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{{Short description|War between Russia and Poland-Lithuania Commonwealth}} | |||
{{Warbox| | |||
{{Use dmy dates|date=October 2024}} | |||
battle_name= | |||
{{Infobox military conflict | |||
|campaign=Polish-Muscovite War (1605-1618) | |||
| conflict = Polish–Russian War (1609–1618) | |||
|colour_scheme=background:#cccccc | |||
| partof = the ] and the ] | |||
|image=] | |||
| image = Rzeczpospolita Dymitriads.png | |||
|caption=Map of the war | |||
| image_size = | |||
|conflict='']'' - Polish-Muscovite War of 1609-1618 | |||
| caption = ] and western ] during the Polish–Russian War. The map shows ] (cream), ] (dark red), Russia (dark green), and Polish territorial gains or areas temporarily controlled by Poland (pink). Positions of military regiments and important battles are marked with crossed sabres. | |||
|date=]-] | |||
| date = 1609–1618 | |||
|place=] | |||
| place = {{ublist|class=nowrap |{{hlist|]|]}}}} | |||
|result=minor Polish victory, ] | |||
| coordinates = | |||
|combatant1=Poland | |||
| map_type = | |||
|combatant2=Muscovy | |||
| map_relief = | |||
|commander1= | |||
| map_size = | |||
|commander2= | |||
| map_caption = | |||
|strength1= | |||
| result = Polish–Lithuanian victory<ref>{{Cite book |last=Pognowski |first=Iwo |url=https://archive.org/details/polandhistorical00pogo/page/9/mode/1up?q |title=Poland, a historical atlas |publisher=Hippocrene Books |year=1988 |location=] |page=114 |isbn=978-0-87052-282-6 |language=English}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Koneczny |first=Feliks |title=Dzieje Polski opowiedziane dla młodzieży |page=158 |quote=Wtem zatrzymano się, zawierając w Dywilinie rozejm na lat 16. '''Warunki były świetne.''' Trzy obszerne ziemie: smoleńska, siewierska i czernihowska powiększyły obszar Wielkiego Księstwa Litewskiego. rozszerzając granice państwa tak daleko poza Dniepr, '''świadczył o wielkiej potędze Polski i Litwy. Szczyt potęgi polskiej przypada właśnie na te czasy.'''}}</ref><br>(]) | |||
|strength2= | |||
| territory = Poland–Lithuania gains ], ]<ref>{{cite web |url=https://wypracowania24.pl/historia/5809/wojny-polsko-rosyjskie-w |title=Wojny polsko-rosyjskie w XVII wieku – lata 1609–1618, 1632–1634 |website=wypracowania24.pl |access-date=4 February 2019}}</ref> and ]<ref>{{Cite book |last1 =Lukowski |first1 =Jerzy |title =A Concise History of Poland |last2 =Zawadzki |first2 =Hubert |publisher =] |year =2019 |edition =3rd |page =119}}</ref> | |||
|casualties1= | |||
| combatant1 = {{plainlist| | |||
|casualties2= | |||
* {{flag|Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth}} | |||
|}} | |||
* {{flagicon image|Flag of the Zaporizhian Sich.svg}} ] | |||
}} | |||
| combatant2 = {{plainlist| | |||
* {{flag|Tsardom of Russia}} | |||
* {{flagicon image|Flag of Sweden (1562–1650).svg}} ] {{Efn|1609–1610}} | |||
}} | |||
| commander1 = {{plainlist| | |||
* {{flagicon|Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth}} ] | |||
* {{flagicon|Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth}} ] | |||
* {{flagicon|Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth}} ] | |||
* {{flagicon|Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth}} ] | |||
* {{flagicon image|Flag of the Zaporizhian Sich.svg}} ] | |||
}} | |||
| commander2 = {{plainlist| | |||
* {{flagicon|Tsardom of Russia}} ] | |||
* {{flagicon|Tsardom of Russia}} ] | |||
* {{flagicon|Tsardom of Russia}} ] | |||
* {{flagicon|Tsardom of Russia}} ] | |||
* {{flagicon|Tsardom of Russia}} ] | |||
* {{flagicon image|Flag of Sweden (1562–1650).svg}} ] | |||
}} | |||
| strength1 = | |||
| strength2 = | |||
| casualties1 = | |||
| casualties2 = | |||
}} | |||
{{Campaignbox Polish–Muscovite War (1605–1618)}} | |||
{{Polish-Russian Wars}} | |||
The '''Polish–Russian War'''{{efn|Also known as the '''Polish–Muscovite War''' and the '''Polish Intervention in Russia'''.}} was a conflict fought between the ] and the ] from 1609 to 1618. | |||
'''Polish-Muscovite War (1605 - 1618)''' is the name of the series of wars (]-]) between the ] and ] (or ''Muscovy''), in the background of the Russian dynastic crisis (known as the ] (]-]). The sides and their goals changed several times during this conflict; the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth was not formally at war with Muscovy until ], and various Muscovy factions fought among themselves, allied with the Commonwealth and other countries or fought against them. Further, the participants of this conflict included ], which during the course of the ] (]-]) sometimes allied itself with Muscovy, and at other times, fought against it. The goals of various factions changed as well, from minor border adjustment through influencing the choice of Russian ] to creating a new state through the union between the Commonwealth and Muscovy. | |||
Russia had been experiencing the ] since the death of Tsar ] in 1598, which caused ] and a violent ] upon the extinction of the ]; furthermore, a major ] ravaged the country from 1601 to 1603.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://courses.lumenlearning.com/suny-hccc-worldcivilization/chapter/the-time-of-troubles/ |title=The Time of Troubles – World Civilization |website=courses.lumenlearning.com |access-date=4 February 2019}}</ref> Poland exploited Russia's civil wars when powerful members of the Polish '']'' began influencing Russian ]s and supporting successive ] against the crowned ]s ] ({{reign | 1598 | 1605}}) and ] ({{reign | 1606 | 1610}}).<ref>{{Cite journal | url =https://www.cairn.info/revue-cahiers-du-monde-russe-2016-4-page-879.htm | title =Narrating the Time of Troubles in Polish School History Textbooks (1918‑1989) | journal =Cahiers du Monde Russe | year =2016 | volume =57 | issue =4 | pages =879–902 | last1 =Venken | first1 =Machteld | doi =10.4000/monderusse.9996 | s2cid =159899487 }}</ref> From 1605, Polish nobles conducted a series of skirmishes until the death of ] in 1606, and they invaded again in 1607 until Russia formed a military alliance with Sweden two years later. The King of Poland, ], declared war on Russia in response in 1609, aiming to gain territorial concessions and to weaken Sweden's ally. Polish forces won many early victories such as the 1610 ]. In 1610, Polish units entered Moscow and Sweden withdrew from the military alliance with Russia, instead triggering the ] of 1610-1617 between Sweden and Russia.<ref>{{cite book |last=Peterson |first=Gary Dean |title=Warrior Kings of Sweden: The Rise of an Empire in the Sixteenth and Seventeenth Centuries |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=CPJWfVPgFawC&pg=PA87 |year=2007 |publisher=McFarland |isbn=978-0-7864-2873-1 |page=87}}</ref> | |||
The war can be divided into four stages. In the first one, known to the Poles as the Dymitriads ({{lang-pl|Dymitriady}}), some Commonwealth ] ]s (high ranking nobility), encouraged by some Muscovy ]s but without the official consent from the ] ] (Polish: Zygmunt III Waza), attempted to exploit the Muscovy weakness and intervened in its civil war, supporting tsar pretenders ] and later ] (hence the Polish name of the war, the Dymitriads) against the cronwed tsar ]. The first Dymitriad begun in ] and ended in ] with the death of False Dmitri I, the second begun in ] and lasted until ], when tsar Shuisky signed an alliance with Sweden. In responce to this alliance Polish king Sigismund III decided to officialy intervene and declared war upon Muscovy, aiming to weaken Sweden's ally and to gain territorial concessions. After the early Commonwealth victories, which culminated in Polish forces entering ] in ], Sigismund's son, Prince ], was briefly elected tsar, however soon afterwards Sigismund decided to seize the Russian throne for himself. This alienated the pro-Polish supporters amongs the boyars, who could accept moderate Władysław, but not the pro-] and anti-] Sigismund. Subsequently the pro-Polish Muscovy faction dissapeared and the war resumed in ] with Poles losing control of Moscow but capturing the important city of ] (see '']''). However due to internal troubles in both Commonwealth and Muscovy, little military action took place from ] until ], when Sigismund made one final and failed attempt to conquer Muscovy. The war ended in ] with the ], with Commonwealth gaining territorial concessions but not being able to retain control over Muscovy, which defended its independence. | |||
Sigismund's son, Prince ], was elected tsar of Russia by the ] in September 1610, but Sigismund refused to allow his son to become the new tsar unless the Muscovites agreed to convert from ] to ], and the pro-Polish boyars ended their support for the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth. In 1611, ] and Prince ] formed a new army to launch a ] against the Polish occupation. The Poles ] in June 1611, but began to retreat after they were ] in September 1612.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.sadistic.pl/moskwa-pod-panowaniem-polakow-vt126643.htm| title=Moskwa pod Panowaniem Polaków – Sadistic.pl |website=www.sadistic.pl |access-date=4 February 2019}}</ref> In March 1613 the ] elected ], the son of ], as tsar of Russia, thus inaugurating the ] and ending the Time of Troubles. With little military action between 1612 and 1617, the war finally ended in 1618 with the ], which granted the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth certain territorial concessions but preserved Russia's independence. | |||
== Names of the war == | |||
The war was the first major sign of the rivalry and uneasy relations between Poland and Russia which would last for centuries.<ref>{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=7wZGG4J8JZIC&q=poland+russia+relations+1612 |title=Polish Encounters, Russian Identity |first1=David L. |last1=Ransel |first2=Bozena |last2=Shallcross |date=15 June 2005 |publisher=Indiana University Press |isbn=0253110548 |access-date=4 February 2019 |via=Google Books}}</ref> Its aftermath had a long-lasting impact on Russian society, fostering a negative stereotype of Poland among Russians<ref>{{cite web |author1 =Artur Goszczyński (Uniwersytet Jagielloński Zakład Historii Polski Nowożytnej) |title =Nieprzyjaciel narodu naszego. Historia stosunków polsko-moskiewskich w opinii szlachty Rzeczypospolitej w przededniu i w pierwszych latach wojny 1609–1618 | series= Zeszyty Naukowe Towarzystwa Doktorantów UJ Nauki Społeczne | volume = 12 | issue = 1 | year =2016 |url =https://ruj.uj.edu.pl/xmlui/bitstream/handle/item/31226/goszczynski_nieprzyjaciel_narodu_naszego_historia_stosunkow.pdf?sequence=1&isAllowed=y |access-date =7 October 2023 |archive-url =https://web.archive.org/web/20231007151849/https://ruj.uj.edu.pl/xmlui/bitstream/handle/item/31226/goszczynski_nieprzyjaciel_narodu_naszego_historia_stosunkow.pdf?sequence=1&isAllowed=y |archive-date =7 October 2023}}</ref> and, most notably, giving rise to the Romanov dynasty which ruled Russia for three centuries until the ] in 1917. It also left a noticeable mark on Russian culture, with renowned writers and composers portraying the war in works such as the play ] by ] (adapted into ] by ]), other operas including '']'' by ] and '']'' by ] as well as films such as ] (1939) and ] (2007). | |||
The ''Polish-Muscovite War (1605-1618)'' is often referred to with other names, such as the ''Polish-Russian War of 1605-1618''. It is also divided into the ''First Dymitriad'' (1605-1606) and ''Second Dymitriad'' (1607-1609) and the ''Polish-Muscovite (Russian) War'' (1609-1618), which can subsequently be divided into wars of 1609-1611 and 1617-1618. In Polish ] the wars are usually reffered to as the ''Dymitriady'', and may or may not include the 1617-1618 campaign, which is sometimes reffered to as ''Chodkiewicz campaign''. According to the ] historiography the period of war falls into the "]" (смутное время) and the conflict with Poles, which was the major part of it, is commonly called "польская интервенция" (''Polish intervention'' or more specifically the ''Polish intervention of the early-17th century'') | |||
==Name== | |||
==Lead up to the war== | |||
{{unsourced section|date=July 2024}} | |||
{{main|Time of Troubles}} | |||
In Polish ], two military interventions immediately preceding the war, the aim of which was to place a tsar loyal to the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth on the Russian throne are called the '']'' and are considered a separate conflict: the ''First Dymitriad'' (1604–1606) and ''Second Dymitriad'' (1607–1609). The ''Polish–Russian War'' (1609–1618) can subsequently be divided into two wars of 1609–1611 and 1617–1618, and may or may not include the 1617–1618 campaign, which is sometimes referred to as ''Chodkiewicz Campaign''. According to Russian historiography, the chaotic events of the war fall into the "]". The conflict with Poles is commonly called the ''Polish Invasion'', ''Polish Intervention'', or more specifically the ''Polish Intervention of the Early Seventeenth Century''. | |||
==Background== | |||
In the late ] and early ] Muscovy was in political and economic crisis. After the death of tsar ] (''Ivan the Terrible'') in ], and the presumed death of his son ] in ], several factions competed for the tsar throne. In ] the throne was seized by ], possibly, an orchestrator of Dmitry's assassination. Godunov, however, did not manage to crush all opposition. | |||
===Prelude to invasions=== | |||
{{Further|Time of Troubles}} | |||
<timeline> | |||
In late ] a ] ] led by ] ] with ] and ] arrived in Moscow and proposed an alliance between Commonwealth and Muscovy, including a future ]. They proposed that after one monarch's death without heirs, the other would become the ruler of both countries. However, ] Godunov declined the union proposal and settled only on extending the ] by 22 years (to ]). | |||
ImageSize = width:500 height:100 | |||
PlotArea = left:65 right:15 bottom:20 top:5 | |||
AlignBars = justify | |||
Colors = | |||
Sigismund and Polish magnates knew well that Commonwealth was not capable of any serious invasion of Muscovy. Polish army was too small, its treasury always empty, and the war lacked popular support. But as the situation in Muscovy deteriorated, Sigismund and many Commonwealth ]s, especially those with estates and forces near Muscovy border, begun to look for a way to profit from the chaos and weakness of its eastern neighbour. This proved easy, as in the meantime, many Muscovy ]s disgruntled by the ongoing civil war tried to entice various Muscovy neighbours, including the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth into intervening. Some of them looked for their own profits, trying to organise support for their own ascension to the Russian throne (as ] did and ] would in the near future). Others looked to their western neighbour, the Commonwealth, and its attractive ]s, and together with some Polish visionaries planned for some kind of union between those two states. Yet others tried to tie their fates with that of ] in what became known as ] and the ]. | |||
id:godunovb value:rgb(0.99215,0.8,0.54) | |||
id:godunovf value:rgb(1,0.7019,0) | |||
id:dimitryi value:rgb(1,1,0) | |||
id:szhujskiy value:rgb(1,1,0.702) | |||
id:vladislav value:rgb(1,0.922,0.384) | |||
id:romanov value:rgb(1,0.922,0.675) | |||
Period = from:1600 till:1615 | |||
The advocates of ] (sometimes reffered to as ''unia troista'') proposed the union involving common foreign policy and military, the right of all citiens to chose the place they want to live and buy landed estates, to marry each other, to remove barriers for trade and transit, to introduce a single currency, to increase religious tolernace in Muscovy (especially the right to build Churchers of non-Orthodox faith, as in Poland Orthodox churches were already allowed to be build for many years), and to send boyars children for an education in more developed Polish academies (like the ]. However, this project never gained much support. Many boyars feared that Poland-Lithuania would dominate Muscovy and opposed to anything that threatened Muscovy culture, especially the policies of religous tolerance, intermarriage and education in Polish schools. | |||
TimeAxis = orientation:horizontal | |||
ScaleMajor = unit:year increment:1 start:1600 | |||
PlotData= | |||
==The First Dymitriad (1605-1606)== | |||
align:center textcolor:black fontsize:8 mark:(line,black) width:35 shift:(0,-5) | |||
{{main|False Dmitri I}} ], ]. Painting by ].]] | |||
from:start till: 1605 text:"]" color:godunovb | |||
For most of the 1600s, Commonwealth king Sigismund III was occupied with the internal problems like civil war of his own in the Commonwealth (the ]), and ] and ]. However, when the pretender False Dmitiri I appreared in Poland in 1603, he soon found enough support among the powerful magnates like ], Lew and ] to get funds for a campaign against Godunov. Commonwealth magnates looked forward to material gains from the campaign and control over Dmitri, In addition, both some Polish magnates and Muscovy boyars advanced plans for the union between Commonwealth and Muscovy, similar to the ones Lew Sapieha discussed in 1600 and that were eventually dismissed by tsar Godunov. Finally, the ] saw in him a tool to spread Catholicism eastwards, and after promises of Polish-Muscovy Catholic union waging a war on the ] ]s provided him with some funds and education. Sigismund, always happy to support pro-Catholic initatives, although declined to support him officialy with full might of the Commonwealth provided him with a sum of 4,000 zloties - enough for few hundred soldiers. Nonetheless, some of Dimitri's supporters, especially among those involved in the ], actively worked to have Dimitri replace Sigismund. In echange, in June 1604 Dmitri promised Commonwealth 'half of ] territory'. However, many people were sceptic about the future of this endavour. ], opponent of most of Sigismund policies, later refferd to the entire False Dmitri I affair as a ''comedy worth of ] or ]''. | |||
# fontsize:6 | |||
from:1605 till: 1605.5 text:"]" shift:(-30,10) color:godunovf | |||
from:1605.5 till: 1606.4 text:"]" shift:(17,-15) color:dimitryi | |||
# fontsize:8 | |||
from:1606.4 till: 1610.7 text:"]" color:szhujskiy | |||
from:1610.7 till: 1613 text:"]" color:vladislav | |||
from:1613 till:end text:"]" color:romanov | |||
</timeline> | |||
