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			{{Short description|President of the United States from 1969 to 1974}}
	{{redirect|Nixon}}
			{{Redirect|Nixon|other uses|Nixon (disambiguation)|and|Richard Nixon (disambiguation)}}
	{{Infobox President
			{{Featured article}}
	|image=julissa.jpg
			{{Pp-vandalism|small=yes}}
	|order=] ]
			{{Pp-move}}
	|term_start=January 20, 1969
			{{Use American English|date=February 2019}}
	|term_end= August 9, 1974
			{{Use mdy dates|date=February 2024}}
	|predecessor=]
			{{Infobox officeholder
	|successor=]
			| image = Richard Nixon presidential portrait (1).jpg
	|birth_date={{birth date|1913|1|9|mf=y}}
			| alt = Presidential portrait of Richard Nixon
	|birth_place= ]
			| caption = Official portrait, 1972
	|death_date={{death date and age|1994|4|22|1913|1|9}}
			| order = 37th
	|death_place= ]
			| office = President of the United States
	|restingplace=]<br>]
			| vicepresident = {{plainlist|
	|religion= ]
			* {{longitem|] {{nwr|(1969–1973)}}}}
	|signature=Richard M. Nixon signature.png
			* {{longitem|''None'' {{nwr|(Oct–Dec 1973)}}}}
	|spouse=]
			* {{longitem|Gerald Ford {{nwr|(1973–1974)}}}}
	|children=]<br />]
			}}
	|occupation=]
			| term_start = January 20, 1969
	|alma_mater=] <br /> ]
			| term_end = August 9, 1974
	|party=]
			| predecessor = ]
	|vicepresident=] (1969–1973)<br />''vacant'' (Oct.–Dec. 1973)<br />] (1973–1974)
			| successor = ]
	|order3=] ]
			| order1 = 36th
	|term_start3=January 20, 1953
			| office1 = Vice President of the United States
	|term_end3=January 20, 1961
			| president1 = ]
	|predecessor3=]
			| term_start1 = January 20, 1953
	|successor3=]
			| term_end1 = January 20, 1961
	|president3=]
			| predecessor1 = ]
	|order4 = ]<br /> from ]
			| successor1 = Lyndon B. Johnson
	|term_start4 = December 1, 1950
			| jr/sr2 = United States senator
	|term_end4 = January 1, 1953
			| state2 = ]
	|predecessor4 = ]
			| term_start2 = December 1, 1950
	|successor4 = ]
			| term_end2 = January 1, 1953
	|order5 = Member of the ] from ]
			| predecessor2 = ]
	|term_start5 = January 2, 1947
			| successor2 = ]
	|term_end5 = December 1, 1950
			| state3 = California
	|predecessor5 = ]
			| district3 = {{ushr|CA|12|12th}}
	|successor5 = ]
			| term_start3 = January 3, 1947
	|branch=]
			| term_end3 = November 30, 1950
	|serviceyears=1942–1946
			| predecessor3 = ]
	|rank=]
			| successor3 = ]
	|battles=]}}
			| birth_name = Richard Milhous Nixon
			| birth_date = {{birth date|1913|1|9}}
			| birth_place = ], U.S.
			| death_date = {{death date and age|1994|4|22|1913|1|9}}
			| death_place = New York City,<!-- Do not link this, see ]. --> U.S.
			| resting_place = ]
			| party = ]
			| spouse = {{marriage|]|June 21, 1940|June 22, 1993|end=died}}
			| children = {{flatlist|
			* ]
			* ]
			}}
			| parents = {{ubl|]|]}}
			| occupation = {{flatlist|
			* Author
			* lawyer
			* politician
			}}
			| education = {{plainlist|
			* ] (])
			* ] (])
			}}
			| signature = Richard Nixon Signature.svg
			| signature_alt = Cursive signature in ink
			| branch = ]
			| serviceyears = {{plainlist|
			* 1942–1946 (active)
			* 1946–1966 (inactive)
			}}
			| rank = ]
			| battles = ] {{nwr|(]<ref name="archives">{{cite web |url=http://nixon.archives.gov/thelife/nixonbio.pdf |title=Richard Nixon Presidential Library and Museum |date=September 21, 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150921204555/http://nixon.archives.gov/thelife/nixonbio.pdf |archive-date=September 21, 2015 |url-status=dead}}</ref>)}}
			| mawards = {{plainlist|
			* ]
			* ]
			* ]
			* ]
			* ]
			}}
			| module = {{Listen|pos=center|embed=yes|filename=Richard Nixon speaks on Peace in Vietnam.ogg|title=Richard Nixon's voice|type=speech|description=Nixon speaks on ]<br />Recorded November 3, 1969}}
			}}
			{{Richard Nixon series}}
			'''Richard Milhous Nixon''' (January 9, 1913{{spnd}}April 22, 1994) was the 37th ], serving from 1969 until ] in 1974. A member of the ], he previously served as a ] and ] from ] and as the 36th ] from 1953 to 1961 under President ]. ] saw the reduction of U.S. involvement in the ], '']'' with the ] and ], the ] Moon landing, and the establishment of the ] and ]. Nixon's second term ended early when he became the only U.S. president to resign from office, as a result of the ].
			Nixon was born into a poor family of ] in ], ]. He graduated with a ] degree from ] in 1934 and a ] from ] in 1937, practiced law in California, and then moved with his wife ] to ], in 1942 to work for the ]. After serving active duty in the ] during ], he was elected to the ] in ]. His work on the ] case established his reputation as a leading ]. In ], he was elected to the ]. Nixon was the running mate of Eisenhower, the Republican Party's presidential nominee in the ], and served for eight years as vice president. He narrowly lost the ] to ]. After his loss in the ] race for governor of California, he announced his retirement from politics. However, in ], he made another run for the presidency and narrowly defeated the Democratic incumbent vice president ].
	'''Richard Milhous <!--"Milhous" is the correct spelling-->Nixon''' (January 9, 1913 &ndash; April 22, 1994) was the ] ] (1969–1974) and the only president to resign the office. He was also the ] ] (1953&ndash;1961).
			Seeking to bring the North Vietnamese to the negotiating table, Nixon ordered ] and ] in Cambodia. He covertly aided Pakistan during the ] in 1971 and ended American combat involvement in Vietnam in 1973 and the ] the same year. His ] in 1972 eventually led to ], and he then finalized the ] with the Soviet Union. Domestically, Nixon pushed for the ] and began the ]. Nixon's first term took place at the height of the American ] and enacted many progressive environmental policy shifts; his administration created the ] and passed legislation such as the ] and the ]. He implemented the ratified ], which lowered the voting age from 21 to 18, and enforced the ] of Southern schools. Under Nixon, relations with Native Americans improved, seeing an increase in ] for ] and his administration rescinded the ]. Nixon imposed wage and price controls for 90 days, began the ], and presided over the Apollo 11 Moon landing, which signaled the end of the ]. He was re-elected in ], when he defeated ] in ].
	Nixon was born in ], ]. After completing undergraduate work at ], he graduated from ] in 1937 and returned to California to practice law in ]. After the ], he joined the ] and rose to the rank of ] during ]. He was elected in 1946 as a ] to the ] representing ], and in 1950 to the ]. He was chosen by Republican Party nominee ] to be his ] in 1952 and served as vice president from 1953 until 1961. Despite announcing his retirement from politics after losing the 1960 ] and 1962 ], Nixon was ] in 1968.
			In his second term, Nixon ordered ] to resupply Israeli materiel losses in the ], a conflict which led to the ] at home. From 1973, ongoing revelations from the Nixon administration's involvement in Watergate eroded his support in Congress and the country. The scandal began with a break-in at the ] office, ordered by administration officials, and escalated despite ] efforts by the Nixon administration, of which he was aware. On August 9, 1974, facing almost certain ] and removal from office, Nixon resigned. Afterward, he was issued ] by his successor, ]. During nearly 20 years of retirement, Nixon wrote nine books and undertook many foreign trips, rehabilitating his image into that of an elder statesman and leading expert on foreign affairs. On April 18, 1994, he suffered a debilitating ], and ]. ] of his time in office have proven complex, with the successes of his presidency contrasted against the circumstances of both his ascension and his departure from office.
	The most immediate task facing President Nixon was the ]. He initially escalated the conflict, overseeing secret bombing campaigns, but soon withdrew American troops and successfully negotiated a ceasefire with ], effectively ending American involvement in the war. His foreign policy was largely successful; he opened relations with the ] and initiated ] with the ]. Domestically, he implemented new economic policies which called for ] and the abolition of the ]. He was ] in 1972. In his second term, the nation was afflicted with economic difficulties. In the face of likely ] for his role in the ],<ref name=Goldwater1988_p353>] and Jack Casserly (1988), p. 353.</ref> Nixon resigned on August 9, 1974. Nixon was later ] by his successor, ], for any federal crimes he may have committed while in office.
			== Early life and education ==
	In his retirement, Nixon became a prolific author and undertook many foreign trips. Though far from universally popular, he gained respect as an elder statesman. He suffered a debilitating ] on April 18, 1994, and ] at the age of 81.
			] orphans; his brother ] is to his right.|left]]
			Richard Milhous Nixon was born on January 9, 1913, in what was then the township precinct of ],<ref>{{cite web |date=August 15, 2016 |title=Richard Nixon in the U.S. Census Records |url=https://www.archives.gov/research/census/presidents/nixon.html |access-date=August 31, 2022 |website=National Archives}}</ref> in a house built by his father, on his family's lemon ranch.<ref name="archives"/>{{sfn|NPS, Nixon Birthplace}}{{sfn|Ferris|p=209}} His parents were ] and ]. His mother was a ], and his father converted from ] to the Quaker faith. Through his mother, Nixon was a descendant of the early English settler ].<ref>{{cite web |last=Reitwiesner |first=William Addams |authorlink=William Addams Reitwiesner |title=The Ancestors of Senator John Forbes Kerry (b. 1943) |url=http://www.wargs.com/political/kerry.html |access-date=August 31, 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190427081750/http://www.wargs.com/political/kerry.html |archive-date=April 27, 2019 |url-status=live}}</ref>
			Nixon's upbringing was influenced by Quaker observances of the time such as abstinence from alcohol, dancing, and swearing. He had four brothers: Harold (1909–1933), ] (1914–1987), Arthur (1918–1925), and ] (1930– 2019).{{sfn|Nixon Library, Childhood}} Four of the five Nixon boys were named after historic British kings; Richard, for example, was named after ].{{sfn|Aitken|p=11}}
	{{TOClimit|limit=3}}
			Nixon's early life was marked by hardship, and he later quoted ] in describing his boyhood: "We were poor, but the glory of it was we didn't know it".{{sfn|Aitken|p=12}} The Nixon family ranch failed in 1922, and the family moved to ]. In an area of East Whittier with many Quakers, Frank Nixon opened a grocery store and gas station at what is now the corner of Whittier Boulevard and Santa Gertrudes Avenue.{{sfn|Aitken|p=21}}<ref>{{cite web|url=https://richardnixonsocal.com/2023/01/whittier-to-the-white-house-10/ |title=Whittier to the White House
	== Early life ==
			|date=January 9, 2023 |author=Paul Carter}}</ref> During this time period, the Nixon family attended East Whittier Friends Church.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://richardnixonsocal.com/2023/01/whittier-to-the-white-house-13/ |title=Whittier to the White House |date=January 9, 2023 |author=Paul Carter}}</ref> Richard's younger brother Arthur died in 1925 at the age of seven after a short illness.{{sfn|Ambrose|1987|p=41}} Richard was 12 years old when a spot was found on his lung; with a family history of ], he was forbidden to play sports. The spot turned out to be scar tissue from an early bout of ].{{sfn|Aitken|p=27}}{{sfn|Ambrose|1987|pp=56–57}}
	Richard Nixon was born on January 9, 1913, to ] and ] in a house his father had built in ], ].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.nps.gov/history/nr/travel/presidents/nixon_birthplace.html|title= Richard M. Nixon Birthplace|accessdate=2009-01-14|publisher=National Park Service}}</ref><ref>Ferris, Gary W. (1999), p. 209</ref><ref name=Black2007_p8/><ref>It has also been claimed the Nixon was actually born in a hospital: ''''</ref> His mother was a ], and his upbringing is said to have been marked by conservative Quaker observances of the time, such as refraining from drinking, dancing, and swearing. His father converted from ] to ] after his marriage.<ref name=Black2007_p8>Black, Conrad (2007) p. 8</ref> Nixon had four brothers: ] (1909&ndash;1933), ] (1914&ndash;1987), ] (1918&ndash;1925), and ] (born 1930).<ref name="childhood">{{cite web|url=http://www.nixonlibrary.gov/thelife/childhood.php|title=Childhood|work=The Life|accessdate=2008-07-18|publisher=Richard Nixon Presidential Library}}</ref>
			=== Primary and secondary education ===
	Nixon's early life was marked by hardships. Two of his brothers died before he was 21 and his family's ranch failed in 1922. The Nixons then moved to ], ], the home of his mother's relatives, where his father opened a ].<ref name="childhood"/>
			] in 1930]]
			Nixon attended East Whittier Elementary School, where he was president of his eighth-grade class.{{sfn|Black|p=16}} His older brother Harold had attended ], which his parents thought resulted in Harold's dissolute lifestyle, before he contracted tuberculosis (that killed him in 1933). They decided to send Nixon to the larger ].{{sfn|Morris|p=89}}{{sfn|Black|pp=17–19}} Though he had to ride a school bus an hour each way during his freshman year, he attained excellent grades. Later, he lived with an aunt in ] during the week.{{sfn|Morris|p=91}} He played junior varsity football, and seldom missed a practice, though he rarely was used in games.{{sfn|Morris|p=92}} He had greater success as a debater, winning a number of championships and taking his only formal tutelage in public speaking from Fullerton's Head of English, H. Lynn Sheller. Nixon later mused on Sheller's words, "Remember, speaking is conversation...don't shout at people. Talk to them. Converse with them."{{sfn|Aitken|p=28}} Nixon said he tried to use a conversational tone as much as possible.{{sfn|Aitken|p=28}}
			At the start of his junior year in September 1928, Nixon's parents permitted him to transfer to Whittier High School. At Whittier, Nixon lost a bid for student body president&mdash;his first electoral defeat. He often rose at 4&nbsp;a.m. to drive the family truck to Los Angeles to purchase vegetables at the market and then drove to the store to wash and display them before going to school. Harold was diagnosed with tuberculosis the previous year; when their mother took him to Arizona hoping to improve his health, the demands on Nixon increased, causing him to give up football. Nevertheless, Nixon graduated from Whittier High third in his class of 207.{{sfn|Black|pp=20–23}}
	Nixon initially attended ] in ], but later transferred to ], where he graduated second in his class in 1930.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.wilsoncenter.org/coldwarfiles/index.cfm?fuseaction=people.details&thisunit=0&peopleid=23|title=People: Richard Milhous Nixon|accessdate=2009-04-30|publisher=Woodrow Wilson International Center for Scholars}}</ref> Financial concerns forced him to decline a ] to ]<ref name=NYT_Steel_19870426>{{cite news|author=Steel, Ronald |date=April 26, 1987 |url=http://www.nytimes.com/books/98/11/22/specials/ambrose-nixon.html |title=I Had to Win: Review of 'Nixon: The Education of a Politician 1913&ndash;1962,' by Stephen E. Ambrose" |work=The New York Times}}</ref> and to ];<ref name=NixonMemoir_p15>Nixon, Richard (1978), p. 15.</ref> he instead enrolled at Whittier College,<ref name="st">{{cite web|url=http://www.nixonlibrary.gov/thelife/astudentandsailor.php|title=A Student & Sailor|accessdate=2008-07-18|publisher=Richard Nixon Presidential Library|work=The Life}}</ref> a local Quaker school, where he co-founded a ] known as ]. Nixon was a formidable ]r, standout in collegiate drama productions, student body president, player on the ] and basketball teams, and track runner.<ref name="st"/><ref name=Dallek2007_p8-9>Dallek, Robert (2007), pp. 8–9.</ref> While at Whittier, he lived at home and worked at his family's store;<ref name="st"/> he also taught ] at East Whittier Friends Church, where he remained a member all his life. In 1934, he graduated second in his class from Whittier, and went on to ] ], where he received a full scholarship.<ref name="st"/> His future plans at this time focused solely on law; he was elected president of the Duke Bar Association<ref>Parmet, Herbert S. (1990), p. 81.</ref> and graduated third in his class in June 1937.<ref name="st"/> Nixon later spoke about the influence of his alma-mater, saying, "I always remember that whatever I have done in the past or may do in the future, Duke University is responsible in one way or another."<ref>Blythe, Will (2006), p. 7</ref>
			=== College and law school ===
	== Law practice ==
			Nixon was offered a tuition grant to attend ], but with Harold's continued illness requiring his mother's care, Richard was needed at the store. He remained in his hometown, and enrolled at ] in September 1930. His expenses were met by his maternal grandfather.<ref name="archives"/>{{sfn|Black|pp=23–24}} Nixon played for the basketball team; he also tried out for football, and though he lacked the size to play, he remained on the team as a substitute and was noted for his enthusiasm.{{sfn|Gellman|p=15}} Instead of fraternities and sororities, Whittier had literary societies. Nixon was snubbed by the only one for men, the Franklins, many of whom were from prominent families, unlike Nixon. He responded by helping to found a new society, the Orthogonian Society.{{sfn|Black|pp=24–25}} In addition to the society, his studies, and work at the store, Nixon engaged in several extracurricular activities; he was a champion debater and hard worker.{{sfn|Ambrose|1987|p=61}} In 1933, he was engaged to Ola Florence Welch, daughter of the Whittier police chief, but they broke up in 1935.{{sfn|Aitken|pp=58–63}}
			After graduating '']'' with a ] degree in ] from Whittier in 1934, Nixon was accepted at the new ],{{sfn|Nixon Library, Student & Sailor}}<ref>{{cite web|publisher=]|access-date=March 29, 2024|title=Richard M. Nixon's '34 100th birthday celebrated|date=January 9, 2013|url=https://www.whittier.edu/news/richard-nixon-100th-birthday}}</ref> which offered scholarships to top students, including Nixon.{{sfn|Ambrose|1987|pp=33–34}} It paid high salaries to its professors, many of whom had national or international reputations.{{sfn|Aitken|p=67}} The number of scholarships was greatly reduced for second- and third-year students, creating intense competition.{{sfn|Ambrose|1987|pp=33–34}} Nixon kept his scholarship, was elected president of the Duke Bar Association,{{sfn|Parmet|p=81}} inducted into the ],{{sfn|Nixon Library, Family Collection Guide}} and graduated third in his class in June 1937.{{sfn|Nixon Library, Student & Sailor}}
	Although Nixon's first choice was to get a job with the ], he returned to ] and was admitted to the ] in 1937. He began practicing with Wingert and Bewley,<ref name="st"/> where he worked on ] for local ] companies and other corporate matters as well as on ].
			== Early career and marriage ==
	By his own admission, Nixon would not work on ] because he was "severely embarrassed by women's confessions of sexual misconduct." Nixon found the practice of law unexciting, but thought that it would gain him experience that would be beneficial in a future political career.<ref>Black, Conrad (2007), p. 39.</ref> In 1938, he opened up his own branch of Wingert and Bewley in ],<ref>Black, Conrad (2007), p. 44.</ref> and the following year he became a full partner in the firm.<ref>Black, Conrad (2007), p. 43.</ref>
			] and ], President Nixon, First Lady ], ], and ] on December 24, 1971]]
			After graduating from Duke, Nixon initially hoped to join the ]. He received no response to his letter of application, and learned years later that he had been hired, but his appointment had been canceled at the last minute due to budget cuts.{{sfn|Aitken|p=76}} He was admitted to the ] in 1937, and began practicing in Whittier with the law firm Wingert and Bewley in the ].{{sfn|Nixon Library, Student & Sailor}}<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.whittierdailynews.com/2012/09/16/historic-whittier-bank-building-was-president-nixons-law-office-at-one-time/
			|title=Historic Whittier bank building was President Nixon's law office at one time
			|author=Keith Durflinger
			|publisher=Whittier Daily News |date=August 29, 2017}}</ref> His work concentrated on ] for local petroleum companies and other corporate matters, as well as on ].{{sfn|Aitken|pp=79–82}} Nixon was reluctant to work on divorce cases, disliking frank sexual talk from women.{{sfn|Morris|p=193}} In 1938, he opened up his own branch of Wingert and Bewley in ],{{sfn|Black|p=44}} and became a full partner in the firm the following year.{{sfn|Black|p=43}} In later years, Nixon proudly said he was the only modern president to have previously worked as a practicing attorney.{{sfn|Morris|p=193}} During this period, Nixon was also the president of the Citra-Frost Company, which attempted to produce and sell frozen orange juice, but the company went bankrupt after just 18 months.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Klein |first1=Christopher |title=10 Things You May Not Know About Richard Nixon |url=https://www.history.com/news/10-things-you-may-not-know-about-richard-nixon |website=History |access-date=March 3, 2021}}</ref><ref name=NixonsCounty>{{cite web|url=https://www.ocweekly.com/dick-nixons-orange-county-6394777/ |publisher=] |title=Dick Nixon's Orange County | date= August 5, 1999}}</ref>
			In January 1938, Nixon was cast in the Whittier Community Players production of '']'' in which he played opposite his future wife, a high school teacher named ].{{sfn|Nixon Library, Student & Sailor}} In his memoirs, Nixon described it as "a case of ]",{{sfn|Nixon|1978|p=23}} but apparently for Nixon only, since Pat Ryan turned him down several times before agreeing to date him.{{sfn|Farrell|pp=385–393}} Once they began their courtship, Ryan was reluctant to marry Nixon; they dated for two years before she assented to his proposal. They wed in a small ceremony on June 21, 1940. After a honeymoon in ], the Nixons began their married life in Whittier.{{sfn|Farrell|pp=37, 402}} They had two daughters: ], born in 1946, and ], born in 1948.{{sfn|Nixon Library, Nixon Family}}
	== Marriage ==
	In January 1938 Nixon was cast in the Whittier Community Players production of '']''. There he played opposite a high school teacher named ].<ref name="st"/><ref>Black, Conrad (2007), p. 40.</ref> Nixon pursued her, but initially Ryan was not interested in a relationship. He began dropping in on her at her house unannounced and would take her on Sunday drives to the Quaker Sunday School where he was again teacher.<ref>Black, Conrad (2007), pp. 43-45.</ref> After several proposals, Ryan eventually agreed to marry the future president and they wed at a small ceremony on June 21, 1940.<ref name="st"/>
			== Military service ==
	After a honeymoon in ], the Nixons moved to ], then settled into an apartment in East Whittier a few months later.<ref>Black, Conrad (2007), p. 46.</ref> In January 1942, they moved to ], where Richard Nixon took a job at the ].<ref name="st"/>
			], {{Circa|1945}}]]
			In January 1942, the couple moved to the Northern Virginia suburbs, where Nixon took a job at the ] in ]{{sfn|Nixon Library, Student & Sailor}}{{sfn|Nixon|1978|p=26}} In his political campaigns, Nixon suggested that this was his response to ], but he had sought the position throughout the latter part of 1941. Both Nixon and his wife believed he was limiting his prospects by remaining in Whittier.{{sfn|Morris|pp=124–126}} He was assigned to the tire rationing division, where he was tasked with replying to correspondence. He did not enjoy the role, and four months later applied to join the ].{{sfn|Kornitzer|pp=143–144}} Though he could have claimed an exemption from ] as a birthright Quaker, or a deferral due to his government service, Nixon nevertheless sought a commission in the Navy. His application was approved, and he was appointed a ] in the ] on June 15, 1942.<ref name="navy.mil">{{Cite web |url=https://www.history.navy.mil/research/histories/biographies-list/bios-n/nixon-richard.html |title=Naval Profiles: Richard Milhous Nixon |date=February 18, 2015 |website=Naval History and Heritage Command |publisher=U.S. Navy |access-date=March 6, 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170315133741/https://www.history.navy.mil/research/histories/biographies-list/bios-n/nixon-richard.html |archive-date=March 15, 2017 |url-status=live }}</ref>{{sfn|Aitken|pp=96–97}}
			In October 1942, he was given his first assignment as aide to the commander of the ] in ], until May 1943. Seeking more excitement, he requested sea duty; on July 2, 1943, he was assigned to ] and the ] (SCAT), where he supported the ] of operations in the ] during ].{{sfn|Naval Historical Center, Commander Nixon}}{{sfn|Black|pp=58–60}}{{sfn|Armstrong|p=81}}
	== World War II ==
	]
	Nixon was eligible for an exemption from military service, both as a ] with Quaker parents and through his job working for the OPA, but he did not seek one and was commissioned into the ] in August 1942.<ref name="st"/> He was trained at ], ] and was assigned to ], ], for seven months. He was subsequently reassigned as the naval passenger control officer for the ], supporting the ] of operations in the ].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.history.navy.mil/faqs/faq60-8.htm |title=Commander Richard M. Nixon, USNR |work=Naval Historical Center |publisher=United States Department of the Navy |date=August 7, 2006 |accessdate=2008-12-14 }}</ref><ref>Black, Conrad (2007), pp. 58-60.</ref> After requesting more challenging duties he was given command of cargo handling units.<ref>Black, Conrad (2007), p. 60.</ref> Nixon returned to the United States with two ]s (although he saw no actual combat) and a citation of commendation, and became the administrative officer of the ].<ref name="cb62">Black, Conrad (2007), p. 62.</ref> In January 1945 he was transferred to ]'s ] office to help negotiate the termination of war contracts. There he received another letter of commendation, this time from ] ]. In October 1945, he was promoted to ].<ref name="cb62"/> He resigned his commission on ] 1946.<ref>Black, Conrad (2007), pp. 62-63.</ref>
			On October 1, 1943, Nixon was promoted to ].<ref name="navy.mil"/> Nixon commanded the SCAT forward detachments at ], ], and finally at ].<ref name="navy.mil"/>{{sfn|Armstrong|p=81}} His unit prepared manifests and flight plans for ] operations and supervised the loading and unloading of the transport aircraft. For this service, he received a ], awarded a Navy Commendation Ribbon, which was later updated to the ], from his commanding officer for "meritorious and efficient performance of duty as Officer in Charge of the South Pacific Combat Air Transport Command". Upon his return to the U.S., Nixon was appointed the administrative officer of the ] in ].
	== Congressional career ==
	=== House of Representatives ===
	Soon after World War II ended some ] ] approached Nixon about running for a seat in the ].<ref name="con">{{cite web|url=http://www.nixonlibrary.gov/thelife/apolitician/thecongressman.php|title=The Congressman|work=The Life|accessdate=2008-07-18|publisher=Richard Nixon Presidential Library}}</ref> Nixon accepted, and defeated five term ] incumbent ] in the November 1946 election to represent southern California's ].<ref name="con"/> He helped finance the campaign with his World War II poker winnings.<ref name=Time_Scherer_20080702>{{cite news|url=http://www.time.com/time/politics/article/0,8599,1819898,00.html|title=Candidates' Vices: Craps and Poker |date=July 2, 2008|last=Scherer |first=Michael |coauthor=Michael Weisskopf|accessdate=2008-09-30 |work=Time}}</ref>
	]
	In Congress, Nixon supported the ] of 1948, and served on the ].<ref name="con"/> He was part of the Herter Committee, which went to ] to prepare a preliminary report on the newly enacted ].<ref name="con"/>
			In January 1945, he was transferred to the ] office in ], where he helped negotiate the termination of World War II contracts, and received his second letter of commendation, from the ]{{sfn|Black|p=62}} for "meritorious service, tireless effort, and devotion to duty". Later, Nixon was transferred to other offices to work on contracts, and he moved from the Virginia suburbs of Washington, D.C. to Philadelphia, New York and finally to Baltimore.{{sfn|Aitken|p=112}}{{sfn|Nixon|1978|p=33}} On October 3, 1945, he was promoted to ].<ref name="navy.mil"/>{{sfn|Black|p=62}} On March 10, 1946, he was relieved of active duty.<ref name="navy.mil"/> On June 1, 1953, he was promoted to ] in the U.S. Naval Reserve, and he retired from the U.S. Naval Reserve on June 6, 1966.<ref name="navy.mil"/>
	Nixon first gained national attention in 1948 when his investigation on the ] (HUAC) broke the impasse of the ] spy case. Nixon believed ]' allegations that Hiss, a high ] official, was a ] ]. He discovered that Chambers saved ] reproductions of incriminating documents by hiding the film in a ]; these became known as the "Pumpkin Papers".<ref>Black, Conrad (2007), pp. 129-135</ref> They were alleged to be accessible only to Hiss and to have been typed on his personal ]. Hiss was convicted of ] in 1950 for statements he made to the HUAC. The discovery that Hiss, who had been an adviser to President ], could have been a Soviet spy thrust Nixon into the public eye and made him a hero to many of Roosevelt's enemies, and an enemy to many of Roosevelt's supporters. In reality, his support for ] put him closer to the center of the Republican party. This case turned the young Congressman into a national, and controversial, figure.<ref name="con"/> Due to his popularity, Nixon was easily reelected in 1948.<ref name="con"/>
			While in the Navy, Nixon became a very good ] poker player, helping finance his first congressional campaign with the winnings. In a 1983 interview, he described turning down an invitation to dine with ] because he was hosting a game.<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/sports/for-us-presidents-poker-is-a-main-event/2019/06/16/7a1a5e54-8fb1-11e9-b08e-cfd89bd36d4e_story.html |title=For U.S. presidents, poker is a main event |first=Norman |last=Chad |authorlink=Norman Chad |date=June 16, 2019 |newspaper=]}}</ref><ref>{{cite magazine |url=https://www.cardplayer.com/poker-news/14681-men-of-action-richard-the-big-bluffer-nixon |title=Men Of Action -- Richard "The Big Bluffer" Nixon |first=Bob |last=Paijich |date=December 25, 2012 |magazine=]}}</ref>
	=== Senate ===
	In the 1950 mid-term elections, Nixon challenged and defeated Democratic Representative ] in a landslide to win a seat in the ].<ref name="senate">{{cite web|url=http://www.nixonlibrary.gov/thelife/apolitician/thesenator.php|title=The Senator|work=The Life|accessdate=2008-07-18|publisher=Richard Nixon Presidential Library}}</ref> The campaign was very contentious. Nixon felt the former actress was a ] sympathizer and said she was "] right down to her underwear."<ref name="senate"/> Douglas responded by bestowing upon Nixon the nickname "]."<ref name="senate"/>
			== U.S. House of Representatives (1947–1950) ==
	As a senator, Nixon took a prominent position in opposing global ]. He traveled frequently, speaking out against what he labeled as "the threat."<ref name="senate"/> He also criticized what he saw as President ]'s mishandling of the ].<ref name="senate"/> He supported statehood for Alaska and Hawaii, voted in favor of civil rights, and favored disaster relief for India and Yugoslavia.<ref name="cb178">Black, Conrad (2007), p. 178.</ref> He voted against price and other controls, illegal immigration, and public power.<ref name="cb178"/>
			{{further|1946 California's 12th congressional district election}}
			]
			Republicans in ] were frustrated by their inability to defeat Democratic representative ], and they sought a consensus candidate who would run a strong campaign against him. In 1945, they formed a "Committee of 100" to decide on a candidate, hoping to avoid internal dissensions which had led to previous Voorhis victories. After the committee failed to attract higher-profile candidates, Herman Perry, manager of Whittier's ] branch, suggested Nixon, a family friend with whom he had served on Whittier College's board of trustees before the war. Perry wrote to Nixon in ], and after a night of excited conversation with his wife, Nixon gave Perry an enthused response,{{sfn|Parmet|pp=91–96}}{{sfn|Gellman|pp=27–28}} confirming that he was registered to vote in California at his parents' Whittier residence.{{sfn|Aitken|p=114}} Nixon flew to California and was selected by the committee. When he left the Navy at the start of 1946, Nixon and his wife returned to Whittier, where he began a year of intensive campaigning.{{sfn|Parmet|pp=91–96}}{{sfn|Gellman|pp=27–28}} He contended that Voorhis had been ineffective as a representative and suggested that Voorhis's endorsement by a group linked to Communists meant that Voorhis must have radical views.{{sfn|Parmet|pp=111–113}} Nixon won the election, receiving 65,586 votes to Voorhis's 49,994.{{sfn|Gellman|p=82}}
			In June 1947, Nixon supported the ], a federal law that monitors the activities and power of labor unions, and he served on the ]. In August 1947, he became one of 19 House members to serve on the ],<ref name=Final>
	== Vice Presidency (1953-1961) ==
			{{cite web
	{{main|Eisenhower Administration}}
			|title=Final Report on Foreign Aid of the House Select Committee on Foreign Aid
	Due to his anti-communist stance, the 39-year-old Nixon was selected by Republican party nominee General ] to be the Vice Presidential candidate at the ] in July 1952.<ref name="vp">{{cite web|url=http://www.nixonlibrary.gov/thelife/apolitician/thevicepresident.php|title=The Vice President|work=The Life|accessdate=2008-07-18|publisher=Richard Nixon Presidential Library}}</ref> In September, the '']'' produced an article claiming that campaign donors were buying influence with Nixon by providing him with a secret cash fund for his personal expenses.<ref name="vp"/> Nixon responded by saying that the fund was not secret and produced an independent audit showing that it was used only for political purposes.<ref name="vp"/> Republicans, including those within Eisenhower's campaign, pressured Eisenhower to remove Nixon from the ticket, but Eisenhower realized he was unlikely to win without Nixon.<ref name="eisenhower">{{cite web|url=http://www.eisenhowerinstitute.org/about/living_history/summer_1952.dot|title=Fifty Years Ago the Republicans Get Their Man: Summer 1952|author=Hovell, Bret|accessdate=2008-11-05|publisher=Eisenhower Institute at Gettysburg College}}</ref>
			|publisher = Marshall Foundation
			|url=http://www.marshallfoundation.org/library/wp-content/uploads/sites/16/2014/04/Studies_Prior_to_the_Marshall_Plan.pdf
			|date=May 1, 1948
			|access-date = May 30, 2020
			|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20151221035849/http://www.marshallfoundation.org/library/wp-content/uploads/sites/16/2014/04/Studies_Prior_to_the_Marshall_Plan.pdf
			|archive-date = December 21, 2015
			|url-status = live}}</ref> which went to Europe to report on the need for U.S. foreign aid. Nixon was the youngest member of the committee and the only Westerner.{{sfn|Gellman|pp=105–107, 125–126}} Advocacy by Herter Committee members, including Nixon, led to congressional passage of the ].{{sfn|Morris|p=365}}
			In his memoirs, Nixon wrote that he joined the ] (HUAC) "at the end of 1947". However, he was already a HUAC member in early February 1947, when he heard "Enemy Number One" ] and his sister ] testify. On February 18, 1947, Nixon referred to Eisler's belligerence toward HUAC in his maiden speech to the House. Also by early February 1947, fellow U.S. Representative ] had introduced him to Father ] in Baltimore. Cronin shared with Nixon his 1945 privately circulated paper "The Problem of American Communism in 1945",<ref>{{cite web
	]
			| first = John Francis
	Nixon appeared on television on September 23, 1952 to defend himself, in a famous speech. He provided an independent third-party review of the fund's accounting, along with a summary of his personal finances.<ref name="vp"/> The speech became better known for its rhetoric, such as when he stated his wife Pat did not wear mink, but rather "a respectable Republican cloth coat," and that although he had been given an ] named Checkers in addition to his other campaign contributions, he was not going to give the dog back because his daughters loved it.<ref name="vp"/> This speech became known as the "]." It resulted in much support from the Republican party base and from the general public,<ref>Drew, Elizabeth (2007), p. 15.</ref> and helped keep him on the ticket.<ref name="vp"/> In the 1952 presidential elections, Eisenhower and Nixon defeated their opponents, ] Governor ] and ] Senator ], by seven million votes.<ref name="vp"/>
			| last = Cronin
			| authorlink = John Francis Cronin
			| title = The Problem of American Communism in 1945: Facts and Recommendations
			| publisher = A Confidential Study for Private Circulation
			| url = http://mdhistory.net/hiss/cronin-report.pdf
			| date = October 29, 1945
			| access-date = July 26, 2017
			| archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20130514131612/http://mdhistory.net/hiss/cronin-report.pdf
			| archive-date = May 14, 2013
			| url-status = live
			}}</ref> with much information from the FBI's ] who by 1961 headed domestic intelligence under ].<ref name="NixonV1">
			{{cite book
			| first = Stephen E.
