editor-first=Ralph |location=Boulder, Colo}}

{{Inca Empire topics}}


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Latest revision as of 02:15, 6 January 2025

War of succession just before the Spanish conquest

Inca Civil War
Atahualpa and Huascar fighting for empire.
Illustration by John Harris Valda, envisaging an encounter between Huáscar and Atahualpa on a battlefield during the civil war
Date1529 – April 1532
LocationPeru and Ecuador
Result

Atahualpista victory

Belligerents
Huascaristas Atahualpistas
Commanders and leaders
Huáscar Executed
Atoc 
Hango 
Topa Atao Executed
Ullco Colla 
Tito Atauchi
Uampa Yupanqui
Guanca Auqui
Agua Panti
Paca Yupanqui
Atahualpa
Chalcuchimac
Quizquiz
Rumiñawi
Ukumari
Tomay Rima 
Strength
~400,000;
100,000 Ecuadorian Cañaris
Initially 50,000–100,000
At peak some 250,000
Casualties and losses
Possibly more than 100,000 killed
Tumebamba destroyed
Unknown
estimated 60,000 to 1,100,000 killed
Inca Civil War
Inca Empire
Inca society
Inca history

The Inca Civil War, also known as the Inca Dynastic War, the Inca War of Succession, or, sometimes, the War of the Two Brothers, was fought between half-brothers Huáscar and Atahualpa, sons of Huayna Capac, over succession to the throne of the Inca Empire. The war followed Huayna Capac's death.

It began in 1529, and lasted until 1532. Huáscar initiated the war; appointed as emperor and claiming the throne, he wanted to defeat Atahualpa's competition. Atahualpa was tactically superior to his brother in warcraft and to the mighty armies of Cuzco, which their father had stationed in the north part of the empire during the military campaign. Accounts from sources all vary in the exact details. Following Atahualpa's victory, Spanish forces led by Francisco Pizarro invaded this region. He ultimately captured and killed Atahualpa, after receiving a ransom that was purportedly to free him.

Causes of the division of the empire

Inca Empire under the control of Atahualpa. It was almost coterminous with the former Chinchay Suyu province
Huáscar, who was defeated in the war between him and his brother

In 1524–1526, the Spaniards, under the command of Francisco Pizarro, explored South America. There were 62 horsemen and 106 foot soldiers. They are believed to have carried smallpox to the continent, as it had been endemic among Europeans for centuries. The new infectious disease erupted in epidemics and caused high mortality and disaster for the Inca and other indigenous peoples, who had no immunity.

Atahualpa was the favorite son of Huayna Capac. The prince accompanied his father on every military expedition in the north. Huayna Capac wanting to test his military capabilities, he sent him on a military expedition to conquer the Pasto people. However, Atahualpa fled and received harsh treatment on his return.

Huayna Capac, who was in Tumebamba, heard news of the strangers arriving at Tumbes. Although he did not personally encounter any Spaniards, he contracted smallpox and died in 1527. He named Ninan Cuyochi as his successor. A group of nobles was sent to Cusco to inform Ninan Cuyochi. However, Huayna Capac later instead appointed Huáscar as his heir. Since the auguries were negative, the great priest (Villaq Umu) returned to Tumebamba for Huayna Capac to make a new choice. But at his arrival, the Sapa Inca was already dead. Meanwhile, the group of nobles sent to Cusco learned of the death of Ninan Cuyochi. It was uncertain who should be the next Inca emperor; they had no clear rules of succession. Two sons of Huayna Capac, Huáscar and Atahualpa, born of different mothers, both claimed the position.

If the sovereign and his successor both died, then a new emperor was elected by the Inca nobles. And so Huáscar was supported by the nobility in Cuzco, by religious and political authorities and other main figures. He was, through his mother, a part of Capac Ayllu, the panaka of Topa Inca. His parents, Huayna Capac and Chincha Ocllo, were siblings. As in some other cultures, the Inca violated incest rules to keep religious and political authority limited among a small elite. As to Atahualpa, sources disagree on his ascent. According to some sources, mainly Inca Garcilaso de la Vega, he was the son of a woman from Quito. Juan de Velasco says his mother was Paccha, the queen of Quito. However the large majority of reliable sources say that Atahualpa was the son of a woman from the panaka of Pachacuti. Therefore, the conflict was most likely a conflict between the panakas. According to the French historian Henri Favre the panaka of Topa Inca was in the Hurin (low) part of Cusco. According to him the conflict was not just opposing the two panakas but all the panakas of Cusco, depending on rather they were Hurin or Hanan (high). Huáscar was described as ill-tempered, suspicious, and disrespectful of laws and customs. This made him unpopular with the Inca nobles in Cusco. Atahualpa, who already had got the support of the Inca armies stationed north, was now plotting against his brother.