In the late 16th and early 17th centuries, ] was in a state of political and economic crisis. After the death of Tsar ] ("the Terrible") in 1584, and the death of his son ] in 1591, several factions competed for the tsar's throne. In 1598, ] was crowned to the Russian throne, marking the end of the centuries long rule of the ]. While his policies were rather moderate and well-intentioned, his rule was marred by the general perception of its questionable legitimacy and allegations of his involvement in orchestrating the assassination of Dimitri. While Godunov managed to put the opposition to his rule under control, he did not manage to crush it completely. To add to his troubles, the first years of the 17th century were exceptionally cold. The drop in temperature was felt all over the world and was most likely caused by a severe eruption of a ]. In Russia, it resulted in ] that swept through the country from 1601 to 1603. | |||
When Boris Godunov heard about the pretender, he claimed that the man was just a runaway monk called Grigory Otrepyev (born Yury Otrepyev; Grigory was the name given at the monastery), although on what information he based this claim is unclear. Regardless, his support began to wane, especially when he tried to spread counter-rumours. Some of the Russian ]s also claimed to accept Dmitry's claim. Such a support gave them legitimate reasons not to pay taxes to Godunov. | |||
] | |||
Dmitry attracted a number of followers, formed a small army and supported by approximately 3500 soldiers of Commonwealth magnate's private armies and mercenaries bought by Dmitir's own cash rode to Russia on June 1604. Enemies of Godunov, including the southern ] (approximately 2,000) joined his forces on his way to Moscow. Dmitry's forces fought two engagements with reluctant Russian soldiers; they won the first at ] (Nowogród Siewierski, modern ''Novhorod-Siverskyi'') soon capturing ] (Czernihów, ''Chernihiv''), ] (''Putyvl''), ], and ] but badly lost the second and nearly disintegrated. Dimitri's cause was only saved by the news of the death of Tsar Boris. | |||
In late 1600, a Polish ] led by Chancellor ] with Eliasz Pielgrzymowski and Stanisław Warszycki arrived in Moscow and proposed an alliance between the Commonwealth and Russia, which would include a future ]. They proposed that after one monarch's death without heirs, the other would become the ruler of both countries. However, Tsar Godunov declined the union proposal and settled on extending the ], which ended the ] of the 16th century, by 22 years (to 1622). | |||
The sudden death of Tsar Boris Godunov (], ]) removed the main barrier to the further progress of the pretender. Russian troops begun to defect to Dmitry's side and on ] boyars in Moscow imprisoned the newly-crowned tsar, son of Boris, ], and his mother and later brutally murdered them. On the ] the impostor made his triumphal entry into Moscow, and on the 21st of July he was crowned tsar by a new patriarch of his own choosing, the Greek Isidore. The alliance with Poland was furthered by the marriage (] in Cracow) between daughter of ], ], Polish noblewoman, with whom False Dmitri I fell in love while in Poland. Commonwealth king Sigismund was a prominent guest at this wedding. Marina soon left to join her husband in Moscow, where she was crowned a tsarina in May. | |||
Sigismund and the Commonwealth magnates knew full well that they were not capable of any serious invasion of Russia; the Commonwealth army was too small, its treasury always empty, and the war lacked popular support. However, as the situation in Russia deteriorated, Sigismund and many Commonwealth ]s, especially those with estates and forces near the Russian border, began to look for a way to profit from the chaos and weakness of their eastern neighbour. This proved easy, as in the meantime many Russian ]s, disgruntled by the ongoing civil war, tried to entice various neighbors, including the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth, into intervening.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.advantour.com/russia/history/time-of-troubles.htm|title=Troubles in Russia (1598–1613). History of Russia|website=www.advantour.com|access-date=4 February 2019}}</ref> Some of them looked to their own profits, trying to organize support for their own ascension to the Russian throne. Others looked to their western neighbor, the Commonwealth, and its attractive ]s, and together with some Polish politicians planned for some kind of union between those two states. Yet others tried to tie their fates with that of Sweden in what became known as the ] and the ]. | |||
], painted in 1879. False Dmitry tried to flee from the plotters through a window, but broke his leg and was shot. After cremation his ashes were shot from a cannon towards Poland.]] | |||
Advocates for a union of Poland–Lithuania with Russia proposed a plan similar to the original Polish–Lithuanian ] involving a common foreign policy and military; the right for nobility to choose the place where they would live and to buy landed estates; removal of barriers for trade and transit; introduction of a single currency; increased religious tolerance in Russia (especially the right to build churches of non-Orthodox faiths); and the sending of boyar children for education in more developed Polish academies (like the ]). However, this project never gained much support. Many boyars feared that the union with the predominantly Catholic Kingdom of Poland and the Grand Duchy of Lithuania would endanger Russia's Orthodox traditions and opposed anything that threatened Russian culture, especially the policies aimed at curtailing the influence of the Orthodox Church, intermarriage and education in Polish schools that had already led to successful ] of the ]. | |||
However, False Dmitri position was weak. Many boyards felt they could gain more influence, even the throne, for themselves, and many were still wary of Polish cultural influence. The very ], declaring all nobility equal, that were supported by lesser nobility, threatned the most powerful of boyars. Thus the boyars, headed by Prince ], began to plot against Dmitri and his pro-Polish faction, accusing him of ], spreading ] and Polish customs, and selling Muscovy to ] and the Pope. They gained popular support, especially as Dmitrii was visibly supported by few hundred of irregular Commonwealth forces, who still garrisoned Moscow, and often engaging in various criminal acts and angering the local population. | |||
===Polish invasion (1605–1606)=== | |||
At the morning of ] ], about two weeks after the marriage, conspirators stormed ]. Dmitry tried to flee through a window but broke his leg in the fall. One of the plotters shot him dead on the spot. At first the body was put on display, then cremated and the ashes were shot from a cannon towards Poland. Dmitry's reign had lasted a mere ten months. ] took his place as Tsar. About five hundred of Dimitri's Commonwealth supporters were either killed, imprisoned or forced to leave Muscovy. | |||
{{Further|False Dmitry I}} | |||
].]] | |||
For most of the 17th century, Sigismund III was occupied with internal problems of his own, like the ] and the ] and ]. However, the impostor ] appeared in Poland in 1603 and soon found enough support among powerful magnates such as ], ], and ], who provided him with funds for a campaign against Godunov. Commonwealth magnates looked forward to material gains from the campaign and control over Russia through False Dmitriy. In addition, both Polish magnates and Russian boyars advanced plans for a union between the Commonwealth and Russia, similar to the one Lew Sapieha had discussed in 1600 (when the idea had been dismissed by Godunov). Finally, the proponents of Catholicism saw in Dmitry a tool to spread the influence of their Church eastwards, and after promises of a united Catholic dominated Russo-Polish entity waging a war on the ], ]s also provided him with funds and education. Although Sigismund declined to support Dmitry officially with the full might of the Commonwealth, the Polish king was always happy to support pro-Catholic initiatives and provided him with the sum of 4,000 ]–enough for a few hundred soldiers. Nonetheless, some of Dmitriy's supporters, especially among those involved in the ], actively worked to have Dmitry replace Sigismund. In exchange, in June 1604 Dmitry promised the Commonwealth "half of ] territory". Many were skeptical about the future of this endeavor. ], opposed to most of Sigismund's policies, later referred to the entire False Dmitry I affair as a "comedy worthy of ] or ]". | |||
==The Second Dymitriad (1607-1609)== | |||
{{main|False Dmitri II}} | |||
When ] heard about the pretender, he claimed that the man was just a runaway monk called ], although on what information he based this claim is unclear. Godunov's support among the Russians began to wane, especially when he tried to spread counter-rumors. Some of the Russian ]s also claimed to accept Dmitry as such support gave them legitimate reasons not to pay taxes to Godunov. | |||
Vasili reign would be far from stable. Tsar Vasili Shuiski was unpopular and weak in Russia. He was perceived as anti-Poland; he had led the coup against the first False Dmitry, killing over 500 Polish soldiers in Moscow and imprisoning a Polish envoy. The civil war raged on, as in 1607 the False Dmitrii II appeared, again supported by some Polish magnates and 'recognized' by Marina Mniszech as her first husband. This brought him the support of the ]s of the ] who had supported ]. ], ], ], ] and ] decided to support the second pretender as well, supplying him with some early funds and 7500 soldiers. The ravages of his army, especially, of infamous ] mercenaries, contributed to the infamous placard in ] (Zarajsk): ''three plagues: ], ], Poles''. In 1608 together with ], Lisowski leading few hundred of Don Cossacks (kozacy dońscy) and rag tag ] and mercenaries defeated the army of tsar ] led by ] and ] near ] and captured ] and ]. Then Lisowczycy advanced towards Moscow but was defeated at ], loosing most of his loot. Then when ] failed the ], Lisowczycy retreated near ]. Soon however came successes (pillages) at ], ] and some other cities. | |||
], painted in 1879. False Dmitry tried to flee from the plotters through a window but broke his leg and was shot. After cremation his ashes were shot from a cannon towards Poland.]] | |||
Dmitri speedily captured ], ] and other towns; was reinforced by the Poles; and in the spring of ] advanced upon ], routing the army of ] at ]. Promises of the wholesale confiscation of the estates of the boyars drew many common people to his side. The village of ], twelve ]s from the capital, was converted into an armed camp, where Dmitry gathered his army. His force initially included 7000 Polish soldiers, 10,000 Cossacks and 10,000 other rag-tag soldiers, including former members of the failed ]. His forces soon exceeded 100,000 men. He raised to the rank of ] another illustrious captive, ] (enthroned as Patriarch Filaret), and won the allegiance of the cities of ], ], ], ] and several others. However, his fortunes were soon to reverse, as the Commonwealth decided to take more active stance in the Muscovy civil wars. | |||
Dmitry attracted a number of followers, formed a small army, and, supported by approximately 3500 soldiers of the Commonwealth magnates' private armies and the mercenaries bought by Dmitriy's own cash, rode to Russia in June 1604. Some of Godunov's other enemies, including approximately 2,000 southern ]s, joined Dimitry's forces on his way to Moscow. Dmitriy's forces fought two engagements with reluctant Russian soldiers; his army won the first at ], soon capturing ], ], ], and ], but badly lost the second ] and nearly disintegrated. Dmitry's cause was only saved by the news of the death of Tsar Boris Godunov. | |||
==Polish-Muscovy War (1609-1618)== | |||
===Polish victories (1609-1610)=== | |||
] bravely defended the ] against the Polish agressors from September 1609 to January 1611. Painting by ].]] | |||
In ] the ] in the Commonwealth ended. When tsar Vasili signed a military alliance with ] that year (on ] 1609), the Commonwealth king Sigismund III, whose primary goal was to regain the Swedish throne, got permission from the Sejm to ] on ]. He viewed it as an excellent opportunity to expand Commonwealth territories and sphere of influence and with hopes that the eventual outcome of the war would ] the ] Russia (in this he was strongly supported by the ]) and allow him to defeat Sweden. This plan also allowed him to give a purpose to the numerous restless former supporters of Zebrzydowski, luring them with promises of wealth and fame awaiting members of the campaign beyond the Commonwealth's eastern border. A book published that year by Paweł Palczwski, ''Kolęda moskiewska'', compared Muscovy to the ] empires of the ], full of golden cities and easy to conquer. Further, some Muscovy boyars assured him of their support by offering the throne to Prince ], son of Sigismund III. Previously, Sigismund III had been unwilling to commit majority of Polish forces and his time to the internal conflict in Muscovy, but in 1609 all those factors made him reevaluate and drastiacally change his policy. | |||
The sudden death of the Tsar on 13 April 1605<ref name=Tucker/>{{rp|560}} removed the main barrier to further advances by Dimitry. Russian troops began to defect to his side, and, on 1 June, boyars in Moscow imprisoned the newly crowned tsar, Boris's son ], and the boy's mother, later brutally murdering them.<ref name=Tucker/>{{rp|560}} On 20 June the impostor made his triumphal entry into Moscow, and on 21 July he was crowned Tsar by a new ] of his own choosing, the ] ], who as bishop of ] had been the first church leader to recognize Dmitry as Tsar. The alliance with Poland was furthered by Dimitriy's marriage ('']'' in ]) with the daughter of ], ], a Polish noblewoman with whom Dmitry had fallen in love while in Poland. The new Tsarina outraged many Russians by refusing to convert from Catholicism to the Russian Orthodox faith. Commonwealth king Sigismund was a prominent guest at this wedding. Marina soon left to join her husband in Moscow, where she was crowned a Tsarina in May. | |||
].]] | |||
Although many Polish nobles and soldiers were at that time fighting for the second False Dmitry, Sigismund III and the troops under his command were not supporting his claim on the throne - Sigismund III wanted Russia himself. The entry of King Sigismund III into Muscovy caused the majority of False Dmitri II's Polish supporters to desert him and contributed to his defeat. A series of subsequent disasters induced False Dmitrii II to flee his camp disguised as a peasant and go to Kostroma together with Marina. He also made another unsuccessful attack on Moscow, and, supported by the ], recovered a hold over all south-eastern Russia. However, he was killed, while half drunk, on the 11th of December ] by a ] princeling whom he had flogged. | |||
While Dmitry's rule itself was nondescript and devoid of significant blunders, his position was weak. Many boyars felt they could gain more influence, even the throne, for themselves, and many were still wary of Polish cultural influence, especially in view of Dmitriy's court being increasingly dominated by the aliens he brought with himself from Poland. The ], declaring all nobility equal, that were supported by lesser nobility, threatened the most powerful of the boyars. Thus the boyars, headed by Prince Vasily Shuyski, began to plot against Dmitry and his pro-Polish faction, accusing him of homosexuality, spreading ] and Polish customs, and selling Russia to ] and the Pope. They gained popular support, especially as Dmitry was visibly supported by a few hundred irregular Commonwealth forces, which still garrisoned Moscow, and often engaged in various criminal acts, angering the local population.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://opinie.wp.pl/polacy-rzadzili-na-kremlu-syna-zygmunta-iii-wazy-obwolano-carem-6126018565142145a|title=Polacy rządzili na Kremlu. Syna Zygmunta III Wazy obwołano carem|first=Wirtualna Polska Media|last=S.A|date=3 February 2014|website=opinie.wp.pl|access-date=4 February 2019}}</ref> | |||
] by ]]] | |||
A Commonwealth army under command of ] ] (who was generally opposed to this conflict but could not disobey king's orders) crossed the border and on ] 1609 and laid ], an important city that Russia had captured from Lithuania in 1514. ] was manned by less than 1,000 Russian men commanded by the ] ], while Żółkiewski commanded 12,000 troops. However, Smolensk had one major advantage: the previous tsar, Boris Godunov, had sponsored the fortification of the city with a massive fortress completed just in 1602. The Poles found it impenetrable; they settled into a long siege, firing artillery into the city, attempting to tunnel under the ], and building earthen ]s, remnants of which can still be seen today. The siege would last 20 months before Poles succeeded in taking the fortress. | |||
On the morning of 17 May 1606, about two weeks after the marriage, conspirators stormed ]. Dmitry tried to flee through a window but broke his leg in the fall. One of the plotters shot him dead on the spot. At first, the body was put on display, but it was later cremated; the ashes were reportedly shot from a cannon toward Poland. Dmitriy's reign had lasted a mere ten months. Vasili Shuyski took his place as Tsar. About five hundred of Dmitriy's Commonwealth supporters were killed, imprisoned, or forced to leave Russia. | |||
Not all Commonwealth attacks were successful. An early attack, led by hetman ] with 2,000 men, ended in defeat when the unpaid Commonwealth army mutinied and compelled their leader to retreat through the heart of Russia back to Smolensk. Not till the crown prince, Władysław, arrived with tardy reinforcements did the war assume a different character. In the meantime, Lisowczycy took ] in 1610 and clashed with Swedes operating in Muscovy during the ]. | |||
===Second Polish invasion (1607–1609)=== | |||
All the time, several different visions of the campaign and political goals clashed in the Polish camp. Some of the former members of the ], opponents of Sigismund, actually advanced proposals to have Sigismund dethroned and Dimitrii, or even Shuisky, elected the king. Żółkiewski, who from the begining opposed the invasion of Muscovy, came into conflict with King Sigismund III over the scope, methods and goal of the campaign. Żółkiewski represented the traditional views of Polish nobility, the ], which did not support waging aggressive and dangerous wars against a strong enemy like Muscovy. Thus Żółkiewski favoured the plans peaceful and voluntary union, much like that with Lithuania; offering Russian boyars protected rights and religious freedom, envisioning an association resulting in the creation of the ]. To that end, Moscow cooperation should be gained via diplomacy, not force. Sigismund III, however, did not want to make political dealings and compromises, especially when they had to include concessions to Orthodox Church. Sigismund was a vocal, almost fanatical supporter of the ] and ] and believed he can win everything and take Moscow by force, establish his and Catholic Church rule with might. | |||