			| last = Ambrose
			| authorlink = Stephen E. Ambrose
			| title = Nixon Volume I: The Education of a Politician 1913–1962
			| publisher = Simon and Schuster
			| url = https://books.google.com/books?id=Q-5zAgAAQBAJ
			| pages = 144–147
			| date = March 18, 2014
			| access-date = July 26, 2017| isbn = 978-1-4767-4588-6
			}}</ref>
			By May 1948, Nixon had co-sponsored the ] to implement "a new approach to the complicated problem of internal communist subversion{{nbsp}}... It provided for registration of all ] members and required a statement of the source of all printed and broadcast material issued by organizations that were found to be Communist fronts." He served as floor manager for the Republican Party. On May 19, 1948, the bill passed the House by 319 to 58, but later it failed to pass the Senate.{{sfn|Nixon|1978|loc=Running for Congress: 1946}} The Nixon Library cites this bill's passage as Nixon's first significant victory in Congress.<ref>{{cite web |title=Timeline |url=https://www.nixonlibrary.gov/thetimes/timeline/ |url-status=dead |publisher=Nixon Library |access-date=April 2, 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170403015648/https://www.nixonlibrary.gov/thetimes/timeline/ |archive-date=April 3, 2017}}</ref>
			], {{ca|April 1950}}]]
			Nixon first gained national attention in August 1948, when his persistence as a House Un-American Activities Committee member helped break the ] spy case. While many doubted ]'s allegations that Hiss, a former ] official, had been a ] spy, Nixon believed them to be true and pressed for the committee to continue its investigation. After Hiss filed suit, alleging defamation, Chambers produced documents corroborating his allegations, including paper and ] copies that Chambers turned over to House investigators after hiding them overnight in a field; they became known as the "]".{{sfn|Black|pp=129–135}} Hiss was convicted of ] in 1950 for denying under oath he had passed documents to Chambers.{{sfn|Gellman|pp=239–241}} In 1948, Nixon successfully ] as a candidate in his district, winning both major party primaries,{{sfn|Morris|p=381}} and was comfortably reelected.{{sfn|Nixon Library, Congressman}}
	As Vice President, Nixon expanded the office into an important and prominent post.<ref name="vp"/><ref>Eisenhower, Dwight D. (1965), pp. 5-8.</ref> Although he had little formal power, he had the attention of the media and the Republican Party. Using these, Nixon and his wife undertook many foreign trips of goodwill to garner support for American policies during the ].<ref name="vp"/> On one such trip to ], ], anti-American ] disrupted and assaulted Nixon's motorcade, injuring Venezuela's foreign minister.<ref name="vp"/> Nixon was lauded and attracted international media attention for his calm and coolness during the events.<ref name="vp"/>
			== U.S. Senate (1950–1953) ==
	In July 1959, President Eisenhower sent Nixon to the ] for ]'s opening of the American National Exhibition.<ref name="vp"/> On July 24, 1959, while touring the exhibits with ] leader ], they stopped at a model of an American kitchen and engaged in the impromptu "]" about the merits of ] versus ].<ref name="vp"/>
			{{see also|1950 United States Senate election in California}}
			], during his ]]]
			In 1949, Nixon began to consider running for the ] against the Democratic incumbent, ],{{sfn|Gellman|p=282}} and entered the race in November.{{sfn|Morris|p=535}} Downey, faced with a bitter primary battle with Representative ], announced his retirement in March 1950.{{sfn|Gellman|pp=296–297}} Nixon and Douglas won the primary elections{{sfn|Gellman|p=304}} and engaged in a contentious campaign in which the ongoing ] was a major issue.{{sfn|Gellman|p=310}} Nixon tried to focus attention on Douglas's liberal voting record. As part of that effort, a "]" was distributed by the Nixon campaign suggesting that Douglas's voting record was similar to that of New York Congressman ], reputed to be a communist, and their political views must be nearly identical.{{sfn|Morris|p=581}} Nixon won the election by almost twenty percentage points.{{sfn|Gellman|p=335}} During the campaign, Nixon was first called "Tricky Dick" by his opponents for his campaign tactics.{{sfn|Gellman|p=303}}
			In the Senate, Nixon took a prominent position in opposing global ], traveling frequently and speaking out against it.{{sfn|Nixon Library, Senator}} He maintained friendly relations with ], his fellow ], controversial U.S. Senate colleague from ], but was careful to keep some distance between himself and McCarthy's allegations.{{sfn|Ambrose|1987|pp=211, 311–312}} Nixon criticized President ]'s handling of the ].{{sfn|Nixon Library, Senator}} He supported statehood for ] and ], voted in favor of civil rights for minorities, and supported federal disaster relief for ] and ].{{sfn|Black|p=178}} He voted against price controls and other monetary restrictions, benefits for illegal immigrants, and public power.{{sfn|Black|p=178}}
	Nixon was the first Vice President to step in temporarily, and unofficially, to run the government.{{Fact|date=March 2009}} Nixon would conduct National Security meetings in the president's absence.<ref name="vp"/> As President of the Senate, Nixon intervened to make procedural rulings on ]s in order to assure the passage of Eisenhower's ], which created the ] and protected voting rights.<ref name="time 1957">{{cite news| title = A Hold Is Broken|work =Time| date = January 21, 1957| url = http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,865640,00.html| accessdate = 2008-10-24}}</ref>
			== Vice presidency (1953–1961) ==
	As Vice President, he officially opened the ] in ].<ref>''The New York Times''. February 19, 1960, Page 1,</ref>
			{{see also|Presidency of Dwight D. Eisenhower}}
			{{Further|Checkers speech}}
			]–Nixon campaign in the ]]]
			], {{circa|1953–1961}}]]
			General ] was nominated for president by the Republicans in 1952. He had no strong preference for a vice-presidential candidate, and Republican officeholders and party officials met in a "]"<!-- Gellman does say their first actions on getting inside the room were to take off jackets and light up. So it was. --> and recommended Nixon to the general, who agreed to the senator's selection. Nixon's youth (he was then 39), stance against communism, and political base in California—one of the largest states—were all seen as vote-winners by the leaders. Among the candidates considered along with Nixon were Senator ] of Ohio, Governor ] of New Jersey, and Senator ] of Illinois.{{sfn|Gellman|pp=440–441}}{{sfn|Aitken|pp=205–206}} On the campaign trail, Eisenhower spoke of his plans for the country, and left the negative campaigning to his ].{{sfn|Aitken|pp=222–223}}
			In mid-September, the Republican ticket faced a major crisis when the media reported that Nixon had a political fund, maintained by his backers, which reimbursed him for political expenses.<ref>John W. Malsberger, "Dwight Eisenhower, Richard Nixon, and the Fund Crisis of 1952," ''Historian,'' 73 (Fall 2011), pp 526–47.</ref>{{sfn|Kornitzer|p=191}} Such a fund was not illegal, but it exposed Nixon to allegations of a potential conflict of interest. With pressure building for Eisenhower to demand Nixon's resignation from the ], Nixon went on television to address the nation on September 23, 1952.{{sfn|Aitken|pp=210–217}} The address, later named the ], was heard by about 60&nbsp;million Americans, which represented the largest audience ever for a television broadcast at that point.{{sfn|Thompson|p=291}} In the speech, Nixon emotionally defended himself, stating that the fund was not secret and that his donors had not received special favors. He painted himself as a patriot and man of modest means, mentioning that his wife had no mink coat; instead, he said, she wore a "respectable Republican cloth coat".{{sfn|Aitken|pp=210–217}} The speech was remembered for the gift which Nixon had received, but which he would not give back, which he described as "a little cocker spaniel dog{{nbsp}}...sent all the way from Texas. And our little girl—Tricia, the 6-year-old—named it Checkers."{{sfn|Aitken|pp=210–217}} The speech prompted a huge public outpouring of support for Nixon.{{sfn|Aitken|p=218}} Eisenhower decided to retain him on the ticket,{{sfn|Morris|p=846}} and the ticket was victorious in ].{{sfn|Aitken|pp=222–223}}
	=== 1960 presidential election ===
	{{main|United States presidential election, 1960}}
	] in the first-ever televised ].]]
	In ], Nixon launched his campaign for President of the United States. He faced little competition in the Republican primaries, and chose former Massachusetts Senator ] as his running mate.<ref name="vp"/> His Democratic challenger was ], and the race remained close for the duration.<ref name=MBC_Allen>{{cite web|url=http://www.museum.tv/archives/etv/K/htmlK/kennedy-nixon/kennedy-nixon.htm |title=Kennedy-Nixon Presidential Debates, 1960|first= Erika Tyner |last=Allen|publisher=Museum of Broadcast Communications|accessdate=2006-04-04}}</ref> Nixon campaigned on his experience, but Kennedy called for new blood and claimed the ] allowed the ] to overtake the U.S. in ]s (the "]"). Kennedy told voters it was time to "get the country moving again."<ref name=NYT_Steel_20030525>{{cite news| title = The World: New Chapter, Old Debate; Would Kennedy Have Quit Vietnam?| last=Steel |first=Ronald |authorlink=Ronald Steel| date=May 25, 2003| url = http://query.nytimes.com/gst/fullpage.html?res=9C02E1DE1531F936A15756C0A9659C8B63| accessdate = 2008-11-05}}</ref> In the midst of the campaign, Nixon advocated stimulative tax cuts in what became a supply-side theory.<ref name="cb366">Black, Conrad (2007), p. 366.</ref> He also presented a plan for economic growth and deficit reduction, which appealed to many.<ref name="cb366"/>
			Eisenhower granted Nixon more responsibilities during his term than any previous vice president.<ref>John W. Malsberger, ''The General and the Politician: Dwight Eisenhower, Richard Nixon, and American Politics'' (2014)</ref> Nixon attended ] and ] meetings and chaired them in Eisenhower's absence. A 1953 tour of the Far East succeeded in increasing local goodwill toward the United States and gave Nixon an appreciation of the region as a potential industrial center. He visited ] and ] in ].{{sfn|Aitken|pp=225–227}} On his return to the United States at the end of 1953, Nixon increased the time he devoted to foreign relations.{{sfn|Ambrose|1987|p=342}}
	A new medium was brought to the campaign: ] ]. In the first of four such debates, Nixon was recovering from illness and, wearing little makeup, looked wan and uncomfortable, in contrast to the composed Kennedy.<ref name="vp"/> Nixon's performance in the debate was perceived to be mediocre in the visual medium of television, though many people listening on the radio thought he won.<ref>Foner, Eric (2006), p. 843.</ref>
			Biographer Irwin Gellman, who chronicled Nixon's congressional years, said of his vice presidency:
	That November, Nixon lost the 1960 election narrowly. The final count recorded that he lost by 120,000 votes, or 0.2%.<ref name="vp"/> There were charges of ] in ] and ]; Nixon supporters unsuccessfully challenged results in both states as well as nine others.<ref name=WashingtonPost_Carlson_20081117>{{cite news | title = Another Race To the Finish: 1960's Election Was Close But Nixon Didn't Haggle | first=Peter |last=Carlson | date=November 17, 2000 |page=A01 | work= The Washington Post | url = http://www.washingtonpost.com/ac2/wp-dyn/A36425-2000Nov16?language=printer | accessdate =2008-11-05}}</ref> The Kennedy campaign successfully challenged Nixon's victory in ]; after all the court battles and recounts were done, Kennedy had a greater number of electoral votes than he held after Election Day.<ref name=WashingtonPost_Carlson_20081117/> Nixon halted further investigations to avoid a ] crisis.<ref name=WashingtonPost_Carlson_20081117/> Nixon and Kennedy later met in Key Biscayne, Florida, where Kennedy offered Nixon a job in his administration, an offer which Nixon declined.<ref>Black, Conrad (2007), p. 422.</ref>
			{{blockquote|Eisenhower radically altered the role of his running mate by presenting him with critical assignments in both foreign and domestic affairs once he assumed his office. The vice president welcomed the president's initiatives and worked energetically to accomplish White House objectives. Because of the collaboration between these two leaders, Nixon deserves the title, "the first modern vice president".{{r|Gellman-Small}}
			}}
			{{Multiple image
			| align = left
			| width = 140
			| title =
			| image1 = LosAngelesTimes May9 1958.jpg
			| caption1 = <small>'']''</small>
			| image2 = SanFranciscoChronicle May9 1958.jpg
			| caption2 = <small>'']''</small>
			| footer = American newspaper covers on May 9, 1958, covering student protests against Nixon at the ] in ], Peru
			}}
			Despite intense campaigning by Nixon, who reprised his strong attacks on the Democrats, the Republicans lost control of both houses of Congress in the ]. These losses caused Nixon to contemplate leaving politics once he had served out his term.{{sfn|Ambrose|1987|pp=357–358}} On September 24, 1955, President Eisenhower suffered a heart attack and his condition was initially believed to be life-threatening. Eisenhower was unable to perform his duties for six weeks. The ] had not yet been proposed, and the vice president had no formal power to act. Nonetheless, Nixon acted in Eisenhower's stead during this period, presiding over Cabinet meetings and ensuring that aides and Cabinet officers did not seek power.{{sfn|Aitken|pp=256–258}} According to Nixon biographer ], Nixon had "earned the high praise he received for his conduct during the crisis&nbsp;... he made no attempt to seize power".{{sfn|Ambrose|1987|pp=375–376}}
			His spirits buoyed, Nixon sought a second term, but some of Eisenhower's aides aimed to displace him. In a December 1955 meeting, Eisenhower proposed that Nixon not run for reelection and instead become a Cabinet officer in a second Eisenhower administration, to give him administrative experience before a 1960 presidential run. Nixon believed this would destroy his political career. When Eisenhower announced his reelection bid in February 1956, he hedged on the choice of his running mate, saying it was improper to address that question until he had been renominated. Although no Republican was opposing Eisenhower, Nixon received a substantial number of write-in votes against the president in the 1956 ] election. In late April, the President announced that Nixon would again be his running mate.{{sfn|Aitken|pp=237–241}} Eisenhower and Nixon were reelected by a comfortable margin in the ].{{sfn|Parmet|p=294}}
			In early 1957, Nixon undertook another foreign trip, this time to Africa. On his return, he helped shepherd the ] through Congress. The bill was weakened in the Senate, and civil rights leaders were divided over whether Eisenhower should sign it. Nixon advised the President to sign the bill, which he did.{{sfn|Black|pp=349–352}} Eisenhower suffered a mild ] in November 1957, and Nixon gave a press conference, assuring the nation that the Cabinet was functioning well as a team during Eisenhower's brief illness.{{sfn|Black|p=355}}
			] and Nixon speak as the press looks on at the ] on July 24, 1959; '']'' host ] is on the far left.]]
			On April 27, 1958, Richard and Pat Nixon reluctantly embarked on a goodwill tour of ]. In ], Uruguay, Nixon made an impromptu visit to a college campus, where he fielded questions from students on U.S. foreign policy. The trip was uneventful until the Nixon party reached ], Peru, where he was met with student demonstrations. Nixon went to the historical campus of ], the oldest university in the Americas, got out of his car to confront the students, and stayed until forced back into the car by a volley of thrown objects. At his hotel, Nixon faced another mob, and one demonstrator spat on him.{{sfn|Ambrose|1987|pp=465–469}} In ], Venezuela, Nixon and his wife were spat on by anti-American demonstrators and ] by a pipe-wielding mob.{{sfn|Ambrose|1987|pp=469–479}} According to Ambrose, Nixon's courageous conduct "caused even some of his bitterest enemies to give him some grudging respect".{{sfn|Ambrose|1987|p=463}} Reporting to the cabinet after the trip, Nixon claimed there was "absolute proof that were directed and controlled by a central Communist conspiracy." Secretary of State ] and his brother, ] ], both concurred with Nixon.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Rabe|first1=Stephen G.|authorlink=Stephen G. Rabe|title=Eisenhower and Latin America: The Foreign Policy of Anticommunism|date=1988|publisher=University of North Carolina press|location=Chapel Hill|isbn=978-0-8078-4204-1|page=}}</ref>
			In July 1959, President Eisenhower sent Nixon to the ] for the opening of the ] in Moscow. On July 24, Nixon was touring the exhibits with Soviet first secretary and premier ] when the two stopped at a model of an American kitchen and engaged in an impromptu exchange about the merits of capitalism versus communism that became known as the "]".{{sfn|Farrell|pp=1394–1400}}<ref>{{cite web|title=Richard Nixon and Nikita Khrushchev have a "kitchen debate"|publisher=]|accessdate=November 7, 2023|url=https://www.history.com/this-day-in-history/nixon-and-khrushchev-have-a-kitchen-debate}}</ref>
			== 1960 presidential campaign ==
			{{main|Richard Nixon 1960 presidential campaign}}
			{{see also|1960 Republican Party presidential primaries|1960 United States presidential election}}
			] and Nixon before their first ]]]
			] results]]
			In 1960, Nixon launched his first campaign for President of the United States, officially announcing on January 9, 1960.<ref>{{cite news |title=Nixon Makes it Official |work=The Desert Sun |date=January 9, 1960}}</ref> He faced little opposition in the Republican primaries{{sfn|UPI 1960 in Review}} and chose former Massachusetts senator ] as his running mate.{{sfn|Nixon Library, Vice President}} His Democratic opponent was ] and the race remained close for the duration.{{sfn|Museum of Broadcast Communications, "Kennedy–Nixon Debates"}} Nixon campaigned on his experience, but Kennedy called for new blood and claimed the ] had ].{{sfn|Steel|2003-05-25}} While Kennedy faced issues about his Catholicism, Nixon remained a divisive figure to some.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Costello |first=William |title=The Facts About Nixon |publisher=Viking Adult |date=June 24, 1960 |isbn=978-0670018918}}</ref>
			Televised ] made their debut as a political medium during the campaign. In the first of four such debates, Nixon appeared pale, with a ], in contrast to the photogenic Kennedy.{{sfn|Nixon Library, Vice President}} Nixon's performance in the debate was perceived to be mediocre in the visual medium of television, though many people listening on the radio thought Nixon had won.{{sfn|Foner|p=843}} Nixon narrowly lost the election, with Kennedy winning the popular vote by only 112,827 votes (0.2&nbsp;percent).{{sfn|Nixon Library, Vice President}}
			There were charges of ] in Texas and Illinois, both states won by Kennedy. Nixon refused to consider contesting the election, feeling a lengthy controversy would diminish the United States in the eyes of the world and that the uncertainty would hurt U.S. interests.{{sfn|Carlson|2000-11-17}} At the end of his term of office as vice president in January 1961, Nixon and his family returned to California, where he practiced law and wrote a bestselling book, '']'', which included coverage of the Hiss case, Eisenhower's heart attack, and the Fund Crisis, which had been resolved by the Checkers speech.{{sfn|Nixon Library, Vice President}}{{sfn|Black|p=431}}
			==1962 California gubernatorial campaign==
			]
			{{main|1962 California gubernatorial election}}
			Local and national Republican leaders encouraged Nixon to challenge incumbent ] for ] in the ] gubernatorial election.{{sfn|Nixon Library, Vice President}} Despite initial reluctance, Nixon entered the race.{{sfn|Nixon Library, Vice President}} The campaign was clouded by public suspicion that Nixon viewed the office as a stepping stone for another presidential run, some opposition from the far-right of the party, and his own lack of interest in being California's governor.{{sfn|Nixon Library, Vice President}} Nixon hoped a successful run would confirm his status as the nation's leading active Republican politician, and ensure he remained a major player in national politics.{{sfn|Black|pp=432–433}} Instead, he lost to Brown by more than five percentage points, and the defeat was widely believed to be the end of his political career.{{sfn|Nixon Library, Vice President}}
			In ] the morning after the election, Nixon blamed the media for favoring his opponent, saying, "You won't have Nixon to kick around anymore because, gentlemen, this is my last press conference."{{sfn|Aitken|pp=304–305}} The California defeat was highlighted in the November 11, 1962, episode of ]'s ] show, ''Howard K. Smith: News and Comment'', titled "The Political Obituary of Richard M. Nixon".{{sfn|Ambrose|1987|p=673}} Alger Hiss appeared on the program, and many members of the public complained that it was unseemly to give a convicted felon air time to attack a former vice president. The furor drove Smith and his program from the air,{{sfn|Museum of Broadcast Communications, "Smith, Howard K."}} and public sympathy for Nixon grew.{{sfn|Ambrose|1987|p=673}}
	== Wilderness years ==		== Wilderness years ==
			] officer as he crosses between the sectors of divided ] in July 1963]]
	], 1962]]
			In 1963 the Nixon family traveled to Europe, where Nixon gave press conferences and met with leaders of the countries he visited.{{sfn|Black|p=446}} The family moved to New York City, where Nixon became a ] in the leading law firm ].{{sfn|Nixon Library, Vice President}} When announcing his California campaign, Nixon had pledged not to run for president in 1964; even if he had not, he believed it would be difficult to defeat Kennedy, or after ], Kennedy's successor, Lyndon Johnson.{{sfn|Aitken|pp=297, 321}}
	Following his loss to Kennedy, Nixon and his family returned to California, where he practiced law and wrote a bestselling book, ''Six Crises''.<ref name="vp"/> It recorded his political involvement as a ], ] and ] and used six different crises Nixon had experienced throughout his political career to illustrate his political ]s. The work won praise from many policy experts and critics. It also found a favorable critic in ], who referred to the book during ].<ref>MacMillan, Margaret (2006), p. 72.</ref>
			In 1964, Nixon won write-in votes ], and was considered a serious contender by both Gallup polls<ref>{{cite news |last=Gallup |first=George |date=April 5, 1964 |title=42% of GOP Rank and File on Lodge Bandwagon |url=https://www.newspapers.com/article/the-boston-globe-42-of-gop-rank-and-fil/156807833/ |access-date=2024-10-09 |work=] |pages=32 |via=]}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |last=Gallup |first=George |date=January 3, 1964 |title=Johnson Leads Nixon, 3 To 1 In Latest Presidential Poll |url=https://www.newspapers.com/article/the-montgomery-advertiser-johnson-leads/156807869/ |access-date=2024-10-09 |work=The Montgomery Advertiser |pages=3 |via=]}}</ref> and members of the press.<ref>{{cite news|date=March 12, 1964|title=Goldwater Looks to California and Oregon Primaries as Crucial to His Chances...|work=]|url=https://www.nytimes.com/1964/03/12/archives/goldwater-looks-to-california-and-oregon-primaries-as-crucial-to.html|access-date=August 15, 2021}}</ref> He was even placed on a primary ballot as an active candidate by Oregon's secretary of state.<ref>{{cite news|date=May 16, 1964|title=ROCKEFELLER WINS OREGON PRIMARY, UPSETTING LODGE...|work=The New York Times|url=https://www.nytimes.com/1964/05/16/archives/rockefeller-wins-oregon-primary-upsetting-lodge-envoys-campaign.html|access-date=August 12, 2021}}</ref> As late as two months before the ], however, Nixon fulfilled his promise to remain out of the presidential nomination process and instead endorsed Arizona senator ], the eventual Republican nominee. When Goldwater won the nomination, Nixon was selected to introduce him at the convention. Nixon felt that Goldwater was unlikely to win, but campaigned for him loyally. In the ], Goldwater lost in a landslide to Johnson and Republicans experienced heavy losses in Congress and among state governors.{{sfn|Aitken|pp=321–322}}
	In 1962, local and national Republican leaders encouraged Nixon to challenge incumbent ] ] in ].<ref name="vp"/> Despite initial reluctance, Nixon entered the race.<ref name="vp"/> The campaign was clouded by public suspicion that Nixon viewed the governorship as a political "stepping-stone" to a higher office, some opposition from the far-right of the party, and his own lack of interest in being California's governor.<ref name="vp"/> He lost to Brown by nearly 300,000 votes.<ref name="vp"/> This loss was widely believed to be the end of his career;<ref name="vp"/> in an impromptu concession speech the morning after the election, Nixon famously blamed the media for favoring his opponent, saying, "You won't have Nixon to kick around anymore because, gentlemen, this is ]."<ref name="vp"/> The California defeat was highlighted in the November 11, 1962, episode of ]'s '']'' entitled "The Political Obituary of Richard M. Nixon." Some claimed that Smith's broadcast helped Nixon to begin what would become a six-year comeback to the presidency.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.museum.tv/archives/etv/S/htmlS/smithhoward/smithhoward.htm|title=Smith, Howard K.|publisher=The Museum of Broadcast Communications|accessdate=2008-12-29}}</ref>
			Nixon was one of the few leading Republicans not blamed for the disastrous results, and he sought to build on that in the ] in which he campaigned for many Republicans and sought to regain seats lost in the Johnson landslide. Nixon was credited with helping Republicans win major electoral gains that year.{{sfn|Aitken|pp=323–326}}
	The Nixon family traveled to Europe in 1963; during the trip, Nixon gave press conferences and arranged to meet with the leaders of the countries he visited.<ref>Black, Conrad (2007), p. 446.</ref> The family soon moved to ], where Nixon became a senior ] in the leading law firm ].<ref name="vp"/> Though largely out of the public eye, he was still supported by much of the Republican base who respected his knowledge of politics and international affairs.<ref name="vp"/> This reputation was enhanced when Nixon wrote an article in '']'' entitled "Asia After Vietnam",<ref name="vp"/> in which he proposed a new relationship with China.<ref>Black, Conrad (2007), p. 499.</ref> He campaigned for Republican candidates in the ]<ref name="vp"/> and took an extended trip to South America and parts of the Middle East in 1967.<ref>Black, Conrad (2007), p. 496-497.</ref>
			In 1967, Nixon was approached by an associate at his firm in ] about a case involving the press and perceived invasion of privacy. Garment suggested Nixon to argue on behalf of the Hill family in '']'' at the ]. Nixon studied strenuously in the months prior to the oral argument before the Court. While the final decision was in favor of Time Inc., Nixon was encouraged by the praise he received for his argument. It was the first and only case he argued in front of the Supreme Court.<ref>{{cite news|date=October 6, 1988|title=Cover-Up and Privacy in Nixon vs. ABC|work=]|url=https://www.nytimes.com/1989/10/06/opinion/l-cover-up-and-privacy-in-nixon-vs-abc-081489.html|access-date=August 23, 2024}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Barbas |first=Samantha |date=2017 |title=Richard Nixon at the Supreme Court |url=https://www.oah.org/process/richard-nixon-supreme-court/ |access-date=2024-09-23 |website=Process |publisher=]}}</ref>
	At the end of 1967, Nixon was experiencing a crisis of indecision about whether to run for president the following year. He consulted with longtime friend Reverend Dr. ], who urged him to run.<ref name="cb505">Black, Conrad (2007), p. 505.</ref> He later held a dinner at his home with friends and all supported a presidential bid, except for his wife.<ref name="cb505"/> He formally announced his candidacy for president of the United States on February 1, 1968.<ref name="cb505"/>
	== 1968 presidential election ==		== 1968 presidential campaign ==
	{{main|United States presidential election, 1968}}		{{Main|Richard Nixon 1968 presidential campaign}}
			{{See also|1968 Republican Party presidential primaries|1968 United States presidential election}}
	Nixon portrayed himself as a figure of stability during a period of national unrest and upheaval.<ref name="pres">{{cite web|url=http://www.nixonlibrary.gov/thelife/apolitician/thepresident/index.php|title=The President|accessdate=2008-07-18|publisher=Richard Nixon Presidential Library}}</ref> He appealed to what he called the "]" of ] Americans who disliked the ] ] and the ] demonstrators, and soon won the nomination. Nixon's running mate, ] Governor ], became an increasingly vocal critic of these groups, solidifying Nixon's position with the ].<ref name=Time_Morrow_19960930>{{cite news|accessdate=2008-08-26|url=http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,985217,00.html|last=Morrow |first=Lance|title=Naysayer to the Nattering Nabobs|work=Time|date=September 30, 1996}}</ref>
			] meet at the ] prior to Nixon's nomination in July 1968]]
			], July 1968]]
			] results; the popular vote split between Nixon and Democrat ] was less than one percentage point.]]