Movements during the war

Soon after Huáscar claimed the throne, he expected all subjects to swear allegiance to him. To announce his loyalty, Atahualpa sent his most trusted captains to Cuzco, along with generous gifts of gold and silver (as was customary). Suspicious, Huáscar refused Atahualpa's offering. Accusing the half-brother of rebellion, he ordered some of his messengers killed, and sent back his captains dressed as women. Atahualpa declared war against his brother.

Just before the Spaniards arrived in Cajamarca, Atahualpa sent troops to Cusco to capture Huáscar, and headed south himself to execute him. (Later Francisco Pizarro used this as one of the excuses to execute Atahualpa after Pizarro collected the ransom of gold and silver promised to him for his freedom.)

Huáscar gathered his soldiers in preparation for attack. After getting stunned by his brother, Huáscar proclaimed him a traitor. Generals Chalcuchimac, Quizquiz, and Rumiñawi are believed to have been born in the northern part of the empire, and transferred their loyalty to Atahualpa. He assembled the former imperial army in Quito, the Northern region left for his control. People loyal to Atahualpa created a new capital in Quito, so they could follow their preferred ruler and gain favor within the government. Atahualpa agreed to take the leadership role of Sapa Inca in this new capital.

According to chronicler Diego de Rosales, at the moment of the civil war an Inca army was suppressing a rebellion in the Diaguita lands of Copiapó and Coquimbo. With the rebellion brutally repressed and the Inca giving rebels "great chastise", the commander of the army departed north to support Huáscar, a cousin.

At this news, Huáscar and his army moved north in a surprise attack at Tumebamba. The local Cañari supported the attack, in order to expel the nearest source of power, with the aim to oust the Inca. Atahualpa was captured and imprisoned. While the army celebrated, they got drunk and allowed a woman in to meet Atahualpa. She secretly took a tool that he used that evening to drill a hole and escape. He immediately prepared a counterattack with his large, experienced army from Quito.

From 1531 to 1532, the armies fought many battles. Soon after his escape, Atahualpa moved his army south to the city of Ambato. There, on the plains of Mochacaxa, they found Huáscar's men, defeated them, and captured and killed many soldiers. Captives included the head general, Atoc, whom they tortured with darts and arrows. Atahualpa had his skull made into a "gilded drinking cup, which the Spaniards would note that Atahualpa was still using four years later."

Following this victory, Atahualpa strengthened his army and continued south into his brother's land, winning every encounter. Entering Cajamarca, he added to his numbers. He first tried peaceful means to gain loyalty from Huáscar's men; when that did not work, he killed large numbers of opponents. The survivors were frightened into surrender. One report described how Atahualpa massacred the Cañari tribesmen because they pledged allegiance to Huáscar. When he finally arrived in Cajamarca, Atahualpa sent the majority of his army ahead, led by his head generals, while he stayed in the safety of the city and explored rumors that the Spaniards were entering the land.

Atahualpa's army pushed south through Huáscar's territory, winning at Bonbon and Jauja. The battle starting on the hillside of Vilcas seemed to favor Huáscar stationed in a stone fortress at the top of the hill, but eventually he retreated. Atahualpa's men won at Pincos, Andaguayias, at the battle between Curaguaci and Auancay northwest of Cuzco, at Limatambo, about 20 miles from Cuzco, and Ichubamba, where Huáscar's men fled. In 1532, with Cuzco endangered, "Huáscar sent another army to meet Atahualpa's, but after precarious battles, his forces were routed," and Huáscar was captured. Atahualpa's army had won the war. The news traveled back to Atahualpa in Cajamarca, where the army learned about the Spanish incursion.

Pizarro and the end of the Spanish conquest of Peru

Spanish conquest of the Inca Empire
Major engagements

Conflicts between conquistadors and rebellions

End of the Neo-Inca state

Oil painting by Juan Lepiani representing the capture of Atahualpa in Cajamarca.