{{Main|False Dmitry II}} | |||
], Polish commander of troops stationing in Moscow. Sapieha was known for his ruthlessness towards the Russian people and was nicknamed ''Pan Hetman'', meaning "Mr General".]] | |||
Tsar Vasili Shuyski was unpopular and weak in Russia and his reign was far from stable.<ref name=Tucker/>{{rp|561}} He was perceived as anti-Polish; he had led the coup against the first False Dmitry, killing over 500 Polish soldiers in Moscow and imprisoning a Polish envoy. The civil war raged on, as in 1607 the False Dmitry II appeared, again supported by some Polish ]s and 'recognized' by Marina Mniszech as her first husband. This brought him the support of the magnates of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth who had supported False Dmitry I before. ], Roman Różyński, ] decided to support the second pretender as well, supplying him with some early funds and about 7,500 soldiers. The pillaging of his army, especially of the ] ] led by ], contributed to the placard in ]: "three plagues: ], ] and Poles". In 1608 together with Aleksander Kleczkowski, Lisowczycy, leading a few hundred ]s working for the Commonwealth, ragtag ] and mercenaries, defeated the army of tsar Vasili Shuyski led by ] and ] at the ] and captured ] and ]. Then Lisowczycy advanced towards Moscow but was defeated by ] at the ], losing most of his plunder. When Polish commander ] failed to win the ], Lisowczycy retreated to the vicinity of Rakhmantsevo. Soon, however, came successes (pillages) at ], ], and some other cities. | |||
Dmitry speedily captured ], ], and other towns. He was reinforced by the Poles, and in the spring of 1608 advanced upon Moscow, routing the army of Tsar Vasily Shuyski at ].<ref name=Tucker/>{{rp|561}} Dmitry's promises of the wholesale confiscation of the estates of the boyars drew many common people to his side. The village of ], about twelve kilometers from the capital, was converted into an armed camp, where Dmitry gathered his army. His forces initially included 7,000 Polish soldiers, 10,000 Cossacks, and 10,000 other soldiers, including former members of the failed ], but his force grew gradually in power, and soon exceeded 100,000 men. He raised another illustrious captive, ], to the rank of ], enthroning him as Patriarch Filaret, and won the allegiance of the cities of ], ], ], ], and several others. However, his fortunes were soon to reverse, as the Commonwealth decided to take a more active stance in the Russian civil wars. | |||
==War (1609–1618)== | |||
===Polish victories (1609–1610)=== | |||
] by Orthodox monks led by the chronicler ] (September 1609 to January 1611). Painting by ].]] | |||
In 1609 the ] ended when Tsar Vasili signed a military alliance with ] (on 28 February 1609).<ref name=Tucker />{{rp|563}} The Commonwealth king Sigismund III, whose primary goal was to regain the Swedish throne, got permission from the Polish Sejm (Parliament) to ] on ]. He viewed it as an excellent opportunity to expand the Commonwealth's territory and ], with hopes that the eventual outcome of the war would ] ] Russia (in this he was strongly supported by the Pope) and enable him to defeat Sweden. This plan also allowed him to give a purpose to the numerous restless former supporters of Zebrzydowski, luring them with promises of wealth and fame awaiting members of the campaign beyond the Commonwealth's eastern border. A book published that year by the well-travelled Polish Silesian nobleman, ] and political activist ] of ],<ref name="PPKMGF">{{Cite book|title=Paweł Palczowski z Palczowic, Kolęda moskiewska; oprac. (preface, commentary & notes by:) Grzegorz Franczak|url=https://www.academia.edu/5248221|first=Grzegorz|last=Franczak|publisher=Wydawnictwo Neriton (Wydział Polonistyki Uniwersytetu Warszawskiego – Biblioteka Dawnej Literatury Popularnej i Okolicznościowej, t. 6.) English: Publisher Neriton (Faculty of Polish Studies at Warsaw University – Library of Ancient Popular Literature and Occasional, Vol 6)|location=Warsaw|year=2010|language=pl|isbn=978-8375431421}}</ref> ''Kolęda moskiewska'' (''The Muscovite Carol''),<ref name="PPKMGF" /><ref name="PPKM">{{Cite book|title=Kolęda moskiewska. (To iest, Woyny Moskiewskiey, Przyczyny Sluszne, Okazya pozadana, Zwyćięstwa nadźieia wielka, Państwa tam tego pożytki y bogactwa, nigdy nieoszacowane. Krotko opisane Przez Pawla Palczowskiego, z Palczowic, Szlachćica Polskiego)|url=http://www.wbc.poznan.pl/dlibra/doccontent?id=116567&from=FBC|first=Paweł|last=Palczowski z Palczowic|publisher=Mikołaj Szarffenberger (Mikołaia Szarffenbergera)|location=Kraków|year=1609|language=pl}}</ref> compared Russia to the ] empires of the ], full of golden cities and easy to conquer. The ] was written to promote Polish colonialism and persuade delegates of the Sejm in January 1609 to support Sigismund III's expedition to ]. Palczowski himself participated in and perished during Sigismund's Muscovy expedition.<ref name="RUSR">Sarmatian Review, Rice University, Texas, January 2011, Vol. XXXI, No. 1., p. 1561; ''The Muscovite Carol (Kolęda moskiewska)'' by Paweł Palczowski of Palczowic. Edited by Grzegorz Franczak. </ref> Some Russian boyars assured Sigismund of their support by offering the throne to his son, Prince ]. Previously, Sigismund had been unwilling to commit the majority of Polish forces or his time to the internal conflict in Russia, but in 1609 those factors made him re-evaluate and drastically change his policy. | |||
]]] | |||
Although many Polish nobles and soldiers were fighting for the second False Dmitry at the time, Sigismund III and the troops under his command did not support Dimitriy for the throne – Sigismund wanted Russia himself. The entry of Sigismund into Russia caused the majority of the Polish supporters of False Dmitry II to desert him and contributed to his defeat. A series of subsequent disasters induced False Dmitry II to flee his camp disguised as a peasant and to go to Kostroma together with Marina. Dmitry made another unsuccessful attack on Moscow, and, supported by the ], recovered a hold over all of south-eastern Russia. He was killed, however, while half drunk, on 11 December 1610 by a ] princeling Pyotr Urusov, whom Dimitriy had flogged on a previous occasion. | |||
A Commonwealth army under the command of ] ], who was generally opposed to this conflict but could not disobey the king's orders, crossed the border and on 29 September 1609 laid ], an important city Russia had captured from Lithuania in 1514. ] was manned by fewer than 1,000 Russian men commanded by the ] ], while Żółkiewski commanded 12,000 troops. However, Smolensk had one major advantage: the previous Tsar, Boris Godunov, had sponsored the fortification of the city with a massive fortress completed in 1602. The Poles found it impenetrable; they settled into a long siege, firing artillery into the city, attempting to tunnel under the ], and building earthen ]s, remnants of which can still be seen today. The siege lasted 20 months before the Poles with the help of a Russian defector named Andrei Dedishin eventually succeeded in taking the fortress. | |||
], by an anonymous author, possibly a witness of the siege]] | |||
Not all of the Commonwealth attacks were successful. An early attack, led by Hetman ] with 2,000 men, ended in defeat when the unpaid Commonwealth army mutinied and compelled their leader to retreat through the heart of Russia and back to Smolensk. Not until Crown Prince Władysław, arrived with tardy reinforcements did the war assume a different character. In the meantime, Lisowczycy took and plundered ] in 1610 and clashed with the Swedes operating in Russia during the ]. | |||
Several different visions of the campaign and political goals clashed in the Polish camp. Some of the former members of the Zebrzydowski Rebellion, opponents of Sigismund, actually advanced proposals to have Sigismund dethroned and Dmitriy, or even Shuyski, elected king. Żółkiewski, who from the beginning opposed the invasion of Russia, came into conflict with Sigismund over the scope, methods, and goal of the campaign. Żółkiewski represented the traditional views of Polish nobility, the ], which did not support waging aggressive and dangerous wars against a strong enemy like Russia. Thus Żółkiewski favored the plans for peaceful and voluntary union, much like that with Lithuania. Żółkiewski offered Russian boyars rights and religious freedom, envisioning an association resulting in the creation of the ]. To that end, he felt that Moscow's cooperation should be gained via diplomacy, not force. Sigismund III, however, did not want to engage in political deals and compromises, especially when these had to include concessions to the Orthodox Church. Sigismund was a vocal, almost fanatical, supporter of the ] and ], and believed that he could win everything and take Moscow by force, and then establish his own rule along with the rule of Roman Catholicism. | |||
===Poles in Moscow (1610)=== | ===Poles in Moscow (1610)=== | ||
On 31 January 1610 Sigismund received a delegation of boyars opposed to |
On 31 January 1610 Sigismund received a delegation of boyars opposed to Shuyski, who asked Władysław to become the tsar. On 24 February Sigismund sent them a letter in which he agreed to do so, but only when Moscow was at peace. | ||
] | |||
Hetman Żółkiewski, whose only other choice was muntiny, decided to follow king's orders and left Smolensk in 1610, leaving only a smaller force necessary to continue the siege. With Cossack reinforcements, he marched on Moscow. However, as he feared and predicted, as the Poles-Lithuanians forces pressed eastwards, ravaging Muscovy lands, and as Sigismund lack of willingness to compromise became more and more apparent, many supporters of Poles and of the second False Dmitry left the pro-Polish camp and turned to Shuiski's anti-Polish faction. | |||
Hetman Żółkiewski, whose only other choice was mutiny, decided to follow the king's orders and left Smolensk in 1610, leaving only a smaller force necessary to continue the siege. With Cossack reinforcements, he marched on Moscow. However, as he feared and predicted, as the Polish–Lithuanian forces pressed eastwards, ravaging Russian lands, and as Sigismund's lack of willingness to compromise became more and more apparent, many supporters of the Poles and of the second False Dmitry left the pro-Polish camp and turned to Shuyski's anti-Polish faction. | |||
] wedge at the Battle of Kluszyn]] | |||
Russian forces under ] were coming to relieve Smolensk and fortified the fort at ] (Carowo, Cariewo, Tsarovo-Zajmiszcze) to bar the Poles advance on Moscow. ] begun on ]. However, the Russians were not prepared for a long siege and had little food and water inside the fort with them. Voluyev sent word for ] (Tsar Shuiski's brother, also known as Demetrius) to come to their aid and lift the siege. Shuiski's troops marched for Tsaravo, not by the direct route, but around through Klushino, hoping to come to Tsaravo by the back route. Shuyski received aid from Swedish forces under the command of ]. | |||
] formation at the ].]] | |||
Żółkiewski learned of Shuiski's relieve force and divided his forces to meet Muscovy forces before they came to Tsarove and lift the siege. He left at night so Voluyev would not notice his absence. Combined Muscovy and Swedish forces were defeated in on ] 1610 at the ], where 5,000 Polish elite cavalry, the ] under hetman Stanisław Żółkiewski, defeated the numerically superior Russian army of about 35,000-40,000 soldiers. This giant and suprising defeat of Muscovy forces shocked everyone and would open a new phase in the current conflict. | |||
Russian forces under ]<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.hrono.ru/biograf/bio_we/voluev_gl.html|title=Волуев Григорий Леонтьевич|website=www.hrono.ru|access-date=4 February 2019}}</ref> were coming to relieve Smolensk and fortified the fort at ] (Carowo, Cariewo, Tsarovo–Zajmiszcze) to bar the Poles' advance on Moscow. The Siege of Tsaryovo began on 24 June.<ref name=Tucker/>{{rp|563}} However, the Russians were not prepared for a long siege and had little food and water inside the fort.<ref name=Tucker/>{{rp|563}} Voluyev sent word for Dmitry Shuyski (Tsar Shuyski's brother) to come to their aid and lift the siege.<ref name=Tucker/>{{rp|564}} Shuyski's troops marched for Tsaryovo, not by the direct route, but round-about through Klushino, hoping to come to Tsaryovo by the back route.<ref name=Tucker/>{{rp|564}} Shuyski received aid from Swedish forces under the command of ]. | |||
] in ] before Zygmunt III" by ], oil on canvas.]] | |||
After the news of Kluszyn spread, support for tsar Shuyski, never too high, almost complety dissapeared. Żółkiewski soon convinced Muscovy forces at Tsarovo, much stronger then the ones at Kłuszyn, to capitulate and swear an oath of loyality to Władysław. Then he incorporated them into his forces and moved towards Moscow. In August ] many Muscovite ]s accepted that Sigismund III was victorious and Władysław could become the next tsar if he converted to ]. The Russian ] voted for Tsar Shuiski to be removed from the throne. Shuyski's family including the tsars were captured and Shuiski was reportedly taken to a monastery and forcibly shaved as a monk, where he remained under guard. He was later sent to Warsaw, as a kind of war trophy, and eventually died in ]. | |||
Żółkiewski learned of Shuyski's relief force and divided his troops to meet the Russians before they could come to Tsaryovo and lift the siege. He left at night so that Voluyev would not notice his absence. The combined Russian and Swedish armies were defeated on 4 July 1610 at the ] (Kłuszyn), where 7,000 Polish elite cavalry, the ]s, led by the hetman himself, defeated the numerically superior Russian army of about 35,000–40,000 soldiers.<ref name=Tucker/>{{rp|564}} This giant and surprising defeat of the Russians shocked everyone and opened a new phase in the conflict. | |||
Shortly after Shuiski was removed, both Żółkiewski and the second False Dmitry arrived at Moscow with their separate armies. It was a tense moment, filled with the confusion of the conflict. Various pro- and anti-Polish, Swedish and domestic boyars factions vied for the temporary control of the situation. The Muscovy army and people themselves were unsure if this was an invasion and they should close and defend the city, or if it was a liberating force that they should allow in and welcome as allies. After a few skirmishes, pro-Polish faction gained dominance and the Poles were allowed into Moscow. Boyars opened Moscow's gates to the Polish troops, boyars asked Żółkiewski to protect them from anarchy and the ] was garrisoned by Polish troops commanded by ]. On ] a treaty was signed beteen boyars and Żółkiewski promising Muscovy boyars the same vast priviligies Polish szlachta had, in exchange for them recognising Władysław, son of Sigismund III, as a new tsar. However, Żółkiewski could not know that Sigismund, who remained at Smolensk, already had other some plans. | |||
] |
] in ] before Sigismund III'', by ]]] | ||
In the meantime, former reluctant allies, Żółkiewski and the second False Dmitry, begun to part their ways. Second False Dmitry had lost much influence on the Polish court and Żółkiewski would eventually try to drive Dmitry from the capital. Żółkiewski soon began maneuvering for a tsar of Polish origin, particularly the 15-year old Prince Władysław. Previously during the Time of Troubles the boyars had offered the throne to Władysław at least twice, in the hopes of having the ] Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth end the ] rule of their current tsars. Through Żółkiewski's work, the pro-Polish factions among the boyars (composed of khniazes ] (Fedor Mścisławski), ] (Wasyl Golicyn), ] (Fedor Szeremietiev), ] (Daniło Mezecki) and ]s ] (Wasyl Telepniew) and ]<!--still needs a translation-->) gained dominance and once again majority of the boyars said they would support Władysław for the throne, if he converted to Orthodox and if Poland-Lithuania returned the fortresses they had captured thus far in the war. | |||
After the news of Klushino spread, support for Tsar Shuyski almost completely evaporated. Żółkiewski soon convinced the Russian units at Tsaryovo, which were much stronger than the ones at Kłuszyn, to capitulate and to swear an oath of loyalty to Władysław. Then he incorporated them into his army and moved towards Moscow. In August 1610 many Russian ]s accepted that Sigismund III was victorious and that Władysław would become the next tsar if he converted to ]. The Russian ] voted for Tsar Shuyski to be removed from the throne.<ref name=Tucker/>{{rp|564}} Shuyski's family, including the tsar, were captured, and Shuyski was reportedly taken to a monastery, forcibly shaved as a monk, and compelled to remain at the monastery under guard. He was later sent to Warsaw, as a kind of war trophy, and eventually died in ]. | |||
However, Sigismund, supported by some of the more devout szlachta, was completly opposed to the conversion of the prince. At that moment, the plan for the Polish-Lithuanian-Muscovy union begun to unravel. Offended and angered by Sigismund, the boyars drug their feet on supporting Władysław - they were divided between electing ], ] (also 15 years old), or the second False Dmitry. Żółkiewski acted quickly making promises without the consent of the still-absent king, and the boyars elected Władysław as the new tsar. Żółkiewski had the most prominent of the opponents, ], Michael's father and ], exiled from Russia, in order to secure the Polish support. After the election of Władysław as tsar, the second False Dmitry fled ] near ] to his base at ]. However, his position was precarious even there and he was killed on December 20 by one of his own men. Marina Mniszech, though, was pregnant, with the new "heir" to the Russian throne, Ivan Dmitriyevich, and she would still be a factor of Muscovy politics until her eventual death in ]. | |||