			At the end of 1967, Nixon told his family he planned to run for president a second time. Pat Nixon did not always enjoy public life,{{sfn|Parmet|p=502}} being embarrassed, for example, by the need to reveal how little the family owned in the Checkers speech.{{sfn|Morris|pp=410–411}} She still managed to be supportive of her husband's ambitions. Nixon believed that with the Democrats torn over the issue of the ], a Republican had a good chance of winning, although he expected the election to be as close as in 1960.{{sfn|Parmet|p=502}}
			An exceptionally tumultuous ] season began as the ] was launched in January 1968. President Johnson ] in March, after an unexpectedly poor showing in the New Hampshire primary. In June, Senator ], a Democratic candidate, ] just moments after his victory in the California primary. On the Republican side, Nixon's main opposition was Michigan governor ], though New York governor ] and California governor ] each hoped to be nominated in a ]. Nixon secured the nomination on the first ballot.{{sfn|Parmet|pp=503–508}} He was able to secure the nomination to the support of many Southern delegates, after he and his subordinates made concessions to ] and ].<ref>{{cite book |last=Perlstein |first=Rick |author-link=Rick Perlstein |date=2008 |title=Nixonland: The Rise of a President and the Fracturing of America |url= |location=New York |publisher=] |pages=295–303 |isbn=978-0-7432-4302-5}}</ref> He selected Maryland governor ] as his running mate, a choice which Nixon believed would unite the party, appealing both to Northern moderates and to Southerners disaffected with the Democrats.{{sfn|Parmet|p=509}}
	Nixon waged a prominent television campaign, meeting with supporters in front of cameras.<ref name="cb513514">Black, Conrad (2007), pp. 513-514.</ref> He stressed that the crime rate was too high, and attacked what he perceived as a surrender by the Democrats of the United States' nuclear superiority.<ref>Black, Conrad (2007), p. 550.</ref> His campaign was aided by turmoil within the Democratic party:<ref name="pres"/> President ], consumed with the ], announced that he would not seek reelection; Senator ] was ] in ]; and the party's eventual nominee ] experienced some rough periods following mass ] at the ].<ref name="pres"/> Nixon appeared to represent a calmer society.<ref name="pres"/> With regards to the Vietnam War, he promised ], and campaigned on the notion that "new leadership will end the war and win the peace in the Pacific." He did not give specific plans on how to end the war, causing the media to intimate that he must have a "]."<ref name="foreign policy">Schulzinger, Robert D. (2003), p. 413.</ref> His slogan of "Nixon's the One" proved to be effective.<ref name="cb513514"/>
			Nixon's Democratic opponent in the general election was Vice President ], who was nominated at ] marked ].{{sfn|Nixon Library, President}} Throughout the campaign, Nixon portrayed himself as a figure of stability during this period of national unrest and upheaval.{{sfn|Nixon Library, President}} He appealed to what he later called the "]" of ] Americans who disliked the ] and the ] demonstrators. Agnew became an increasingly vocal critic of these groups, solidifying Nixon's position with the right.{{sfn|Morrow|1996-09-30}}
	In a three-way race between Nixon, Humphrey, and independent candidate ], Nixon defeated Humphrey by nearly 500,000 votes to become the 37th President of the United States on November 5, 1968.<ref name="pres"/> Nixon had achieved a remarkable comeback from his "last press conference" six years before.<ref>Black, Conrad (2007), p. 559.</ref>
			Nixon waged a prominent television advertising campaign, meeting with supporters in front of cameras.{{sfn|Black|pp=513–514}} He stressed that the crime rate was too high, and attacked what he perceived as a surrender of the United States' nuclear superiority by the Democrats.{{sfn|Black|p=550}} Nixon promised "]" in the Vietnam War and proclaimed that "new leadership will end the war and win the peace in the Pacific".{{sfn|Schulzinger|p=413}} He did not give specifics of how he hoped to end the war, resulting in media intimations that he must have a "secret plan".{{sfn|Schulzinger|p=413}} His slogan of "Nixon's the One" proved to be effective.{{sfn|Black|pp=513–514}}
	== Presidency (1969&ndash;1974) ==
	]s.]]
			Johnson's negotiators hoped to reach a truce in Vietnam, or at least a cessation of bombings. On October 22, 1968, candidate Nixon received information that Johnson was preparing a so-called "]", abandoning three non-negotiable conditions for a bombing halt, to help elect Humphrey in the last days of the campaign.<ref name=Monkey-Wrench>{{cite web|url=https://www.nixonfoundation.org/2017/06/misunderstanding-a-monkey-wrench/|title=Misunderstanding a Monkey Wrench|website=Richard Nixon Foundation|access-date=November 12, 2017|date=June 2, 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170606192751/https://www.nixonfoundation.org/2017/06/misunderstanding-a-monkey-wrench/|archive-date=June 6, 2017|url-status=live}}</ref> Whether the Nixon campaign interfered with negotiations between the Johnson administration and the South Vietnamese by engaging ], a fundraiser for the Republican party, remains a controversy.<ref name=Monkey-Wrench/> It is not clear whether the government of South Vietnam needed encouragement to opt out of a peace process they considered disadvantageous.<ref name=New-York-Times-Peter-Baker-January-2-2017> {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170307110433/https://www.nytimes.com/2017/01/02/us/politics/nixon-tried-to-spoil-johnsons-vietnam-peace-talks-in-68-notes-show.html?_r=0 |date=March 7, 2017}}, ''The New York Times'', Politics Section, Peter Baker, January 2, 2017. See also {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170205221138/https://www.nytimes.com/interactive/2016/12/31/opinion/sunday/haldeman-notes.html |date=February 5, 2017}}, ''The New York Times'', December 31, 2016, which reprints four pages of Haldeman's notes.</ref>
	=== First term ===
	Nixon was inaugurated on January 20, 1969. Pat Nixon held the family Bibles open to ] 2:4, reading, "They shall beat their swords into plowshares, and their spears into pruning hooks."<ref name="cb567568">Black, Conrad (2007), pp. 567-568</ref> In his inaugural address, which received almost uniformly positive reviews, Nixon said, "The greatest honor history can bestow is the title of peacemaker."<ref name="cb567568"/> He also spoke about turning around partisan politics into a new age of unity:
			In a three-way race between Nixon, Humphrey, and ] candidate ], Nixon defeated Humphrey by only 500,000 votes, a margin almost as close as in 1960, with both elections seeing a gap of less than one percentage point of the popular vote. However, Nixon earned 301 electoral votes to 191 for Humphrey and 46 for Wallace, a majority.{{sfn|Nixon Library, President}}{{sfn|Black|p=558}} He became the first non-incumbent vice president to be elected president.<ref name="Azari">{{Cite news |last=Azari |first=Julia |date=August 20, 2020 |title=Biden Had To Fight For The Presidential Nomination. But Most VPs Have To. |work=FiveThirtyEight |url=https://fivethirtyeight.com/features/biden-had-to-fight-for-the-presidential-nomination-but-most-vps-have-to/}}</ref> In his victory speech, Nixon pledged that his administration would try to ].{{sfn|Evans & Novak|pp=33–34}} Nixon said: "I have received a very gracious message from the Vice President, congratulating me for winning the election. I congratulated him for his gallant and courageous fight against great odds. I also told him that I know exactly how he felt. I know how it feels to ]."{{sfn|UPI 1968 in Review}}
	<blockquote>In these difficult years, America has suffered from a fever of words; from inflated rhetoric that promises more than it can deliver; from angry rhetoric that fans discontents into hatreds; from bombastic rhetoric that postures instead of persuading. We cannot learn from one another until we stop shouting at one another, until we speak quietly enough so that our words can be heard as well as our voices.”<ref>http://www.upi.com/Audio/Year_in_Review/Events-of-1969/War-Protests/12303189849225-3/#title "Nixon Becomes President: 1969 Year in Review, UPI.com"</ref></blockquote>
			== Presidency (1969–1974) ==
	He set out to reconstruct the Western Alliance, develop a relationship with China, pursue arms control agreements with the Soviet Union, activate a peace process in the Middle East, restrain inflation, implement anti-crime measures, accelerate desegregation, and reform welfare.<ref name="cb567568"/> The most immediate task, however, was the Vietnam War.<ref name="cb567568"/>
			{{Main|Presidency of Richard Nixon}}{{for timeline|Timeline of the Richard Nixon presidency}}
	{{Infobox U.S. Cabinet
			]. The new first lady, Pat, holds the family Bible.]]
	|align=right
	|Name=Nixon
			Nixon ] as ] on January 20, 1969, sworn in by his onetime political rival, ] ]. Pat Nixon held the family Bibles open at ] 2:4, which reads, "They shall beat their swords into plowshares, and their spears into pruning hooks." In his inaugural address, which received almost uniformly positive reviews, Nixon remarked that "the greatest honor history can bestow is the title of peacemaker"{{sfn|Black|pp=567–568}}—a phrase that found a place on his gravestone.{{sfn|Frick|p=189}} He spoke about turning partisan politics into a new age of unity:
	|President =]
			{{blockquote|In these difficult years, America has suffered from a fever of words; from inflated rhetoric that promises more than it can deliver; from angry rhetoric that fans discontents into hatreds; from bombastic rhetoric that postures instead of persuading. We cannot learn from one another until we stop shouting at one another, until we speak quietly enough so that our words can be heard as well as our voices.{{sfn|UPI 1969 in Review}}
	|President start =1969
	|President end =1974
	|Vice President =]
	|Vice President start =1969
	|Vice President end =1973
	|Vice President 2 =]
	|Vice President start 2 =1973
	|Vice President end 2 =1974
	|State =]
	|State start =1969
	|State end =1973
	|State 2 =]
	|State start 2 =1973
	|State end 2 =1974
	|Treasury =]
	|Treasury start =1969
	|Treasury end =1971
	|Treasury 2 =]
	|Treasury start 2 =1971
	|Treasury end 2 =1972
	|Treasury 3 =]
	|Treasury start 3 =1972
	|Treasury end 3 =1974
	|Treasury 4 =]
	|Treasury start 4 =1974
	|Treasury end 4 =1975
	|Defense =]
	|Defense start =1969
	|Defense end =1973
	|Defense 2 =]
	|Defense start 2 =1973
	|Defense end 2 =1974
	|Defense 3 =]
	|Defense start 3 =1973
	|Defense end 3 =1974
	|Justice =]
	|Justice start =1969
	|Justice end =1972
	|Justice 2 =]
	|Justice start 2 =1972
	|Justice end 2 =1973
	|Justice 3 =]
	|Justice start 3 =1973
	|Justice end 3 =1974
	|Justice 4 =]
	|Justice start 4 =1974
	|Justice end 4 =
	|Post =]
	|Post start =1969
	|Post end =1971
	|Interior =]
	|Interior start =1969
	|Interior end =1971
	|Interior 2 =]
	|Interior start 2 =1971
	|Interior end 2 =1974
	|Agriculture =]
	|Agriculture start =1969
	|Agriculture end =1971
	|Agriculture 2 =]
	|Agriculture start 2 =1971
	|Agriculture end 2 =1974
	|Commerce =]
	|Commerce start =1969
	|Commerce end =1972
	|Commerce 2 =]
	|Commerce start 2 =1972
	|Commerce end 2 =1973
	|Commerce 3 =]
	|Commerce start 3 =1973
	|Commerce end 3 =1974
	|Labor =]
	|Labor start =1969
	|Labor end =1970
	|Labor 2 =]
	|Labor start 2 =1970
	|Labor end 2 =1973
	|Labor 3 =]
	|Labor start 3 =1973
	|Labor end 3 =1974
	|Health, Education, and Welfare =]
	|Health, Education, and Welfare start =1969
	|Health, Education, and Welfare end =1970
	|Health, Education, and Welfare 2 =]
	|Health, Education, and Welfare start 2 =1970
	|Health, Education, and Welfare end 2 =1973
	|Health, Education, and Welfare 3 =]
	|Health, Education, and Welfare start 3 =1973
	|Health, Education, and Welfare end 3 =1974
	|Housing and Urban Development =]
	|Housing and Urban Development start =1969
	|Housing and Urban Development end =1973
	|Housing and Urban Development 2 =]
	|Housing and Urban Development start 2 =1973
	|Housing and Urban Development end 2 =1974
	|Transportation =]
	|Transportation start =1969
	|Transportation end =1973
	|Transportation 2 =]
	|Transportation start 2 =1973
	|Transportation end 2 =1974
	}}		}}
			=== Foreign policy ===
			{{Main|Foreign policy of the Richard Nixon administration}}
			==== China ====
			{{Main|1972 visit by Richard Nixon to China}}
			{{multiple image
			| direction = vertical
			| align = right
			| image1 = Nixon shakes hands with Chou En-lai.jpg
			| caption1 = President Nixon shakes hands with Chinese Premier ] upon arriving in Beijing, 1972
			| image2 = Nixon and Zhou toast.jpg
			| caption2 = Nixon and Zhou Enlai toast during Nixon's 1972 visit to China
			}}
			Nixon laid the groundwork for his overture to China before he became president, writing in '']'' a year before his election: "There is no place on this small planet for a billion of its potentially most able people to live in angry isolation."{{sfn|Miller Center}} Among the reasons that Nixon sought to improve relations with China was in the hope of weakening the Soviet Union and decreasing China's support to the North in the Vietnam War.<ref name="Lampton23">{{Cite book |last=Lampton |first=David M. |title=Living U.S.-China relations: From Cold War to Cold War |date=2024 |publisher=] |isbn=978-1-5381-8725-8 |location=Lanham, MD |page=23 |author-link=David M. Lampton}}</ref> Nixon ultimately used the idea of gaining leverage against the Soviet Union through relations with China to obtain the support of key conservative figures including Barry Goldwater and Ronald Reagan.<ref name=":02">{{Cite book |last=Minami |first=Kazushi |title=People's Diplomacy: How Americans and Chinese Transformed US-China Relations during the Cold War |date=2024 |publisher=] |isbn=9781501774157 |location=Ithaca, NY |pages=38}}</ref>
			Assisting him in pursuing relations with China was ], Nixon's ] and future ]. They collaborated closely, bypassing Cabinet officials. With relations between the Soviet Union and China at a nadir—] took place during Nixon's first year in office—Nixon sent private word to the Chinese that he desired closer relations. A breakthrough came in early 1971, when ] (CCP) ] ] invited a team of American table tennis players ]. Nixon followed up by sending Kissinger to China for clandestine meetings with Chinese officials.{{sfn|Miller Center}} On July 15, 1971, with announcements from Washington and Beijing, it was learned that the President would visit China the following February.{{sfn|Ambrose|1989|p=453}} The secrecy had allowed both sets of leaders time to prepare the political climate in their countries for the visit.{{r|Goh-Small}}
			In February 1972, Nixon and his wife traveled to China after Kissinger briefed Nixon for over 40 hours in preparation.{{sfn|Black|p=778}} Upon touching down, the President and First Lady emerged from ] and were greeted by Chinese Premier ]. Nixon made a point of shaking Zhou's hand, something which then-secretary of state ] had refused to do in 1954 when the two met in Geneva.{{sfn|PBS, The Nixon Visit}} More than a hundred television journalists accompanied the president. On Nixon's orders, television was strongly favored over printed publications, as Nixon felt that the medium would capture the visit much better than print. It also gave him the opportunity to snub the print journalists he despised.{{sfn|PBS, The Nixon Visit}}
			] and Nixon}}]]
			Nixon and Kissinger immediately met for an hour with CCP Chairman ] and Premier Zhou at Mao's official private residence, where they discussed a range of issues.{{sfn|Black|pp=780–782}} Mao later told his doctor that he had been impressed by Nixon's forthrightness, unlike the leftists and the Soviets.{{sfn|Black|pp=780–782}} He said he was suspicious of Kissinger,{{sfn|Black|pp=780–782}} though the National Security Advisor referred to their meeting as his "encounter with history".{{sfn|PBS, The Nixon Visit}} A formal banquet welcoming the presidential party was given that evening in the ]. The following day, Nixon met with Zhou; the ] following this meeting recognized Taiwan as a part of China and looked forward to a peaceful solution to the problem of reunification.{{sfn|Ambrose|1989|p=516}} When not in meetings, Nixon toured architectural wonders, including the ], the ], and the ].{{sfn|PBS, The Nixon Visit}} Americans took their first glance into everyday Chinese life through the cameras that accompanied Pat Nixon, who toured the city of Beijing and visited communes, schools, factories, and hospitals.{{sfn|PBS, The Nixon Visit}}
			The visit ushered in a new era of ].{{sfn|Nixon Library, President}} Fearing the possibility of a US–China alliance, the Soviet Union yielded to pressure for ] with the United States.{{sfn|Dallek|p=300}} This was one component of ].<ref>{{cite web|title=Foreign Relations of the United States, 1969-1976, Volume I Foundations of Foreign Policy, 1969-1972|url=https://2001-2009.state.gov/r/pa/ho/frus/nixon/i/21100.htm|website=2001-2009.state.gov}}</ref>
	==== Vietnam War ====		==== Vietnam War ====
	{{main|Vietnam War|Role of United States in the Vietnam War}}		{{Main|Vietnam War|Vietnamization|Role of the United States in the Vietnam War}}
			]
			When Nixon took office, about 300 American soldiers were dying each week in Vietnam,<ref>{{cite web | url = http://www.americanwarlibrary.com/vietnam/vwc24.htm | title = Vietnam War Deaths and Casualties By Month | access-date = June 22, 2012 | publisher = The American War Library | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20131204020044/http://www.americanwarlibrary.com/vietnam/vwc24.htm | archive-date = December 4, 2013 | url-status = live }}</ref> and the war was widely unpopular in the United States, the subject of ongoing violent protests. The Johnson administration had offered to suspend bombing unconditionally in exchange for negotiations, but to no avail. According to Walter Isaacson, Nixon concluded soon after taking office that the Vietnam War could not be won, and he was determined to end it quickly.{{sfn|Drew|p=65}} He sought an arrangement that would permit American forces to withdraw while leaving South Vietnam secure against attack.{{sfn|Black|p=569}}
	When Nixon took office, 300 American soldiers were dying per week in the Vietnam War. The "Johnson" administration had negotiated a deal in which the U.S. would suspend the bombing of North Vietnam in exchange for unconditional negotiations, but this faltered. Nixon faced the choice of devising a new policy to chance securing South Vietnam as a non-communist state, or withdrawing American forces completely.<ref>Black, Conrad (2007), p. 569.</ref>
			Nixon approved a secret ] carpet bombing campaign of North Vietnamese and ] positions in Cambodia beginning in March 1969 and code-named ], without the consent of Cambodian leader ].{{sfn|Black|p=591}}<ref name="Kiernan"/><ref>{{cite book|last=Clymer|first=Kenton|title=The United States and Cambodia, 1969–2000: A Troubled Relationship|publisher=]|year=2013|isbn=978-1-134-34156-6|pages=14–16}}</ref> In mid-1969, Nixon began efforts to negotiate peace with the North Vietnamese, sending a personal letter to their leaders, and peace talks began in Paris. Initial talks did not result in an agreement,{{sfn|Ambrose|1989|pp=281–283}} and in May 1969 he publicly proposed to withdraw all American troops from South Vietnam provided North Vietnam did so, and suggesting South Vietnam hold internationally supervised elections with ] participation.<ref> {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304043247/http://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/ws/index.php?pid=2047&st=&st1= |date=March 4, 2016 }} May 14, 1969</ref>
	Nixon approved a secret bombing campaign of North Vietnamese positions in ] in March 1969<ref name="cb591">Black, Conrad (2007), p. 591.</ref> (code-named '']'') to destroy what was believed to be the headquarters of the ]. The Air Force considered the bombings a success.<ref name="cb591"/> He then proposed simultaneous substantial withdrawals of North Vietnamese and American forces from South Vietnam one year after reaching a mutual agreement.<ref>Black, Conrad (2007), p. 612.</ref>
			]
	In July 1969, the Nixons visited ], where Nixon met with his U.S. military commanders and President ]. Amidst protests at home, he implemented the ], a strategy of replacing American troops with ], also called "]."<ref name="pres"/> He soon enacted phased U.S. troop withdrawals<ref name="time 1971"/> but bombed ], in part to interrupt the ] that passed through Laos and Cambodia. Nixon's 1968 campaign promise to curb the war and his subsequent Laos bombing raised questions in the press about a "]," similar to that encountered earlier in the war by Lyndon B. Johnson.<ref name="time 1971">{{cite news|url=http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,876891,00.html|work=Time|date=April 5, 1971|title=Again, the Credibility Gap?}}</ref> In a televised speech on April 30, 1970, Nixon announced the ] to disrupt so-called North Vietnamese sanctuaries. This led to protest and ] that temporarily closed 536 universities, colleges, and high schools.<ref>Dallek, Robert (2007), p. 203.</ref>
			In July 1969, Nixon visited ], where he met with his U.S. military commanders and President ]. Amid protests at home demanding an immediate pullout, he implemented a strategy of replacing American troops with ], known as "]".{{sfn|Nixon Library, President}} He soon instituted phased U.S. troop withdrawals,{{sfn|''Time''|1971-04-05}} but also authorized incursions into Laos, in part to interrupt the ] passing through Laos and Cambodia and used to supply North Vietnamese forces. In March 1970, at the explicit request of the Khmer Rouge and negotiated by ]'s then-second-in-command, ], North Vietnamese troops launched an offensive and overran much of Cambodia.<ref>{{cite book|first=Dmitry |last=Mosyakov |chapter=The Khmer Rouge and the Vietnamese Communists: A History of Their Relations as Told in the Soviet Archives |editor-first=Susan E. |editor-last=Cook |title=Genocide in Cambodia and Rwanda |series=Yale Genocide Studies Program Monograph Series |issue=1 |date=2004 |page=54ff |chapter-url=http://www.yale.edu/gsp/publications/Mosyakov.doc |quote=In April–May 1970, many North Vietnamese forces entered Cambodia in response to the call for help addressed to Vietnam not by Pol Pot, but by his deputy Nuon Chea. Nguyen Co Thach recalls: 'Nuon Chea has asked for help and we have liberated five provinces of Cambodia in ten days.' |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130309074636/http://www.yale.edu/gsp/publications/Mosyakov.doc |archive-date=March 9, 2013}}</ref> Nixon announced the ] on April 30, 1970, against North Vietnamese bases in the east of the country,{{sfn|AP/''St. Peterburg Independent''}} and further protests erupted against perceived expansion of the conflict, which resulted in Ohio National Guardsmen killing four unarmed students at ].<ref>{{cite book|last=Gitlin|first=Todd|title=]|publisher=Bantam Books|year=1987|isbn=978-0-553-37212-0|page=}}</ref> Nixon's responses to protesters included ] at the ] on May 9, 1970.{{r|Safire pp205–209}}{{sfn|UPI/''Beaver County Times''|1970-05-09}}{{sfn|Black|pp=675–676}} Nixon's campaign promise to curb the war, contrasted with the escalated bombing, led to claims that Nixon had a "]" on the issue.{{sfn|''Time''|1971-04-05}} It is estimated that between 50,000 and 150,000 people were killed during the ] between 1970 and 1973.<ref name="Kiernan">{{cite magazine|last1=Owen|first1=Taylor|last2=Kiernan|first2=Ben|title=Bombs Over Cambodia|magazine=The Walrus|date=October 2006|url=http://www.yale.edu/cgp/Walrus_CambodiaBombing_OCT06.pdf|pages=32–36|access-date=January 29, 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160420220434/http://www.yale.edu/cgp/Walrus_CambodiaBombing_OCT06.pdf|archive-date=April 20, 2016|url-status=live}} Kiernan and Owen later revised their estimate of 2.7 million tons of U.S. bombs dropped on Cambodia down to the previously accepted figure of roughly 500,000 tons: See {{cite web|authorlink1=Ben Kiernan|last1=Kiernan|first1=Ben|last2=Owen|first2=Taylor|url=http://apjjf.org/2015/13/16/Ben-Kiernan/4313.html|title=Making More Enemies than We Kill? Calculating U.S. Bomb Tonnages Dropped on Laos and Cambodia, and Weighing Their Implications|work=The Asia-Pacific Journal|date=April 26, 2015|access-date=November 15, 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150912002843/http://www.yale.edu/cgp/Walrus_CambodiaBombing_OCT06.pdf|archive-date=September 12, 2015|url-status=live}}</ref>
	Nixon formed the ] to look into ending the ],<ref name="aitken">Aitken, Jonathan (1996), pp. 396–397.</ref> implemented under President Johnson. The Gates Commission issued its report in February 1970, describing how adequate military strength could be maintained without having conscription.<ref name="griffith">Griffith, Robert K. (1997), pp. 40–41.</ref> The draft was extended to June 1973,<ref name="nyt020371">{{cite news |format=fee required| url=http://select.nytimes.com/mem/archive/pdf?res=F50C12FD3A55127B93C1A91789D85F458785F9 | title=Stennis Favors 4-Year Draft Extension, but Laird Asks 2 Years | author=] | work=The New York Times | date=February 3, 1971| accessdate=2007-12-30}}</ref> and then ended. Military pay was increased as an incentive to attract volunteers, and television advertising for the ] began.<ref name="evans">{{cite web| url=http://www.shsu.edu/~his_ncp/VolArm.html | title=The All-Volunteer Army After Twenty Years: Recruiting in the Modern Era | first=Thomas W.|last=Evans | publisher=] | date=Summer 1993 | accessdate=2007-12-31}}</ref>
			In 1971, excerpts from the "]", which had been leaked by ], were published by '']'' and '']''. When news of the leak first appeared, Nixon was inclined to do nothing; the Papers, a history of United States' involvement in Vietnam, mostly concerned the lies of prior administrations and contained few real revelations. He was persuaded by Kissinger that the Papers were more harmful than they appeared, and the President tried to prevent publication, but the Supreme Court ] the newspapers.{{sfn|Ambrose|1989|pp=446–448}}
	In December 1972, though concerned about the level of civilian casualties, Nixon approved '']'', the codename for aerial bombings of military and industrial targets in North Vietnam.<ref>{{cite news|author=Rosen, James|publisher=Fox News|accessdate=2008-12-22|title=Records Reveal Nixon's Conflict Over Vietnam War|url=http://www.foxnews.com/politics/2008/12/03/records-reveal-nixons-conflict-vietnam-war/|date=December 3, 2008}}</ref> After much fighting, a peace treaty was signed in 1973.<ref name="scholastic">The Sixties (1994), p. 4.</ref> Under Nixon, American involvement in the war steadily declined from a troop strength of 543,000 to zero in 1973.<ref name="pres"/>
			As U.S. troop withdrawals continued, ] was phased out by 1973, and the armed forces became all-volunteer.{{sfn|Evans}} After years of fighting, the ] were signed at the beginning of 1973. The agreement implemented a cease fire and allowed for the withdrawal of remaining American troops without requiring withdrawal of the 160,000 ] regulars located in the South.{{sfn|Ambrose|1991|pp=53–55}} Once American combat support ended, there was a brief truce, before fighting resumed, and ].{{sfn|Ambrose|1991|p=473}}
	==== Economy ====
	Under Nixon, direct payments from the federal government to individual American citizens in government benefits (including ] and ]) rose from 6.3% of the ] (GNP) to 8.9%. Food aid and public assistance also rose, beginning at $6.6 billion and escalating to $9.1 billion. Defense spending decreased from 9.1% to 5.8% of the GNP. The revenue sharing program pioneered by Nixon delivered $80 billion to individual states and municipalities.<ref>Black, Conrad (2007), p. 704.</ref>
			==== Latin American policy ====
	Nixon and Connally announced new economic policies on August 15, 1971 in a televised speech to the nation. The Democratic Congress passed the Economic Stabilization Act of 1970, giving Nixon power to set wages and prices; it did not believe he would use it and felt this would make him look indecisive.<ref name=Hetzel2008_p85>Hetzel, Robert L. (2008), p. 85.</ref> While opposed to ''permanent'' ],<ref>Black, Conrad (2007), p. 738.</ref> Nixon imposed the controls on a temporary basis<ref name=APP_Nixon_19730613>{{cite web|accessdate=2008-12-21|quote=Effective immediately, therefore, I am ordering a freeze on prices. This freeze will hold prices at levels no higher than those charged during the first 8 days of June. It will cover all prices paid by consumers. The only prices not covered will be those of unprocessed agricultural products at the farm levels, and rents.|url=http://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/ws/index.php?pid=3868|title=Address to the Nation Announcing Price Control Measures|author=Nixon, Richard |date=June 13, 1973 |publisher=American Presidency Project}}</ref> in a 90 day wage and price freeze.<ref name="cb740">Black, Conrad (2007), p. 740.</ref> The controls (enforced for large corporations, voluntary for others) were the largest since World War II; they were relaxed after the initial 90 days, although unemployment did not decrease.<ref name="pbs2"/> On a Sunday night in August Nixon spoke to the American public:
			{{See also|U.S. intervention in Chile#1973 coup|Operation Condor}}
			] (to his right); motorcade in San Diego, California, September 1970]]
			Nixon had been a firm supporter of Kennedy during the 1961 ] and 1962 ]. On taking office in 1969, he stepped up covert operations against Cuba and its president, ]. He maintained close relations with the Cuban-American exile community through his friend, ], who often suggested ways of irritating Castro. The Soviets and Cubans became concerned, fearing Nixon might attack Cuba and break the understanding between Kennedy and Khrushchev that ended the missile crisis. In August 1970, the Soviets asked Nixon to reaffirm the understanding, which he did, despite his hard line against Castro. The process was not completed before the Soviets began expanding their base at the Cuban port of ] in October 1970. A minor confrontation ensued, the Soviets stipulated they would not use Cienfuegos for submarines bearing ballistic missiles, and the final round of diplomatic notes were exchanged in November.{{sfn|Ambrose|1989|pp=379–383}}
	<blockquote>"Working together, we will break the back of inflation."<ref></ref></blockquote>
			The election of Marxist candidate ] as ] in September 1970 spurred a vigorous campaign of covert opposition to him by Nixon and Kissinger.<ref name="The Pinochet File">{{cite book|last=Kornbluh|first=Peter|title=The Pinochet File: A Declassified Dossier on Atrocity and Accountability|year=2003|publisher=The New Press|location=New York|isbn=978-1-56584-936-5}}</ref>{{rp|25}} This began by trying to convince the Chilean congress to confirm ] as the winner of the election, and then messages to military officers in support of a coup.<ref name="The Pinochet File"/> Other support included strikes organized against Allende and funding for Allende opponents. It was even alleged that "Nixon personally authorized" $700,000 in covert funds to print anti-Allende messages in a prominent Chilean newspaper.<ref name="The Pinochet File"/>{{rp|93}} Following an extended period of social, political, and economic unrest, General ] assumed power in a violent ] on September 11, 1973; among the ].{{sfn|Black|p=921}}
	A Pay Board set wage controls limiting increases to 5.5% per year, and the Price Commission set a 2.5% annual limit on price increases.<ref name="rlh86">Hetzel, Robert L. (2008), p. 86</ref> The limits did help to control wages, but not inflation.<ref name=Hetzel2008_p91>Hetzel, Robert L. (2008), p. 91.</ref> Overall, however, the controls were viewed as successful in the short term<ref name=Hetzel2008_p92>Hetzel, Robert L. (2008), p. 92.</ref> and were popular with the public, who felt Nixon was rescuing them from ] and from a foreign-caused exchange crisis.<ref name="pbs2"/><ref>Hetzel, Robert L. (2008), p. 84.</ref> The next day, the ] measured a then-record one day increase.