Atahualpa was saluted as a hero; he recaptured Cajamarca, making camp outside the city with some 40,000 troops while Chalcuchimac and Quizquiz chased Huáscar's army to the south. With a disastrous northern campaign, Huáscar had not only lost his best generals and many soldiers, but his army was shocked and demoralized. Huascar and Atahualpa's armies met. Although Huáscar had a dominant position, he did not use it, instead retreating across the Cotabambas River on the way to Cuzco.

Chalkuchimac had a plan of his own and predicted the action of Topa Atao. He divided his army in two, sending one contingent around Topa Atao's back, and enveloping and destroying the defenders. In January 1532, only miles from Cuzco, Huáscar's retreat was cut off at Quipaipan, and his army was annihilated and disbanded. Huáscar was captured and the capital Cuzco was seized by Quizquiz. He purged it of Huáscar's supporters in a massacre. Huáscar was executed the following year.

During the course of the war, Atahualpa's army had grown to 250,000 men, all the strength of the Empire. However, before he could leave Cajamarca, the new emperor encountered the conquistador Francisco Pizarro, who had reached the city on 16 November 1532. Atahualpa was captured in the ensuing Battle of Cajamarca.

While holding Atahualpa in custody, Pizarro told him he would have Huáscar brought to Cajamarca and would determine which brother was the better Sapa Inca. In response, Atahualpa ordered Huáscar killed, allegedly by drowning. Months later on August 29, 1533, Pizarro's men hanged Atahualpa at the plaza of Cajamarca.

Casualties

It is unknown how many Inca were killed or died during the civil war. The estimated population of the Inca empire before an epidemic (probably of a European disease) and the Spanish conquest is estimated at between 6 and 14 million people. The civil war, an epidemic, and the Spanish conquest resulted in a population decline over several decades estimated as 20:1 or 25:1, meaning that the population declined by 95 percent.


Notes

  1. Prescott, W.H., 1827, The History of the Conquest of Peru, Digireads.com Publishing, ISBN 9781420941142
  2. ^ Hemming, The Conquest, p. 29.
  3. ^ MacQuarrie, The Last Days, p. 50.
  4. Pizarro, Pedro. Relación del descubrimiento y conquista del Perú.
  5. ^ Davies, The Incas, p.186
  6. ^ Rostworowski Tovar de Diez Canseco, María (2008). Le Grand Inca Pachacútec Inca Yupanqui. Translated by Duran, Simon. Tallandier.
  7. ^ de Gamboa, Sarmiento. Historia de los Incas.
  8. ^ Davies, The Incas, p.181
  9. Cabello de Balboa, Miguel. Miscelánea antártica.
  10. D'Altroy, 2015, p.107
  11. Von Hagen The Inca of Pedro, p. 52.
  12. de Velasco, Juan. Historia del Reino de Quito en la América Meridional.
  13. Cieza de León, Pedro. El Señorio de los Incas.
  14. de Betanzos, Juan. Suma y Narración de los Incas.
  15. de Santa Cruz Pachacuti Yamqui Salcamayhua, Juan. Relación de las antigüedades deste Reyno del Perú.
  16. ^ Favre, Henri. Les Incas. Presses Universitaires de France.
  17. Von Hagen The Incas of Pedro, p. 80.
  18. Von Hagen The Incas of Pedro, p. 81.
  19. ^ Silva Galdames, Osvaldo (1983). "¿Detuvo la batalla del Maule la expansión inca hacia el sur de Chile?". Cuadernos de Historia (in Spanish). 3: 7–25. Retrieved January 10, 2019.
  20. Cobo, History, p. 164.
  21. ^ Cobo, History, p. 165.
  22. Prescott, History of the Conquest, p. 336.
  23. The Hispanic American, p. 414.
  24. MacQuarrie, The Last Days, p. 165.
  25. ^ The Hispanic American, p. 415.
  26. Cobo, History, p. 166.
  27. Cieza de Leon, The Discovery, p. 192.
  28. Kubler,"The Behavior of Atahualpa", p. 417.
  29. Kubler, "The Behavior of Atahualpa," p. 417.
  30. "The War That Tore the Inca Empire Apart". Archived from the original on 2012-05-19. Retrieved 2012-07-03.
  31. Kubler, "The Behavior of Atahualpa," p. 418.</
  32. Hymas, The Last of the Incas, p. 232.
  33. Means, Fall of the Inca Empire, p. 44.
  34. McEwan, Gordon F. (2006), The Incas: New Perspective, New York: W. W. Norton & Co., pp. 93-96
  35. Smith, Depopulation, 453

Bibliography

Inca Empire
History
Inca society
Inca religion
Inca mathematics
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