Shortly after Shuyski was removed, both Żółkiewski and the second False Dmitri arrived at Moscow with their separate armies. It was a tense moment, filled with the confusion of the conflict. Various pro- and anti-Polish, Swedish, and domestic boyar factions vied for temporary control of the situation. The Russian army and the people themselves were unsure if this was an invasion and that they should close and defend the city, or if it was a liberating force that should be allowed in and welcomed as allies. After a few skirmishes, the pro-Polish faction gained dominance, and the Poles were allowed into Moscow on 8 October.<ref name=Tucker/>{{rp|564}} The boyars opened Moscow's gates to the Polish troops and asked Żółkiewski to protect them from anarchy. The ] was then garrisoned by Polish troops commanded by ]. On 27 July a treaty was signed between the boyars and Żółkiewski promising the Russian boyars the same vast privileges the Polish Szlachta had, in exchange for them recognizing Władysław as the new tsar. However, Żółkiewski did not know that Sigismund, who remained at Smolensk, already had other plans. | |||
However, Władysław faced further opposition from the seemingly most unlikely party - his father. When Żółkiewski returned to meet Sigismund at Smoleńsk in November that year, Sigismund III changed his mind and decided that he himself could gain the Russian throne for himself. This move was opposed by a majority of the Russians, especially as Sigismund didn't hide his intent to Catholicize Muscovy. Żółkiewski found himself in an awkward position - he had promised the boyars Prince Władysław to keep the Russian throne for Poland and he knew they would not accept King Sigismund III, who was unpopular throughout Russia; however, he also had to explain this to his king, who was convinced, from his conquests in the west, of his popularity in Russia. Eventually, Żółkiewski, dissapointed with Sigismund, returned to Poland. King Sigismund III eventualy compromised; he decided he would allow his son to take the throne and he would get to rule as his ] until Władysław came of age. Thus, he required that the boyars who submitted and swore allegiance to Prince Władysław would also have to swear an oath to him. The boyars were more resistant to this request, and support for Poles eroded fast. Władysław was never able to take real power and the war would soon resume. Sigismund and Władysław left the city for safer ground as tensions grew, and the small Polish garrison at Kremlin soon became isolated and subject to increased hostility, as more and more formerly pro-Polish boyars begun to change factions. Polish forces outside Moscow under the command of ] clashed with growing anti-Polish Muscovy forces of the so called ], led by ]. | |||
], oil on canvas]] | |||
In the meantime, siege of Smolensk continued, even as Władysław as named tsar of Russia, cities and forts throughout the area swore allegiance to the Poles. However Sigismund III required Smolensk not just swear allegiance but open its gates to the Poles, which Russians refused to do. Żółkiewski left Moscow fortified with his army, to return to King Sigismund III, who had remained at Smolensk while Żółkiewski negotiated in Moscow. The largest tunneling project at Smolensk came in December 1610; however, the Poles only managed to destroy more of the outer wall - the inner wall remained intact. The siege continued. At one point, the Polish guns breached the outer wall and the ] of ] (Bracław) ordered his soldiers to rush in; however, the Russians could see where the breach would come and had fortified that part of the wall with more men. Both sides were slaughtered, and the Poles were eventually beat back. | |||
In the meantime, Żółkiewski and the second False Dmitriy, formerly reluctant allies, began to part ways. The second False Dmitry had lost much of his influence over the Polish court, and Żółkiewski would eventually try to drive Dmitry from the capital. Żółkiewski soon began manoeuvring for a tsar of Polish origin, particularly the 15-year-old Prince Władysław. The boyars had offered the throne to Władysław at least twice, in the hopes of having the liberal Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth end the ] rule of their current tsars. Through Żółkiewski's work, the pro-Polish factions among the boyars (composed of knyazes Fyodor Mstislavsky, ], Fyodor Sheremetev, Daniil Mezetsky and ]s Vasily Telepnyov, and Tomiło Łagowski) gained dominance and once again a majority of the boyars said that they would support Władysław for the throne, if he converted to Orthodoxy and if the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth returned the fortresses that they had captured in the war. | |||
However, Sigismund, supported by some of the more devout and zealous nobility, was completely opposed to the conversion of the prince. From that point the planned Polish–Lithuanian–Muscovite union began to fall apart. Offended and angered by Sigismund, the boyars dragged their feet on supporting Władysław. They were divided between electing ], ] (also 15 years old), or the second False Dmitriy. Żółkiewski acted quickly, making promises without the consent of the still-absent king, and the boyars elected Władysław as the new tsar. Żółkiewski had the most prominent of the opponents, ], Michael's father and the ], exiled from Russia to secure Polish support. After the election of Władysław, the second False Dmitry fled from ], a city near Moscow, to his base at ]. However, his position was precarious even there, and he was killed on 20 December by one of his own men. Marina Mniszech, though, was pregnant with the new "heir" to the Russian throne, Ivan Dmitriyevich, and she would still be a factor in Russian politics until her eventual death in 1614. | |||
Władysław faced further opposition from a seemingly unlikely party: his father. When Żółkiewski returned to meet Sigismund at Smolensk in November of that year, Sigismund III changed his mind and decided that he could gain the Russian throne for himself. A majority of the Russians opposed the move, especially as Sigismund didn't hide his intent to Catholicize and Polonize the Russian Tsardom. Żółkiewski found himself in an awkward position – he had promised the boyars Prince Władysław to keep the Russian throne for Poland, and he knew that they would not accept Sigismund III, who was unpopular throughout Russia. However, he also had to explain this to his king, who was convinced, from his conquests in the west, of his popularity in Russia. Eventually, Żółkiewski, disappointed with Sigismund, returned to Poland. Sigismund eventually compromised and decided that he would allow his son to take the throne and that he would rule as ] until Władysław came of age. Thus, he required that the boyars who submitted and swore allegiance to Prince Władysław would also have to swear an oath to him. The boyars were more resistant to this request and support for the Poles eroded fast. Władysław was never able to take real power, and the war soon resumed. Sigismund and Władysław left the city for safer ground as tensions grew, and the small Polish garrison at the Kremlin soon became isolated and subject to increased hostility, as more and more of the formerly pro-Polish boyars began to change factions. The Polish forces outside Moscow under the command of ] clashed with the growing anti-Polish Russian forces of the so-called First Volunteer Army, led by ]. | |||
In the meantime, the siege of Smolensk continued, even as Władysław was named tsar of Russia and cities and forts throughout the area swore allegiance to the Poles. However, Sigismund III required that Smolensk not only swear allegiance, but open its gates to the Poles, which the Russians refused to do. Żółkiewski fortified Moscow with his army and returned to King Sigismund III, who had remained at Smolensk while Żółkiewski negotiated in Moscow. The largest tunneling project at Smolensk came in December 1610; however, the Poles only managed to destroy more of the outer wall – the inner wall remained intact. The siege continued. At one point, the Polish guns breached the outer wall, and the ] of ] (Bracław) ordered his soldiers to rush in; however, the Russians had predicted where the breach would occur and had fortified that part of the wall with additional men. Both sets of troops were slaughtered, and the Poles were eventually beaten back. | |||
===The war resumes (1611)=== | ===The war resumes (1611)=== | ||
] |
], painting by ]]] | ||
In ] an uprising in Moscow against the Polish garrison marked the end of Russian tolerance for Commonwealth intervention. The citizens of Moscow had participated freely in the coup in 1606, killing 500 Polish soldiers. Now, being ruled by them, they once again revolted. The townspeople took over the munitions store but Polish troops defeated the first wave of attacks, and the fighting resulted in a large fire consuming part of Moscow. From July the situation of the Commonwealth forces became grave, as the uprising turned into a a siege of the Polish-held Kremlin. Reportedly, the Poles had imprisoned the leader of the Orthodox church, Patriarch ]. When the Russians attacked Moscow, the Poles ordered him, as the man with the most authority with the Russians at the time, to sign a statement to call off the attack. Germogen refused, and was starved to death<!--or executed? sources?-->. Polish Kremlin garrison found itself besieged. | |||
{{Further|Battle of Moscow (1612)}} | |||
In the meantime, in late 1611, prince ] (Dymitr Pożarski) was asked to lead an eager public opposition to Poles, organized by the merchant's guild of ] with the respected town's butcher (literally, a meat-trader) ] overseeing the handling of merchant's donated funds (], Второе народное ополчение). When in January 1612 part of Polish soldiers mutined due to upayed wages and retreated from Muscovy towards the Commonwealth, the forces of Second Volunteer Army strenghted the other anti-Polish Muscovy forces at Moscow. Polish army (9,000 strong) under hetman ] attempted to lift the siege and clashed with Muscovy forces, attempting to break through to Polish forces in Kremlin on ]. Polish forces, used to cavalry attacks in the open field, tried a new tactic: to escort a mobile ] fortress through the city. After early Polish successes, due to Cossack reinforcing Muscovites, Chodkiewicz forces had been forced to retreat from Moscow. | |||
A 1611 uprising in Moscow against the Polish garrison<ref name=Tucker/>{{rp|564}} marked the end of Russian tolerance for the Commonwealth intervention. The citizens of Moscow had voluntarily participated in the coup in 1606, killing 500 Polish soldiers. Now, ruled by the Poles, they once again revolted. The Moscow burghers took over the munition store, but Polish troops defeated the first wave of attackers, and the fighting resulted in a large fire that consumed part of Moscow.<ref name=Tucker/>{{rp|564}} From July onward the situation of the Commonwealth forces became grave, as the uprising turned into a siege of the Polish-held Kremlin. Reportedly, the Poles had imprisoned the leader of the Orthodox Church, ]. When the Russians attacked Moscow, the Poles ordered him, as the man with the most authority with the Russians at the time, to sign a statement to call off the attack. Hermogenes refused and was starved to death. The Polish Kremlin garrison then found itself besieged.<ref name=Tucker/>{{rp|564}} | |||
Russian reinforcements under prince Pozharski eventually starved the Commonwealth garrison (there were reports of ]) and forced its surrender on the ] <!--some sources give 6th or 7th Nov-->after the siege of 19 months. A historian writes vividly of the Polish soldiers: "First they ate grass and offal, then they ate each other, and the survivors finally surrendered. The Moscow Kremlin fell on 6 November 1612." On November 7, the Polish soldiers withdrew from Moscow. Although the Commonwealth negotiated a safe passage, the Russian forces massacred half of the former Kremlin garrison forces as they left the fortress<!--source: Davies-->. Thus the Russian army recaptured Moscow. | |||
] refuses to sign a letter condemning anti-Polish actions, painting by ]]] | |||
On ] 1611 Smolensk has finally fallen to the Poles. After enduring 20 months of siege, two harsh winters and dwindling food supplies, the Russians in Smolensk finally reached their limit as the Polish-Lithuanian troops broke through the city gates. Polish army advised by the runaway traitor ], discovered a weakness in the fortess defence and on ] ] ] ] inserted a mine into sewer canal and the succeding explosion created a large breach in the fortress walls. ] was the first on the walls. The fortress fell on the same day. The remaining Russian soldiers took refuge in a cathedral and blew themselves up with stores of gunpowder to avoid death at the hands of the invaders. Although it was a blow to loose Smolensk, it freed up Russian troops to fight the Commonwealth in Moscow, and the Russian commander at Smolensk, ], was considered a hero for holding out as long as he had. He was captured at Smolensk and would remain a prisoner of Poland-Lithuania for the next 9 years. | |||
In the meantime, in late 1611, prince ] was asked to lead the public opposition against the Poles,<ref name=Tucker/>{{rp|564}} organized by the merchants' guild of ]. The respected town butcher (literally, a meat-trader) ] oversaw the handling of funds donated by the merchants to form the Second Volunteer Army ({{langx|ru|link=no|Второе народное ополчение}}). When part of the Polish army mutinied in January 1612 due to unpaid wages and retreated from Russia towards the Commonwealth, the forces of the Second Volunteer Army strengthened the other anti-Polish Russian forces in Moscow. The 9,000-strong Polish army under ] ] attempted to lift the siege<ref name=Tucker/>{{rp|564}} and clashed with Russian forces, attempting to break through to Polish forces in the Kremlin on 1 September. The Polish forces used cavalry attacks in the open field, exercising tactics that were new to them: escorting a mobile ] fortress through the city. After early Polish successes, the Russian Cossack reinforcements had forced Chodkiewicz's forces to retreat from Moscow.<ref name=Tucker/>{{rp|564}} | |||
===A new respite (1612-1617)=== ], learned about his election to the Russian throne in the ]. Source: 17th century illustrated manuscript.]] | |||
] | |||
After the fall of Smolensk, Polish-Muscovy border remained realtively quited for the next few years, however, no official treaty was yet signed. Sigismund, critised by ] (Polish parliament of szlachta, who was always reluctant to levvy taxes upon themselves to pay for any military force) for his failure to keep Moscow, received little funds for the army. This led to a ] of Polish regular army (]), or rather to the specific semi-legal form of mutiny practiced in the Commonwealth: a ] (''confederatio''). The resulting ] was considered the largest and most vicious of soldier's konfederacja's in the history of the Commonwealth, and pillaged Commonwealth territories from 1612 until the most rebellious of the konfederate's were defated on ] ] at the ], and the rest received their wages (leader of the konfedracja, ], was sent in chains by the future hetman ] to his mentor, hetman Żółkiewski, and later executed in ]). Further criticism of Sigismund came from the ], because the Cossacks in the Ukraine once again had begun to make unsanctified raids into Turkish territory. Thus Poles-Lithuanians got no support from the Ottoman Empire in their war. | |||
Russian reinforcements under Prince Pozharsky eventually starved the Commonwealth garrison (there were reports of ]) and forced its surrender on 1 November (though some sources give 6 November or 7 November) after the 19-month siege.<ref name=Tucker/>{{rp|564}} A historian (Parker) writes vividly of the Polish soldiers: "First they ate grass and offal, then they ate each other, and the survivors finally surrendered. The Moscow Kremlin fell on 6 November 1612." On 7 November, the Polish soldiers withdrew from Moscow. Although the Commonwealth negotiated a safe passage, the Russian forces massacred half of the former Kremlin garrison forces as they left the fortress.<ref name=Tucker>Tucker, S.C., Editor, 2010, ''A Global Chronology of Conflict'', Santa Barbara: ABC-CLIO, LLC, {{ISBN|9781851096671}}</ref>{{rp|564}} Thus, the Russian army recaptured Moscow. | |||
In the meantime, Russian Time of Troubles was far from over, and Muscovy had no strengh to take opportunity of Commonwealth weakness. On ] ] the ] ("assembly of the land") named ], now the 17-year old son of Fyodor Romanov, the new tsar. Fyodor, now installed as ], was a popular boyar and patriarch of Moscow, one of several boyars who vied to gain control of the Muscovy throne during the Time of Troubles. The Romanovs were a powerful boyar family; Michael's great-aunt (the sister of his grandfather) was ], the wife of Ivan the Terrible. However, the new tsar has many opponents. Marina Mniszech tried to place her child as Tsar of Russia until her death in 1614, various boyar factions still vied for power, trying to unseat the young Tsar Michael, and Sweden intervend in force, trying to gain the throne for Duke ], and succeeding for a few months. Philip had even less support then Władysław and Swedes were soon forced to retreat from Muscovy. | |||
] to ] in 1612, painting by ]]] | |||
].]] | |||
While both countries were shaken by internal strife, many smaller factions thirved. Polish ] mercenaries, who were essential in the defence of Smoleńsk in 1612, when most of regulars (wojsko kwarciane) mutined and joined the konfederacja rohatynska, for the next three years were content with the guarding of the Polish-Muscovy border against Muscovy incursions. However in 1615 ] gathered many outlaws and invaded Muscovy with 6 ']' of calvalry. He lied siege to ] (Briańsk) and defeated the relief force of few thousadns soldiers under kniazh ] near ]. Then Lisowski defeated the front guard of a much larger force (several times larger then himself) under the command of khniaz ], who decided to defend instead of attack and fortified his forces in a camp. Lisowczycy broke contact with his forces, burned ] and ], took ], turned north, defeated Muscovy army at ], turned to ], then to ], burned ] and heavy with loot returned to Poland without any further opposition from Muscovy forces. Until autumn 1616 Lisowski and his forces remained at the Polish-Muscovy border, when Lisowski suddenly fell ill and died on 11 October. Since then the formation became known as ''Lisowczycy''. Despite the death of Lisowski, his forces remained a singnifiant threat: in 1616 they captured ] and defeated Russian forces at ]. | |||