			==== Soviet Union ====
	Nixon was worried about the effects of increasing inflation and accelerating unemployment,<ref name="pbs2">{{cite news| last = Yergin| first = Daniel| coauthor = Joseph Stanislaw| title = Nixon Tries Price Controls | work = Commanding Heights| year = 1997| url = http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/commandingheights/shared/minitextlo/ess_nixongold.html| accessdate = 2008-11-02 }}</ref> so he indexed Social Security for inflation, and created ] (SSI). In 1969, he had presented the only balanced budget between 1961 and 1998.<ref>Frum, David (2000), p. 324.</ref> However, despite speeches declaring an opposition to the idea, he decided to offer Congress a budget with ] to reduce unemployment and declared, "]."<ref name="pbs2"/> He also explored creating a universal minimum income and universal health care, but was not able to realize either.<ref name="domestic"/>
			]
			Nixon used the improving international environment to address the topic of nuclear peace. Following the announcement of his visit to China, the Nixon administration concluded negotiations for him to visit the Soviet Union. The President and First Lady arrived in Moscow on May 22, 1972, and met with ], the ]; ], the ]; and ], the ] of the ], among other leading Soviet officials.{{sfn|BBC|1972-05-22}}
	]
	Another large part of Nixon's plan was the detachment of the dollar from the ].<ref name="cb740"/> By the time Nixon took office, U.S. gold reserves had declined from $25 billion to $10.5 billion. Gold was an underpriced commodity, as the dollar was overpriced as a currency. The United States was on the verge of running its first trade deficit in over 75 years.<ref>Black, Conrad (2007), p. 739.</ref>
	The price of gold had been set at $35 an ounce since the days of ]'s presidency; foreign countries acquired more dollar reserves, outnumbering the entire amount of gold the United States possessed. Nixon completely ] the gold standard, preventing other countries from being able to claim gold in exchange for their dollar reserves, but also weakening the ] of the dollar against other currencies and increasing inflation by driving up the cost of imports.<ref name="pbs2"/> Nixon felt that the dollar should float freely like other currencies.<ref name="cb741">Black, Conrad (2007), p. 741.</ref> Said Nixon in his speech:
	<blockquote>"The American dollar must never again be a hostage in the hands of international speculators.... Government... does not hold the key to the success of a people. That key... is in your hands. Every action I have taken tonight is designed to nurture and stimulate that competitive spirit to help us snap out of self-doubt, the self-disparagement that saps our energy and erodes our confidence in ourselves... Whether the nation stays Number One depends on your competitive spirit, your sense of personal destiny, your pride in your country and yourself."<ref name="Black, Conrad 2007, p. 743">Black, Conrad (2007), p. 743.</ref></blockquote>
			Nixon engaged in intense negotiations with Brezhnev.{{sfn|BBC|1972-05-22}} Out of the summit came agreements for increased trade and two landmark arms control treaties: ], the first comprehensive limitation pact signed by the two superpowers,{{sfn|Nixon Library, President}} and the ], which banned the development of systems designed to intercept incoming missiles. Nixon and Brezhnev proclaimed a new era of "peaceful coexistence". A banquet was held that evening at the ].{{sfn|BBC|1972-05-22}}
	Other parts of the Nixon plan included the reimposition of a 10% investment tax credit, assistance to the automobile industry in the form of removal of ]es (provided the savings were passed directly to the consumer),<ref name="cb741"/> an end to fixed exchange rates, devaluation of the dollar on the free market, and a 10% tax on all imports into the U.S.<ref name="cb740"/> The U.S. economy was gradually transformed into tertiary industry; U.S. income rose, and ] declined.<ref name="cb740"/>
			Nixon and Kissinger planned to link arms control to détente and to the resolution of other urgent problems through what Nixon called "]" David Tal argues:
	Nixon wanted to lift the spirits of the country as polls showed increasing concern about the economy. His program was viewed by nearly everyone to be exceptionally bold, and astounded the Democrats.<ref name="Black, Conrad 2007, p. 743"/> Nixon soon experienced a bounce in the polls.<ref>Black, Conrad (2007), p. 744.</ref> His economic program was determined to be a clear success by December 1971.<ref>Black, Conrad (2007), p. 760.</ref> One of Nixon's economic advisers, ], wrote: "Probably more new regulation was imposed on the economy during the Nixon administration than in any other presidency since the ]."<ref name="pbs2"/>
			{{blockquote|The linkage between strategic arms limitations and outstanding issues such as the Middle East, Berlin and, foremost, Vietnam thus became central to Nixon's and Kissinger's policy of détente. Through the employment of linkage, they hoped to change the nature and course of U.S. foreign policy, including U.S. nuclear disarmament and arms control policy, and to separate them from those practiced by Nixon's predecessors. They also intended, through linkage, to make U.S. arms control policy part of détente{{nbsp}}... His policy of linkage had in fact failed. It failed mainly because it was based on flawed assumptions and false premises, the foremost of which was that the Soviet Union wanted strategic arms limitation agreement much more than the United States did.<ref>David Tal, " 'Absolutes' and 'Stages' in the Making and Application of Nixon's SALT Policy." ''Diplomatic History'' 37.5 (2013): 1090–1116, quoting pp 1091, 1092. Nixon himself later wrote, "e decided to link progress in such areas of Soviet concern as strategic arms limitation and increased trade with progress in areas that were important to us—Vietnam, the Mideast, and Berlin. This concept became known as linkage." {{cite book|author=Richard Nixon|title=RN: The Memoirs of Richard Nixon|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=UyfcLYY9F0gC&pg=RA1-PT388|year=1978|page=346|publisher=Simon and Schuster|isbn=978-1-4767-3183-4}}</ref>}}
	==== Civil rights ====
	The Nixon years witnessed the first large-scale ] of public schools in the South.<ref>Boger, John Charles (2005), p. 6.</ref> Strategically, Nixon sought a middle way between the ] ] and ] Democrats, whose support of integration was alienating some Southern white Democrats. His plan has since become known as the ].<ref name="hnn">{{cite news| last = Sabia| first = Joseph J. | title = Why Richard Nixon Deserves to Be Remembered Along with Brown| publisher = History News Network| date = May 31, 2004 | url = http://hnn.us/articles/5331.html | accessdate = 2008-10-24}}</ref> He was determined to implement exactly what the courts had ordered&mdash; desegregation &mdash; but did not favor ] children, in the words of author Conrad Black, "all over the country to satisfy the capricious meddling of judges."<ref>Black, Conrad (2007), p. 643.</ref> Nixon, the Quaker, felt that ] was the greatest moral failure of the United States<ref name="cb644"/> and concentrated on the principle that the law must be ]: "I am convinced that while legal segregation is totally wrong, forced integration of housing or education is just as wrong."<ref name=Kotlowski2001_p8>Kotlowski, Dean J. (2001), p. 8.</ref>
			Seeking to foster better relations with the United States, China and the Soviet Union both cut back on their diplomatic support for North Vietnam and advised Hanoi to come to terms militarily.{{sfn|Gaddis|pp=294, 299}} Nixon later described his strategy:
	Nixon tied desegregation to improving the quality of education<ref name="cb644">Black, Conrad (2007), p. 644.</ref> and enforced the law after the Supreme Court, in '']'' (1969), prohibited further delays. By fall of 1970, two million southern black children enrolled in newly created unitary fully integrated school districts; this meant that only 18% of Southern black children attended all-black schools, a decrease from 70% when Nixon came to office.<ref name="domestic">{{cite web| title = Richard M. Nixon, 37th President: Domestic Politics | work=American Experience| publisher = PBS | url = http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/amex/presidents/37_nixon/nixon_domestic.html| accessdate =2008-10-24}}</ref> Nixon's Cabinet Committee on Education, under the leadership of Labor Secretary ], quietly set up local biracial committees to assure smooth compliance without violence or political grandstanding.<ref>Black, Conrad (2007), pp. 645-646.</ref> "In this sense, Nixon was the greatest school desegregator in American history," historian Dean Kotlowski concluded.<ref name=Kotlowski2001_p37>Kotlowski, Dean J. (2001), p. 37.</ref> Author Conrad Black concurred: "In his singular, unsung way, Richard Nixon defanged and healed one of the potentially greatest controversies of the time."<ref>Black, Conrad (2007), p. 647.</ref>
			{{blockquote|I had long believed that an indispensable element of any successful peace initiative in Vietnam was to enlist, if possible, the help of the Soviets and the Chinese. Though rapprochement with China and détente with the Soviet Union were ends in themselves, I also considered them possible means to hasten the end of the war. At worst, Hanoi was bound to feel less confident if Washington was dealing with Moscow and Beijing. At best, if the two major Communist powers decided that they had bigger fish to fry, Hanoi would be pressured into negotiating a settlement we could accept.{{sfn|Nixon|1985|pp=105–106}}
			}}
			In 1973, Nixon encouraged the ] to finance in part a trade deal with the Soviet Union in which ]'s ] would export ] from Florida to the Soviet Union, and import Soviet ]. The deal, valued at $20 billion over 20 years, involved the construction of two major Soviet port facilities at ] and ],<ref>{{cite news|last=Smith|first=Hedrick|date=June 29, 1974|title=OCCIDENTAL SIGNS DEAL WITH SOVIET|language=en-US|work=The New York Times|url=https://www.nytimes.com/1974/06/29/archives/occidental-signs-deal-with-soviet-4-contracts-are-activated-in-a.html|access-date=December 6, 2021|issn=0362-4331}}</ref><ref name=":0">{{cite news|date=November 29, 1981|title=THE RIDDLE OF ARMAND HAMMER|language=en-US|work=The New York Times|url=https://www.nytimes.com/1981/11/29/magazine/the-riddle-of-armand-hammer.html|access-date=December 6, 2021|issn=0362-4331}}</ref><ref name="Rich">{{cite news|last=Rich|first=Spencer|date=October 4, 1979|title=Soviets Dumping Ammonia, ITC Says|language=en-US|newspaper=Washington Post|url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/archive/business/1979/10/04/soviets-dumping-ammonia-itc-says/4d53c7fa-6c89-470b-b8f0-5aced1b92513/|access-date=December 7, 2021|issn=0190-8286}}</ref> and a pipeline connecting four ammonia plants in the greater ] region to the port at Odessa.<ref name="Rich"/> In 1973, Nixon announced his administration was committed to seeking ] trade status with the USSR,<ref>{{cite news|date=October 5, 1973|title=NIXON IN APPEAL ON SOVIET TRADE|language=en-US|work=The New York Times|url=https://www.nytimes.com/1973/10/05/archives/nixon-in-appeal-on-soviet-trade-urges-congress-to-include.html|access-date=December 7, 2021|issn=0362-4331}}</ref> which was challenged by Congress in the ].<ref>{{cite book|last=Herring|first=George C.|url=https://archive.org/details/fromcolonytosupe00herr|title=From Colony to Superpower; U.S. Foreign Relations Since 1776|date=2008|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=978-0-19-507822-0|pages=804}}</ref>
			During the previous two years, Nixon had made considerable progress in U.S.–Soviet relations, and he embarked on a second trip to the Soviet Union in 1974.{{sfn|Black|p=963}} He arrived in Moscow on June 27 to a welcome ceremony, cheering crowds, and a state dinner at the ] that evening.{{sfn|Black|p=963}} Nixon and Brezhnev met in ], where they discussed a proposed mutual defense pact, détente, and ]s. Nixon considered proposing a comprehensive test-ban treaty, but he felt he would not have time to complete it during his presidency.{{sfn|Black|p=963}} There were no significant breakthroughs in these negotiations.{{sfn|Black|p=963}}
	Nixon endorsed the ] after it passed both houses of Congress in ] and went to the states for ratification as a ].<ref name="'70s 246">Frum, David (2000), p. 246.</ref> That same year Nixon signed the landmark laws ], prohibiting gender discrimination in all federally-funded schools and the ]. In 1970 Nixon had vetoed the ], denouncing the universal child-care bill, but signed into law ], which was a step forward for family planning and contraceptives.
			==== Middle Eastern policy ====
	Nixon had campaigned as an ERA supporter in 1968, but feminists criticized him for doing little to help the ERA or their cause after his election, which led to a much stronger ] agenda. In addition to supporting the ERA and signing into law landmark feminist laws such as Title IX, Nixon, facing opposition from many men in his administration, increased the number of female appointees to administration positions.<ref>http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/amex/presidents/37_nixon/nixon_domestic.html</ref>
			{{anchor|Middle East policy}}
			], June 1974]]
			] of Egypt, June 1974]]
			As part of the ], the U.S. avoided giving direct combat assistance to its allies and instead gave them assistance to defend themselves. During the Nixon administration, the U.S. greatly increased arms sales to the Middle East, particularly Israel, Iran and Saudi Arabia.{{r|Hanhimäki-Small}} The Nixon administration strongly supported Israel, an American ally in the Middle East, but the support was not unconditional. Nixon believed Israel should make peace with its Arab neighbors and that the U.S. should encourage it. The president believed that—except during the ]—the U.S. had failed to intervene with Israel, and should use the leverage of the large U.S. military aid to Israel to urge the parties to the negotiating table. The Arab-Israeli conflict was not a major focus of Nixon's attention during his first term—for one thing, he felt that no matter what he did, American Jews would oppose his reelection.{{efn|name=Jewish vote}}
	==== U.S. space program ====
	]
	In 1969, Nixon's first year in office, the United States sent three men up to the moon, becoming the first nation in the world to do so. On July 20, Nixon addressed ] and ], two of the astronauts, live via radio during their historic ]. Nixon also placed a telephone call to Armstrong on the moon, the longest distance phone call ever,<ref name=NixonCall_19690720>{{cite web|accessdate=2008-11-09|url=http://www.classbrain.com/artteenst/publish/Nixon_calls_the_Moon2.shtml|title=Telephone Conversation with the Apollo 11 Astronauts on the Moon |format=audio available|date=July 20, 1969|publisher=ClassBrain.com}}</ref> and called it "the most historic phone call ever made from the White House."<ref name="cb615616">Black, Conrad (2007), pp. 615-616</ref> He observed their landing in the ocean from the deck of the aircraft carrier '']''.<ref name="cb615616"/> All U.S. ] moon landings, and the attempted moon landing of ], took place during Nixon's first term.
			On October 6, 1973, an Arab coalition led by Egypt and Syria, supported with arms and materiel by the Soviet Union, attacked Israel in the ]. Israel suffered heavy losses and Nixon ordered an airlift to resupply Israeli losses, cutting through inter-departmental squabbles and bureaucracy and taking personal responsibility for any response by Arab nations. More than a week later, by the time the U.S. and Soviet Union began ], Israel had penetrated deep into enemy territory. The truce negotiations rapidly escalated into a superpower crisis; when Israel gained the upper hand, Egyptian president Sadat requested a joint U.S.–USSR peacekeeping mission, which the U.S. refused. When Soviet Premier Brezhnev threatened to unilaterally enforce any peacekeeping mission militarily, Nixon ordered the U.S. military to ]3,<ref name="fas-defcon">{{cite web|url=https://fas.org/nuke/guide/usa/c3i/defcon.htm|title=DEFCON DEFense CONdition|work=fas.org|access-date=June 17, 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150617123557/https://fas.org/nuke/guide/usa/c3i/defcon.htm|archive-date=June 17, 2015|url-status=live}}</ref> placing all U.S. military personnel and bases on alert for nuclear war. This was the closest the world had come to nuclear war since the Cuban Missile Crisis. Brezhnev backed down as a result of Nixon's actions.{{sfn|Nixon|1978|pp=938–940}}
	On January 5, 1972, Nixon approved the development of ] ],<ref name=NixonSpaceShuttle_19720105>{{cite web|accessdate=2008-11-09|url=http://history.nasa.gov/stsnixon.htm|title=The Statement by President Nixon, 5 January 1972|date=5 January 1972|quote=President Richard M. Nixon and NASA Administrator James C. Fletcher announced the Space Shuttle program had received final approval in San Clemente, California, on 5 January 1972. |publisher=NASA History Office}}</ref> a decision that profoundly influenced American efforts to explore and develop space for several decades thereafter. Under the Nixon administration, however, NASA's budget declined.<ref name=NASA_Butrica_p256>{{cite book|accessdate=2008-11-09|url=http://history.nasa.gov/SP-4219/Chapter11.html|chapter=Chapter 11 - Voyager: The Grand Tour of Big Science|first=Andrew J. |last=Butrica|title=From Engineering Science to Big Science |series=The NASA History Series|year=1998|page=256 |publisher=NASA History Office |location=Washington, D.C.|quote=The Bureau of Budget under Nixon consistently reduced NASA's budget allocation.}}</ref> NASA Administrator ] was drawing up ambitious plans for the establishment of a permanent base on the ] by the end of the 1970s and the launch of a manned expedition to ] as early as 1981. Nixon, however, rejected this proposal.<ref name=SpaceReview_Handlin_20051128 >{{cite web|accessdate=2008-11-09|url=http://www.thespacereview.com/article/507/1|title=Just another Apollo? Part two|first=Daniel |last=Handlin |date=November 28, 2005|publisher=The Space Review}}</ref>
			Because Israel's victory was largely due to U.S. support, the Arab OPEC nations retaliated by refusing to sell crude oil to the U.S., resulting in the ].{{sfn|Black|pp=923–928}} The embargo caused gasoline shortages and rationing in the United States in late 1973, but was eventually ended by the oil-producing nations as peace in the Middle East took hold.{{sfn|Ambrose|1991|p=311}}
	==== Indo-Pakistani War ====
	{{main|Indo-Pakistani War of 1971}}
			After the war, and under Nixon's presidency, the U.S. reestablished relations with Egypt for the first time since 1967. Nixon used the Middle East crisis to restart ]; he wrote in a confidential memo to Kissinger on October 20:
	A conflict broke out in Pakistan in 1971 following independence demonstrations in ]; President ] instructed the Pakistani Army to quell the riots, resulting in widespread ]. President Nixon liked Yahya personally, and credited him for helping to open a channel to China; accordingly, he felt obligated to support him in the struggle.<ref name="cb750">Black, Conrad (2007), p. 750.</ref> But there were limits as to how far the United States could associate itself with Pakistan due to human rights abuse.<ref name="cb750"/> American public opinion was concerned with the atrocities<ref name=Thornton1989_pp113-115>Thornton, Richard C. (1989), pp. 113–115.</ref> and the suppression of over 10 million people into India.<ref name="cb750"/>
			<blockquote>I believe that, beyond a doubt, we are now facing the best opportunity we have had in 15 years to build a lasting peace in the Middle East. I am convinced history will hold us responsible if we let this opportunity slip by&nbsp;... I now consider a permanent Middle East settlement to be the most important final goal to which we must devote ourselves.<ref>Tyler, Patrick (2010), p. 161</ref></blockquote>
			Nixon made one of his final international visits as president to the Middle East in June 1974, and became the first president to visit Israel.{{sfn|Black|pp=951–952, 959}}
	Nixon relayed messages to Yahya, urging him to restrain Pakistani forces.<ref name="cb751">Black, Conrad (2007), p. 751.</ref> His objective was to prevent a war and safeguard Pakistan's interests, though he was also fearful of an Indian invasion of West Pakistan that would lead to Indian domination of ] and strengthen the position of the ],<ref name=Time_19720117>{{cite news|url=http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,877618-2,00.html|title=The Kissinger Tilt|work=Time|date=January 17, 1972|accessdate=2008-09-30}}</ref> which had recently signed a ] with India. Nixon felt that the Soviet Union was inciting the country.<ref name="cb751"/>
			==== South Asia policy ====
	Nixon met with Indian Prime Minister ] and did not believe her assertion that she would not invade Pakistan;<ref>Black, Conrad (2007), p. 752</ref> he did not trust her and once referred to her as an "old witch".<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.atimes.com/atimes/south_asia/gf23df04.html|title='Indians are bastards anyway'|author=Chowdhury, Debasish Roy|accessdate=2009-05-04|date=June 23, 2005|work=Asia Times}}</ref> On December 3, Yahya attacked the Indian Air Force and Gandhi retaliated, pushing into East Pakistan.<ref name="cb753">Black, Conrad (2007), p. 753.</ref> Nixon issued a statement blaming Pakistan for starting the conflict and blaming India for escalating it<ref name="cb753"/> because he favored a cease-fire.<ref>Black, Conrad (2007), p. 755.</ref> The United States was secretly encouraging the shipment of military equipment from Iran, Turkey, and Jordan to Pakistan, reimbursing those countries<ref name="cb756">Black, Conrad (2007), p. 756.</ref> despite Congressional objections.<ref name=NSA_Gandhi_20021216>{{cite web|url=http://www.gwu.edu/~nsarchiv/NSAEBB/NSAEBB79/ |title=The Tilt: The U.S. and the South Asian Crisis of 1971|work=National Security Archive Electronic Briefing Book No. 79 |date= December 16, 2002|first=Sajit|last=Gandhi|publisher=National Security Archive|accessdate=2009-01-15}}</ref> A cease fire was reached on December 16 and ] was created.<ref name="cb757">Black, Conrad (2007), p. 757.</ref>
			] at the White House, October 1970]]
			Since 1960s, the United States perceived Pakistan as an integral bulwark against global communism in the Cold War. Nixon was fond of Pakistani president ] and according to American journalist ], "Nixon liked very few people, but he did like General Agha Muhammad Yahya Khan." {{Sfn|Bass|2013|p=7}}
			During the ], the United States stood by Pakistan against Bengali nationalists in terms of diplomacy and military threats.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Jarrod Hayes |year=2012 |title=Securitization, social identity, and democratic security: Nixon, India, and the ties that bind |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/241754960 |journal=International Organization |volume=66 |issue=1 |pages=63–93 |doi=10.1017/S0020818311000324 |jstor=41428946 |s2cid=145504278}}</ref> Nixon urged President Khan multiple times to exercise restraint,{{Sfn|Black|2007|p=751}} fearing an Indian invasion of Pakistan that would lead to Indian domination of ] and strengthen the position of the Soviet Union.<ref name="Time_19720117">{{cite magazine |date=17 January 1972 |title=The Kissinger Tilt |url=http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,877618-2,00.html |url-access=subscription |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121106061724/http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,877618-2,00.html |archive-date=6 November 2012 |access-date=30 September 2008 |magazine=Time |page=17}}</ref> In the wake of the ], Nixon issued a statement blaming Pakistan for starting the conflict and blaming India for escalating it while personally favoring a ceasefire.{{Sfn|Black|2007|p=753}} The United States used the threat of an aid cut-off to force Pakistan to back down, while its continued military aid to Islamabad prevented India from launching incursions deeper into the country. Nixon denied getting involved in the situation, saying that it was an internal matter of Pakistan, but when Pakistan's defeat seemed certain, he sent the aircraft carrier ] to the ].<ref>{{cite news |last=Scott |first=Paul |date=21 December 1971 |title=Naval 'Show of Force' By Nixon Meant as Blunt Warning to India |url=https://news.google.com/newspapers?id=HUU0AAAAIBAJ&pg=5099,2016461 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220602154916/https://news.google.com/newspapers?id=HUU0AAAAIBAJ&pg=5099,2016461 |archive-date=2 June 2022 |access-date=8 November 2020 |work=Bangor Daily News}}</ref>
	==== China ====
	{{main|1972 Nixon visit to China}}
	] upon arriving in Beijing]]
			=== Domestic policy ===
	] between the Western powers and ] changed dramatically in the early 1970s. In 1960, the People's Republic of China publicly split from its main ally, the ], in the ]. As tension along the border between the two communist nations ] in 1969 and 1970, Nixon decided to use their conflict to shift the balance of power towards the West in the ].<ref>Dallek, Robert (2007), p. 144.</ref>
			==== Economy ====
			{{further|Nixon shock|1970s energy crisis}}
			]' 1969 Opening Day with team owner ] (arms folded) and Baseball Commissioner ] (hand on mouth). Nixon's ], Major ], sits behind them in uniform]]
			At the time Nixon took office in 1969, inflation was at 4.7&nbsp;percent—its highest rate since the Korean War. The ] had been enacted under Johnson, which, together with the Vietnam War costs, was causing large budget deficits. Unemployment was low, but interest rates were at their highest in a century.{{sfn|Ambrose|1989|pp=225–226}} Nixon's major economic goal was to reduce inflation; the most obvious means of doing so was to end the war.{{sfn|Ambrose|1989|pp=225–226}} This could not be accomplished overnight, and the U.S. economy continued to struggle through 1970, contributing to a lackluster Republican performance in the midterm congressional elections (Democrats controlled both Houses of Congress throughout Nixon's presidency).{{sfn|Ambrose|1989|pp=431–432}} According to political economist Nigel Bowles in his 2011 study of Nixon's economic record, the new president did little to alter Johnson's policies through the first year of his presidency.{{r|Bowles-Small}}
			Nixon was far more interested in foreign affairs than domestic policies, but he believed that voters tend to focus on their own financial condition and that economic conditions were a threat to his reelection. As part of his "]" views, he proposed grants to the states, but these proposals were for the most part lost in the congressional budget process. However, Nixon gained political credit for advocating them.{{sfn|Ambrose|1989|pp=431–432}} In 1970, Congress had granted the president the power to impose wage and price freezes, though the Democratic majorities, knowing Nixon had opposed such controls throughout his career, did not expect Nixon to actually use the authority.{{r|Bowles-Small}} With inflation unresolved by August 1971, and an election year looming, Nixon convened a summit of his economic advisers at ]. Nixon's options were to limit fiscal and monetary expansionist policies that reduced unemployment or end the dollar's fixed exchange rate; Nixon's dilemma has been cited as an example of the ] in international economics.<ref name=":1">{{cite book|last=Oatley|first=Thomas|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=4GJoDwAAQBAJ|title=International Political Economy: Sixth Edition|date=2019|publisher=Routledge|isbn=978-1-351-03464-7|pages=351–352}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last=Gowa|first=Joanne|title=Closing the Gold Window|date=1983|url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/10.7591/j.ctvr7f40n|publisher=Cornell University Press |jstor=10.7591/j.ctvr7f40n|isbn=978-0-8014-1622-4}}</ref> He then announced temporary wage and price controls, allowed the dollar to float against other currencies, and ended the convertibility of the dollar into gold.{{sfn|Aitken|pp=399–400}} Bowles points out,
	Nixon had begun entreating China a mere month into office by sending covert messages of rapprochement through ] of Romania<ref>http://www.gwu.edu/~nsarchiv/NSAEBB/NSAEBB66/ch-04.pdf</ref> and Yahya Khan of Pakistan<ref>http://www.gwu.edu/~nsarchiv/NSAEBB/NSAEBB66/ch-03.pdf</ref> in December 1970. He reduced many trade restrictions between the two countries, and silenced anti-China voices within the White House.
			<blockquote>by identifying himself with a policy whose purpose was inflation's defeat, Nixon made it difficult for Democratic opponents&nbsp;... to criticize him. His opponents could offer no alternative policy that was either plausible or believable since the one they favored was one they had designed but which the president had appropriated for himself.{{r|Bowles-Small}}</blockquote>
			Nixon's policies dampened inflation through 1972, although their aftereffects contributed to inflation during his second term and into the Ford administration.{{sfn|Aitken|pp=399–400}} Nixon's decision to end the gold standard in the United States led to the collapse of the ]. According to Thomas Oatley, "the Bretton Woods system collapsed so that Nixon might win the 1972 presidential election."<ref name=":1"/>
	In April 1971, the Chinese ] team invited the American table tennis team to attend a demonstration competition for a week in China.<ref name="cb712713">Black, Conrad (2007), pp. 712-713.</ref> The invitation came upon the order of ] himself, who had taken note of Nixon's "subtle overtures" to improve U.S.-Chinese relations, including the conflict in Pakistan.<ref name="cb712713"/> This was significant in that the fifteen-member table tennis team were allowed to enter Mainland China after a twenty year period in which Americans, except on very rare occasion, had been denied visas<ref>http://www.gwu.edu/~nsarchiv/NSAEBB/NSAEBB66/ch-13.pdf</ref> (the term "]" arose from this encounter).<ref>Dallek, Robert (2007), p. 268.</ref>
			After Nixon won re-election, inflation was returning.{{sfn|Hetzel|p=92}} He reimposed price controls in June 1973. The price controls became unpopular with the public and businesspeople, who saw powerful labor unions as preferable to the price board bureaucracy.{{sfn|Hetzel|p=92}} The controls produced ], as meat disappeared from grocery stores and farmers drowned chickens rather than sell them at a loss.{{sfn|Hetzel|p=92}} Despite the failure to control inflation, controls were slowly ended, and on April 30, 1974, their statutory authorization lapsed.{{sfn|Hetzel|p=92}}
	Chinese Premier ], through Pakistani intermediaries, had relayed a message to Nixon reading: "The Chinese government reaffirms its willingness to receive publicly in Peking a special envoy of the president of the United States, or the U.S. secretary of state, or even the president himself."<ref name="cb716">Black, Conrad (2007), p. 716.</ref> Nixon sent then-National Security Advisor ] on a secret mission to China in July 1971 to arrange a visit by the president and first lady.<ref name="cb716"/> Soon, the world was stunned to learn that Nixon intended to visit Communist China the following year.<ref>Black, Conrad (2007), p. 717.</ref>
			==== Governmental initiatives and organization ====
	] ] (left) in a historic visit to the People's Republic of China, 1972.]]