On 2 June 1611 Smolensk had finally fallen to the Poles. After enduring 20 months of siege, two harsh winters and dwindling food supplies, the Russians in Smolensk finally reached their limit as the Polish–Lithuanian troops broke through the city gates. The Polish army, advised by the runaway traitor Andrei Dedishin, discovered a weakness in the fortress defenses, and on 13 June 1611 ] Bartłomiej Nowodworski inserted a mine into a sewer canal. The explosion created a large breach in the fortress walls. The fortress fell on the same day.<ref name=Tucker/>{{rp|563}} The remaining 3,000 Russian defenders took refuge in the Assumption Cathedral and blew themselves up with stores of gunpowder to avoid death at the hands of the invaders.<ref name=Tucker/>{{rp|563}} Although it was a blow to lose Smolensk, the defeat freed up Russian troops to fight the Commonwealth in Moscow, and the Russian commander at Smolensk, ], was considered a hero for holding out as long as he had. He was captured at Smolensk and remained a prisoner of Poland–Lithuania for the next nine years. | |||
===The final stage (1617-1618)=== | |||
] ], sketch by ].]] | |||
===A new respite (1612–1617)=== | |||
Eventually the Commonwealth Sejm voted to raise funds to resume and end the war. Sigismund's and Władysław's final attempt to gain the throne was a new campaign launched on ] ]. Władsław was the nominal commander, however it was hetman Chodkiewicz who had actuall control over the army. In October, the towns of ] (Drohobuż, Drohobycz) and ] (Wiaźma) surrendered quickly, reconginized Władysław as the tsar. However, Commonwealth forces suffred defeats between Vyazma and ], and Chodkiewicz plans for counterattack and advance to Moscow failed. Władysław didn't have enough forces to advance to Moscow again, especially as support for Poles was all but gone by that time. In response to his invasion, the townspeople of Smolensk revolted in opposition of Polish rule, and the Polish troops had to fight their way back as they retreated from the city. However in ] Polish forces, besieged in Smoleńsk by Russian forces were relived by Lisowczycy, when Muscovy forces retreated to ] soon after receiving news that Lisowczycy, then commanded by ] were in the neighbourhood. Those were the last spasms of the war. Negotiations begun and a peace treaty was signed in ]. | |||
]. Source: 17th century illustrated manuscript.]] | |||
After the fall of Smolensk, the Russo-Polish border remained relatively quiet for the next few years. However, no official treaty was signed. Sigismund, criticized by the ] (the Polish parliament made up of the ''szlachta'', who were always reluctant to levy taxes upon themselves to pay for any military force)<ref name=Tucker/>{{rp|565}} for his failure to keep Moscow, received little funding for the army. This led to a ] of the Polish regular army (]), or rather to the specific semi-legal form of mutiny practiced in the Commonwealth: a ] (''confederatio''). The resulting ] was considered the largest and most vicious of the soldiers' konfederacjas in the history of the Commonwealth, and it pillaged Commonwealth territories from 1612 until the most rebellious of the konfederacjas were defeated on 17 May 1614 at the Battle of Rohatyn,<ref name=Tucker/>{{rp|565}} whereupon the rest received their wages. The leader of the konfederacja, ], was captured and sent in chains by the future hetman ] to his mentor, hetman Żółkiewski, and later executed in ]. The ] further criticized Sigismund because the Cossacks in Ukraine once again had begun to make unsanctioned raids into Turkish territory. Thus, Poland–Lithuania got no support from the Ottoman Empire in its war. | |||
In the meantime, the Russian Time of Troubles was far from over, and Russia had no strength to take advantage of the Commonwealth's weakness.<ref name=Tucker/>{{rp|565}} On 21 February 1613 the ] ("assembly of the land") named ], the now 16-year-old son of Fyodor Romanov, the new tsar.<ref name=Tucker/>{{rp|565}} Fyodor, now installed as ], was a popular boyar and patriarch of Moscow, one of several boyars who vied to gain control of the Russian throne during the Time of Troubles. The Romanovs were a powerful boyar family; Michael's great-aunt (the sister of his grandfather) was ], the wife of Ivan the Terrible. However, the new tsar had many opponents. Marina Mniszech tried until her death in 1614 to install her child as Tsar of Russia; various boyar factions still vied for power, trying to unseat the young Tsar Michael; and ], trying to gain the throne for ], even succeeding for a few months. However, Philip received even less support than Władysław, and the Swedes were soon forced to retreat from Russia. | |||
].]] | |||
While both countries were shaken by internal strife, many smaller factions thrived. Polish ] mercenaries, who were essential in the defense of Smolensk in 1612, when most regulars (wojsko kwarciane) mutinied and joined the ''konfederacja rohatynska'', were content to guard the Polish border against the Russian incursions for the next three years. However, in 1615 ] gathered many outlaws and invaded Russia with 6 '']'' of cavalry. He besieged ] and defeated the relief force of a few thousand soldiers under Prince Yuri Shakhovskoy near ]. Then Lisowski defeated the front guard of a force several times larger than his own, under the command of knyaz ], who decided to defend instead of attack and fortified his forces in a camp. Lisowczycy broke contact with his forces, burned ] and ], took ], turned north, defeated the Russian army at ], proceeded north towards ], burned ], and returned to Poland heavy with loot without any further opposition from Russian forces. Lisowski and his forces remained at the Russo–Polish border until autumn 1616, at which point Lisowski suddenly fell ill and died on 11 October. The formation was then known as '']''. Despite the death of Lisowski, his forces remained a significant threat: in 1616 they captured ] and defeated Russian forces at ]. | |||
===The final stage (1617–1618)=== | |||
{{Main|Prince Władysław's March on Moscow}} | |||
]]] | |||
Eventually the Commonwealth Sejm voted to raise the funds necessary to resume large scale military operations. The final attempt by Sigismund and Władysław to gain the throne was a new campaign launched on 6 April 1617. Władysław was the nominal commander, but it was hetman Chodkiewicz who had actual control over the army. In October, the towns of ] (''Дорогобуж'', ''Drohobuż'', ''Drohobycz'') and ] (''Вязьма'', ''Wiaźma'') surrendered quickly, recognizing Władysław as the tsar. However, the Commonwealth forces met stubborn resistance near ], and Chodkiewicz's plans for a quick advance to Moscow failed. Władysław did not have enough forces to advance to Moscow again, especially because the Russian support for the Poles was all but gone by that time. In 1618 ] agreed to join the campaign against the ]. His army of ] invaded from the South, captured and sacked a number of towns, such as Livny, Yelets, Dankov, etc. and headed for Moscow. The Russian army opposing the Poles retreated to Moscow and on 2 October Chodkiewicz and Sahaidachny together launched a siege of the Russian capital. However, their armies were not ready for a long siege and shortly after the night assault on 10–11 October failed, the siege was lifted. Negotiations began and a peace treaty was signed in December 1618.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Сас |first1=П. М. |script-title=uk:Запорожці у польсько-московській війні наприкінці Смути (1617–1618 рр.). |date=2010 |isbn=978-966-2083-73-6 |language=uk}}</ref> | |||
==Aftermath== | ==Aftermath== | ||
] of 1618. |
] | ||
In the end, Sigismund did not succeed in becoming tsar or securing it for Władysław, but was able to expand the Commonwealth territories. On ] ] the ] (also known as Treaty of Dywilino), which concluded the Dymitriad's war, gave the Commonwealth control over some conquered territories, including territories of ] and ] (Siewiersk) and the ] of ], and proclaimed a 15-year ]. Władysław refused to relinquish his claim to the Russian throne, even though Sigismund had already done so. While Commonwealth gained some territories, in terms of money and lives it was a very costly victory. | |||
In the end, Sigismund did not succeed in becoming tsar or in securing the throne for Władysław, but he was able to expand the Commonwealth's territory. During his reign Poland-Lithuania was the largest and most populous country in Europe. On 11 December 1618 the ],<ref name=Tucker/>{{rp|567}} which concluded the Dimitriad's war, gave the Commonwealth control over some of the conquered territories, including the territories of ] and ] (''Siewiersk'') and the city of ], and proclaimed a 15-year ]. Władysław refused to relinquish his claim to the Russian throne, even though Sigismund had already done so. While the Commonwealth gained some territories in the east, in terms of finance and lives it was a very costly victory. | |||
In ] the Truce of Deulino expired, and hostilities were immediately resumed in the course of a conflict known as the ]. This time the war was started by the Russians, trying to exploit the Commonwealth's suspected weakness after Sigismund III's death. However they failed to regain Smolensk and accepted the ] in 1634. The Russians had to pay 20,000 roubles to the Poles, but Władysław relinquished his claim to the Muscovy throne and recognized Michael as the legitimate tsar of Russia, returning Russian royal insignia as well. | |||
In 1632 the Truce of Deulino expired, and hostilities immediately resumed in the course of a conflict known as the ].<ref name=Tucker/>{{rp|587}} This time the war was started by the Russians, who tried to exploit the suspected weakness of the Commonwealth after the unexpected death of Sigismund III.<ref name=Tucker/>{{rp|587}} However, they failed to regain Smolensk. ] surrendered to ] on 1 March 1634, and the Russians accepted the ] in May 1634.<ref name=Tucker/>{{rp|587}} The Russians had to pay 20,000 rubles to the Commonwealth, but Władysław relinquished his claim to the Russian throne<ref name=Tucker/>{{rp|587}} and recognized Michael as the legitimate tsar of Russia, also returning the Russian royal insignia. | |||
== Modern legacy == | |||
==Modern legacy== | |||
The story of Dymitriads and False Dimtiris proved useful to the future generations of rulers and politicians in Poland and Russia, and a distorted version of the real events gained much fame in Muscovy, later Russia, as well as in Poland. In Poland the Dimitriads campaign is remembered as the height of the Polish Golden Age, the time Poles captured Moscow, something even ] could not manage. The Dimitriads were also useful for the Polish nationalistic ] of the ] regime of ]. In Muscovy it was useful to the new dynasty of tsars, the ], who understood that history is a powerful political tool, written by the victors. They tried to erase all references and theories to their role in creating the False Dmitris, self-interested cooperation with Polish and Swedish interventions, or their opposition to the liberal '']''; instead they supported a portayal of Dimitriads as the heroic defence of Russian nation agaisnt the barbaric invasion of Polish-Jesuit alliance, who attempted to destroy the Russian Orthodox culture. This was the history line shown by the famous Russian historian, ], beautifully descirbed by ] in his "Boris Godunov" and by ] in his ] ]. The ] regime of ] also found this war a useful propaganda tool, especially during the times of the ]. In ], the only autumn holiday is the ], first celebrated on ], ]. Its name alludes to the idea that all the classes of the Russian society willingly united to preserve the Russian statehood when its demise seemed inevitable, even though there was neither Tsar nor Patriarch to guide them. However due to the political climate of that time, some observers, especially in Poland, interpreted this festivity as having ] undertones. | |||
] stands before ] in Moscow.]] | |||
The story of the Dymitriads and False Dimitrys proved useful to future generations of rulers and politicians in Poland and Russia, and a distorted version of the real events gained much fame in Russia, as well as in Poland. In Poland the Dmitriads campaign is remembered as the height of the Polish Golden Age, the time Poles captured Moscow, something that even four million troops from ]'s ] and other ] could not manage. In Russia it was useful to the new dynasty of tsars, the ], who understood that history is a powerful political tool, written by the victors. They tried to erase all references and theories to their role in creating the False Dmitrys, self-interested cooperation with Polish and Swedish interventions, or their opposition to the liberal '']''; instead they supported a portrayal of Dmitriads as the heroic defense of Russian nation against the barbaric invasion of Polish–Jesuit alliance, who attempted to destroy the Russian Orthodox culture. This was the history line shown by the famous Russian historian, ], beautifully described by ] in his "Boris Godunov" and by ] in his opera ], and later romanticized in the film '']'' by Vsevolod Pudovkin. The ] was erected in Moscow's Red Square in 1818. The ] regime of the Soviet Union also found this war a useful propaganda tool, especially during the times of the ]. The Dymitriads were also useful for the propaganda of ]'s Polish government between the World Wars. | |||
== See also == | |||
: Related wars: | |||
In ] the only autumn holiday, the ], first celebrated on 4 November 2005, commemorates the popular uprising that ejected the occupying force from Moscow in November 1612, and more generally the end of the Time of Troubles and foreign interventions in Russia. Its name alludes to the idea that all the classes of the Russian society willingly united to preserve the Russian statehood when its demise seemed inevitable, even though there was neither Tsar nor Patriarch to guide them. President Vladimir Putin reestablished the holiday in 2004, replacing the commemoration of the October Revolution which formerly took place on 7 November, likely to reinforce a history of Russian nationalism over that of Communism (or revolution).<ref name="Why Putin Has No Time for Celebrating the Bolshevik Revolution">{{cite web | url=https://www.newsweek.com/why-putin-has-no-time-celebrating-bolshevik-revolution-798918 | title=NewsWeek | website=] | date=3 February 2018 }}</ref><ref name="Why Putin Won’t Be Marking the Hundredth Anniversary of the Bolshevik Revolution">{{cite magazine | url=https://www.newyorker.com/news/news-desk/why-putin-wont-be-marking-the-hundredth-anniversary-of-the-bolshevik-revolution | title=Why Putin Won't Be Marking the Hundredth Anniversary of the Bolshevik Revolution | magazine=The New Yorker| date=3 November 2017 | last1=Lipman | first1=Masha }}</ref> | |||
* ] (1577-1582) | |||
* ] (1593-1621) | |||
In modern Poland, from 2023, every 8 October, ] in ] organizes the remembrance celebration about the allowing the Polish troops to take the Kremlin. The event holds a presentation of the arms from 17th century and a series of lectures about the Polish-Russian War.<ref>{{cite web|access-date=2024-08-07 |date=8 October 2023 |title=413 lat temu Polacy zajęli Kreml |url=https://lublin.tvp.pl/73280052/413-lat-temu-polacy-zajeli-kreml |website=]}}<!-- auto-translated from Polish by Module:CS1 translator --></ref> | |||
* ] (1598-1615) | |||
* ] (1606-1608) | |||
==See also== | |||
* ] (1609-1610) | |||
* ] | |||
** ] (1610-1617) | |||
* ] (1577–1582) | |||
* ] (1593–1621) | |||
* ] (1598–1615) | |||
* ] (1606–1608) | |||
* The ] (1609–1610) | |||
** ] (1610–1617) | |||
* ] (1617) | * ] (1617) | ||
* ] |
* ] (1600–1611, 1617–1629) | ||
** ] ( |
** ] (1632–1634) | ||
* ] (1634) | * ] (1634) | ||
* ], a ] ] ] film released on 1 November 2007 about the expulsion of ] from Moscow | |||
==Notes== | |||
{{notelist}} | |||
==References== | |||
{{More footnotes needed|date=October 2009}} | |||
{{Reflist|refs= | |||
<!--<ref name="starved">{{in lang|ru}} "]'s, ''Russian History in Biographies of its main figures'', Chapter </ref> --> | |||
}} | |||
== |
==Sources== | ||
* ], ''God's Playground'', ISBN |
* ], ''God's Playground'', {{ISBN|0-231-05353-3}} and {{ISBN|0-231-05351-7}} (two volumes). | ||
* ], , Tygodnik "Wprost", Nr 1182 (31 lipca 2005), |
* ], , Tygodnik "Wprost", Nr 1182 (31 lipca 2005), {{in lang|pl}}, accessed on 29 July 2005 | ||
* ], ''Rzeczpospolita Obojga Narodów'', ISBN |
* ], ''Rzeczpospolita Obojga Narodów'', {{ISBN|83-06-01093-0}}. | ||
* |
* Jerzy Malec, ''Szkice z dziejów federalizmu i myśli federalistycznej w czasach nowożytnych'', Wydawnictwo UJ, 1999, {{ISBN|83-233-1278-8}} | ||
* Chester S. L. Dunning, ''Russia's First Civil War: The Time of Troubles and the Founding of the Romanov Dynasty'', Pennsylvania State University Press, 2001, {{ISBN|0-271-02074-1}} (parts available for free on ]) | |||
==Further reading== | |||
== External links == | |||
{{Main|Bibliography of the history of Poland}} | |||
* | |||
* ], ''Król i car: Rzeczpospolita i Moskwa w XVI i XVII wieku'' (''King and Tsar: Republic and Moscow in 16th and 17th Centuries''), Książka i Wiedza, Warszawa, 1995, {{ISBN|83-05-12776-1}} | |||
* Robert Szcześniak, ''Kłuszyn 1610'', Bellona Dom Wydawniczy, 2004 {{ISBN|83-11-09785-2}} | |||
* Tomasz Bohun, ''Moskwa 1612'', ], 2005, {{ISBN|83-11-10085-3}} | |||
* ''Moskwa w rękach Polaków. Pamiętniki dowódców i oficerów garnizonu w Moskwie'' (''Moscow in Polish Hands: Memoires of Commanders and Officers of the Moscow Garrison''). Platan, 2005, {{ISBN|83-89711-50-8}} | |||
==External links== | |||
* (archived 10 October 2003) | |||
{{Lithuanian wars and conflicts}} | |||
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{{Polish wars and conflicts}} | |||
{{Russian Conflicts}} | |||
{{Authority control}} | |||
{{DEFAULTSORT:Polish-Muscovite War (1605-18)}} | |||
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Latest revision as of 14:06, 5 December 2024
War between Russia and Poland-Lithuania Commonwealth
Polish–Russian War (1609–1618) | |||||||||
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Part of the Time of Troubles and the Russo-Polish Wars | |||||||||
Poland–Lithuania and western Russia during the Polish–Russian War. The map shows Poland (cream), Lithuania (dark red), Russia (dark green), and Polish territorial gains or areas temporarily controlled by Poland (pink). Positions of military regiments and important battles are marked with crossed sabres. | |||||||||
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Belligerents | |||||||||
Commanders and leaders | |||||||||
Polish–Russian War (1609–1618) | |
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False Dmitry I :
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Polish–Russian Wars | |
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The Polish–Russian War was a conflict fought between the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth and the Tsardom of Russia from 1609 to 1618.
Russia had been experiencing the Time of Troubles since the death of Tsar Feodor I in 1598, which caused political instability and a violent succession crisis upon the extinction of the Rurik dynasty; furthermore, a major famine ravaged the country from 1601 to 1603. Poland exploited Russia's civil wars when powerful members of the Polish szlachta began influencing Russian boyars and supporting successive pretenders to the title of tsar of Russia against the crowned tsars Boris Godunov (r. 1598–1605) and Vasili IV Shuysky (r. 1606–1610). From 1605, Polish nobles conducted a series of skirmishes until the death of False Dmitry I in 1606, and they invaded again in 1607 until Russia formed a military alliance with Sweden two years later. The King of Poland, Sigismund III Vasa, declared war on Russia in response in 1609, aiming to gain territorial concessions and to weaken Sweden's ally. Polish forces won many early victories such as the 1610 Battle of Klushino. In 1610, Polish units entered Moscow and Sweden withdrew from the military alliance with Russia, instead triggering the Ingrian War of 1610-1617 between Sweden and Russia.
Sigismund's son, Prince Władysław of Poland, was elected tsar of Russia by the Seven Boyars in September 1610, but Sigismund refused to allow his son to become the new tsar unless the Muscovites agreed to convert from Eastern Orthodoxy to Catholicism, and the pro-Polish boyars ended their support for the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth. In 1611, Kuzma Minin and Prince Dmitry Pozharsky formed a new army to launch a popular revolt against the Polish occupation. The Poles captured Smolensk in June 1611, but began to retreat after they were ousted from Moscow in September 1612. In March 1613 the Russian Zemsky Sobor elected Michael Romanov, the son of Patriarch Filaret of Moscow, as tsar of Russia, thus inaugurating the Romanov dynasty and ending the Time of Troubles. With little military action between 1612 and 1617, the war finally ended in 1618 with the Truce of Deulino, which granted the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth certain territorial concessions but preserved Russia's independence.
The war was the first major sign of the rivalry and uneasy relations between Poland and Russia which would last for centuries. Its aftermath had a long-lasting impact on Russian society, fostering a negative stereotype of Poland among Russians and, most notably, giving rise to the Romanov dynasty which ruled Russia for three centuries until the February Revolution in 1917. It also left a noticeable mark on Russian culture, with renowned writers and composers portraying the war in works such as the play Boris Godunov by Alexander Pushkin (adapted into an opera by Modest Mussorgsky), other operas including A Life for the Tsar by Mikhail Glinka and Pan Voyevoda by Nikolai Rimsky-Korsakov as well as films such as Minin and Pozharsky (1939) and 1612 (2007).
Name
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In Polish historiography, two military interventions immediately preceding the war, the aim of which was to place a tsar loyal to the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth on the Russian throne are called the Dimitriads and are considered a separate conflict: the First Dymitriad (1604–1606) and Second Dymitriad (1607–1609). The Polish–Russian War (1609–1618) can subsequently be divided into two wars of 1609–1611 and 1617–1618, and may or may not include the 1617–1618 campaign, which is sometimes referred to as Chodkiewicz Campaign. According to Russian historiography, the chaotic events of the war fall into the "Time of Troubles". The conflict with Poles is commonly called the Polish Invasion, Polish Intervention, or more specifically the Polish Intervention of the Early Seventeenth Century.
Background
Prelude to invasions
Further information: Time of TroublesIn the late 16th and early 17th centuries, Russia was in a state of political and economic crisis. After the death of Tsar Ivan IV ("the Terrible") in 1584, and the death of his son Dimitri in 1591, several factions competed for the tsar's throne. In 1598, Boris Godunov was crowned to the Russian throne, marking the end of the centuries long rule of the Rurik dynasty. While his policies were rather moderate and well-intentioned, his rule was marred by the general perception of its questionable legitimacy and allegations of his involvement in orchestrating the assassination of Dimitri. While Godunov managed to put the opposition to his rule under control, he did not manage to crush it completely. To add to his troubles, the first years of the 17th century were exceptionally cold. The drop in temperature was felt all over the world and was most likely caused by a severe eruption of a volcano in South America. In Russia, it resulted in a great famine that swept through the country from 1601 to 1603.
In late 1600, a Polish diplomatic mission led by Chancellor Lew Sapieha with Eliasz Pielgrzymowski and Stanisław Warszycki arrived in Moscow and proposed an alliance between the Commonwealth and Russia, which would include a future personal union. They proposed that after one monarch's death without heirs, the other would become the ruler of both countries. However, Tsar Godunov declined the union proposal and settled on extending the Treaty of Jam Zapolski, which ended the Lithuanian wars of the 16th century, by 22 years (to 1622).
Sigismund and the Commonwealth magnates knew full well that they were not capable of any serious invasion of Russia; the Commonwealth army was too small, its treasury always empty, and the war lacked popular support. However, as the situation in Russia deteriorated, Sigismund and many Commonwealth magnates, especially those with estates and forces near the Russian border, began to look for a way to profit from the chaos and weakness of their eastern neighbour. This proved easy, as in the meantime many Russian boyars, disgruntled by the ongoing civil war, tried to entice various neighbors, including the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth, into intervening. Some of them looked to their own profits, trying to organize support for their own ascension to the Russian throne. Others looked to their western neighbor, the Commonwealth, and its attractive Golden Freedoms, and together with some Polish politicians planned for some kind of union between those two states. Yet others tried to tie their fates with that of Sweden in what became known as the De la Gardie Campaign and the Ingrian War.
Advocates for a union of Poland–Lithuania with Russia proposed a plan similar to the original Polish–Lithuanian Union of Lublin involving a common foreign policy and military; the right for nobility to choose the place where they would live and to buy landed estates; removal of barriers for trade and transit; introduction of a single currency; increased religious tolerance in Russia (especially the right to build churches of non-Orthodox faiths); and the sending of boyar children for education in more developed Polish academies (like the Jagiellonian University). However, this project never gained much support. Many boyars feared that the union with the predominantly Catholic Kingdom of Poland and the Grand Duchy of Lithuania would endanger Russia's Orthodox traditions and opposed anything that threatened Russian culture, especially the policies aimed at curtailing the influence of the Orthodox Church, intermarriage and education in Polish schools that had already led to successful Polonization of the Ruthenian lands under Polish control.
Polish invasion (1605–1606)
Further information: False Dmitry IFor most of the 17th century, Sigismund III was occupied with internal problems of his own, like the Nobles' Rebellion in the Commonwealth and the wars with Sweden and in Moldavia. However, the impostor False Dmitry I appeared in Poland in 1603 and soon found enough support among powerful magnates such as Michał Wiśniowiecki, Lew, and Jan Piotr Sapieha, who provided him with funds for a campaign against Godunov. Commonwealth magnates looked forward to material gains from the campaign and control over Russia through False Dmitriy. In addition, both Polish magnates and Russian boyars advanced plans for a union between the Commonwealth and Russia, similar to the one Lew Sapieha had discussed in 1600 (when the idea had been dismissed by Godunov). Finally, the proponents of Catholicism saw in Dmitry a tool to spread the influence of their Church eastwards, and after promises of a united Catholic dominated Russo-Polish entity waging a war on the Ottoman Empire, Jesuits also provided him with funds and education. Although Sigismund declined to support Dmitry officially with the full might of the Commonwealth, the Polish king was always happy to support pro-Catholic initiatives and provided him with the sum of 4,000 zlotys–enough for a few hundred soldiers. Nonetheless, some of Dmitriy's supporters, especially among those involved in the rebellion, actively worked to have Dmitry replace Sigismund. In exchange, in June 1604 Dmitry promised the Commonwealth "half of Smolensk territory". Many were skeptical about the future of this endeavor. Jan Zamoyski, opposed to most of Sigismund's policies, later referred to the entire False Dmitry I affair as a "comedy worthy of Plautus or Terentius".
When Boris Godunov heard about the pretender, he claimed that the man was just a runaway monk called Grigory Otrepyev, although on what information he based this claim is unclear. Godunov's support among the Russians began to wane, especially when he tried to spread counter-rumors. Some of the Russian boyars also claimed to accept Dmitry as such support gave them legitimate reasons not to pay taxes to Godunov.
Dmitry attracted a number of followers, formed a small army, and, supported by approximately 3500 soldiers of the Commonwealth magnates' private armies and the mercenaries bought by Dmitriy's own cash, rode to Russia in June 1604. Some of Godunov's other enemies, including approximately 2,000 southern Cossacks, joined Dimitry's forces on his way to Moscow. Dmitriy's forces fought two engagements with reluctant Russian soldiers; his army won the first at Novhorod-Siverskyi, soon capturing Chernigov, Putivl, Sevsk, and Kursk, but badly lost the second Battle of Dobrynichi and nearly disintegrated. Dmitry's cause was only saved by the news of the death of Tsar Boris Godunov.
The sudden death of the Tsar on 13 April 1605 removed the main barrier to further advances by Dimitry. Russian troops began to defect to his side, and, on 1 June, boyars in Moscow imprisoned the newly crowned tsar, Boris's son Feodor II, and the boy's mother, later brutally murdering them. On 20 June the impostor made his triumphal entry into Moscow, and on 21 July he was crowned Tsar by a new Patriarch of his own choosing, the Greek Cypriot Patriarch Ignatius, who as bishop of Ryazan had been the first church leader to recognize Dmitry as Tsar. The alliance with Poland was furthered by Dimitriy's marriage (per procura in Kraków) with the daughter of Jerzy Mniszech, Marina Mniszech, a Polish noblewoman with whom Dmitry had fallen in love while in Poland. The new Tsarina outraged many Russians by refusing to convert from Catholicism to the Russian Orthodox faith. Commonwealth king Sigismund was a prominent guest at this wedding. Marina soon left to join her husband in Moscow, where she was crowned a Tsarina in May.
While Dmitry's rule itself was nondescript and devoid of significant blunders, his position was weak. Many boyars felt they could gain more influence, even the throne, for themselves, and many were still wary of Polish cultural influence, especially in view of Dmitriy's court being increasingly dominated by the aliens he brought with himself from Poland. The Golden Freedoms, declaring all nobility equal, that were supported by lesser nobility, threatened the most powerful of the boyars. Thus the boyars, headed by Prince Vasily Shuyski, began to plot against Dmitry and his pro-Polish faction, accusing him of homosexuality, spreading Roman Catholicism and Polish customs, and selling Russia to Jesuits and the Pope. They gained popular support, especially as Dmitry was visibly supported by a few hundred irregular Commonwealth forces, which still garrisoned Moscow, and often engaged in various criminal acts, angering the local population.
On the morning of 17 May 1606, about two weeks after the marriage, conspirators stormed the Kremlin. Dmitry tried to flee through a window but broke his leg in the fall. One of the plotters shot him dead on the spot. At first, the body was put on display, but it was later cremated; the ashes were reportedly shot from a cannon toward Poland. Dmitriy's reign had lasted a mere ten months. Vasili Shuyski took his place as Tsar. About five hundred of Dmitriy's Commonwealth supporters were killed, imprisoned, or forced to leave Russia.
Second Polish invasion (1607–1609)
Main article: False Dmitry IITsar Vasili Shuyski was unpopular and weak in Russia and his reign was far from stable. He was perceived as anti-Polish; he had led the coup against the first False Dmitry, killing over 500 Polish soldiers in Moscow and imprisoning a Polish envoy. The civil war raged on, as in 1607 the False Dmitry II appeared, again supported by some Polish magnates and 'recognized' by Marina Mniszech as her first husband. This brought him the support of the magnates of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth who had supported False Dmitry I before. Adam Wiśniowiecki, Roman Różyński, Jan Piotr Sapieha decided to support the second pretender as well, supplying him with some early funds and about 7,500 soldiers. The pillaging of his army, especially of the Lisowczycy mercenaries led by Aleksander Lisowski, contributed to the placard in Sergiyev Posad: "three plagues: typhus, Tatars and Poles". In 1608 together with Aleksander Kleczkowski, Lisowczycy, leading a few hundred Don Cossacks working for the Commonwealth, ragtag szlachta and mercenaries, defeated the army of tsar Vasili Shuyski led by Zakhary Lyapunov and Ivan Khovansky at the Battle of Zaraysk and captured Mikhailov and Kolomna. Then Lisowczycy advanced towards Moscow but was defeated by Vasiliy Buturlin at the Battle of Medvezhiy Brod, losing most of his plunder. When Polish commander Jan Piotr Sapieha failed to win the siege of Troitse-Sergiyeva Lavra, Lisowczycy retreated to the vicinity of Rakhmantsevo. Soon, however, came successes (pillages) at Kostroma, Soligalich, and some other cities.