			]]]
	In February 1972, President and Mrs. Nixon ], where the president was to engage in direct talks with Mao and Chou. Kissinger briefed Nixon for over forty hours in preparation.<ref>Black, Conrad (2007), p. 778.</ref> Upon touching down, Nixon and Pat emerged from Air Force One and greeted Chou. According to Nixon biographer Stephen Ambrose:
			], {{circa|1984}}]]
	<blockquote>" knew that when his old friend John Foster Dulles had refused to shake the hand of Chou En-lai in Geneva in 1954, Chou had felt insulted. He knew too that American television cameras would be at the Bejing airport to film his arrival. A dozen times on the way to Peking, Nixon told Kissinger and Secretary of State William Rogers that they were to stay on the plane until he had descended the gangway and shaken Zhou Enlai's hand. As added insurance, a Secret Service agent blocked the aisle of Air Force One to make sure the president emerged alone."<ref name="china trip">{{cite web|url=http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/amex/china/sfeature/nixon.html|title=The Nixon Visit - (February 21-28, 1972)|accessdate=2009-01-06|publisher=PBS|date=1999}}</ref></blockquote> Over one hundred television journalists accompanied the president. On Nixon's orders, television was strongly favored over printed publications, as it would capture the trip's visuals much better while snubbing the print journalists Nixon despised.<ref name="china trip"/>
			]]]
			Nixon advocated a "]", which would devolve power to state and local elected officials, though Congress was hostile to these ideas and enacted few of them.{{sfn|Aitken|p=395}} He eliminated the Cabinet-level ], which in 1971 became the government-run ].{{sfn|USPS, Periodicals postage}}
			Nixon was a late supporter of the ]. Environmental policy had not been a significant issue in the 1968 election, and the candidates were rarely asked for their views on the subject. Nixon broke new ground by discussing environmental policy in his ] in 1970. He saw that the first ] in April 1970 presaged a wave of voter interest on the subject, and sought to use that to his benefit; in June he announced the formation of the ] (EPA).{{sfn|Aitken|pp=397–398}} He relied on his domestic advisor ], who favored protection of natural resources, to keep him "out of trouble on environmental issues."<ref name="Distillations"/> Other initiatives supported by Nixon included the ] and the ] (OSHA), and the ] required ]s for many Federal projects.<ref name="Distillations">{{cite magazine|last1=Rinde|first1=Meir|title=Richard Nixon and the Rise of American Environmentalism|magazine=Distillations|date=2017|volume=3|issue=1|pages=16–29|url=https://www.sciencehistory.org/distillations/magazine/richard-nixon-and-the-rise-of-american-environmentalism|access-date=April 4, 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180405024821/https://www.sciencehistory.org/distillations/magazine/richard-nixon-and-the-rise-of-american-environmentalism|archive-date=April 5, 2018|url-status=live}}</ref>{{sfn|Aitken|pp=397–398}} Nixon vetoed the ] of 1972—objecting not to the policy goals of the legislation but to the amount of money to be spent on them, which he deemed excessive. After Congress overrode his veto, Nixon ] the funds he deemed unjustifiable.{{sfn|Aitken|p=396}}
	Nixon and Kissinger were soon summoned to an hour long meeting with Mao and Zhou at Mao's official private residence, where they discussed a range of issues.<ref name="cb780782">Black, Conrad (2007), pp. 780-782.</ref> Mao later told his doctor that he had been impressed by Nixon, who was forthright, unlike the leftists and the Soviets.<ref name="cb780782"/> He also said he was suspicious of Kissinger,<ref name="cb780782"/> though the National Security Advisor referred to their meeting as his "encounter with history."<ref name="china trip"/> A formal banquet welcoming the presidential party was conducted that evening in the ]. The following day, Nixon met with Chou; during this meeting he stated that he believed “there is one China, and Taiwan is a part of China.”<ref name=Kaufman2001_pp228-31>Kaufman, Victor S. (2001), pp. 228–231</ref><ref name=AAR_Kubek1992_pp1-22>{{cite journal|first=Anthony|last=Kubek|title=The 'Opening' of China: President Nixon's 1972 Journey|journal=American Asian Review |year=1992|volume=10|issue=4|pages=pp. 1–22|issn=0737-6650}}</ref><ref name=JAH_Tucker2005>{{cite journal|first=Nancy Bernkopf |last=Tucker|title=Taiwan Expendable? Nixon and Kissinger Go to China|journal=Journal of American History |year=2005|volume=92 |issue=1 |pages=109&ndash;135|issn=0021-8723}}</ref> When not in meetings, Nixon toured architectural wonders including the ], ], and the ].<ref name="china trip"/> Americans received their first glance into China via Pat Nixon, who toured the city of Bejing and visited communes, schools, factories, and hospitals accompanied by the American media.<ref name="china trip"/>
			In 1971, Nixon proposed health insurance reform—a private health insurance employer mandate,{{Efn|name=voluntary|Voluntary for employees}} federalization of ] for poor families with dependent minor children,{{sfn|NHI: CQ Almanac 1971}} and support for ]s (HMOs).{{sfn|HMO: CQ Almanac 1973}} A limited HMO bill was enacted in 1973.{{sfn|HMO: CQ Almanac 1973}} In 1974, Nixon proposed more comprehensive health insurance reform—a private health insurance employer mandate{{Efn|name=voluntary}} and replacement of Medicaid by state-run health insurance plans available to all, with income-based premiums and ].{{sfn|NHI: CQ Almanac 1974}}
	The visit ushered in a new era of Chinese-American relations.<ref name="pres"/> Fearing the possibility of a Sino-American alliance, the Soviet Union yielded to American pressure for ].<ref name=Dallek2007_p300>Dallek, Robert (2007), p. 300.</ref>
			Nixon was concerned about the prevalence of domestic drug use in addition to drug use among American soldiers in Vietnam. He called for a ] and pledged to cut off sources of supply abroad. He also increased funds for education and for rehabilitation facilities.{{sfn|Ambrose|1989|p=418}}
	==== Soviet Union ====
	Nixon used the improving international environment to address the topic of nuclear peace. Following his successful visit to China, the Nixon administration drew up plans for the president to visit the Soviet Union. The President and First Lady arrived in Moscow on May 22, 1972.<ref name="bbc">{{cite news|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/onthisday/hi/dates/stories/may/22/newsid_4373000/4373149.stm|title=1972: President Nixon arrives in Moscow|date=May 22, 1972|accessdate=2009-01-08|publisher=BBC}}</ref>
			As one policy initiative, Nixon called for more money for ] research, treatment, and education in February 1971{{sfn|Office of the Federal Register|pp=179–182}} and signed the National Sickle Cell Anemia Control Act on May 16, 1972.{{sfn|The American Presidency Project}}{{sfn|National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute|p=2}}{{Efn|See especially page 2 (after introductory material) in which a bar graph displays NHLBI funding for sickle cell research from FY 1972 through FY 2001, totaling $923 million for these thirty years, starting at $10 million for 1972, then about $15 million a year through 1976, about $20 million for 1977, etc.}} While Nixon called for increased spending on such high-profile items as sickle-cell disease and for a ], at the same time he sought to reduce overall spending at the ].{{sfn|Wailoo|pp=165, 170}}
	]
	Nixon met with Soviet Leader ], and engaged in intense negotiations regarding international issues<ref name="bbc"/> with his Soviet counterpart.<ref name="pres"/> out of this "summit meeting" came agreements for increased trade and two landmark arms control treaties: ], the first comprehensive limitation pact signed by the two superpowers,<ref name="pres"/> and the ], which banned the development of systems designed to intercept incoming missiles. Nixon and Brezhnev proclaimed a new era of "peaceful coexistence" and established groundbreaking new policy of '']'' (or cooperation) between the two superpowers. ''Détente'' would replace the hostility of the Cold War and the two countries would live mutually. A banquet was held that evening at the ].<ref name="bbc"/>
			==== Civil rights ====
	Nixon extended the ] from Vietnam to his policy toward the Soviet Union, believing that helping ] become stronger would check the Soviets' power.<ref name="time 2007">{{cite news|url=http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,1574151,00.html?iid=sphere-inline-bottom|author=Beinart, Peter|title=Return of the Nixon Doctrine|date=January 4, 2007|work=Time}}</ref> To win American friendship, both China and the Soviet Union cut back on their diplomatic support for North Vietnam and advised Hanoi to come to terms.<ref name=Gaddis1982_p294p299>Gaddis, John Lewis (1982), pp. 294, 299,</ref><ref name=Guan2003_pp>Guan, Ang Cheng (2003), pp. 61, 69, 77–79.</ref><ref name=Zhai_p136>Zhai, Qiang (2000), p. 136.</ref> Nixon laid out his strategy:
			The Nixon presidency witnessed the first large-scale ] of public schools in the South.{{sfn|Boger|p=6}} Nixon sought a middle way between the segregationist Wallace and liberal Democrats, whose support of integration was alienating some Southern whites.{{sfn|Sabia}} Hopeful of doing well in the South in 1972, he sought to dispose of desegregation as a political issue before then. Soon after his inauguration, he appointed Vice President Agnew to lead a task force, which worked with local leaders—both white and black—to determine how to ] local schools. Agnew had little interest in the work, and most of it was done by Labor Secretary ]. Federal aid was available, and a meeting with President Nixon was a possible reward for compliant committees. By September 1970, less than ten percent of black children were attending segregated schools. By 1971, however, tensions over desegregation surfaced in Northern cities, with angry protests over the ] of children to schools outside their neighborhood to achieve racial balance. Nixon opposed busing personally but enforced court orders requiring its use.{{sfn|Parmet|pp=595–597, 603}}
	<blockquote>I had long believed that an indispensable element of any successful peace initiative in Vietnam was to enlist, if possible, the help of the Soviets and the Chinese. Though rapprochement with China and détente with the Soviet Union were ends in themselves, I also considered them possible means to hasten the end of the war. At worst, Hanoi was bound to feel less confident if Washington was dealing with Moscow and Beijing. At best, if the two major Communist powers decided that they had bigger fish to fry, Hanoi would be pressured into negotiating a settlement we could accept.<ref name=Nixon1987_pp105-6>Nixon, Richard (1987), pp. 105–106.</ref></blockquote>
			Some scholars, such as James Morton Turner and John Isenberg, believe that Nixon, who had advocated for civil rights in his 1960 campaign, slowed down ] as president, appealing to the racial conservatism of Southern whites, who were angered by the ]. This, he hoped, would boost his election chances in 1972.<ref>{{Cite book|url=http://www.hup.harvard.edu/catalog.php?isbn=9780674979970|title=The Republican Reversal—James Morton Turner, Andrew C. Isenberg {{!}} Harvard University Press|via=www.hup.harvard.edu|date=November 12, 2018 |page=36|publisher=Harvard University Press |isbn=9780674979970 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190108151027/http://www.hup.harvard.edu/catalog.php?isbn=9780674979970|archive-date=January 8, 2019|url-status=live|access-date=July 31, 2019}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|url=https://www.press.uchicago.edu/ucp/books/book/chicago/P/bo8212972.html|title=The Partisan Sort|series=Chicago Studies in American Politics |pages=24|publisher=University of Chicago Press |access-date=July 31, 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190731184243/https://www.press.uchicago.edu/ucp/books/book/chicago/P/bo8212972.html|archive-date=July 31, 2019|url-status=live}}</ref>
	Having made great progress over the last two years in U.S.-Soviet relations, Nixon planned a second trip to the Soviet Union in 1973.<ref name="cb963">Black, Conrad (2007), p. 963.</ref> He arrived in Moscow on June 27 to a welcome ceremony, cheering crowds, and a state dinner at the ] that evening.<ref name="cb963"/> Nixon and Brezhnev met in Yalta, where they discussed a proposed mutual defense pact, détente, and MIRVs. While he considered proposing a comprehensive test-ban treaty, Nixon felt that it would take far too long to accomplish.<ref name="cb963"/> There were not any significant breakthroughs in these negotiations.<ref name="cb963"/>
			In addition to desegregating public schools, Nixon implemented the ] in 1970—the first significant federal ] program.{{sfn|Delaney|1970-07-20}} He also endorsed the ] after it passed both houses of Congress in 1972 and went to the states for ratification.{{sfn|Frum|p=246}} He also pushed for African American civil rights and economic equity through a concept known as black capitalism.<ref>{{Cite book|title=Harambee City: Congress of Racial Equality in Cleveland and the Rise of Black Power Populism.|last=Frazier|first=Nishani|publisher=University of Arkansas Press|year=2017|isbn=978-1-68226-018-0|pages=184–207}}</ref> Nixon had campaigned as an ERA supporter in 1968, though feminists criticized him for doing little to help the ERA or their cause after his election. Nevertheless, he appointed more women to administration positions than Lyndon Johnson had.{{sfn|PBS, Nixon, Domestic Politics}}
	==== 1972 presidential campaign ====
	{{main|United States presidential election, 1972}}
	Nixon entered his name on the New Hampshire primary ballot on January 5, 1972, effectively announcing his candidacy for reelection.<ref name="cb766">Black, Conrad (2007), p. 766.</ref> Nixon had expected his Democratic opponent to be Senator ],<ref>Black, Conrad (2007), p. 617.</ref> but Senator ] soon became the front runner of the Democrats, with Senator ] in a close second place.<ref name="cb766"/> ] Governor ] entered the race as well; popular in Florida, he would create havoc among the Democrats and boost Nixon's campaign.<ref>Black, Conrad (2007), p. 768-769.</ref>
			=== Space policy ===
	]
			{{further|Space policy of the United States}}
	Prominent issues of the early campaign included school busing and heated relations between the three branches of the government. Nixon defeated Congressman ] and Congressman ] with 70% of the vote in the March New Hampshire primary, and later won Florida with 87% of the vote (McCloskey had withdrawn).<ref name="cb795"/> This largely assured him the Republican nomination.<ref name="cb795"/> On the Democratic side in New Hampshire, Muskie defeated McGovern in the primary 48% to 37%.<ref name="cb795"/> McGovern did not campaign in Florida and won only 5% of the vote, while Wallace took 42% in a field of ten opponents.<ref name="cb795"/> Muskie received 14%, effectively ending his campaign.<ref name="cb795">Black, Conrad (2007), p. 795.</ref>
			] astronauts in quarantine aboard the aircraft carrier ]]]
			After a ], the United States won the race to land astronauts on the Moon on July 20, 1969, with the flight of ]. Nixon spoke with ] and ] during their moonwalk. He called the conversation "the most historic phone call ever made from the White House".{{sfn|Parmet|p=563}}
	Nixon addressed the nation on March 16 about the school busing issue, reiterating that it was wrong to force a child onto a school bus and that busing lowered the quality of education.<ref name="cb795"/> He announced the Equal Education Opportunities bill that would seek a moratorium on local school busing.<ref name="cb796"/> The bill passed and the poorest school districts were slowly improved.<ref name="cb796">Black, Conrad (2007), p. 796.</ref> Vietnam was still ongoing, though Nixon had reduced troop levels dramatically.
			Nixon was unwilling to keep funding for the ] (NASA) at the high level seen during the 1960s as NASA prepared to send men to the Moon. NASA Administrator ] drew up ambitious plans for the establishment of a permanent base on the Moon by the end of the 1970s and the launch of a crewed expedition to Mars as early as 1981. Nixon rejected both proposals due to the expense.{{sfn|Handlin}} Nixon also canceled the Air Force ] program in 1969, because uncrewed ]s were a more cost-effective way to achieve the same reconnaissance objective.{{sfn|Hepplewhite|pp=204–205|loc=ch. 5}} NASA cancelled the last three planned Apollo lunar missions to place ] in orbit more efficiently and free money up for the design and construction of the ].<ref name="MIT_notes">{{cite web | url=http://ocw.mit.edu/courses/aeronautics-and-astronautics/16-885j-aircraft-systems-engineering-fall-2005/video-lectures/logsdn_lec_notes.pdf | title=MIT lecture notes in "Aircraft Systems Engineering," fall 2005, on early Space Shuttle policy | publisher=Massachusetts Institute of Technology | date=Fall 2005 | pages=7 | access-date=August 22, 2014 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140826120157/http://ocw.mit.edu/courses/aeronautics-and-astronautics/16-885j-aircraft-systems-engineering-fall-2005/video-lectures/logsdn_lec_notes.pdf | archive-date=August 26, 2014 | url-status=live }}</ref>
	Meanwhile, George Wallace was shot on May 15; though he recovered, he was confined to a wheelchair. He then won absolute majorities in several other primaries, placing him well ahead of other Democratic candidates.<ref>Black, Conrad (2007), p. 806</ref> McGovern, however, chaired a commission that allocated delegates based on an affirmative action plan, giving fixed weight to ethnic groups and ] the convention for himself.<ref name="cb796"/> On June 10, McGovern won the California primary and secured the Democratic nomination.<ref>Black, Conrad (2007), p. 816.</ref>
			On May 24, 1972, Nixon approved a five-year cooperative program between NASA and the ], culminating in the 1975 ] linking in space.{{sfn|Ezell|p=192|loc=ch. 6–11}}
	That August, Nixon was renominated at the ]. He dismissed the Democratic platform as cowardly and divisive.<ref>Black, Conrad (2007), p. 834</ref> Nixon was ahead in most polls for the entire election cycle, and was reelected that November in one of the biggest landslide election victories in U.S. political history. He defeated McGovern with over 60% of the popular vote. He carried 49 of the 50 states, losing only in ] and the ].<ref>Herbers, John (November 8, 1972), ''New York Times', Page 35.</ref>
			=== Reelection, Watergate scandal, and resignation ===
	=== Second term ===
	]
	On October 10, 1973, Vice President ] resigned amid charges of bribery, tax evasion and money laundering from his tenure as Maryland's governor. Nixon chose Representative ], Republican Minority Leader of the House of Representatives, to replace Agnew.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://query.nytimes.com/gst/fullpage.html?res=990DEEDE1E3AF93BA2575AC0A960958260&sec=&spon=&pagewanted=1 |title=Spiro T. Agnew, Ex-Vice President, Dies at 77 |work=The New York Times |date=September 18, 1996 |accessdate=2008-11-15}}</ref>
	==== Continuation of economic changes ====		==== 1972 presidential campaign ====
			{{main|Richard Nixon 1972 presidential campaign|1972 United States presidential election}}
	After he won reelection, Nixon found that inflation was increasing, and the legislation authorizing price controls expired April 30, 1973. The ] recommended a 90-day freeze on all profits, interest rates, and prices.<ref name=Hetzel2008_p92/> Nixon re-imposed price controls in June 1973, echoing his 1971 plan, as food prices rose; this time, he focused on ] exports and limited the freeze to 60 days.<ref name=Hetzel2008_p92/>
			]
			Nixon believed his rise to power had peaked at a moment of ]. The Democratic "]" had long been a source of frustration to Republican ambitions. Goldwater had won several Southern states by opposing the ] but had alienated more moderate Southerners. Nixon's efforts to gain Southern support in 1968 were diluted by Wallace's candidacy. Through his first term, he pursued a ] with policies, such as his desegregation plans, that would be broadly acceptable among Southern whites, encouraging them to realign with the Republicans in the aftermath of the ]. He nominated two Southern conservatives, ] and ], to the Supreme Court, but neither was confirmed by the Senate.{{r|Mason-Small}}
			Nixon entered his name on the New Hampshire primary ballot on January 5, 1972, effectively announcing his candidacy for reelection.{{sfn|Black|p=766}} Virtually assured the Republican nomination,{{sfn|Black|p=795}} the President had initially expected his Democratic opponent to be ] senator ] (brother of ]), who was largely removed from contention after the July 1969 ].{{sfn|Black|p=617}} Instead, ] senator ] became the front runner, with ] senator ] in a close second place.{{sfn|Black|p=766}}
	The price controls became unpopular with the public and businesspeople, who saw powerful ]s as preferable to the price board bureaucracy.<ref name=Hetzel2008_p92/> Business owners, however, now saw the controls as permanent rather than temporary, and voluntary compliance decreased.<ref name=Hetzel2008_p92/> The controls produced ]s, as meat disappeared from grocery stores and farmers drowned chickens rather than sell them at a loss.<ref name=Hetzel2008_p92/> The controls were slowly ended, and by April 30, 1974, the control authority from Congress had lapsed.<ref name=Hetzel2008_p92/> However, the controls on oil and natural gas prices persisted for several years.<ref name="pbs2"/> Nixon also dramatically increased spending on federal employees' salaries while the economy was plagued by the ].<ref name="civil servants">{{cite web| last = Nixon| first = Richard| title = 428 - Message to the Congress on Federal Civilian and Military Pay Increases| date = December 15, 1972| work = American Presidency Project| url = http://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/ws/index.php?pid=3717| accessdate =2008-11-05}}</ref>
			On June 10, McGovern won the California primary and secured the Democratic nomination.{{sfn|Black|p=816}} The following month, Nixon was renominated at the ]. He dismissed the Democratic platform as cowardly and divisive.{{sfn|Black|p=834}} McGovern intended to sharply reduce defense spending{{sfn|White|p=123}} and supported amnesty for draft evaders as well as ]. With some of his supporters believed to be in favor of drug legalization, McGovern was perceived as standing for "amnesty, abortion and acid". McGovern was also damaged by his vacillating support for his original running mate, ] senator ], dumped from the ticket following revelations that he had received ] for ].{{sfn|''Time''|1972-08-14}}{{sfn|''Time''|1970-11-20}} Nixon was ahead in most polls for the entire election cycle, and was reelected on November 7, 1972, in ]. He defeated McGovern with over 60&nbsp;percent of the popular vote, losing only in Massachusetts and D.C.{{sfn|Parmet|p=629}}
	==== Federal government initiatives ====
	Nixon believed in using government wisely to benefit all, supporting the idea of practical liberalism.<ref name="legacy">{{cite web|publisher=PBS|title=Legacy: Richard M. Nixon|url=http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/amex/presidents/37_nixon/nixon_legacy.html|accessdate=2009-01-15}}</ref> During the Nixon administration, the United States established many government agencies, including the ] (EPA)<ref name="'70s 180">Frum, David (2000), p. 180</ref> and the ] (OSHA).<ref name="pbs2"/> In addition, the Post Office Department was abolished as a cabinet department and reorganized as a government-owned corporation: the ].
			==== Watergate ====
	Nixon impounded billions of dollars in federal spending and expanded the power of the ].<ref>{{cite news|author=Lyons, Richard D.|date=November 1, 1970|title=Nixon Reorganizing Vast Federal Science Complex; Nixon Administration Moves to Reorganize Vast Federal Complex That Sets Science and Technology Policy|work=The New York Times|page=1}}</ref> He established the ] in 1972<ref name="'70s 180"/> and promoted the ] program. He implemented the ], the first significant federal ] program.<ref>{{cite news|author=Delaney, Paul|date=July 20, 1970|title=Nixon Plan for Negro Construction Jobs Is Lagging|work=The New York Times|page=1}}</ref> Nixon authorized the ], which has been called{{By whom|date=March 2009}} one of the most significant pieces of environmental legislation ever signed.<ref name="domestic"/> In 1971, Nixon proposed the creation of four new government departments superseding the current structure: departments organized for the goal of efficient and effective public service as opposed to the thematic bases of Commerce, Labor, Transportation, Agriculture, et al. Departments including the State, Treasury, Defense, and Justice would remain under this proposal.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/ws/index.php?pid=3360|author=Nixon, Richard|title=107 - Special Message to the Congress on Executive Reorganization.|date=March 29, 1972|publisher=The American Presidency Project|accessdate=2009-01-15}}</ref> In his 1974 State of the Union address, Nixon called for comprehensive health insurance.<ref name="StateOfUnion74">{{cite web|url=http://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/ws/index.php?pid=4327 |author=Nixon, Richard|title=Address on the State of the Union Delivered Before a Joint Session of the Congress|date=January 30, 1974|publisher=The American Presidency Project|accessdate=2009-01-15}}</ref> On February 6, 1974, he introduced the ''Comprehensive Health Insurance Act''. Nixon's plan would have mandated employers to purchase health insurance for their employees, and in addition provided a federal health plan, similar to ], that any American could join by paying on a sliding scale based on income.<ref name="StateOfUnion74" /><ref name=NYT_Himmelstein_20071215>{{cite news|author=Himmelstein, David and Steffie Woolhandler|title=I Am Not a Health Reform |date=December 15, 2007|work=The New York Times|url=http://www.pnhp.org/news/2007/december/i_am_not_a_health_re.php|accessdate=2009-01-15}}</ref><ref name=Hall_20071128>{{cite news|author=Hall, Kevin G. |date=November 28, 2007|title=Democrats' health plans echo Nixon's failed GOP proposal|publisher=McClatchy Newspapers |accessdate=2007-11-28|url= http://www.mcclatchydc.com/226/story/22163.html}}</ref>
			{{Main|Watergate scandal|Impeachment process against Richard Nixon}}
			]
			The term ''Watergate'' has come to encompass an array of clandestine and often illegal activities undertaken by members of the Nixon administration. Those activities included "dirty tricks", such as bugging the offices of political opponents, and the harassment of activist groups and political figures. The activities were brought to light after five men were caught breaking into the Democratic party headquarters at the ] in Washington, D.C., on June 17, 1972. '']'' picked up on the story; reporters ] and ] relied on an informant known as "]"—later revealed to be ], associate director at the ]—to link the men to the Nixon administration. Nixon downplayed the scandal as mere politics, calling news articles biased and misleading. A series of revelations made it clear that the ], and later the White House, were involved in attempts to sabotage the Democrats. Senior aides such as ] ] faced prosecution; in total 48 officials were convicted of wrongdoing.{{sfn|Nixon Library, President}}{{sfn|''The Washington Post'', The Post Investigates}}{{sfn|''The Washington Post'', The Government Acts}}
	==== Yom Kippur War and 1973 oil crisis ====
	The Nixon administration supported ], a powerful American ally in the ], during the ]. When an ] coalition led by ] and ]—allies to the Soviets—attacked in October 1973, Israel suffered initial losses and pressed European powers for help, but (with the notable exception of the ]) the Europeans responded with inaction. Nixon cut through inter-departmental squabbles and bureaucracy to initiate an airlift of American arms. By the time the U.S. and the Soviet Union negotiated a truce, Israel had penetrated deep into enemy territory. A long-term effect was the movement of ] away from the Soviets toward the U.S. But Israel's victory came at the cost to the U.S. of the ]; the members of ] decided to raise oil prices in response to the American support of Israel.<ref>{{cite web|accessdate=2009-01-15|url=http://www.state.gov/r/pa/ho/time/dr/96057.htm |title=Second Arab Oil Embargo, 1973-1974|publisher=U.S. Department of State}}</ref>
			], October 1973]]
	After ] the ], foreign countries increased their currency reserves in anticipation of currency fluctuation, which caused deflation of the dollar and other world currencies. Since oil was paid for in dollars, OPEC was receiving less value for their product. They cut production and announced price hikes and an ] targeted at the United States and the Netherlands, specifically blaming U.S. support for Israel in the Yom Kippur War for the actions.<ref name=IndependentReview_Hammes_2005>{{cite journal|author=Hammes, David and Douglas Wills|title=Black Gold: The End of Bretton Woods and the Oil-Price Shocks of the 1970s|journal=The Independent Review |volume=IX |issue=4|date=Spring 2005|pages=501–511|accessdate=2009-01-15}}</ref>
			] and famously said "I'm not a crook"]]
			In July 1973, White House aide ] testified ] to Congress that Nixon had a secret taping system and recorded his conversations and phone calls in the Oval Office. ] were ]ed by Watergate Special Counsel ]; Nixon provided transcripts of the conversations but not the actual tapes, citing ]. With the White House and Cox at loggerheads, Nixon had Cox fired in October in the "]"; he was replaced by ]. In November, Nixon's lawyers revealed that a tape of conversations held in the White House on June 20, 1972, had an {{frac|18|1|2}}{{nbsp}}minute gap.{{sfn|''The Washington Post'', The Government Acts}} ], the President's personal secretary, claimed responsibility for the gap, saying that she had accidentally wiped the section while transcribing the tape, but her story was widely mocked. The gap, while not conclusive proof of wrongdoing by the President, cast doubt on Nixon's statement that he had been unaware of the cover-up.{{sfn|Aitken|pp=511–512}}
			Though Nixon lost much popular support, even from his own party, he rejected accusations of wrongdoing and vowed to stay in office.{{sfn|''The Washington Post'', The Government Acts}} He admitted he had made mistakes but insisted he had no prior knowledge of the burglary, did not break any laws, and did not learn of the cover-up until early 1973.{{sfn|''The Washington Post'', Nixon Resigns}} On October 10, 1973, Vice President Agnew resigned for reasons unrelated to Watergate: he was convicted on charges of bribery, tax evasion and money laundering during his tenure as governor of Maryland. Believing his first choice, ], would not be confirmed by Congress,{{sfn|Aitken|p=555}} Nixon chose ], ], to replace Agnew.{{sfn|Ambrose|1989|pp=231–232, 239}} One researcher suggests Nixon effectively disengaged from his own administration after Ford was sworn in as vice president on December 6, 1973.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Beckmann|first=Matthew N.|date=April 1, 2017|title=Did Nixon quit before he resigned?|journal=Research & Politics|volume=4|issue=2|pages=2053168017704800|doi=10.1177/2053168017704800|doi-access=free|issn=2053-1680}}</ref>
	On January 2, 1974, Nixon signed a bill that lowered the ] to 55&nbsp;miles per hour (90 ]) in order to conserve ] during the crisis.<ref>''The New York Times''. August 29, 1982. Page A.20</ref> This law was repealed in 1995, though states had been allowed to raise the limit to 65&nbsp;miles per hour in rural areas since 1987.<ref>''The Washington Post''. Washington, D.C.: Dec 7, 1995. pg. J.01</ref><ref>''The Washington Post''. Washington, D.C.: Nov 19, 1995. pg. A.01</ref>
			On November 17, 1973, during a televised question-and-answer session{{sfn|Frum|p=26}} with 400 ] ]s, Nixon said, "People have got to know whether or not their president is a crook. Well, I'm not a crook. I've earned everything I've got."{{sfn|Kilpatrick|1973-11-18}}
	=== Watergate ===
	{{main|Watergate scandal}}
	]
	] takes the ], August 9, 1974]]
			]
	The term ''Watergate'' has come to encompass an array of illegal and secret activities undertaken by the Nixon administration. The activities came to light in the aftermath of five men being caught breaking into Democratic party headquarters at the ] in ] on June 17, 1972.<ref name="gate1">{{cite news|url=http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-srv/politics/special/watergate/part1.html|title=The Post Investigates|accessdate=2008-12-31|work=The Washington Post}}</ref> The ''Washington Post'' picked up on the story, while reporters ] and ] relied on an FBI informant known as "]" to link the men to the Nixon White House.<ref name="gate1"/> This became one of a series of scandalous acts involving the ].<ref name="gate1"/> Nixon downplayed the scandal as mere politics, and his White House denounced the story as biased and misleading.<ref name="gate1"/> As the FBI eventually confirmed that Nixon aides had attempted to sabotage the Democrats, many began resigning and senior aides faced prosecution.<ref name="gate1"/>
			The legal battle over the tapes continued through early 1974, and in April Nixon announced the release of 1,200 pages of transcripts of White House conversations between himself and his aides. The ] opened ] hearings against the President on May 9, 1974, which were televised on the major TV networks. These hearings culminated in votes for impeachment.{{sfn|''The Washington Post'', Nixon Resigns}} On July 24, the Supreme Court ] that the full tapes, not just selected transcripts, must be released.{{sfn|Ambrose|1991|pp=394–395}}
	Nixon's alleged role in ordering a cover-up came to light after the testimony of John Dean.<ref name="gate2">{{cite news|url=http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-srv/politics/special/watergate/part2.html|title=The Government Acts|accessdate=2008-12-31|work=The Washington Post}}</ref> In July 1973, White House aide Alexander Butterfield testified that Nixon had a secret taping system that recorded his conversations and phone calls in the Oval Office.<ref name="gate2"/> Unlike the tape recordings by earlier Presidents, Nixon's were ]ed. The White House refused to release them, citing ].<ref name="gate2"/> A tentative deal was reached in which the White House would provide written summaries of the tapes, but this was rejected by Special Prosecutor ], a former member of the Kennedy administration.<ref name="gate2"/> ], and was replaced by ], a former member of the Johnson administration.<ref name="gate2"/> Jaworski revealed an audio tape of conversations held in the White House on June 20, 1972, which featured an unexplained 18½ minute gap.<ref name="gate2"/> The first deleted section, of about five minutes, has been attributed to human error on the part of ], the President's personal secretary, who admitted accidentally wiping the section while transcribing the tape. The gap, while not conclusive proof of wrong-doing on the part of the President, cast doubt on Nixon's claim that he was unaware of the cover-up.<ref name="'70s">Frum, David (2000), p. 26</ref>
	] as he departs the White House after resigning]]
	Though Nixon lost much popular support, including from some in his own party, he rejected accusations of wrongdoing and vowed to stay in office.<ref name="gate2"/> He insisted that he had made mistakes, but had no prior knowledge of the burglary, did not break any laws, and did not learn of the coverup until early 1973.<ref name="gate3">{{cite news|url=http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-srv/politics/special/watergate/part3.html|title=Nixon Resigns|accessdate=2008-12-31|work=The Washington Post}}</ref> On November 17, 1973, during a televised question and answer session with the press,<ref name="'70s"/> Nixon said, {{cquote|People have got to know whether or not their President is a crook. Well, I'm not a crook. I've earned everything I've got.<ref name=WashingtonPost_Kilpatrick_19731118>{{cite news|title=Nixon Tells Editors, 'I'm Not a Crook' |url=http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-srv/national/longterm/watergate/articles/111873-1.htm|first=Carroll |last=Kilpatrick|date=November 18, 1973|work=The Washington Post|accessdate=2008-09-21}}</ref>}}
	{{Listen
	|filename = Nixon resignation audio with buzz removed.ogg
	|title = Richard Nixon's resignation speech
	|description = Resignation speech of President Richard Nixon, delivered 8 August 1974.
	|format = ]}}
			The scandal grew to involve a slew of additional allegations against the President, ranging from the improper use of government agencies to accepting gifts in office and his personal finances and taxes; Nixon repeatedly stated his willingness to pay any outstanding taxes due, and later paid $465,000 (equivalent to ${{Inflation|US|.465|1974|r=1}}&nbsp;million in {{Inflation-year|US}}) in back taxes in 1974.{{sfn|Samson}}
	In April 1974, Nixon announced the release of 1200 pages transcripts of White House conversations between him and his aides.<ref name="gate3"/> Despite this, the ], controlled by Democrats, opened impeachment hearings against the President on May 9, 1974.<ref name="gate3"/> On July 24, the Supreme Court then ruled that the tapes must be released to Jaworski; one of the secret recordings, known as the ] tape, was released on August 5, 1974, and revealed that Nixon knew of the cover-up from its inception and had administration officials try to stop the ]'s investigation.<ref name="'70s"/> In light of his loss of political support and the near certainty of impeachment, Nixon resigned the office of the presidency on August 9, 1974, after addressing the nation on television the previous evening.<ref name="gate3"/> The resignation speech was delivered on August 8, 1974, at 9:01 p.m. ] from the ] of the White House and was carried live on radio and television. The core of the speech was Nixon's announcement that Gerald Ford, as Vice President, ], effective at noon Eastern time the next day. Around this announcement, he discussed his feelings about his presidential work and general political issues that needed attention once he left. He never admitted to criminal wrongdoing, although he conceded errors of judgment. During the Watergate scandal, Nixon's ] fell to 23%.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/data/popularity.php?pres=37&sort=time&direct=ASC&Submit=DISPLAY |title=Presidential Job Approval for Richard Nixon|accessdate=2007-09-16|publisher=The American Presidency Project}}</ref>
			)]]
	=== Judicial appointments ===
	==== Supreme Court ====
	{{main|Richard Nixon Supreme Court candidates}}
	Nixon appointed the following Justices to the ]: ] as ] in 1969, ] in 1970, ] in 1972, and ] later that year.
			Even with support diminished by the continuing series of revelations, Nixon hoped to fight the charges. But one of the new tapes, recorded soon after the break-in, demonstrated that Nixon had been told of the White House connection to the Watergate burglaries soon after they took place, and had approved plans to thwart the investigation. In a statement accompanying the release of what became known as ] on August 5, 1974, Nixon accepted blame for misleading the country about when he had been told of White House involvement, stating that he had had a lapse of memory.{{sfn|Ambrose|1991|pp=414–416}} Senate Minority Leader ], Senator ], and House Minority Leader ] met with Nixon soon after. Rhodes told Nixon he faced certain impeachment in the House. Scott and Goldwater told the president that he had, at most, only 15 votes in his favor in the Senate, far fewer than the 34 needed to avoid removal from office.{{sfn|Black|p=978}}
	==== Other courts ====
	{{main|Richard Nixon judicial appointments}}
	In addition to his four Supreme Court appointments, Nixon appointed 46 judges to the ], and 181 judges to the ]. Nixon formally nominated one person, ], for a ] who was never confirmed.