Dmitry speedily captured Karachev, Bryansk, and other towns. He was reinforced by the Poles, and in the spring of 1608 advanced upon Moscow, routing the army of Tsar Vasily Shuyski at Bolkhov. Dmitry's promises of the wholesale confiscation of the estates of the boyars drew many common people to his side. The village of Tushino, about twelve kilometers from the capital, was converted into an armed camp, where Dmitry gathered his army. His forces initially included 7,000 Polish soldiers, 10,000 Cossacks, and 10,000 other soldiers, including former members of the failed rokosz of Zebrzydowski, but his force grew gradually in power, and soon exceeded 100,000 men. He raised another illustrious captive, Feodor Romanov, to the rank of Patriarch, enthroning him as Patriarch Filaret, and won the allegiance of the cities of Yaroslavl, Kostroma, Vologda, Kashin, and several others. However, his fortunes were soon to reverse, as the Commonwealth decided to take a more active stance in the Russian civil wars.
War (1609–1618)
Polish victories (1609–1610)
In 1609 the Zebrzydowski Rebellion ended when Tsar Vasili signed a military alliance with Charles IX of Sweden (on 28 February 1609). The Commonwealth king Sigismund III, whose primary goal was to regain the Swedish throne, got permission from the Polish Sejm (Parliament) to declare war on Russia. He viewed it as an excellent opportunity to expand the Commonwealth's territory and sphere of influence, with hopes that the eventual outcome of the war would Catholicize Orthodox Russia (in this he was strongly supported by the Pope) and enable him to defeat Sweden. This plan also allowed him to give a purpose to the numerous restless former supporters of Zebrzydowski, luring them with promises of wealth and fame awaiting members of the campaign beyond the Commonwealth's eastern border. A book published that year by the well-travelled Polish Silesian nobleman, courtier and political activist Paweł Palczowski of Palczowic, Kolęda moskiewska (The Muscovite Carol), compared Russia to the Indian empires of the New World, full of golden cities and easy to conquer. The treatise was written to promote Polish colonialism and persuade delegates of the Sejm in January 1609 to support Sigismund III's expedition to Muscovy. Palczowski himself participated in and perished during Sigismund's Muscovy expedition. Some Russian boyars assured Sigismund of their support by offering the throne to his son, Prince Władysław. Previously, Sigismund had been unwilling to commit the majority of Polish forces or his time to the internal conflict in Russia, but in 1609 those factors made him re-evaluate and drastically change his policy.
Although many Polish nobles and soldiers were fighting for the second False Dmitry at the time, Sigismund III and the troops under his command did not support Dimitriy for the throne – Sigismund wanted Russia himself. The entry of Sigismund into Russia caused the majority of the Polish supporters of False Dmitry II to desert him and contributed to his defeat. A series of subsequent disasters induced False Dmitry II to flee his camp disguised as a peasant and to go to Kostroma together with Marina. Dmitry made another unsuccessful attack on Moscow, and, supported by the Don Cossacks, recovered a hold over all of south-eastern Russia. He was killed, however, while half drunk, on 11 December 1610 by a Qasim Tatar princeling Pyotr Urusov, whom Dimitriy had flogged on a previous occasion.
A Commonwealth army under the command of Hetman Stanisław Żółkiewski, who was generally opposed to this conflict but could not disobey the king's orders, crossed the border and on 29 September 1609 laid siege to Smolensk, an important city Russia had captured from Lithuania in 1514. Smolensk was manned by fewer than 1,000 Russian men commanded by the voivod Mikhail Shein, while Żółkiewski commanded 12,000 troops. However, Smolensk had one major advantage: the previous Tsar, Boris Godunov, had sponsored the fortification of the city with a massive fortress completed in 1602. The Poles found it impenetrable; they settled into a long siege, firing artillery into the city, attempting to tunnel under the moat, and building earthen ramparts, remnants of which can still be seen today. The siege lasted 20 months before the Poles with the help of a Russian defector named Andrei Dedishin eventually succeeded in taking the fortress.
Not all of the Commonwealth attacks were successful. An early attack, led by Hetman Jan Karol Chodkiewicz with 2,000 men, ended in defeat when the unpaid Commonwealth army mutinied and compelled their leader to retreat through the heart of Russia and back to Smolensk. Not until Crown Prince Władysław, arrived with tardy reinforcements did the war assume a different character. In the meantime, Lisowczycy took and plundered Pskov in 1610 and clashed with the Swedes operating in Russia during the Ingrian War.
Several different visions of the campaign and political goals clashed in the Polish camp. Some of the former members of the Zebrzydowski Rebellion, opponents of Sigismund, actually advanced proposals to have Sigismund dethroned and Dmitriy, or even Shuyski, elected king. Żółkiewski, who from the beginning opposed the invasion of Russia, came into conflict with Sigismund over the scope, methods, and goal of the campaign. Żółkiewski represented the traditional views of Polish nobility, the szlachta, which did not support waging aggressive and dangerous wars against a strong enemy like Russia. Thus Żółkiewski favored the plans for peaceful and voluntary union, much like that with Lithuania. Żółkiewski offered Russian boyars rights and religious freedom, envisioning an association resulting in the creation of the Polish–Lithuanian–Muscovite Commonwealth. To that end, he felt that Moscow's cooperation should be gained via diplomacy, not force. Sigismund III, however, did not want to engage in political deals and compromises, especially when these had to include concessions to the Orthodox Church. Sigismund was a vocal, almost fanatical, supporter of the Catholic Church and Counter-Reformation, and believed that he could win everything and take Moscow by force, and then establish his own rule along with the rule of Roman Catholicism.
Poles in Moscow (1610)
On 31 January 1610 Sigismund received a delegation of boyars opposed to Shuyski, who asked Władysław to become the tsar. On 24 February Sigismund sent them a letter in which he agreed to do so, but only when Moscow was at peace.
Hetman Żółkiewski, whose only other choice was mutiny, decided to follow the king's orders and left Smolensk in 1610, leaving only a smaller force necessary to continue the siege. With Cossack reinforcements, he marched on Moscow. However, as he feared and predicted, as the Polish–Lithuanian forces pressed eastwards, ravaging Russian lands, and as Sigismund's lack of willingness to compromise became more and more apparent, many supporters of the Poles and of the second False Dmitry left the pro-Polish camp and turned to Shuyski's anti-Polish faction.
Russian forces under Grigory Voluyev were coming to relieve Smolensk and fortified the fort at Tsaryovo-Zaymishche (Carowo, Cariewo, Tsarovo–Zajmiszcze) to bar the Poles' advance on Moscow. The Siege of Tsaryovo began on 24 June. However, the Russians were not prepared for a long siege and had little food and water inside the fort. Voluyev sent word for Dmitry Shuyski (Tsar Shuyski's brother) to come to their aid and lift the siege. Shuyski's troops marched for Tsaryovo, not by the direct route, but round-about through Klushino, hoping to come to Tsaryovo by the back route. Shuyski received aid from Swedish forces under the command of Jacob Pontusson De la Gardie.
Żółkiewski learned of Shuyski's relief force and divided his troops to meet the Russians before they could come to Tsaryovo and lift the siege. He left at night so that Voluyev would not notice his absence. The combined Russian and Swedish armies were defeated on 4 July 1610 at the battle of Klushino (Kłuszyn), where 7,000 Polish elite cavalry, the winged hussars, led by the hetman himself, defeated the numerically superior Russian army of about 35,000–40,000 soldiers. This giant and surprising defeat of the Russians shocked everyone and opened a new phase in the conflict.
After the news of Klushino spread, support for Tsar Shuyski almost completely evaporated. Żółkiewski soon convinced the Russian units at Tsaryovo, which were much stronger than the ones at Kłuszyn, to capitulate and to swear an oath of loyalty to Władysław. Then he incorporated them into his army and moved towards Moscow. In August 1610 many Russian boyars accepted that Sigismund III was victorious and that Władysław would become the next tsar if he converted to Eastern Orthodoxy. The Russian Duma voted for Tsar Shuyski to be removed from the throne. Shuyski's family, including the tsar, were captured, and Shuyski was reportedly taken to a monastery, forcibly shaved as a monk, and compelled to remain at the monastery under guard. He was later sent to Warsaw, as a kind of war trophy, and eventually died in Gostynin.
Shortly after Shuyski was removed, both Żółkiewski and the second False Dmitri arrived at Moscow with their separate armies. It was a tense moment, filled with the confusion of the conflict. Various pro- and anti-Polish, Swedish, and domestic boyar factions vied for temporary control of the situation. The Russian army and the people themselves were unsure if this was an invasion and that they should close and defend the city, or if it was a liberating force that should be allowed in and welcomed as allies. After a few skirmishes, the pro-Polish faction gained dominance, and the Poles were allowed into Moscow on 8 October. The boyars opened Moscow's gates to the Polish troops and asked Żółkiewski to protect them from anarchy. The Moscow Kremlin was then garrisoned by Polish troops commanded by Aleksander Gosiewski. On 27 July a treaty was signed between the boyars and Żółkiewski promising the Russian boyars the same vast privileges the Polish Szlachta had, in exchange for them recognizing Władysław as the new tsar. However, Żółkiewski did not know that Sigismund, who remained at Smolensk, already had other plans.
In the meantime, Żółkiewski and the second False Dmitriy, formerly reluctant allies, began to part ways. The second False Dmitry had lost much of his influence over the Polish court, and Żółkiewski would eventually try to drive Dmitry from the capital. Żółkiewski soon began manoeuvring for a tsar of Polish origin, particularly the 15-year-old Prince Władysław. The boyars had offered the throne to Władysław at least twice, in the hopes of having the liberal Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth end the despotic rule of their current tsars. Through Żółkiewski's work, the pro-Polish factions among the boyars (composed of knyazes Fyodor Mstislavsky, Vasily Galitzine, Fyodor Sheremetev, Daniil Mezetsky and diaks Vasily Telepnyov, and Tomiło Łagowski) gained dominance and once again a majority of the boyars said that they would support Władysław for the throne, if he converted to Orthodoxy and if the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth returned the fortresses that they had captured in the war.
However, Sigismund, supported by some of the more devout and zealous nobility, was completely opposed to the conversion of the prince. From that point the planned Polish–Lithuanian–Muscovite union began to fall apart. Offended and angered by Sigismund, the boyars dragged their feet on supporting Władysław. They were divided between electing Vasily Galitzine, Michael Romanov (also 15 years old), or the second False Dmitriy. Żółkiewski acted quickly, making promises without the consent of the still-absent king, and the boyars elected Władysław as the new tsar. Żółkiewski had the most prominent of the opponents, Fyodor Romanov, Michael's father and the patriarch of Moscow, exiled from Russia to secure Polish support. After the election of Władysław, the second False Dmitry fled from Tushino, a city near Moscow, to his base at Kaluga. However, his position was precarious even there, and he was killed on 20 December by one of his own men. Marina Mniszech, though, was pregnant with the new "heir" to the Russian throne, Ivan Dmitriyevich, and she would still be a factor in Russian politics until her eventual death in 1614.
Władysław faced further opposition from a seemingly unlikely party: his father. When Żółkiewski returned to meet Sigismund at Smolensk in November of that year, Sigismund III changed his mind and decided that he could gain the Russian throne for himself. A majority of the Russians opposed the move, especially as Sigismund didn't hide his intent to Catholicize and Polonize the Russian Tsardom. Żółkiewski found himself in an awkward position – he had promised the boyars Prince Władysław to keep the Russian throne for Poland, and he knew that they would not accept Sigismund III, who was unpopular throughout Russia. However, he also had to explain this to his king, who was convinced, from his conquests in the west, of his popularity in Russia. Eventually, Żółkiewski, disappointed with Sigismund, returned to Poland. Sigismund eventually compromised and decided that he would allow his son to take the throne and that he would rule as regent until Władysław came of age. Thus, he required that the boyars who submitted and swore allegiance to Prince Władysław would also have to swear an oath to him. The boyars were more resistant to this request and support for the Poles eroded fast. Władysław was never able to take real power, and the war soon resumed. Sigismund and Władysław left the city for safer ground as tensions grew, and the small Polish garrison at the Kremlin soon became isolated and subject to increased hostility, as more and more of the formerly pro-Polish boyars began to change factions. The Polish forces outside Moscow under the command of Jan Piotr Sapieha clashed with the growing anti-Polish Russian forces of the so-called First Volunteer Army, led by Prokopy Lyapunov.
In the meantime, the siege of Smolensk continued, even as Władysław was named tsar of Russia and cities and forts throughout the area swore allegiance to the Poles. However, Sigismund III required that Smolensk not only swear allegiance, but open its gates to the Poles, which the Russians refused to do. Żółkiewski fortified Moscow with his army and returned to King Sigismund III, who had remained at Smolensk while Żółkiewski negotiated in Moscow. The largest tunneling project at Smolensk came in December 1610; however, the Poles only managed to destroy more of the outer wall – the inner wall remained intact. The siege continued. At one point, the Polish guns breached the outer wall, and the governor of Braclaw (Bracław) ordered his soldiers to rush in; however, the Russians had predicted where the breach would occur and had fortified that part of the wall with additional men. Both sets of troops were slaughtered, and the Poles were eventually beaten back.
The war resumes (1611)
Further information: Battle of Moscow (1612)A 1611 uprising in Moscow against the Polish garrison marked the end of Russian tolerance for the Commonwealth intervention. The citizens of Moscow had voluntarily participated in the coup in 1606, killing 500 Polish soldiers. Now, ruled by the Poles, they once again revolted. The Moscow burghers took over the munition store, but Polish troops defeated the first wave of attackers, and the fighting resulted in a large fire that consumed part of Moscow. From July onward the situation of the Commonwealth forces became grave, as the uprising turned into a siege of the Polish-held Kremlin. Reportedly, the Poles had imprisoned the leader of the Orthodox Church, Patriarch Hermogenes. When the Russians attacked Moscow, the Poles ordered him, as the man with the most authority with the Russians at the time, to sign a statement to call off the attack. Hermogenes refused and was starved to death. The Polish Kremlin garrison then found itself besieged.
In the meantime, in late 1611, prince Dmitry Pozharsky was asked to lead the public opposition against the Poles, organized by the merchants' guild of Nizhny Novgorod. The respected town butcher (literally, a meat-trader) Kuzma Minin oversaw the handling of funds donated by the merchants to form the Second Volunteer Army (Russian: Второе народное ополчение). When part of the Polish army mutinied in January 1612 due to unpaid wages and retreated from Russia towards the Commonwealth, the forces of the Second Volunteer Army strengthened the other anti-Polish Russian forces in Moscow. The 9,000-strong Polish army under hetman Jan Karol Chodkiewicz attempted to lift the siege and clashed with Russian forces, attempting to break through to Polish forces in the Kremlin on 1 September. The Polish forces used cavalry attacks in the open field, exercising tactics that were new to them: escorting a mobile tabor fortress through the city. After early Polish successes, the Russian Cossack reinforcements had forced Chodkiewicz's forces to retreat from Moscow.
Russian reinforcements under Prince Pozharsky eventually starved the Commonwealth garrison (there were reports of cannibalism) and forced its surrender on 1 November (though some sources give 6 November or 7 November) after the 19-month siege. A historian (Parker) writes vividly of the Polish soldiers: "First they ate grass and offal, then they ate each other, and the survivors finally surrendered. The Moscow Kremlin fell on 6 November 1612." On 7 November, the Polish soldiers withdrew from Moscow. Although the Commonwealth negotiated a safe passage, the Russian forces massacred half of the former Kremlin garrison forces as they left the fortress. Thus, the Russian army recaptured Moscow.