	=== Pardons ===		==== Resignation ====
			] on ] shortly before his resignation became effective, August 9, 1974]]
	{{see|List of people pardoned or clemenced by a United States president}}
			In light of his loss of political support and the near-certainty that he would be impeached and removed from office, Nixon resigned the presidency on August 9, 1974, after ].{{sfn|''The Washington Post'', Nixon Resigns}} The resignation speech was delivered from the Oval Office and was carried live on radio and television. Nixon said he was resigning for the good of the country and asked the nation to support the new president, Gerald Ford. Nixon went on to review the accomplishments of his presidency, especially in foreign policy.{{sfn|Ambrose|1991|pp=435–436}} He defended his record as president, quoting from ]'s 1910 speech '']'':
	President Nixon issued 926 pardons or commutations.<ref name=JURIST_Clemency>{{cite web|url=http://jurist.law.pitt.edu/pardonspres1.htm|title=Presidential Clemency Actions, 1789-2001|work=JURIST|publisher= University of Pittsburgh School of Law|accessdate=2009-01-15}}</ref> Among notable cases were labor leader ] (sentence commuted on condition)<ref name=JURIST_Pardons>{{cite web|accessdate=2009-01-15|url=http://jurist.law.pitt.edu/pardons6.htm|title=Presidential Pardons: Notable Pardons|work=JURIST|publisher= University of Pittsburgh School of Law}}</ref> and mobster ] (convicted of extortion; served 1 1/2 years; pardoned due to poor health). DeCarlo's pardon was later investigated, but no evidence was found of corruption.
			{{blockquote|Sometimes I have succeeded and sometimes I have failed, but always I have taken heart from what Theodore Roosevelt once said about the man in the arena, "whose face is marred by dust and sweat and blood, who strives valiantly, who errs and comes up short again and again because there is not effort without error and shortcoming, but who does actually strive to do the deed, who knows the great enthusiasms, the great devotions, who spends himself in a worthy cause, who at the best knows in the end the triumphs of high achievements and who at the worst, if he fails, at least fails while daring greatly".{{sfn|PBS, Resignation Speech}}
			}}
			]
			Nixon's speech received generally favorable initial responses from network commentators, with only ] of ] stating that Nixon had not admitted wrongdoing.{{sfn|Ambrose|1991|p=437}} It was termed "a masterpiece" by ], one of his biographers. Black opined that "What was intended to be an unprecedented humiliation for any American president, Nixon converted into a virtual parliamentary acknowledgement of almost blameless insufficiency of legislative support to continue. He left while devoting half his address to a recitation of his accomplishments in office."{{sfn|Black|p=983}}
			== Post-presidency (1974–1994) ==
	During his presidency, Nixon decided to grant a clemency in over 20% of requests.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.rvc.cc.il.us/faclink/pruckman/pardoncharts/fiscact_files/image002.gif|format=GIF|title=Comparative Clemency Statistics (1900-1993)}}</ref>
			=== Pardon and illness ===
			{{further|Pardon of Richard Nixon}}
			]
			Following his resignation, the Nixons flew to their home ] in ].{{sfn|Nixon Library, Post Presidency}} According to his biographer, ], "Nixon was a soul in torment" after his resignation.{{sfn|Aitken|p=529}} Congress had funded Nixon's transition costs, including some salary expenses, though reducing the appropriation from $850,000 to $200,000. With some of his staff still with him, Nixon was at his desk by 7:00&nbsp;a.m. with little to do.{{sfn|Aitken|p=529}} His former press secretary, ], sat with him alone for hours each day.{{sfn|Aitken|pp=529–530}}
	=="Conservative" politics==
			Nixon's resignation had not put an end to the desire among many to see him punished. The Ford White House considered a pardon of Nixon, even though it would be unpopular in the country. Nixon, contacted by Ford emissaries, was initially reluctant to accept the pardon, but then agreed to do so. Ford insisted on a statement of contrition, but Nixon felt he had not committed any crimes and should not have to issue such a document. Ford eventually agreed and, on September 8, 1974, he granted Nixon a "full, free, and absolute pardon", which ended any possibility of an indictment. Nixon then released a statement:
	Though often referred to as a "conservative" in politics because of his "Southern strategy" and his victory in numerous southern states in 1968, Nixon had a considerable share of detractors on the right of the political spectrum. U.S. Representative ] challenged him for renomination in 1972. Then U.S. Representative ] of California polled more than a million votes in the 1972 presidential race as the nominee of Wallace's former American Independent Party. Scmitz was in effect Nixon's own congressman because he represented San Clemente, where the president had his voting address.<ref name=impostor>], ''Impostor: How George W. Bush Bankrupted American And Betrayed the Reagan Legacy'', New York: Doubleday, 2006, p. 155</ref>Even ''The New York Times'' columnist ] questioned Nixon's role as a conservative: "It would probably be wrong to say that the reelection of President Nixon marked a swing to the right. In comparison with the policies he offered the American people four years ago , he has been going to the left ever since."<ref name=impostor/>
			{{blockquote|I was wrong in not acting more decisively and more forthrightly in dealing with Watergate, particularly when it reached the stage of judicial proceedings and grew from a political scandal into a national tragedy. No words can describe the depth of my regret and pain at the anguish my mistakes over Watergate have caused the nation and the presidency, a nation I so deeply love, and an institution I so greatly respect.{{sfn|Aitken|p=532}}{{sfn|Black|p=990}}
			}}
			In October 1974, Nixon fell ill with ]. Told by his doctors that he could either be operated on or die, a reluctant Nixon chose surgery, and President Ford visited him in the hospital. Nixon was under subpoena for the trial of three of his former aides—Dean, Haldeman, and ]—and ''The Washington Post'', disbelieving his illness, printed a cartoon showing Nixon with a cast on the "wrong foot". Judge ] excused Nixon's presence despite the defendants' objections.{{sfn|Aitken|pp=533–534}} Congress instructed Ford to retain Nixon's presidential papers—beginning a three-decade legal battle over the documents that was eventually won by the former president and his estate.{{sfn|Black|pp=994, 999}} Nixon was in the hospital when the ] were held, and Watergate and the pardon were contributing factors to the Republican loss of 49&nbsp;seats in the House and four in the Senate.{{sfn|Black|p=998}}
	Columnist ] also questioned Nixon's conservatism, citing the wage-and-price controls as "the largest peacetime instrusion of government in the economy in American history, surpassing even the dreams of the New Dealers."<ref name=impostor/>In a long-recalled interview with ] commentator ] on January 4, 1971, Nixon had said "I am now a ] in economics."<ref name=impostor/>The expression "We are all Keynesians now" had been uttered in 1965 in '']'' by ]. Author ] suggested that history would in time place Nixon side-by-side with a later successor, ], as "two superficially conservative presidents who enacted liberal programs in order to buy vote for reelection."<ref>Bartlett, ''Impostor'', p. 156</ref>
	== Later life ==		=== Return to public life ===
			] and ex-presidents ] and Nixon meet at the White House before former vice president ]'s funeral, 1978]]
	Following his resignation, Nixon and his wife returned to their home ] in ].<ref name="ll">{{cite web|url=http://www.nixonlibrary.gov/thelife/postpresidency.php|title=Post Presidency|work=The Life|accessdate=2008-07-18|publisher=Richard Nixon Presidential Library}}</ref> Nixon was said to be in seclusion for a number of days in his home, first experiencing shock and later persistent sadness.<ref>Black, Conrad (2007), p. 987</ref> On September 8, 1974, Ford granted him a "full, free, and absolute pardon". This ended any possibility of an indictment. Nixon then released a statement:
	<blockquote>"I was wrong in not acting more decisively and forthrightly in dealing with Watergate.... No words can describe the depths of my regret and pain at the anguish of my mistakes over Watergate have caused the nation and presidency, a nation I so deeply love and an institution I so greatly respect."<ref name="cb990">Black, Conrad (2007), p. 990</ref></blockquote>
	Within one month, President Ford's approval rating dropped from 71% to 49%.<ref>Ambrose, Steven E. (1991), p. 461</ref> Nixon later told a former aide that he felt he was chased out of office by the establishment in Washington and the establishment soft left in the media, as they considered him a mortal threat to their domination of national affairs.<ref>Black, Conrad (2007), p. 993</ref>
			In December 1974, Nixon began planning his comeback despite the considerable ill will against him in the country. He wrote in his diary, referring to himself and Pat,
	As a result of Watergate, Nixon was disbarred by the State of New York. He had attempted to resign his license, but the State refused to let him do so unless he admitted wrongdoing in Watergate.<ref name=HistoryChannel_Watergate>{{cite web|accessdate=2009-01-11|url=http://www.history.com/exhibits/impeach/whthous1.html |archiveurl=http://web.archive.org/web/20071028075731/http://www.history.com/exhibits/impeach/whthous1.html|archivedate=2007-10-28|title=Richard M. Nixon: Before and After Watergate|publisher=The History Channel}}</ref> He later resigned his other law licenses, including one in California.<ref>Ambrose, Steven E. (1991), p. 482</ref>
			{{blockquote|So be it. We will see it through. We've had tough times before and we can take the tougher ones that we will have to go through now. That is perhaps what we were made for—to be able to take punishment beyond what anyone in this office has had before particularly after leaving office. This is a test of character and we must not fail the test.{{sfn|Aitken|p=535}}
			}}
			By early 1975, Nixon's health was improving. He maintained an office in a ] station {{convert|300|yd}} from his home, at first taking a golf cart and later walking the route each day; he mainly worked on his memoirs.{{sfn|Ambrose|1991|p=481}} He had hoped to wait before writing his memoirs; the fact that his assets were being eaten away by expenses and lawyer fees compelled him to begin work quickly.{{sfn|Aitken|pp=537, 539}} He was handicapped in this work by the end of his transition allowance in February, which compelled him to part with many of his staff, including Ziegler.{{sfn|Black|p=1000}} In August of that year, he met with British talk-show host and producer ], who paid him $600,000 (equivalent to ${{Inflation|US|.6|1975|r=1}}&nbsp;million in {{Inflation-year|US}}) for ], filmed and aired in 1977.{{sfn|Black|p=1004}} They began on the topic of foreign policy, recounting the leaders he had known, but the most remembered section of the interviews was that on Watergate. Nixon admitted he had "let down the country" and that "I brought myself down. I gave them a sword and they stuck it in. And they twisted it with relish. And, I guess, if I'd been in their position, I'd have done the same thing."{{sfn|Drew|p=138}} The interviews garnered 45–50 million viewers—becoming the most-watched program of its kind in television history.{{sfn|Ambrose|1991|p=512}}
	The evening of the pardon, Nixon experienced great pain in his lower left abdomen and his left leg had swollen to three times its normal size.<ref name="cb992">Black, Conrad (2007), p. 992</ref> It was determined that ], a condition that had afflicted Nixon the previous June, had returned.<ref>Ambrose, Steven E. (1991), p. 465</ref> Told that he would surely die if he did not go to a hospital, Nixon relented and was taken to Long Beach Memorial Hospital.<ref name="cb994"/> It was discovered that a clot from his leg had broken off and traveled to his lung; to treat this, he was placed on an anti-coagulant intravenous machine.<ref name="cb994">Black, Conrad (2007), p. 994</ref>
			The interviews helped improve Nixon's financial position—at one point in early 1975 he had only $500 in the bank—as did the sale of his Key Biscayne property to a trust set up by wealthy friends of Nixon, such as ].{{sfn|Aitken|pp=539–540}} In February 1976, Nixon visited China at the personal invitation of Mao. Nixon had wanted to return to China but chose to wait until after Ford's own visit in 1975.{{sfn|Black|p=1005}} Nixon remained neutral in the close 1976 primary battle between Ford and Reagan. Ford won, but was defeated by ] governor ] in ]. The Carter administration had little use for Nixon and blocked his planned trip to Australia, causing the government of Prime Minister ] to withhold its official invitation.{{sfn|Aitken|p=543}}
	While hospitalized, Watergate special prosecutor Leon Jaworski subpoenaed Nixon to testify before a trial regarding Watergate.<ref>Ambrose, Steven E. (1991), p. 466</ref> Nixon's doctor, John Lungren, said that Nixon could not sustain a flight to Washington due to his condition because he must avoid prolonged periods of sitting.<ref name="sa468">Ambrose, Steven E. (1991), p. 468</ref> Nixon was released from the hospital on October 4 and soon filed a motion requesting the judge to revoke the subpoena,<ref name="sa468"/> which was rejected.<ref>Ambrose, Steven E. (1991), p. 469</ref> Doctor Lungren filed an affidavit, arguing that the well being of the former president may be compromised by forcing him to appear at the trial.<ref>Ambrose, Steven E. (1991), p. 470</ref>
			In 1976, Nixon was ] by the ] for ] in the Watergate affair. He chose not to present any defense.<ref>"Nixon disbarred in New York in 1st ruling of Watergate guilt", ''Toledo Blade'', July 9, 1976, p.1</ref> In early 1978, he visited the United Kingdom; there, he was shunned by American diplomats, most ministers of the ] government, and two former prime ministers, ] and ]. He was welcomed, however, by the ], ], and former prime ministers ] and Sir ]. Nixon addressed the ] regarding Watergate:
	On October 23, Nixon was taken back to the hospital as swelling had begun again. Doctors found serious vascular blockages and a danger of gangrene;<ref name="cb996">Black, Conrad (2007), p. 996</ref> it was feared that blood clots may break loose and travel to his heart or brain.<ref name="cb996"/> An eighteen inch blood clot was found in a vein leading to Nixon's heart.<ref name="cb996"/> Surgery was deemed necessary for his survival; he underwent a ninety-minute operation on October 29.<ref name="cb996"/> While recuperating, Nixon fainted, fell out of bed, and fell into a coma.<ref name="cb997">Black, Conrad (2007), p. 997</ref> He underwent four blood transfusions in three hours and suffered severe internal bleeding and an extremely low blood pressure.<ref name="cb997"/> Pat and his daughters stayed by his side, while he was visited by President Ford and telephoned by Mao Zedong.<ref name="cb997"/> He returned home on November 14. Three leading doctors sent by the judge in the Watergate trial evaluated Nixon's condition, and concluded that he was not able to testify.<ref name="sa474"/> The judge ruled that his testimony would not be necessary.<ref name="sa474">Ambrose, Steven E. (1991), p. 474</ref>
			{{blockquote| felt that on this matter that I had not handled it properly, and they were right. I screwed it up and I paid the price.<ref>{{cite news|last1=L|first1=Stephen|last2=rigan|date=1978-12-01|title=Protesters Heckle Nixon at Oxford Opponents of Oxford Speech Cool Nixon's Warm Welcome|language=en-US|newspaper=The Washington Post|url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/archive/politics/1978/12/01/protesters-heckle-nixon-at-oxford-opponents-of-oxford-speech-cool-nixons-warm-welcome/dd7cd6d2-943d-4f86-b36e-0d45b647682e/|access-date=2022-01-03|issn=0190-8286}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|last=Reed|first=Roy|date=December 1, 1978|title=Welcome For Nixon At Oxford Is Warm|language=en-US|work=The New York Times|url=https://www.nytimes.com/1978/12/01/archives/welcome-for-nixon-at-oxford-is-warm-questions-friendly-though-some.html|access-date=January 3, 2022|issn=0362-4331}}</ref>}}
			=== Author and elder statesman ===
	]
			] meets with his three immediate predecessors, ], ] and Nixon, at the White House, October 1981; the three former presidents would represent the United States at the funeral of Egyptian president ].]]
	By the spring of 1975, Nixon's mental and physical health was improving.<ref name="sa481"/> He maintained an office in a Coast Guard station 300 yards from his home, first taking a golf cart and later walking the route each day; he mainly worked on his memoirs.<ref name="sa481">Ambrose, Steven E. (1991), p. 481</ref> Nixon traveled extensively, both domestically and internationally. He was a frequent CB Radio user, which Nixon was not allowed to use while in the White House for security reasons. He took trips to ], the ], Russia, ], and ].<ref name="ll"/> At the invitation of Mao Zedong, Nixon traveled to China in February 1976.<ref name="cb10051006"/> His trip was initially criticized, including by some within his own party, who argued that citizen-Nixon was conducting U.S. foreign policy.<ref name="cb10051006"/> The well-publicized trip was deemed a success, however; upon his return, Nixon prepared a lengthy memorandum on his experiences that was sent to the White House.<ref name="cb10051006">Black, Conrad (2007), p. 1005-1006</ref> He would visit China four more times, and Greece once at the invitation of then-president Heironimus.
			In 1978, Nixon published his memoirs, ''RN: The Memoirs of Richard Nixon'', the first of nine books he was to author in his retirement.{{sfn|Nixon Library, Post Presidency}} ] deemed it one of the better presidential memoirs, candid and capturing its author's voice; he deemed its rise up the bestseller lists justified.{{sfn|Farrell|p=2852}} Nixon visited the White House in 1979, invited by Carter for the state dinner for Chinese Vice Premier ]. Carter had not wanted to invite Nixon, but Deng had said he would visit Nixon in California if the former president was not invited. Nixon had a private meeting with Deng and visited Beijing again in mid-1979.{{sfn|Ambrose|1991|pp=524–525}}
			On August 10, 1979, the Nixons purchased a 12‐room condominium occupying the seventh floor of 817 ] New York City<ref>{{cite news|url=https://news.google.com/newspapers?id=Bp9RAAAAIBAJ&pg=4685%2C1596331|newspaper=Pittsburgh Post-Gazette|date=August 11, 1979|title=Nixons Buy Fifth Avenue Condo in N.Y.|access-date=June 17, 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150910174454/https://news.google.com/newspapers?id=Bp9RAAAAIBAJ&sjid=0W0DAAAAIBAJ&pg=4685%2C1596331|archive-date=September 10, 2015|url-status=live}}</ref> after being rejected by two Manhattan ].{{sfn|Ambrose|1991|p=528}} When the deposed ] died in Egypt in July 1980, Nixon defied the State Department, which intended to send no U.S. representative, by attending the funeral. Though Nixon had no official credentials, as a former president he was seen as the American presence at its former ally's funeral.{{sfn|Ambrose|1991|p=533}} Nixon supported Ronald Reagan for president in ], making television appearances portraying himself as, in biographer Stephen Ambrose's words, "the senior statesman above the fray".{{sfn|Ambrose|1991|p=534}} He wrote guest articles for many publications both during the campaign and after Reagan's victory.{{sfn|Ambrose|1991|p=540}} After 18 months in the New York City townhouse, Nixon and his wife moved in 1981 to ], New Jersey.{{sfn|Nixon Library, Post Presidency}}
	By 1977, Nixon began forming a public-relations comeback effort. He met with British commentator ] that August, who paid him six hundred thousand dollars for ] of sit-down interviews.<ref name="cb1004">Black, Conrad (2007), p. 1004</ref> They began on the topic of foreign policy, recounting the leaders he had known, but the most remembered section of the interviews was that on Watergate. Nixon admitted that the he had let down the country and said, "I did abuse the power I had as president."<ref name="ed138"/> He said that at the time of his resignation, he was crippled and that "I said things that were not true." He revealed, "I brought myself down. I gave them a sword and they stuck it in. And they twisted it with relish. And, I guess, if I'd been in their position, I'd have done the same thing."<ref name="ed138"/> Nixon did not admit to criminal wrongdoing, denied criminal intent,<ref name="cb1011">Black, Conrad (2007), p. 1011</ref> and denied authorizing payment to the burglars as an incentive for them not to reveal information.<ref name="cb1011"/> He was criticized at the time by some{{Who|date=March 2009}} who opined that he should not be giving information to Frost that he had declined to give to federal courts.<ref>Ambrose, Steven E. (1991), p. 485</ref> Nonetheless, the interviews became well known and were viewed widely across the world,<ref name="ed138">Drew, Elizabeth (2007), p. 138</ref> garnering between 45 and 50 million viewers and making them the most watched interviews in the history of television.<ref>Ambrose, Steven E. (1991), p. 512</ref> The encounters were the subject of the 2006 play '']'', which later became a ].
			Throughout the 1980s, Nixon maintained an ambitious schedule of speaking engagements and writing,{{sfn|Nixon Library, Post Presidency}} traveled, and met with many foreign leaders, especially those of Third World countries. He joined former presidents Ford and Carter as representatives of the United States at the funeral of Egyptian president ].{{sfn|Nixon Library, Post Presidency}} On a trip to the Middle East, Nixon made his views known regarding Saudi Arabia and Libya, which attracted significant U.S. media attention; ''The Washington Post'' ran stories on Nixon's "rehabilitation".{{sfn|Ambrose|1991|p=545}} Nixon visited the Soviet Union in 1986 and on his return sent President Reagan a lengthy memorandum containing foreign policy suggestions and his personal impressions of Soviet general secretary ].{{sfn|Nixon Library, Post Presidency}} Following this trip, Nixon was ranked in ] as one of the ten most admired men in the world.{{sfn|Drew|p=142}}
	He soon published his memoirs, ''RN: The Memoirs of Richard Nixon'' and a second book, ''The Real War''. These were the first of ten books he was to author in his retirement,<ref name="ll"/> and their respective releases enabled Nixon to further his comeback effort by partaking in book tours.
			] in the residence of the White House, March 1993]]
	The Nixons moved to ] in February 1980 to be closer to their family. When the former Shah of Iran died in Egypt in June, Nixon defied President ]'s State Department by attending the funeral.<ref>Ambrose, Steven E. (1991), p. 533</ref> He supported Ronald Reagan for president in 1980, making numerous television appearances portraying himself as, in biographer Steven Ambrose's words, "the senior statesman above the fray."<ref>Ambrose, Steven E. (1991), p. 534</ref> He wrote guest articles for numerous publications and participated in many television interviews.<ref>Ambrose, Steven E. (1991), p. 540</ref> After eighteen months in the New York City townhouse, Richard and Pat moved to ] in 1981.<ref name="ll"/> Throughout the 1980s, Nixon maintained a routine schedule of speaking engagements and writing,<ref name="ll"/> traveled, and met with many foreign leaders, especially those of Third World countries. He joined former Presidents Ford and Carter as representatives of the United States at the funeral of Egyptian President ].<ref name="ll"/> On a trip to the Middle East, Nixon made his views known regarding Saudi Arabia and Libya, which attracted significant U.S. media attention; ''The Washington Post'' ran stories on Nixon's "rehabilitation."<ref>Ambrose, Steven E. (1991), p. 545</ref> He later embarked on journeys to Japan, China, and the Soviet Union.<ref name="ll"/> On his return from the Soviet Union, Nixon sent President ] a lengthy memorandum that contained foreign policy suggestions and his personal impressions of ].<ref name="ll"/> Following this trip, Nixon was ranked by Gallup as one of the ten most admired men in the world.<ref name="ed142"/>
	In 1986, Nixon gave an address to a convention of newspaper publishers, impressing his audience with his ''tour d'horizon'' of the world.<ref name="ed144">Drew, Elizabeth (2007), p. 144</ref> Author Elizabeth Drew wrote that "even when he was wrong, Nixon still showed that he knew a great deal and had a capacious memory as well as the capacity to speak with apparent authority, enough to impress people who had little regard for him in earlier times."<ref name="ed144"/> ''Newsweek'', among other publications,<ref name="ed142">Drew, Elizabeth (2007), p. 142</ref> ran a story on "Nixon's comeback" with the headline "He's back."<ref name="ed144"/> He gained respect as an elder statesman<ref name="ll"/> in the area of foreign affairs, being consulted by both Republican and Democratic successors to the presidency; Reagan sought Nixon's advice in dealing with Gorbachev.<ref>Black, Conrad (2007), p. 1039</ref>		In 1986, Nixon addressed a convention of newspaper publishers, impressing his audience with his ''tour d'horizon'' of the world.{{sfn|Drew|p=144}} At the time, ] ] wrote, "Even when he was wrong, Nixon still showed that he knew a great deal and had a capacious memory, as well as the capacity to speak with apparent authority, enough to impress people who had little regard for him in earlier times."{{sfn|Drew|p=144}} ''Newsweek'' ran a story on "Nixon's comeback" with the headline "He's back".{{sfn|Aitken|pp=561–562}}
			On July 19, 1990, the Richard Nixon Library and Birthplace in ], opened as a private institution with the Nixons in attendance. They were joined by a large crowd of people, including Presidents Ford, Reagan, and ], as well as their wives, ], ], and ].{{sfn|Aitken|pp=565–568}} In January 1994, the former president founded the Nixon Center (today the ]), a Washington policy ] and conference center.{{sfn|Black|pp=1045–1046}}<ref>{{cite press release|date= March 9, 2011|title= Nixon Center Becomes Center for the National Interest|url= https://www.prnewswire.com/news-releases/nixon-center-becomes-center-for-the-national-interest-117654558.html|location= Washington, D.C.|publisher= Center for the National Interest|agency= PR Newswire|access-date= September 9, 2018|archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20180909073801/https://www.prnewswire.com/news-releases/nixon-center-becomes-center-for-the-national-interest-117654558.html|archive-date= September 9, 2018|url-status= live}}</ref>
	]
	On July 19, 1990, the Richard Nixon Library and Birthplace in ] opened as a private institution, with Nixon and Pat in attendance. They were joined by a throng of people, including Gerald Ford, Reagan, and ], and their spouses ], ], and ], respectively.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.nixonfoundation.org/index.php?src=directory&srctype=display&id=831&view=products_detail|title=The Richard Nixon Library & Birthplace Foundation: Museum store}}</ref> The property was owned and operated by a private foundation and was not part of the ]' presidential libraries system until July 11, 2007, when the ] was officially welcomed into the federal presidential library system. In January 1991, the former president founded the ], a policy ] and conference center.<ref>{{cite paper|author=McGann, James G.|title=The Global "Go-To Think Tanks": The Leading Public Policy Research Organizations in the World|pages=p. 18|publisher=Foreign Policy Research Institute|year=2007|url=http://www.fpri.org/research/thinktanks/mcgann.globalgotothinktanks.pdf|format=PDF|accessdate=2008-09-29}}</ref>
	Pat Nixon died on June 22, 1993 of health problems, including ] and ]. Her funeral services were held on the grounds of the Richard Nixon Library and Birthplace during the week leading up to her burial on June 26. Richard Nixon was deeply distraught, and broke down in convulsive sobs for the only time in his adult life.<ref name="cb104950">Black, Conrad (2007), p. 1049-1050</ref> Inside the building, he delivered a tribute to her.<ref name="cb104950"/> Nixon was comforted by his family while former presidents ] and ] and their wives attended the ceremony.<ref>''New York Times (June 23, 1993) "Pat Nixon Dies of Lung Cancer at age 81" pg. 1</ref><ref name="PN funeral">{{cite web |url=http://www.nixonfoundation.org/index.php?src=gendocs&link=PNfuneral|title=Funeral Services of Mrs. Nixon|accessdate= 2007-10-02|year= 2005|publisher= Richard Nixon Library & Birthplace Foundation}}</ref> Some{{Who|date=March 2009}} commented that without Pat, Nixon would not "last a year."<ref name="cb104950"/>		Pat Nixon died on June 22, 1993, of ] and ]. Her funeral services were held on the grounds of the Richard Nixon Library and Birthplace. Former president Nixon was distraught throughout the interment and delivered a tribute to her inside the library building.{{sfn|Black|pp=1049–1050}}
	== Death and funeral ==		== Death and funeral ==
	{{main|Death and funeral of Richard Nixon}}		{{main|Death and state funeral of Richard Nixon}}
			], ], ], ] and ]) and their wives attending Nixon's funeral, April 27, 1994]]
	Nixon suffered a severe ] at 5:45 p.m. EDT on Monday, April 18, 1994, while preparing to eat dinner in his ] home.<ref name="death-wapo">{{cite news|url=http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2002/06/11/AR2005112200809.html|title=Richard M. Nixon, 37th President, Dies|accessdate=2008-07-18|work=The Washington Post|date=April 23, 1994|author=Weil, Martin and Eleanor Randolph|page= A01}}</ref> It was determined that a blood clot resulting from his heart condition had formed in his upper heart, then broken off and traveled to his brain. He was taken to ] in ], initially alert, but unable to speak or to move his right arm or leg.<ref name="death-wapo"/> Damage to the brain caused swelling (]) and Nixon slipped into a deep ]. On Friday, April 22, 1994, he died at 9:08 p.m., with his daughters at his bedside; he was 81.<ref name="death-wapo"/>
			Nixon suffered a severe ] on April 18, 1994, while preparing to eat dinner in his home at ], New Jersey.{{sfn|Weil & Randolph|1994-04-23}} A ] resulting from the ] he had suffered for many years had formed in his upper heart, ], and traveled to his brain.<ref>{{cite news |last=Altman |first=Lawrence K. |title=THE 37TH PRESIDENT: THE LAST DAYS; Disabled, Yet Retaining Control Over His Care |url=https://www.nytimes.com/1994/04/24/us/the-37th-president-the-last-days-disabled-yet-retaining-control-over-his-care.html |url-status=live |newspaper=The New York Times |access-date=February 12, 2016 |date=April 24, 1994 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160217061301/http://www.nytimes.com/1994/04/24/us/the-37th-president-the-last-days-disabled-yet-retaining-control-over-his-care.html |archive-date=February 17, 2016}}</ref> He was taken to ] in ], initially alert but unable to speak or to move his right arm or leg.{{sfn|Weil & Randolph|1994-04-23}} Damage to the brain caused swelling (]), and Nixon slipped into a deep coma. He died at 9:08&nbsp;p.m. on April 22, 1994, with his daughters at his bedside. He was 81 years old.{{sfn|Weil & Randolph|1994-04-23}}
	Nixon's funeral took place on April 27, 1994, the first for an American president since that of ] in 1973, which Nixon had presided over as President. Speakers at the service, held at the Nixon Library, included then-President ], former Secretary of State ], Senate Minority Leader ], California Governor ], and the ] ].<ref>{{cite web|accessdate=2008-07-18|url=http://www.nixonlibraryfoundation.org/index.php?src=gendocs&link=RNfuneral|title=Funeral Services of President Nixon|publisher=Richard Nixon Library Foundation}}</ref> Also in attendance were former Presidents Ford, Carter, Reagan, George H. W. Bush and their respective first ladies.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.nytstore.com/ProdDetail.aspx?prodId=1579|title=Nixon Funeral-1994|accessdate=2008-07-18|work=The New York Times}}</ref> Nixon was buried beside Pat on the grounds of the Nixon Library. He was survived by his two daughters, Tricia and Julie, and four grandchildren.<ref name="death-wapo"/> In keeping with his wishes, his funeral was not a ], though his body did lie in repose in the Nixon Library lobby prior to the funeral services.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/americas/3783085.stm|title=Reagan funeral: Schedule of events|publisher=BBC|accessdate=2008-07-18|date=June 11, 2004}}</ref>		Nixon's funeral took place on April 27, 1994, in ]. Eulogists at the Nixon Library ceremony included President ], former secretary of state ], Senate Minority Leader ], California governor ], and the Reverend ]. Also in attendance were former presidents Ford, Carter, Reagan, George H. W. Bush, and their wives.{{sfn|Black|pp=1051–1053}}
			Richard Nixon was buried beside his wife Pat on the grounds of the Nixon Library. He was survived by his two daughters, ] and ], and four grandchildren.{{sfn|Weil & Randolph|1994-04-23}} In keeping with his wishes, his funeral was not a full ], though his body did ] in the Nixon Library lobby from April 26 to the morning of the funeral service.{{sfn|BBC|2004-06-11}} Mourners waited in line for up to eight hours in chilly, wet weather to pay their respects.{{sfn|''The Deseret News''|1994-04-27}} At its peak, the line to pass by Nixon's casket was three miles long with an estimated 42,000 people waiting.{{sfn|Frick|p=206}}
	== Public perception ==
	Nixon's career was frequently dogged by his personality, and the public perception of it. Editorial cartoonists such as ] and comedians often exaggerated Nixon's appearance and mannerisms, to the point where the line between the human and the caricature version of him became increasingly blurred. He was often portrayed with unshaven jowls, slumped shoulders, and a furrowed, sweaty brow.<ref name="observer"/>
			John F. Stacks of '']'' magazine said of Nixon shortly after his death,
	] in December 1970]]
			<blockquote>An outsize energy and determination drove him on to recover and rebuild after every self-created disaster that he faced. To reclaim a respected place in American public life after his resignation, he kept traveling and thinking and talking to the world's leaders&nbsp;... and by the time Bill Clinton came to the White House , Nixon had virtually cemented his role as an elder statesman. Clinton, whose wife served on the staff of the committee that voted to impeach Nixon, met openly with him and regularly sought his advice.{{sfn|Stacks|1994-05-02}}</blockquote>
	Nixon had a complex personality, both very secretive and awkward yet strikingly reflective about himself.<ref name="ed150">Drew, Elizabeth (2007), p. 150</ref> He was inclined to distance himself from people and was formal in all aspects, always wearing a coat and tie even when home alone.<ref name="ed150"/> He advised people not to care about what others thought of them. Some experts have described him as having a ] and ] personality.<ref name=RALPH_Ingalls_Fall2006>{{cite journal|url=http://www.ralphmag.org/nixon.html|accessdate=2006-04-04|title=Book Review:'' Nixon: A Psychobiography'' by Vamik D. Volkan, Norman Itzkowitz, and Andrew W. Dod|first=Michael A. |last=Ingall|journal=The Review of Arts, Literature, Philosophy and the Humanities|volume=XII |issue=3|date=Fall 1996}}</ref> Conrad Black described him as being "driven" though also "uneasy with himself in some ways."<ref>Black, Conrad (2007), p. 574</ref> According to Black, Nixon "thought that he was doomed to be traduced, double-crossed, unjustly harassed, misunderstood, underappreciated, and subjected the to the trials of ], but that by the application of his mighty will, tenacity, and diligence he would ultimately prevail."<ref>Black, Conrad (2007), p. 700</ref> Biographer Elizabeth Drew summarized Nixon as a "smart, talented man, but most peculiar and haunted of presidents."<ref>Drew, Elizabeth (2007), p. 151</ref>
			] of ''The New York Times'' noted that Nixon had been equalled only by ] in being five times nominated on a major party ticket and, quoting Nixon's 1962 farewell speech, wrote,
	He frequently brandished the two-finger ] (alternately viewed as the "Victory sign" or "peace sign") using both hands, an act that became one of his best-known trademarks.<ref name="observer">{{cite news|title=Far Too Strange for Fiction: Nixon, Tormented Tragic Hero|url=http://www.observer.com/node/45098|work=The New York Observer|accessdate=2009-01-20|date=October 14, 2001|author=Lowy, Johnathan}}</ref> Due to his uptight image, many were surprised at his swearing and anti-Semitic comments seen on the transcripts of his White House tapes.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,29388,00.html?iid=digg_share|title=The Ford File and Its Surprises|accessdate=2009-01-20|date=August 12, 1999|author=Sidey, Hugh|work=Time}}</ref>
			<blockquote>Richard Nixon's jowly, beard-shadowed face, the ski-jump nose and the widow's peak, the arms upstretched in the V-sign, had been so often pictured and caricatured, his presence had become such a familiar one in the land, he had been so often in the heat of controversy, that it was hard to realize the nation really would not "have Nixon to kick around anymore".{{sfn|Wicker|1994-04-24}}</blockquote>
			Ambrose said of the reaction to Nixon's death, "To everyone's amazement, except his, he's our beloved elder statesman."{{sfn|Sawhill|2011-02}}
			Upon Nixon's death, the news coverage mentioned Watergate and the resignation but much of the coverage was favorable to the former president. '']'' stated, "History ultimately should show that despite his flaws, he was one of our most farsighted chief executives."{{sfn|Frick|pp=205–206}} This offended some; columnist ] complained of "a group conspiracy to grant him absolution".{{sfn|Frick|pp=204–205}} Cartoonist ] of the '']'' depicted History before a blank canvas, his subject Nixon, as America looks on eagerly. The artist urges his audience to sit down; the work will take some time to complete, as "this portrait is a little more complicated than most".{{sfn|Frick|p=210}} ] wrote a scathing piece denouncing Nixon for '']'', entitled "He Was a Crook" (which also appeared a month later in '']'').<ref name="atlantic">{{cite magazine |last=Thompson |first=Hunter S. |authorlink=Hunter S. Thompson |title=He Was a Crook |url=https://www.theatlantic.com/magazine/archive/1994/07/he-was-a-crook/308699/ |url-status=live |magazine=] |date=July 1994 |access-date=June 4, 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170607195033/https://www.theatlantic.com/magazine/archive/1994/07/he-was-a-crook/308699/ |archive-date=June 7, 2017}}</ref> In his article, Thompson described Nixon as "a political monster straight out of ] and a very dangerous enemy".<ref name="atlantic" />
	== Legacy ==		== Legacy ==
			{{main|List of awards and honors received by Richard Nixon}}
	]
			] located in ]]]
			{{conservatism US|politicians}}
			]
			Historian and political scientist ] asked of Nixon, "How can one evaluate such an idiosyncratic president, so brilliant and so morally lacking?"{{sfn|Skidmore|p=495}} Evaluations ] have proven complex, contrasting his presidency's domestic and foreign policy successes with the acrimonious circumstances of his departure.{{sfn|Skidmore|p=495}} According to Ambrose, "Nixon wanted to be judged by what he accomplished. What he will be remembered for is the nightmare he put the country through in his second term and for his resignation."{{sfn|Ambrose|1991|p=592}} Irwin Gellman, who chronicled Nixon's congressional career, suggests, "He was remarkable among his congressional peers, a success story in a troubled era, one who steered a sensible ] course against the excess of McCarthy."{{sfn|Gellman|p=460}} Aitken feels that "Nixon, both as a man and as a statesman, has been excessively maligned for his faults and inadequately recognised<!-- not a typo --> for his virtues. Yet even in a spirit of ], no simple verdict is possible."{{sfn|Aitken|p=577}}
	No American has served as long as Richard Nixon did in an executive office.<ref name="cb1053">Black, Conrad (2007), p. 1053</ref> He is the only person in American history to appear on the Republican Party's presidential ticket five times, to secure the Republican nomination for president three times, and to have been elected twice to both the vice presidency and the presidency. With Ronald Reagan, Richard Nixon was the chief builder of the ]. Throughout his career, he was instrumental in moving the party away from the control of isolationists and as a Congressman was a persuasive advocate of containing Soviet Communism.<ref name="cb1053"/>
			Nixon saw his policies on Vietnam, China, and the Soviet Union as central to his place in history.{{r|Hanhimäki-Small}} Nixon's onetime opponent ] commented in 1983, "President Nixon probably had a more practical approach to the two superpowers, China and the Soviet Union, than any other president since World War{{nbsp}}II ... With the exception of his inexcusable continuation of the war in Vietnam, Nixon really will get high marks in history."{{sfn|Greider|1983-10-10}} Political scientist ] disagrees, saying that Nixon's diplomacy was merely a continuation of the ] policy of ] by diplomatic, rather than military, means.{{r|Hanhimäki-Small}} Historian ] concludes that "Nixon was a great statesman on the world stage as well as a shabby practitioner of electoral politics in the domestic arena. While the criminal farce of Watergate was in the making, Nixon's inspirational statesmanship was establishing new working relationships both with Communist China and with the Soviet Union."{{sfn|Andrew|1995|p=384}}
	Though he did not achieve all that he had wished for in the Middle East, Nixon virtually expelled the Soviet Union from the region and began an excruciatingly long peace process.<ref name="cb1054"/> He began formal relations with China and improved relations with the Soviet Union. Domestically, he decentralized government by revenue sharing, ended school segregation, reduced inflation (until it rose again as a result of the oil cartels), ended the gold standard, reduced the crime rate, and pioneered positive environmental measures.<ref name="cb1054"/> As a result of the Watergate scandal, however, the mood of the nation was severely affected and the office of the presidency was demeaned.<ref name="cb1054">Black, Conrad (2007), p. 1054"</ref>
			Nixon's stance on domestic affairs has been credited with the passage and enforcement of environmental and regulatory legislation. In a 2011 paper on Nixon and the environment, historian Paul Charles Milazzo points to Nixon's creation of the ] (EPA), and to his enforcement of legislation such as the 1973 ], stating that "though unsought and unacknowledged, Richard Nixon's environmental legacy is secure".{{r|Milazzo-Small}} Nixon himself did not consider the environmental advances he made in office an important part of his legacy; some historians contend that his choices were driven more by political expediency than any strong ].<ref name="Distillations" /> Some historians say Nixon's ] turned the ] into a Republican stronghold, while others deem economic factors more important in the change.{{r|Mason-Small}} Throughout his career, Nixon moved his party away from the control of isolationists, and as a Congressman he was a persuasive advocate of containing Soviet communism.{{sfn|Black|p=1053}}
	James MacGregor Burns observed of Nixon, "How can one evaluate such an idiosyncratic President, so brilliant and so morally lacking?"<ref name=Skidmore2001_p495>{{cite journal|author=Skidmore, Max J.|title=Ranking and Evaluating Presidents: The Case of Theodore Roosevelt|journal=White House Studies |volume=1 |issue=4 |year=2001 |pages=495+}}</ref> ], Nixon's former opponent, commented in 1983, "President Nixon probably had a more practical approach to the two superpowers, China and the Soviet Union, than any other president since World War II.&nbsp;... I think, with the exception of his inexcusable continuation of the war in Vietnam, Nixon really will get high marks in history."<ref name=RollingStone_Greider1983_p13>{{cite journal|first=William |last=Greider|title=The McGovern factor|journal=] |date=November 10, 1983|page= p.13}}</ref>
			Historian ] has written that Nixon left a legacy of fundamental mistrust of government, rooted in Vietnam and Watergate.{{r|Olson-Small}} During the ] in 1998, both sides tried to use Nixon and Watergate to their advantage: Republicans suggested that Clinton's misconduct was comparable to Nixon's, while Democrats contended that Nixon's actions had been far more serious than Clinton's.{{sfn|Frick|pp=211–214}} For a time, there was a decrease in the power of the presidency as Congress passed restrictive legislation in the wake of Watergate. Olson suggests that legislation in the aftermath of the ] restored the president's power.{{r|Olson-Small}}
	== Bibliography ==
	{{see|Richard Nixon bibliography}}
			According to his biographer Herbert Parmet, "Nixon's role was to steer the Republican party along a middle course, somewhere between the competitive impulses of the Rockefellers, the Goldwaters, and the Reagans."{{sfn|Parmet|p=viii}}
			== Personality and public image ==
			Nixon's career was frequently dogged by his persona and the public's perception of it. Editorial cartoonists and comedians often exaggerated his appearance and mannerisms, to the point where the line between the human and the caricature became increasingly blurred. He was often portrayed with unshaven jowls, slumped shoulders, and a furrowed, sweaty brow.{{sfn|Reeves|pp=281–283}}
			] in December 1970: "The President & The King"]]
			Nixon had a complex personality, both very secretive and awkward, yet strikingly reflective about himself. He was inclined to distance himself from people and was formal in all aspects, wearing a coat and tie even when home alone.{{sfn|Drew|p=150}} Nixon biographer ] described him as being "driven" though also "uneasy with himself in some ways".{{sfn|Black|p=574}} According to Black, Nixon
			<blockquote>thought that he was doomed to be traduced, double-crossed, unjustly harassed, misunderstood, underappreciated, and subjected to the trials of ], but that by the application of his mighty will, tenacity, and diligence, he would ultimately prevail.{{sfn|Black|p=700}}</blockquote>
			]
			Nixon sometimes drank alcohol to excess, especially during 1970. He also was prescribed sleeping pills. According to ], Nixon sometimes took them in together. Nixon also took ], recommended by ]. That medicine is usually prescribed to treat and prevent seizures, but in Nixon's case it was for depression. His periodic overindulgences, especially during stressful times such as during ], concerned Price and others, including then-advisor Ehrlichman and long-time ] ].<ref>{{cite web |title=The Year Nixon Fell Apart |url=https://www.politico.com/magazine/story/2017/03/john-farrell-nixon-book-excerpt-214954 |url-status=live |website=] |date=March 26, 2017 |access-date=July 15, 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190607015351/https://www.politico.com/magazine/story/2017/03/john-farrell-nixon-book-excerpt-214954 |archive-date=June 7, 2019}}</ref> Author and former British politician ] deemed Nixon an ].<ref>{{cite web |title=David Owen: Lessons in removing politicians from public office |url=https://www.independent.co.uk/voices/commentators/david-owen-lessons-in-removing-politicians-from-public-office-891446.html |url-status=live |website=] |date=August 12, 2008 |access-date=July 15, 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190715193824/https://www.independent.co.uk/voices/commentators/david-owen-lessons-in-removing-politicians-from-public-office-891446.html |archive-date=July 15, 2019}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |last=Boseley |first=Sarah |title=A doctor writes: Politicians' pride is a medical disorder |url=https://www.theguardian.com/politics/2009/mar/28/politicians-hubris-medical-condition |url-status=live |newspaper=] |date=March 28, 2009 |access-date=July 15, 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190715195739/https://www.theguardian.com/politics/2009/mar/28/politicians-hubris-medical-condition |archive-date=July 15, 2019}}</ref>
			Biographer ] summarized Nixon as a "smart, talented man, but most peculiar and haunted of presidents".{{sfn|Drew|p=151}} In his account of the Nixon presidency, author ] described Nixon as "a strange man of uncomfortable shyness, who functioned best alone with his thoughts".{{sfn|Reeves|p=12}} Nixon's presidency was doomed by his personality, Reeves argues:
			<blockquote>He assumed the worst in people and he brought out the worst in them&nbsp;... He clung to the idea of being "tough". He thought that was what had brought him to the edge of greatness. But that was what betrayed him. He could not open himself to other men and he could not open himself to greatness.{{sfn|Reeves|p=13}}</blockquote>
			In October 1999, a volume of 1971 White House audio tapes was released which contained multiple statements by Nixon deemed derogatory toward Jews.<ref>. '']'', October 6, 1999. Retrieved on April 4, 2011.</ref> In one conversation with ], Nixon said that Washington was "full of Jews" and that "most Jews are disloyal", making exceptions for some of his top aides.<ref name="Noah"/> He then added, "But, Bob, generally speaking, you can't trust the bastards. They turn on you. Am I wrong or right?"<ref name=Noah>]. . ], October 7, 1999. Retrieved on July 17, 2011.</ref> Elsewhere on the 1971 recordings, Nixon denies being antisemitic, saying, "If anybody who's been in this chair ever had reason to be antisemitic, I did&nbsp;... And I'm not, you know what I mean?"<ref name="Noah"/>
			Nixon believed that putting distance between himself and other people was necessary for him as he advanced in his political career and became president. Even ], by some accounts his closest friend, did not call him by his first name. Nixon said of this,
			<blockquote>Even with close friends, I don't believe in letting your hair down, confiding this and that and the other thing—saying, "Gee, I couldn't sleep&nbsp;..." I believe you should keep your troubles to yourself. That's just the way I am. Some people are different. Some people think it's good therapy to sit with a close friend and, you know, just spill your guts&nbsp;... reveal their inner psyche—whether they were breast-fed or bottle-fed. Not me. No way.{{sfn|Greene}}</blockquote>
			When Nixon was told that most Americans felt they did not know him even at the end of his career, he replied, "Yeah, it's true. And it's not necessary for them to know."{{sfn|Greene}}<!-- Also printed in ''Chicago Tribute'' with fee for article -->
			==Books==
			* Nixon, Richard M. (1960). '']'', Doubleday, {{ISBN|978-0-385-00125-0}}.
			* Nixon, Richard M. (1978). '''', Simon & Schuster, {{ISBN|978-0-671-70741-5}}.
			* Nixon, Richard M. (1980). ''The Real War'', Sidgwick & Jackson Ltd. {{ISBN|978-0-283-98650-5}}.
			* Nixon, Richard M. (1982). ''Leaders'', Random House {{ISBN|978-0-446-51249-7}}.
			* Nixon, Richard M. (1984). ''Real Peace'', Sidgwick & Jackson Ltd. {{ISBN|978-0-283-99076-2}}.
			{{external media
			| float = right
			| video1 =
			| video2 =
			}}
			* Nixon, Richard M. (1987). ''No More Vietnams'', Arbor House Publishing. {{ISBN|978-0-87795-668-6}}.
			* Nixon, Richard M. (1988). ''1999: Victory Without War'', Simon & Schuster. {{ISBN|978-0-671-62712-6}}.
			* Nixon, Richard M. (1990). ''In the Arena: A Memoir of Victory, Defeat, and Renewal'', Simon & Schuster. {{ISBN|978-0-671-72318-7}}.
			* Nixon, Richard M. (1992). ''Seize the Moment: America's Challenge in a One-Superpower World'', Simon & Schuster. {{ISBN|978-0-671-74343-7}}.
			* Nixon, Richard M. (1994). ''Beyond Peace'', Random House. {{ISBN|978-0-679-43323-1}}.
			== See also ==
			* ]
			* ]
			* ]
			* ]
			* ], film, 1995
			* ]
			* ]
	== Notes ==		== Notes ==
	{{reflist|2}}
			{{notelist
			| notes =
			{{efn
			| name = Jewish vote
			| {{harvnb|Black|pp=583–585}}. In 1972, Nixon did more than double his percentage of the Jewish vote, from 17&nbsp;percent to 35&nbsp;percent. {{harvnb|Merkley|p=}}.
			}}
			}}
	== References ==		== References ==
			=== Citations ===
	* {{cite book | last=Aitken | first=Jonathan | title=Nixon: A Life | publisher=Regnery Publishing | year=1996 | isbn=0895267209}}
	* {{cite book | last=Ambrose | first=Steven E|authorlink=Steven Ambrose | title=Nixon: Ruin and Recovery 1973-1990| publisher=Simon & Schuster | year=1991 | location=New York|isbn=0-671-69188-0}}
	* {{cite book|author=Black, Conrad |authorlink=Conrad Black |year=2007|title=Richard M. Nixon: A life in Full|publisher=PublicAffairs Books|location=New York, NY |isbn=1586485199}}
	* {{cite book|author=Blythe, Will |year=2006|title=To Hate Like This is to be Happy Forever|publisher=Harper Collins|location=New York, NY}}
	* {{cite book |title=School Resegregation: Must the South Turn Back?|last=Boger |first=John Charles |year=2005 |publisher=UNC Press |isbn=0807856134}}
	* {{cite book|authorlink=Robert Dallek|first=Robert|last=Dallek|title=Nixon and Kissinger: Partners in Power|year=2007|publisher=HarperCollins}}
	* {{cite book |first=Elizabeth |last=Drew |authorlink=Elizabeth Drew |title=Richard M. Nixon |series=The American Presidents Series |edition=1st |publisher=Macmillan |year=2007}}
	* {{cite book|author=Eisenhower, Dwight D.|authorlink=Dwight D. Eisenhower|title=The White House Years: Waging Peace 1956&ndash;1961|publisher=Doubleday and Co. |year=1965}}
	* {{cite book |last=Ferris|first=Gary W|title=Presidential Places: A Guide to the Historic Sites of the U.S. Presidents|publisher=John F. Blair|year=1999|isbn=0895871769}}
	* {{cite book |last=Foner|first=Eric |title=Give Me Liberty!: An American History |volume=2 |publisher=W. W. Norton & Company|year=2006|location=New York City |isbn=0-3939-2784-9}}
	* {{cite book |title= How We Got Here: The '70s|last= Frum|first= David|authorlink= David Frum|year= 2000|publisher= Basic Books|location= New York, New York|isbn= 0465041957}}
	* {{cite book|first=John Lewis |last=Gaddis|year=1982|title=Strategies of Containment: A Critical Appraisal of Postwar American National Security Policy|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=0195030974}}
	* {{cite book|title=Detente and Confrontation: American-Soviet Relations from Nixon to Reagan|year=1985 |edition=Revised |publisher=The Brookings Institution |location=Washington, D.C.|first=Raymond L. |last= Garthoff}}
	* {{cite book|author=] and Jack Casserly|title=Goldwater|year=1988|edition=1st |oclc=7353825|location=New York|publisher=Doubleday}}
	* {{cite book| last=Griffith | first=Robert K. | coauthors=Robert K. Griffith, Jr., John Wyndham Mountcastle | title=U.S. Army's Transition to the All-volunteer Force, 1868-1974 | publisher=DIANE Publishing | year=1997 | isbn=0788178644}}
	* {{cite book|first=Ang Cheng |last=Guan|title=Ending the Vietnam War: The Vietnamese Communists' Perspective|year=2003|publisher=RoutledgeCurzon}}
	* {{cite book| last = Hetzel | first = Robert L.| title = The Monetary Policy of the Federal Reserve| year = 2008| publisher = Cambridge University Press}}
	* {{cite book |author=Hove, Duane T. |title=American Warriors: Five Presidents in the Pacific Theater of WWII |publisher=Burd Street Press|year=2003|isbn=1-57249-307-0}}
	* {{cite book|first=Victor S. |last=Kaufman|title=Confronting Communism: U.S. and British Policies toward China|year=2001|publisher=University of Missouri Press}}
	* {{cite book|title=1969: The Year Everything Changed|last=Kirkpatrick|first=Rob|publisher=Skyhorse Publishing|year=2009|isbn=9781602393660}}
	* {{cite book|author=Kotlowski, Dean J.|year=2001|title=Nixon's Civil Rights: Politics, Principle, and Policy|location=Cambridge |publisher=Harvard University Press |isbn=0-674-00623-2}}
	* {{cite book|title=Nixon and Mao|last=MacMillan|first=Margaret|year=2006|publisher=]|isbn=140006127X}}
	* {{cite book|author=Nixon, Richard |year=1978|title=RN: The Memoirs of Richard Nixon |publisher= Simon & Schuster}}
	* {{cite book |author=Nixon, Richard|title=No More Vietnams |publisher=Arbor House Publishing |year=1987|isbn=0-87795-668-5}}
	* {{cite book |author=parmet, Herbert S|title=Richard Nixon and His America|publisher=Little, Brown and Company|year=1990|isbn=0-316-69232-8|location=Boston}}
	* {{cite book| last = Schulzinger | first = Robert D.| title = A Companion to American Foreign Relations| publisher = Blackwell Publishing| year=2003|isbn=1405149868}}
	* {{cite book|last=Tahir-Kheli|first=Shirin|title=The United States and Pakistan: the Evolution of an Influence Relationship|year=1982|publisher=Praeger|location=New York}}
	* {{cite news | title = The Sixties | publisher = ''Junior Scholastic'' | date = February 2, 1994 | accessdate = 2008-12-01 }}
	* {{cite book|author=Thornton, Richard C. |title=The Nixon-Kissinger Years: Reshaping American’s Foreign Policy |year=1989 |oclc=20453666 |location=New York |publisher=Paragon House}}
	* {{cite book|first=Qiang |last=Zhai|title=China and the Vietnam Wars, 1950-1975 |publisher=UNC Press}}
			{{Reflist
	== External links ==
			| colwidth = 20em
	{{sisterlinks|Richard Nixon}}
			| refs =
	*
			<ref name="Gellman-Small">Gellman, Irwin. "The Richard Nixon vice presidency: Research without the Nixon manuscripts" in {{harvnb|Small|pp=102–120}}.</ref>
	*
	*
			<ref name="Goh-Small">Goh, Evelyn. "The China card" in {{harvnb|Small|pp=425–443}}.</ref>
	*
	*
			<ref name="Hanhimäki-Small">Hanhimäki, Jussi M. "Foreign Policy Overview" in {{harvnb|Small|pp=345–361}}.</ref>
	*
	*
			<ref name="Bowles-Small">Bowles, Nigel. "Economic Policy" in {{harvnb|Small|pp=235–251}}.</ref>
	*
	*
			<ref name="Mason-Small">Mason, Robert "Political realignment" in {{harvnb|Small|pp=252–269}}.</ref>
	* {{imdb name|id=0633271|name=Richard Nixon}}
			<ref name="Milazzo-Small">Milazzo, Paul Charles. "Nixon and the Environment" in {{harvnb|Small|pp=270–291}}.</ref>
			<ref name="Olson-Small">Olson, Keith W. "Watergate" in {{harvnb|Small|pp=481–496}}.</ref>
			<ref name="Safire pp205–209">{{harvnb|Safire|pp=}}</ref>
			}}
			=== Print sources ===
			{{refbegin}}
			{{divcol}}
			* {{cite book
			| last = Aitken
			| first = Jonathan
			| authorlink = Jonathan Aitken
			| year = 1996
			| title = Nixon: A Life
			| url = https://archive.org/details/nixonlife0000aitk_x2z0
			| publisher = Regnery Publishing
			| location = Washington, D.C.
			| isbn = 978-0-89526-720-7
			| url-access = registration
			| ref = {{sfnRef|Aitken}}
			}}
			* {{cite book
			| last = Ambrose
			| first = Stephen E.
			| authorlink = Stephen E. Ambrose
			| year = 1987
			| title = Nixon: The Education of a Politician 1913–1962
			| volume = I
			| url = https://archive.org/details/nixon00ambr
			| publisher = Simon & Schuster
			| location = New York
			| isbn = 978-0-671-52836-2
			| url-access = registration
			}}
			* {{cite book
			| last = Ambrose
			| first = Stephen E.
			| year = 1989
			| title = Nixon: The Triumph of a Politician 1962–1972
			| volume = II
			| url = https://archive.org/details/nixon00ambr
			| publisher = Simon & Schuster
			| location = New York
			| isbn = 978-0-671-72506-8
			| url-access = registration
			}}
			* {{cite book
			| last = Ambrose
			| first = Stephen E.
			| year = 1991
			| title = Nixon: Ruin and Recovery 1973–1990
			| volume = III
			| url = https://archive.org/details/nixon00ambr
			| publisher = Simon & Schuster
			| location = New York
			| isbn = 978-0-671-69188-2
			| url-access = registration
			}}
			* {{cite book
			| last = Andrew
			| first = Christopher
			| year = 1995
			| title = For the President's Eyes Only: Secret Intelligence and the American Presidency from Washington to Bush
			| url = https://archive.org/details/forpresidentseye00andr
			| url-access = registration
			| publisher = HarperCollins
			| location = New York
			| isbn = 978-0-06-092178-1
			}}
			* {{cite book
			| last = Armstrong
			| first = William M.
			| year = 2017
			| title = Marine Air Group 25 and SCAT
			| publisher = Arcadia
			| location = Charleston
			| isbn = 978-1-46712-743-1
			| ref = {{sfnRef|Armstrong}}
			}}
			* {{cite book
			| last = Black
			| first = Conrad
			| year = 2007
			| authorlink = Conrad Black
			| title = Richard M. Nixon: A Life in Full
			| publisher = PublicAffairs Books
			| location = New York
			| isbn = 978-1-58648-519-1
			| ref = {{sfnRef|Black}}
			| url = https://archive.org/details/isbn_9781586485191
			| url-access = registration
			}}
			* {{cite book
			| last = Blythe
			| first = Will
			| authorlink = Will Blythe
			| year = 2006
			| title = To Hate Like This is to be Happy Forever
			| url = https://archive.org/details/tohatelikethisis00blyt
			| url-access = registration
			| publisher = Harper Collins
			| location = New York
			| isbn = 978-0-06-074023-8
			| ref = {{sfnRef|Blythe}}
			}}
			* {{cite book
			| last = Boger
			| first = John Charles
			| year = 2005
			| title = School Resegregation: Must the South Turn Back?
			| publisher = University of North Carolina Press
			| location = Chapel Hill, N.C.
			| isbn = 978-0-8078-5613-0
			| ref = {{sfnRef|Boger}}
			}}
			* {{cite book
			| last = Dallek
			| first = Robert
			| authorlink = Robert Dallek
			| year = 2007
			| title = Nixon and Kissinger: Partners in Power
			| url = https://archive.org/details/nixonkissingerpa00dall
			| url-access = registration
			| publisher = HarperCollins
			| location = New York
			| isbn = 978-0-06-072230-2
			| ref = {{sfnRef|Dallek}}
			}}
			* {{cite book
			| last = Drew
			| first = Elizabeth
			| authorlink = Elizabeth Drew
			| year = 2007
			| title = Richard M. Nixon
			| series = The American Presidents Series
			| publisher = Times Books
			| location = New York
			| isbn = 978-0-8050-6963-1
			| ref = {{sfnRef|Drew}}
			| url = https://archive.org/details/richardmnixon00drew
			}}
			* {{cite book
			| last1 = Evans
			| first1 = Rowland
			| authorlink1 = Rowland Evans
			| last2 = Novak
			| first2 = Robert
			| authorlink2 = Robert Novak
			| year = 1971
			| title = Nixon in the White House: The Frustration of Power
			| publisher = Random House
			| location = New York
			| isbn = 978-0-394-46273-8
			| ref = {{sfnRef|Evans & Novak}}
			| url = https://archive.org/details/nixoninwhitehous00evan
			}}
			* {{cite book
			| last1 = Ezell
			| first1 = Edward Clinton
			| authorlink1 = Edward Ezell
			| last2 = Ezell
			| first2 = Linda Neuman
			| year = 1978
			| title = The Partnership: A History of the Apollo–Soyuz Test Project
			| publisher = NASA History Office
			| location = Washington D.C.
			| url = http://www.hq.nasa.gov/office/pao/History/SP-4209/toc.htm
			| ref = {{sfnRef|Ezell}}
			| access-date = January 11, 2013
			| archive-date = January 23, 2011
			| archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20110123000956/http://www.hq.nasa.gov/office/pao/History/SP-4209/toc.htm
			| url-status = dead
			}}
			* {{cite book |last1=Farrell |first1=John A. |authorlink=John A. Farrell |title=Richard Nixon: The Life |date=2017 |publisher=Penguin Random House |isbn=9780345804969 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=oupUDwAAQBAJ |edition=eBook| ref = {{sfnRef|Farrell}} }}
			* {{cite book
			| last = Ferris
			| first = Gary W.
			| year = 1999
			| title = Presidential Places: A Guide to the Historic Sites of the U.S. Presidents
			| publisher = John F. Blair
			| location = Winston-Salem, N.C.
			| isbn = 978-0-89587-176-3
			| ref = {{sfnRef|Ferris}}
			| url-access = registration
			| url = https://archive.org/details/presidentialplac0000ferr
			}}
			* {{cite book
			| last = Foner
			| first = Eric
			| authorlink = Eric Foner
			| year = 2006
			| title = Give Me Liberty!: An American History
			| volume = 2
			| publisher = W. W. Norton & Co
			| location = New York
			| isbn = 978-0-393-92784-9
			| ref = {{sfnRef|Foner}}
			}}
			* {{cite book
			| last = Frick
			| first = Daniel
			| year = 2008
			| title = Reinventing Richard Nixon
			| publisher = University of Kansas Press
			| location = Lawrence, Kans.
			| isbn = 978-0-7006-1599-5
			| ref = {{sfnRef|Frick}}
			| url-access = registration
			| url = https://archive.org/details/reinventingricha0000fric
			}}
			* {{cite book
			| last = Frum
			| first = David
			| authorlink = David Frum
			| year = 2000
			| title = How We Got Here: The '70s
			| publisher = Basic Books
			| location = New York
			| isbn = 978-0-465-04195-4
			| ref = {{sfnRef|Frum}}
			| url = https://archive.org/details/howwegothere70sd00frum
			}}
			* {{cite book
			| last = Gaddis
			| first = John Lewis
			| authorlink = John Lewis Gaddis
			| year = 1982
			| title = Strategies of Containment: A Critical Appraisal of Postwar American National Security Policy
			| publisher = Oxford University Press
			| location = Oxford
			| isbn = 978-0-19-503097-6
			| ref = {{sfnRef|Gaddis}}
			| url = https://archive.org/details/strategiesofcon000gadd
			}}
			* {{cite book
			| last = Gellman
			| first = Irwin
			| year = 1999
			| title = The Contender
			| url = https://archive.org/details/contenderrichard00gellrich
			| url-access = registration
			| publisher = The Free Press
			| isbn = 978-1-4165-7255-8
			| location = New York
			| ref = {{sfnRef|Gellman}}
			}}
			* Greenberg, David. ''Nixon's Shadow: The History of an Image'' (2003). Important study of how Nixon was perceived by media and scholars.