On 2 June 1611 Smolensk had finally fallen to the Poles. After enduring 20 months of siege, two harsh winters and dwindling food supplies, the Russians in Smolensk finally reached their limit as the Polish–Lithuanian troops broke through the city gates. The Polish army, advised by the runaway traitor Andrei Dedishin, discovered a weakness in the fortress defenses, and on 13 June 1611 Cavalier of Malta Bartłomiej Nowodworski inserted a mine into a sewer canal. The explosion created a large breach in the fortress walls. The fortress fell on the same day. The remaining 3,000 Russian defenders took refuge in the Assumption Cathedral and blew themselves up with stores of gunpowder to avoid death at the hands of the invaders. Although it was a blow to lose Smolensk, the defeat freed up Russian troops to fight the Commonwealth in Moscow, and the Russian commander at Smolensk, Mikhail Borisovich Shein, was considered a hero for holding out as long as he had. He was captured at Smolensk and remained a prisoner of Poland–Lithuania for the next nine years.
A new respite (1612–1617)
After the fall of Smolensk, the Russo-Polish border remained relatively quiet for the next few years. However, no official treaty was signed. Sigismund, criticized by the Sejm (the Polish parliament made up of the szlachta, who were always reluctant to levy taxes upon themselves to pay for any military force) for his failure to keep Moscow, received little funding for the army. This led to a mutiny of the Polish regular army (wojsko kwarciane), or rather to the specific semi-legal form of mutiny practiced in the Commonwealth: a konfederacja (confederatio). The resulting konfederacja rohaczewska was considered the largest and most vicious of the soldiers' konfederacjas in the history of the Commonwealth, and it pillaged Commonwealth territories from 1612 until the most rebellious of the konfederacjas were defeated on 17 May 1614 at the Battle of Rohatyn, whereupon the rest received their wages. The leader of the konfederacja, Jan Karwacki, was captured and sent in chains by the future hetman Stanisław Koniecpolski to his mentor, hetman Żółkiewski, and later executed in Lwów. The Ottoman Empire further criticized Sigismund because the Cossacks in Ukraine once again had begun to make unsanctioned raids into Turkish territory. Thus, Poland–Lithuania got no support from the Ottoman Empire in its war.
In the meantime, the Russian Time of Troubles was far from over, and Russia had no strength to take advantage of the Commonwealth's weakness. On 21 February 1613 the Zemsky Sobor ("assembly of the land") named Michael Romanov, the now 16-year-old son of Fyodor Romanov, the new tsar. Fyodor, now installed as Patriarch Filaret, was a popular boyar and patriarch of Moscow, one of several boyars who vied to gain control of the Russian throne during the Time of Troubles. The Romanovs were a powerful boyar family; Michael's great-aunt (the sister of his grandfather) was Anastasia Romanovna, the wife of Ivan the Terrible. However, the new tsar had many opponents. Marina Mniszech tried until her death in 1614 to install her child as Tsar of Russia; various boyar factions still vied for power, trying to unseat the young Tsar Michael; and Sweden intervened in force, trying to gain the throne for Duke Carl Philip, even succeeding for a few months. However, Philip received even less support than Władysław, and the Swedes were soon forced to retreat from Russia.
While both countries were shaken by internal strife, many smaller factions thrived. Polish Lisowczycy mercenaries, who were essential in the defense of Smolensk in 1612, when most regulars (wojsko kwarciane) mutinied and joined the konfederacja rohatynska, were content to guard the Polish border against the Russian incursions for the next three years. However, in 1615 Aleksander Józef Lisowski gathered many outlaws and invaded Russia with 6 chorągiew of cavalry. He besieged Bryansk and defeated the relief force of a few thousand soldiers under Prince Yuri Shakhovskoy near Karachev. Then Lisowski defeated the front guard of a force several times larger than his own, under the command of knyaz Dmitry Pozharsky, who decided to defend instead of attack and fortified his forces in a camp. Lisowczycy broke contact with his forces, burned Belyov and Likhvin, took Peremyshl, turned north, defeated the Russian army at Rzhev, proceeded north towards Kashin, burned Torzhok, and returned to Poland heavy with loot without any further opposition from Russian forces. Lisowski and his forces remained at the Russo–Polish border until autumn 1616, at which point Lisowski suddenly fell ill and died on 11 October. The formation was then known as Lisowczycy. Despite the death of Lisowski, his forces remained a significant threat: in 1616 they captured Kursk and defeated Russian forces at Bolkhov.
The final stage (1617–1618)
Main article: Prince Władysław's March on MoscowEventually the Commonwealth Sejm voted to raise the funds necessary to resume large scale military operations. The final attempt by Sigismund and Władysław to gain the throne was a new campaign launched on 6 April 1617. Władysław was the nominal commander, but it was hetman Chodkiewicz who had actual control over the army. In October, the towns of Dorogobuzh (Дорогобуж, Drohobuż, Drohobycz) and Vyazma (Вязьма, Wiaźma) surrendered quickly, recognizing Władysław as the tsar. However, the Commonwealth forces met stubborn resistance near Mozhaisk, and Chodkiewicz's plans for a quick advance to Moscow failed. Władysław did not have enough forces to advance to Moscow again, especially because the Russian support for the Poles was all but gone by that time. In 1618 Petro Sahaidachny agreed to join the campaign against the Tsardom of Russia. His army of Zaporozhian Cossacks invaded from the South, captured and sacked a number of towns, such as Livny, Yelets, Dankov, etc. and headed for Moscow. The Russian army opposing the Poles retreated to Moscow and on 2 October Chodkiewicz and Sahaidachny together launched a siege of the Russian capital. However, their armies were not ready for a long siege and shortly after the night assault on 10–11 October failed, the siege was lifted. Negotiations began and a peace treaty was signed in December 1618.
Aftermath
In the end, Sigismund did not succeed in becoming tsar or in securing the throne for Władysław, but he was able to expand the Commonwealth's territory. During his reign Poland-Lithuania was the largest and most populous country in Europe. On 11 December 1618 the Truce of Deulino, which concluded the Dimitriad's war, gave the Commonwealth control over some of the conquered territories, including the territories of Chernigov and Severia (Siewiersk) and the city of Smolensk, and proclaimed a 15-year truce. Władysław refused to relinquish his claim to the Russian throne, even though Sigismund had already done so. While the Commonwealth gained some territories in the east, in terms of finance and lives it was a very costly victory.
In 1632 the Truce of Deulino expired, and hostilities immediately resumed in the course of a conflict known as the Smolensk War. This time the war was started by the Russians, who tried to exploit the suspected weakness of the Commonwealth after the unexpected death of Sigismund III. However, they failed to regain Smolensk. Mikhail Shein surrendered to Władysław IV on 1 March 1634, and the Russians accepted the Treaty of Polyanovka in May 1634. The Russians had to pay 20,000 rubles to the Commonwealth, but Władysław relinquished his claim to the Russian throne and recognized Michael as the legitimate tsar of Russia, also returning the Russian royal insignia.
Modern legacy
The story of the Dymitriads and False Dimitrys proved useful to future generations of rulers and politicians in Poland and Russia, and a distorted version of the real events gained much fame in Russia, as well as in Poland. In Poland the Dmitriads campaign is remembered as the height of the Polish Golden Age, the time Poles captured Moscow, something that even four million troops from Adolf Hitler's Nazi Germany and other Axis Powers could not manage. In Russia it was useful to the new dynasty of tsars, the Romanovs, who understood that history is a powerful political tool, written by the victors. They tried to erase all references and theories to their role in creating the False Dmitrys, self-interested cooperation with Polish and Swedish interventions, or their opposition to the liberal unia troista; instead they supported a portrayal of Dmitriads as the heroic defense of Russian nation against the barbaric invasion of Polish–Jesuit alliance, who attempted to destroy the Russian Orthodox culture. This was the history line shown by the famous Russian historian, Nikolai Mikhailovich Karamzin, beautifully described by Aleksandr Pushkin in his "Boris Godunov" and by Modest Mussorgsky in his opera Boris Godunov, and later romanticized in the film Minin and Pozharsky by Vsevolod Pudovkin. The Monument to Minin and Pozharsky was erected in Moscow's Red Square in 1818. The communist regime of the Soviet Union also found this war a useful propaganda tool, especially during the times of the Polish–Soviet War. The Dymitriads were also useful for the propaganda of Józef Piłsudski's Polish government between the World Wars.
In post-Soviet Russia the only autumn holiday, the National Unity Day, first celebrated on 4 November 2005, commemorates the popular uprising that ejected the occupying force from Moscow in November 1612, and more generally the end of the Time of Troubles and foreign interventions in Russia. Its name alludes to the idea that all the classes of the Russian society willingly united to preserve the Russian statehood when its demise seemed inevitable, even though there was neither Tsar nor Patriarch to guide them. President Vladimir Putin reestablished the holiday in 2004, replacing the commemoration of the October Revolution which formerly took place on 7 November, likely to reinforce a history of Russian nationalism over that of Communism (or revolution).
In modern Poland, from 2023, every 8 October, The Museum of the Eastern Lands of the Former Commonwealth in Lublin organizes the remembrance celebration about the allowing the Polish troops to take the Kremlin. The event holds a presentation of the arms from 17th century and a series of lectures about the Polish-Russian War.
See also
- Prince Władysław's March on Moscow
- Livonian War (1577–1582)
- Moldavian Magnate Wars (1593–1621)
- Time of Troubles (1598–1615)
- Zebrzydowski rebellion (1606–1608)
- The De la Gardie Campaign (1609–1610)
- Ingrian War (1610–1617)
- Treaty of Stolbovo (1617)
- Polish–Swedish wars (1600–1611, 1617–1629)
- Smolensk War (1632–1634)
- Treaty of Polanów (1634)
- 1612, a Russian epic drama film released on 1 November 2007 about the expulsion of Polish troops from Moscow
Notes
- 1609–1610
- Also known as the Polish–Muscovite War and the Polish Intervention in Russia.
References
This article includes a list of general references, but it lacks sufficient corresponding inline citations. Please help to improve this article by introducing more precise citations. (October 2009) (Learn how and when to remove this message) |
- Pognowski, Iwo (1988). Poland, a historical atlas. New York: Hippocrene Books. p. 114. ISBN 978-0-87052-282-6.
- Koneczny, Feliks. Dzieje Polski opowiedziane dla młodzieży. p. 158.
Wtem zatrzymano się, zawierając w Dywilinie rozejm na lat 16. Warunki były świetne. Trzy obszerne ziemie: smoleńska, siewierska i czernihowska powiększyły obszar Wielkiego Księstwa Litewskiego. rozszerzając granice państwa tak daleko poza Dniepr, świadczył o wielkiej potędze Polski i Litwy. Szczyt potęgi polskiej przypada właśnie na te czasy.
- "Wojny polsko-rosyjskie w XVII wieku – lata 1609–1618, 1632–1634". wypracowania24.pl. Retrieved 4 February 2019.
- Lukowski, Jerzy; Zawadzki, Hubert (2019). A Concise History of Poland (3rd ed.). Cambridge University Press. p. 119.
- "The Time of Troubles – World Civilization". courses.lumenlearning.com. Retrieved 4 February 2019.
- Venken, Machteld (2016). "Narrating the Time of Troubles in Polish School History Textbooks (1918‑1989)". Cahiers du Monde Russe. 57 (4): 879–902. doi:10.4000/monderusse.9996. S2CID 159899487.
- Peterson, Gary Dean (2007). Warrior Kings of Sweden: The Rise of an Empire in the Sixteenth and Seventeenth Centuries. McFarland. p. 87. ISBN 978-0-7864-2873-1.
- "Moskwa pod Panowaniem Polaków – Sadistic.pl". www.sadistic.pl. Retrieved 4 February 2019.
- Ransel, David L.; Shallcross, Bozena (15 June 2005). Polish Encounters, Russian Identity. Indiana University Press. ISBN 0253110548. Retrieved 4 February 2019 – via Google Books.
- Artur Goszczyński (Uniwersytet Jagielloński Zakład Historii Polski Nowożytnej) (2016). "Nieprzyjaciel narodu naszego. Historia stosunków polsko-moskiewskich w opinii szlachty Rzeczypospolitej w przededniu i w pierwszych latach wojny 1609–1618" (PDF). Zeszyty Naukowe Towarzystwa Doktorantów UJ Nauki Społeczne. Archived from the original (PDF) on 7 October 2023. Retrieved 7 October 2023.
- "Troubles in Russia (1598–1613). History of Russia". www.advantour.com. Retrieved 4 February 2019.
- ^ Tucker, S.C., Editor, 2010, A Global Chronology of Conflict, Santa Barbara: ABC-CLIO, LLC, ISBN 9781851096671
- S.A, Wirtualna Polska Media (3 February 2014). "Polacy rządzili na Kremlu. Syna Zygmunta III Wazy obwołano carem". opinie.wp.pl. Retrieved 4 February 2019.
- ^ Franczak, Grzegorz (2010). Paweł Palczowski z Palczowic, Kolęda moskiewska; oprac. (preface, commentary & notes by:) Grzegorz Franczak (in Polish). Warsaw: Wydawnictwo Neriton (Wydział Polonistyki Uniwersytetu Warszawskiego – Biblioteka Dawnej Literatury Popularnej i Okolicznościowej, t. 6.) English: Publisher Neriton (Faculty of Polish Studies at Warsaw University – Library of Ancient Popular Literature and Occasional, Vol 6). ISBN 978-8375431421.
- Palczowski z Palczowic, Paweł (1609). Kolęda moskiewska. (To iest, Woyny Moskiewskiey, Przyczyny Sluszne, Okazya pozadana, Zwyćięstwa nadźieia wielka, Państwa tam tego pożytki y bogactwa, nigdy nieoszacowane. Krotko opisane Przez Pawla Palczowskiego, z Palczowic, Szlachćica Polskiego) (in Polish). Kraków: Mikołaj Szarffenberger (Mikołaia Szarffenbergera).
- Sarmatian Review, Rice University, Texas, January 2011, Vol. XXXI, No. 1., p. 1561; The Muscovite Carol (Kolęda moskiewska) by Paweł Palczowski of Palczowic. Edited by Grzegorz Franczak.
- "Волуев Григорий Леонтьевич". www.hrono.ru. Retrieved 4 February 2019.
- Сас, П. М. (2010). Запорожці у польсько-московській війні наприкінці Смути (1617–1618 рр.). (in Ukrainian). ISBN 978-966-2083-73-6.
- "NewsWeek". Newsweek. 3 February 2018.
- Lipman, Masha (3 November 2017). "Why Putin Won't Be Marking the Hundredth Anniversary of the Bolshevik Revolution". The New Yorker.
- "413 lat temu Polacy zajęli Kreml". TVP Lublin. 8 October 2023. Retrieved 7 August 2024.
Sources
- Norman Davies, God's Playground, ISBN 0-231-05353-3 and ISBN 0-231-05351-7 (two volumes).
- Andrzej Nowak, Polacy na Kremlu, Tygodnik "Wprost", Nr 1182 (31 lipca 2005), (in Polish), accessed on 29 July 2005
- Paweł Jasienica, Rzeczpospolita Obojga Narodów, ISBN 83-06-01093-0.
- Jerzy Malec, Szkice z dziejów federalizmu i myśli federalistycznej w czasach nowożytnych, Wydawnictwo UJ, 1999, ISBN 83-233-1278-8
- Chester S. L. Dunning, Russia's First Civil War: The Time of Troubles and the Founding of the Romanov Dynasty, Pennsylvania State University Press, 2001, ISBN 0-271-02074-1 (parts available for free on Google Print)
Further reading
Main article: Bibliography of the history of Poland- Henryk Wisner, Król i car: Rzeczpospolita i Moskwa w XVI i XVII wieku (King and Tsar: Republic and Moscow in 16th and 17th Centuries), Książka i Wiedza, Warszawa, 1995, ISBN 83-05-12776-1
- Robert Szcześniak, Kłuszyn 1610, Bellona Dom Wydawniczy, 2004 ISBN 83-11-09785-2
- Tomasz Bohun, Moskwa 1612, Bellona Dom Wydawniczy, 2005, ISBN 83-11-10085-3
- Moskwa w rękach Polaków. Pamiętniki dowódców i oficerów garnizonu w Moskwie (Moscow in Polish Hands: Memoires of Commanders and Officers of the Moscow Garrison). Platan, 2005, ISBN 83-89711-50-8
External links
- Polish occupation of Russia (archived 10 October 2003)
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