			* Hall, Mitchell K. ed. ''Historical Dictionary of the Nixon-Ford Era'' (2008) 285pp
			* {{cite book
			| last = Hepplewhite
			| first = T.A.
			| year = 1999
			| title = The Space Shuttle Decision: NASA's Search for a Reusable Space Vehicle
			| publisher = NASA History Office
			| location = Washington D.C.
			| url = https://history.nasa.gov/SP-4221/sp4221.htm
			| ref = {{sfnRef|Hepplewhite}}
			}}
			* {{cite book
			| last = Hetzel
			| first = Robert L.
			| year = 2008
			| title = The Monetary Policy of the Federal Reserve
			| publisher = Cambridge University Press
			| location = New York
			| isbn = 978-0-521-88132-6
			| ref = {{sfnRef|Hetzel}}
			}}
			* {{cite book
			| last = Ingle
			| first = H. Larry
			| year = 2015
			| title = Nixon's First Cover-up: The Religious Life of a Quaker President
			| publisher = University of Missouri Press
			| location = Columbia, Missouri
			| isbn = 978-0-8262-2042-4
			| ref = {{sfnRef|Ingle|}}
			| url-access = registration
			| url = https://archive.org/details/nixonsfirstcover00ingl
			}}
			* {{cite book
			| last = Kornitzer
			| first = Bela
			| year = 1960
			| title = The Real Nixon: An Intimate Biography
			| publisher = Rand McNally & Company
			| location = New York
			| url = https://books.google.com/books?id=Q1V3AAAAMAAJ
			| ref = {{sfnRef|Kornitzer}}
			}}
			* {{cite book
			| last = Langguth
			| first = A.J.
			| authorlink = A. J. Langguth
			| year = 2000
			| title = Our Vietnam: The War 1954–1975
			| publisher = Simon and Schuster
			| location = New York
			| isbn = 978-0-7432-1244-1
			| url = https://archive.org/details/unset0000unse_f6q3
			| url-access = registration
			| page =
			| ref = {{sfnRef|Langguth}}
			}}
			* Malsberger, John W. ''The General and the Politician: Dwight Eisenhower, Richard Nixon, and American Politics'' (2014)
			* {{cite book
			| last = Merkley
			| first = Paul Charles
			| year = 2004
			| title = American Presidents, Religion, and Israel: the Heirs of Cyrus
			| publisher = Greenwood Publishing Group
			| location = Westport, Conn.
			| isbn = 978-0-275-98340-6
			| url = https://books.google.com/books?id=TP4g-RhUJmcC
			| ref = {{sfnRef|Merkley}}
			}}
			* {{cite book
			| last = Morris
			| first = Roger
			| authorlink = Roger Morris (American writer)
			| year = 1990
			| title = Richard Milhous Nixon: The Rise of an American Politician
			| location = New York
			| publisher = Henry Holt & Co
			| isbn = 978-0-8050-1834-9
			| url = https://books.google.com/books?id=Uw8_HAAACAAJ
			| ref = {{sfnRef|Morris}}
			}}
			* {{cite book
			| last = Nixon
			| first = Richard
			| year = 1978
			| title = RN: The Memoirs of Richard Nixon
			| publisher = Grosset & Dunlap
			| location = New York
			| isbn = 978-0-448-14374-3
			| url = https://archive.org/details/rnmemoirsofricha00nixo
			}}
			* {{cite book
			| last = Nixon
			| first = Richard
			| year = 1985
			| title = No More Vietnams
			| publisher = Arbor House Publishing Company
			| location = Westminster, Md.
			| isbn = 978-0-87795-668-6
			| url = https://archive.org/details/nomorevietnams00nixo
			}}
			* {{cite book
			| last = Parmet
			| first = Herbert S.
			| year = 1990
			| title = Richard Nixon and His America
			| publisher = Little, Brown & Co
			| location = Boston
			| isbn = 978-0-316-69232-8
			| ref = {{sfnRef|Parmet}}
			| url = https://archive.org/details/richardnixonhisa00parm_0
			}}
			* {{cite book
			| last = Perlstein
			| first = Richard
			| authorlink = Rick Perlstein
			| year = 2008
			| title = Nixonland: The Rise of a President and the Fracturing of America
			| publisher = Scribner
			| location = New York
			| isbn = 978-0-7432-4302-5
			| title-link = Nixonland: The Rise of a President and the Fracturing of America
			}}
			* {{cite book
			| last = Reeves
			| first = Richard
			| authorlink = Richard Reeves (American writer)
			| year = 2001
			| title = President Nixon: Alone in the White House
			| publisher = Simon & Schuster
			| location = New York
			| isbn = 978-0-684-80231-2
			| ref = {{sfnRef|Reeves}}
			| url = https://archive.org/details/presidentnixonal00reev
			}}
			* {{cite book
			| last = Safire
			| first = William
			| authorlink = William Safire
			| year = 2005
			| orig-year = 1975
			| title = Before The Fall: An Insider View of the Pre-Watergate White House, with a 2005 Preface by the Author
			| publisher = Transaction Publishers
			| url = https://books.google.com/books?id=xahIAOPX8JwC
			| ref = {{sfnRef|Safire}}
			| isbn = 978-1-4128-0466-0
			}} Originally published: Garden City, N.Y.: Doubleday, 1975 (new material 2005)
			* {{cite book
			| editor-last = Small
			| editor-first = Melvin
			| year = 2011
			| title = A Companion to Richard M. Nixon
			| publisher = Wiley-Blackwell
			| location = Oxford
			| isbn = 978-1-4443-3017-5
			| url = https://www.questia.com/library/120083897/a-companion-to-richard-m-nixon
			| ref = {{sfnRef|Small}}
			| editor-link = Melvin Small
			}}; Emphasis on historiography
			* {{cite book
			| last = Schulzinger
			| first = Robert D.
			| year = 2003
			| title = A Companion to American Foreign Relations
			| publisher = Blackwell Publishing
			| location = Oxford
			| isbn = 978-1-4051-4986-0
			| ref = {{sfnRef|Schulzinger}}
			}}
			* {{cite book
			| last = Thompson
			| first = John B.
			| authorlink = John Thompson (sociologist)
			| year = 2000
			| title = Political Scandal: Power and Visibility in the Media Age
			| publisher = Polity Press
			| location = Cambridge
			| isbn = 978-0-7456-2550-8
			| url = https://books.google.com/books?id=PAEwuLjQm4gC
			| ref = {{sfnRef|Thompson}}
			}}
			* {{cite book
			| last = Tyler
			| first = Patrick
			| authorlink = Patrick Tyler
			| year = 2010
			| title = A World of Trouble: The White House and the Middle East—from the Cold War to the War on Terror
			| publisher = Macmillan
			| location = New York
			}}
			* {{cite book
			| last = White
			| first = Theodore H.
			| authorlink = Theodore H. White
			| year = 1973
			| title = The Making of the President 1972
			| url = https://archive.org/details/makingofpresiden1972whit
			| url-access = registration
			| publisher = Antheneum
			| location = New York
			| isbn = 978-0-689-10553-1
			| ref = {{sfnRef|White}}
			}}
			{{divcol-end}}
			{{refend}}
			=== Nixon Library ===
			{{refbegin}}
			{{divcol}}
			* {{cite web
			|title = Childhood
			|publisher = Richard Nixon Presidential Library and Museum
			|work = The Life
			|url = http://www.nixonlibrary.gov/thelife/childhood.php
			|access-date = July 16, 2011
			|ref = {{sfnRef|Nixon Library, Childhood}}
			|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20131021194530/http://www.nixonlibrary.gov/thelife/childhood.php
			|archive-date = October 21, 2013
			|url-status = dead
			}}
			* {{cite web
			|title = A Student & Sailor
			|publisher = Richard Nixon Presidential Library and Museum
			|work = The Life
			|url = http://www.nixonlibrary.gov/thelife/astudentandsailor.php
			|access-date = July 16, 2011
			|ref = {{sfnRef|Nixon Library, Student & Sailor}}
			|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20131021194531/http://www.nixonlibrary.gov/thelife/astudentandsailor.php
			|archive-date = October 21, 2013
			|url-status = dead
			}}
			* {{cite web
			|title = The Nixon Family
			|publisher = Richard Nixon Presidential Library and Museum
			|work = The Life
			|url = http://www.nixonlibrary.gov/thelife/thenixonfamily.php
			|access-date = July 16, 2011
			|ref = {{sfnRef|Nixon Library, Nixon Family}}
			|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20131021225422/http://www.nixonlibrary.gov/thelife/thenixonfamily.php
			|archive-date = October 21, 2013
			|url-status = dead
			}}
			* {{cite web
			|title = The Congressman
			|publisher = Richard Nixon Presidential Library and Museum
			|work = The Life
			|url = http://www.nixonlibrary.gov/thelife/apolitician/thecongressman.php
			|access-date = July 17, 2011
			|ref = {{sfnRef|Nixon Library, Congressman}}
			|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20130615041941/http://www.nixonlibrary.gov/thelife/apolitician/thecongressman.php
			|archive-date = June 15, 2013
			|url-status = dead
			}}
			* {{cite web
			|title = The Senator
			|publisher = Richard Nixon Presidential Library and Museum
			|work = The Life
			|url = http://www.nixonlibrary.gov/thelife/apolitician/thesenator.php
			|access-date = July 17, 2011
			|ref = {{sfnRef|Nixon Library, Senator}}
			|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20130216113442/http://www.nixonlibrary.gov/thelife/apolitician/thesenator.php
			|archive-date = February 16, 2013
			|url-status = dead
			}}
			* {{cite web
			|title = The Vice President
			|publisher = Richard Nixon Presidential Library and Museum
			|work = The Life
			|url = http://www.nixonlibrary.gov/thelife/apolitician/thevicepresident.php
			|access-date = July 17, 2011
			|ref = {{sfnRef|Nixon Library, Vice President}}
			|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20130615014220/http://www.nixonlibrary.gov/thelife/apolitician/thevicepresident.php
			|archive-date = June 15, 2013
			|url-status = dead
			}}
			* {{cite web
			|title = The President
			|publisher = Richard Nixon Presidential Library and Museum
			|work = The Life
			|url = http://www.nixonlibrary.gov/thelife/apolitician/thepresident/
			|access-date = July 17, 2011
			|ref = {{sfnRef|Nixon Library, President}}
			|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20121120163546/http://www.nixonlibrary.gov/thelife/apolitician/thepresident/
			|archive-date = November 20, 2012
			|url-status = dead
			}}
			* {{cite web
			|title = Post Presidency
			|publisher = Richard Nixon Presidential Library and Museum
			|work = The Life
			|url = http://www.nixonlibrary.gov/thelife/postpresidency.php
			|access-date = March 5, 2012
			|ref = {{sfnRef|Nixon Library, Post Presidency}}
			|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20131021194537/http://www.nixonlibrary.gov/thelife/postpresidency.php
			|archive-date = October 21, 2013
			|url-status = dead
			}}
			* {{cite web
			| last = Lee
			| first = Meghan
			| url = https://www.nixonlibrary.gov/sites/default/files/forresearchers/find/textual/findingaids/findingaid_nixonfamily.pdf
			| date = June 22, 2004
			| title = Guide to the Nixon Family Collection (1909–1967)
			| publisher = Richard Nixon Presidential Library and Museum
			| ref = {{sfnRef|Nixon Library, Family Collection Guide}}
			}}
			{{divcol-end}}
			{{refend}}
			=== Other sources ===
			{{refbegin}}
			{{divcol}}
			* {{Cite book |last=Bass |first=Gary J. |author-link=Gary J. Bass |year=2013 |title=The Blood Telegram: Nixon, Kissinger, and a Forgotten Genocide |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=9PnNZTp3BQYC&pg=PT28 |location=New York |publisher=Alfred A. Knopf |isbn=978-0-307-70020-9}}
			* * {{Cite book |last=Black |first=Conrad |year=2007 |title=Richard M. Nixon: A Life in Full |publisher=PublicAffairs |location=New York |isbn=9781586486747}}
			* {{Cite news
			| title = 1972: President Nixon arrives in Moscow
			| publisher = BBC
			| date = June 11, 2004
			| url = http://news.bbc.co.uk/onthisday/hi/dates/stories/may/22/newsid_4373000/4373149.stm
			| access-date = July 17, 2011
			| ref = {{sfnRef|BBC|1972-05-22}}
			}}
			* {{Cite news
			| title = Reagan funeral: Schedule of events
			| publisher = BBC
			| date = June 11, 2004
			| url = http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/americas/3783085.stm
			| access-date = May 11, 2012
			| ref = {{sfnRef|BBC|2004-06-11}}
			}}
			* {{cite news
			| last = Delaney
			| first = Paul
			| date = July 20, 1970
			| newspaper = The New York Times
			| title = Nixon Plan for Negro Construction Jobs Is Lagging
			| page = 1
			| url = http://select.nytimes.com/gst/abstract.html?res=F20813F7355A1B7493C2AB178CD85F448785F9
			| ref = {{sfnRef|Delaney|1970-07-20}}
			}}
			* {{cite news
			| newspaper = ]
			| date = April 27, 1994
			| title = Mourners pay last respects to Nixon
			| page = 1
			| url = https://news.google.com/newspapers?id=i_RHAAAAIBAJ&dq=nixon%20funeral&pg=6218%2C5816141
			| access-date = July 16, 2011
			| ref = {{sfnRef|''The Deseret News''|1994-04-27}}
			}}
			* {{cite news
			| last = Steel
			| first = Ronald
			| authorlink = Ronald Steel
			| date = May 25, 2003
			| newspaper = The New York Times
			| title = The World: New Chapter, Old Debate; Would Kennedy Have Quit Vietnam?
			| url = https://www.nytimes.com/2003/05/25/weekinreview/the-world-new-chapter-old-debate-would-kennedy-have-quit-vietnam.html
			| access-date = July 17, 2011
			| ref = {{sfnRef|Steel|2003-05-25}}
			}}
			* {{cite news
			| last = Wicker
			| first = Tom
			| authorlink = Tom Wicker
			| date = April 24, 1994
			| newspaper = The New York Times
			| title = From afar: An indomitable man, an incurable loneliness
			| url = https://www.nytimes.com/1994/04/24/weekinreview/from-afar-an-indomitable-man-an-incurable-loneliness.html
			| access-date = August 7, 2011
			| ref = {{sfnRef|Wicker|1994-04-24}}
			}}
			* {{cite news
			| last = Kilpatrick
			| first = Carroll
			| date = November 18, 1973
			| newspaper = The Washington Post
			| title = Nixon tells editors, 'I'm not a crook'
			| url = https://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-srv/national/longterm/watergate/articles/111873-1.htm
			| access-date = July 17, 2011
			| ref = {{sfnRef|Kilpatrick|1973-11-18}}
			}}
			* {{cite news
			| newspaper = The Washington Post
			| title = The Post Investigates
			| series = The Watergate Story
			| url = https://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-srv/politics/special/watergate/part1.html
			| access-date = July 17, 2011
			| ref = {{sfnRef|''The Washington Post'', The Post Investigates}}
			}}
			* {{cite news
			| newspaper = The Washington Post
			| title = The Government Acts
			| series = The Watergate Story
			| url = https://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-srv/politics/special/watergate/part2.html
			| access-date = July 16, 2011
			| ref = {{sfnRef|''The Washington Post'', The Government Acts}}
			}}
			* {{cite news
			| newspaper = The Washington Post
			| title = Nixon Resigns
			| series = The Watergate Story
			| url = https://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-srv/politics/special/watergate/part3.html
			| access-date = July 16, 2011
			| ref = {{sfnRef|''The Washington Post'', Nixon Resigns}}
			}}
			* {{cite news
			| last1 = Weil
			| first1 = Martin
			| last2 = Randolph
			| first2 = Eleanor
			| date = April 23, 1994
			| newspaper = The Washington Post
			| page = A01
			| title = Richard M. Nixon, 37th President, dies
			| url = https://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2002/06/11/AR2005112200809.html
			| access-date = July 16, 2011
			| ref = {{sfnRef|Weil & Randolph|1994-04-23}}
			}}
			* {{cite news
			| last1 = Lardner
			| first1 = George Jr.
			| last2 = Dobbs
			| first2 = Michael
			| date = October 6, 1999
			| newspaper = The Washington Post
			| page = A31
			| title = New tapes reveal depth of Nixon's anti-Semitism
			| url = https://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-srv/politics/daily/oct99/nixon6.htm
			| access-date = April 4, 2011
			| ref = {{sfnRef|Lardner & Dobbs}}
			}}
			* {{cite news
			|last = Carlson
			|first = Peter
			|date = November 17, 2000
			|newspaper = The Washington Post
			|page = A01
			|title = Another Race to the Finish
			|ref = {{sfnRef|Carlson|2000-11-17}}
			}}
			* {{cite news
			| title = 8,000 Move Into Cambodia
			| newspaper = ]
			| agency = AP (Saigon)
			| date = May 1, 1970
			| page = 20–A
			| url = https://news.google.com/newspapers?id=utwLAAAAIBAJ&pg=7133%2C160415
			| ref = {{sfnRef|AP/''St. Peterburg Independent''}}
			}}
			* {{cite news
			| title = Nixon Up Early, See Protesters
			| agency = UPI
			| newspaper = Beaver County Times
			| date = May 9, 1970
			| location = Pennsylvania
			| page = one
			| url = https://news.google.com/newspapers?id=FGwyAAAAIBAJ&pg=1864%2C2379598
			| ref = {{sfnRef|UPI/''Beaver County Times''|1970-05-09}}
			}}
			* {{cite magazine
			| last = Greene
			| first = Bob
			| authorlink = Bob Greene
			| date = April 8, 2002
			| magazine = ]
			| title = What Nixon's best friend couldn't buy
			| url = http://www.jewishworldreview.com/bob/greene040802.asp
			| access-date = July 16, 2011
			| ref = {{sfnRef|Greene}}
			}}
			* {{cite magazine
			| last = Greider
			| first = William
			| date = November 10, 1983
			| title = The McGovern factor
			| magazine = ]
			| page = 13
			| ref = {{sfnRef|Greider|1983-10-10}}
			}}
			* {{cite magazine
			| last1 = Kiernan
			| first1 = Ben
			| authorlink = Ben Kiernan
			| last2 = Owen
			| first2 = Taylor
			| date = October 2006
			| title = Bombs over Cambodia
			| magazine = The Walrus
			| url = http://www.yale.edu/cgp/Walrus_CambodiaBombing_OCT06.pdf
			| access-date = January 29, 2012
			| ref = {{sfnRef|Kiernan & Owen}}
			}}
			* {{cite magazine
			| last = Noah
			| first = Timothy
			| authorlink = Timothy Noah
			| date = October 7, 1999
			| magazine = ]
			| title = Nixon: I Am Not an Anti-Semite
			| url = http://www.slate.com/articles/news_and_politics/chatterbox/1999/10/nixon_i_am_not_an_antisemite.html
			| access-date = May 11, 2012
			| ref = {{sfnRef|Noah|1999-10-07}}
			}}
			* {{cite magazine
			| last = Sawhill
			| first = Ray
			| date = February 2011
			| title = The Fall and Rise of an American President
			| magazine = ]
			| url = http://www.operanews.com/Opera_News_Magazine/2011/2/Features/The_Fall_and_Rise_of_an_American_President.html
			| access-date = July 16, 2011
			| ref = {{sfnRef|Sawhill|2011-02}}
			}}
			* {{cite magazine
			| magazine = ]
			| date = April 5, 1971
			| title = Again, the Credibility Gap?
			| url = http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,876891,00.html
			| archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20081221212832/http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,876891,00.html
			| url-status = dead
			| archive-date = December 21, 2008
			| access-date = July 29, 2011
			| ref = {{sfnRef|''Time''|1971-04-05}}
			}}
			* {{cite magazine
			| magazine = ]
			| date = August 14, 1972
			| title = Behavior: Evaluating Eagleton
			| url = http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,906223,00.html
			| archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20080102000612/http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,906223,00.html
			| url-status = dead
			| archive-date = January 2, 2008
			| access-date = July 23, 2011
			| ref = {{sfnRef|''Time''|1972-08-14}}
			}}
			* {{cite magazine
			| magazine = ]
			| date = November 20, 1972
			| title = Democrats: The long journey to disaster
			| url = http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,712186,00.html
			| archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20080421063556/http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,712186,00.html
			| url-status = dead
			| archive-date = April 21, 2008
			| access-date = July 23, 2011
			| ref = {{sfnRef|''Time''|1970-11-20}}
			}}
			* {{cite journal
			| last = Skidmore
			| first = Max J.
			| year = 2001
			| title = Ranking and Evaluating Presidents: The Case of Theodore Roosevelt
			| journal = White House Studies
			| volume = 1
			| issue = 4
			| ref = {{sfnRef|Skidmore}}
			}}
			* {{cite magazine
			| last = Stacks
			| first = John F.
			| date = May 2, 1994
			| magazine = ]
			| title = Richard Nixon: Victory in Defeat
			| url = http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,980651,00.html
			| archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20110122202901/http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,980651,00.html
			| url-status = dead
			| archive-date = January 22, 2011
			| access-date = July 16, 2011
			| ref = {{sfnRef|Stacks|1994-05-02}}
			}}
			* {{cite magazine
			| last = Morrow
			| first = Lance
			| date = September 30, 1996
			| magazine = ]
			| title = Naysayer to the nattering nabobs
			| url = http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,985217,00.html
			| archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20061110050539/http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,985217,00.html
			| url-status = dead
			| archive-date = November 10, 2006
			| access-date = July 16, 2011
			| ref = {{sfnRef|Morrow|1996-09-30}}
			}}
			* {{cite web
			|last = Allen
			|first = Erika Tyler
			|publisher = The Museum of Broadcast Communications
			|title = The Kennedy–Nixon Presidential Debates, 1960
			|url = http://www.museum.tv/eotvsection.php?entrycode=kennedy-nixon
			|access-date = May 11, 2012
			|ref = {{sfnRef|Museum of Broadcast Communications, "Kennedy–Nixon Debates"}}
			|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20120511211530/http://www.museum.tv/eotvsection.php?entrycode=kennedy-nixon
			|archive-date = May 11, 2012
			|url-status = dead
			}}
			* {{cite web
			|last = Auster
			|first = Albert
			|publisher = The Museum of Broadcast Communications
			|title = Smith, Howard K
			|url = http://www.museum.tv/eotvsection.php?entrycode=smithhoward
			|access-date = May 11, 2012
			|ref = {{sfnRef|Museum of Broadcast Communications, "Smith, Howard K."}}
			|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20120805122035/http://www.museum.tv/eotvsection.php?entrycode=smithhoward
			|archive-date = August 5, 2012
			|url-status = dead
			}}
			* {{cite web
			|last = Evans
			|first = Thomas W.
			|year = 1993
			|title = The All-Volunteer Army After Twenty Years: Recruiting in the Modern Era
			|publisher = Sam Houston State University
			|url = http://www.shsu.edu/~his_ncp/VolArm.html
			|access-date = July 17, 2011
			|ref = {{sfnRef|Evans}}
			|url-status = dead
			|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20130808222147/http://www.shsu.edu/~his_ncp/VolArm.html
			|archive-date = August 8, 2013
			}}
			* {{cite web
			| last = Handlin
			| first = Daniel
			| date = November 28, 2005
			| title = Just another Apollo? Part two
			| work = The Space Review
			| url = http://www.thespacereview.com/article/507/1
			| access-date = July 16, 2011
			| ref = {{sfnRef|Handlin}}
			}}
			* {{cite web
			|title=American President: Richard Milhous Nixon (1913–1994), Foreign Affairs
			|publisher=Miller Center for Public Affairs, University of Virginia
			|url=http://millercenter.org/president/nixon/essays/biography/5
			|access-date=July 17, 2011
			|ref={{sfnRef|Miller Center}}
			|url-status=dead
			|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110811201550/http://millercenter.org/president/nixon/essays/biography/5
			|archive-date=August 11, 2011
			}}
			* {{cite web
			| publisher = ]
			| title = Richard M. Nixon Birthplace
			| url = http://www.nps.gov/history/nr/travel/presidents/nixon_birthplace.html
			| access-date = May 11, 2012
			| ref = {{sfnRef|NPS, Nixon Birthplace}}
			}}
			* {{cite web
			|title=Commander Richard M. Nixon, USNR
			|work=Naval Historical Center
			|publisher=United States Navy
			|date=August 7, 2006
			|url=http://www.history.navy.mil/faqs/faq60-8.htm
			|access-date=July 16, 2011
			|ref={{sfnRef|Naval Historical Center, Commander Nixon}}
			|url-status=dead
			|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110816114029/http://www.history.navy.mil/faqs/faq60-8.htm
			|archive-date=August 16, 2011
			}}
			* {{cite web
			| last = Nixon
			| first = Richard
			| date = August 8, 1974
			| title = President Nixon's Resignation Speech
			| publisher = Public Broadcasting Service
			| work = Character Above All
			| url = https://www.pbs.org/newshour/character/links/nixon_speech.html
			| access-date = July 15, 2011
			| ref = {{sfnRef|PBS, Resignation Speech}}
			| archive-date = July 18, 2011
			| archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20110718133421/http://www.pbs.org/newshour/character/links/nixon_speech.html
			| url-status = dead
			}}
			* {{cite web
			| title = The Nixon Visit (February 21–28, 1972)
			| publisher = Public Broadcasting Service
			| work = American Experience
			| url = https://www.pbs.org/wgbh/amex/china/sfeature/nixon.html
			| access-date = July 17, 2011
			| ref = {{sfnRef|PBS, The Nixon Visit}}
			}}
			* {{cite web
			| title = Richard M. Nixon, Domestic Politics
			| publisher = Public Broadcasting Service
			| work = American Experience
			| url = https://www.pbs.org/wgbh/americanexperience/features/general-article/nixon-domestic/
			| access-date = May 11, 2012
			| ref = {{sfnRef|PBS, Nixon, Domestic Politics}}
			| archive-date = May 23, 2012
			| archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20120523191923/http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/americanexperience/features/general-article/nixon-domestic/
			| url-status = dead
			}}
			* {{cite web
			| last = Sabia
			| first = Joseph J.
			| url = http://hnn.us/articles/5331.html
			| title = Why Richard Nixon Deserves to Be Remembered Along with ''Brown''
			| publisher = History News Network
			| date = May 31, 2004
			| access-date = May 11, 2012
			| ref = {{sfnRef|Sabia}}
			}}
			* {{cite web
			| publisher = United Press International
			| work = 1960 Year In Review
			| title = Kennedy Wins 1960 Presidential Election
			| url = http://www.upi.com/Audio/Year_in_Review/Events-of-1960/Kennedy-Wins-1960-Presidential-Election/12295509435928-8/
			| access-date = July 17, 2011
			| ref = {{sfnRef|UPI 1960 in Review}}
			}}
			* {{cite web
			| publisher = United Press International
			| work = 1968 Year in Review
			| title = 1968 Presidential Election
			| url = http://www.upi.com/Audio/Year_in_Review/Events-of-1968/1968-Presidential-Election/12303153093431-2/
			| access-date = July 16, 2011
			| ref = {{sfnRef|UPI 1968 in Review}}
			}}
			* {{cite web
			| publisher = United Press International
			| work = 1969 Year in Review
			| title = Nixon Becomes President
			| url = http://www.upi.com/Audio/Year_in_Review/Events-of-1969/War-Protests/12303189849225-3/
			| access-date = July 16, 2011
			| ref = {{sfnRef|UPI 1969 in Review}}
			}}
			* {{cite web
			| url = http://about.usps.com/who-we-are/postal-history/periodicals-postage-history.pdf
			| title = Postage rates for periodicals: A narrative history
			| publisher = ]
			| access-date = August 6, 2011
			| ref = {{sfnRef|USPS, Periodicals postage}}
			| archive-date = July 30, 2013
			| archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20130730162257/http://about.usps.com/who-we-are/postal-history/periodicals-postage-history.pdf
			| url-status = dead
			}}
			* {{cite book
			| author = Office of the Federal Register
			| title = Public Papers of the Presidents of the United States, Richard Nixon, 1971
			| chapter = New Actions To Prevent Illnesses And Accidents
			| year = 1999
			| publisher = National Archives and Records Service
			| chapter-url = https://books.google.com/books?id=r2qRyBmB15EC&pg=PA180
			| isbn = 978-0-16-058863-1
			| ref = {{sfnRef|Office of the Federal Register}}
			}}
			* {{cite web
			| title = Statement on Signing the National Sickle Cell Anemia Control Act
			| date = May 16, 1972
			| work = The American Presidency Project
			| publisher = University of California, Santa Barbara
			| url = http://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/ws/index.php?pid=3413
			| ref = {{sfnRef|The American Presidency Project}}
			}}
			* {{cite web
			|author=<nowiki>National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute</nowiki>
			|publisher=National Institutes of Health
			|date=September 2002
			|title=Sickle Cell Research for Treatment and Cure
			|url=http://www.nhlbi.nih.gov/resources/docs/scd30/scd30.pdf
			|id=02-5214
			|ref={{sfnRef|National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute}}
			|url-status=dead
			|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120131185453/http://www.nhlbi.nih.gov/resources/docs/scd30/scd30.pdf
			|archive-date=January 31, 2012
			}}
			* {{cite book
			| last = Wailoo
			| first = Keith
			| year = 2001
			| publisher = University of North Carolina Press
			| title = Dying in the City of the Blues: Sickle Cell Anemia and the Politics of Race and Health
			| url = https://archive.org/details/dyingincityofblu00keit
			| url-access = registration
			| page =
			| isbn = 978-0-8078-4896-8
			| ref = {{sfnRef|Wailoo}}
			}}
			* {{cite journal
			| year = 1972
			| title = Health insurance: hearings on new proposals
			| journal = Congressional Quarterly Almanac Plus
			| volume = 27
			| location = Washington, D.C.
			| publisher= Congressional Quarterly
			| pages = 541–544
			| issn = 0095-6007
			| oclc = 1564784
			| ref = {{sfnRef|NHI: CQ Almanac 1971}}
			}}
			* {{cite journal
			| year = 1974
			| title = Limited experimental health bill enacted
			| journal = Congressional Quarterly Almanac Plus
			| volume = 29 | location = Washington, D.C.
			| publisher= Congressional Quarterly
			| pages = 499–508
			| issn = 0095-6007
			| oclc = 1564784
			| ref = {{sfnRef|HMO: CQ Almanac 1973}}
			}}
			* {{cite journal
			| year = 1975
			| title = National health insurance: no action in 1974
			| journal = Congressional Quarterly Almanac Plus
			| volume = 30 | location = Washington, D.C.
			| publisher= Congressional Quarterly
			| pages = 386–394
			| issn = 0095-6007
			| oclc = 1564784
			| ref = {{sfnRef|NHI: CQ Almanac 1974}}
			}}
			* {{cite web
			| url = http://www.taxhistory.org/thp/readings.nsf/cf7c9c870b600b9585256df80075b9dd/f8723e3606cd79ec85256ff6006f82c3?OpenDocument
			| title = President Nixon's Troublesome Tax Returns
			| last = Samson
			| first = William
			| year = 2005
			| publisher = TaxAnalysts
			| access-date = December 20, 2013
			| ref = {{sfnRef|Samson}}
			}}
			* {{cite web
			| url = http://www.csmonitor.com/USA/DC-Decoder/Decoder-Wire/2011/0418/Tax-Day-2011-Why-do-presidents-release-tax-returns-Hint-I-am-not-a
			| title = Tax Day 2011: Why do presidents release tax returns?
			| last = Grier
			| first = Peter
			| year = 2011
			| work = ]
			| access-date = December 20, 2013
			}}
			{{divcol-end}}
			{{refend}}
			== Further reading ==
			* {{cite book |last=Li |first=Victor |title=Nixon in New York: How Wall Street Helped Richard Nixon Win the White House |publisher=Fairleigh Dickinson University Press |location=Madison, NJ |year=2018 |isbn=978-1-68393-000-6}}
			* {{cite book |last=Thomas |first=Evan |authorlink=Evan Thomas |title=Being Nixon: A Man Divided |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ZFoDBwAAQBAJ |publisher=Random House |location=New York |year=2015 |isbn=978-0-8129-9536-7 |oclc=904756092}}
			==External links==
			{{sister project links|Richard Nixon}}
			===Official websites===
			*
			*
			*
			===Media coverage===
			* {{New York Times topic}}
			* {{C-SPAN}}
			** , from ]'s '']'', November 19, 1999
			===Other===
	* {{CongBio|N000116}}		* {{CongBio|N000116}}
			* from the ]
	* {{gutenberg author|id=Richard_Milhous_Nixon|name=Richard Nixon}}
			* from the Library of Congress
	* {{findagrave|1418}}
			* , an ] documentary
			* {{Internet Archive author |sname=Richard Milhous Nixon}}
			* {{Librivox author |id=10724}}
			*
			* {{IMDb name}}
			* {{Gutenberg author|id=1668}}
			{{Richard Nixon}}
			{{Navboxes
			|title = Offices and distinctions
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	{{s-start}}		{{s-start}}
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	{{s-ttl|title=]|years=December 22, 1973&nbsp;– January 20, 1981}}		{{s-ttl|title=]|years=1969–1974}}
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			{{DEFAULTSORT:Nixon, Richard}}
	{{Persondata
	|NAME=Nixon, Richard Milhous
	|ALTERNATIVE NAMES=Richard Nixon
	|SHORT DESCRIPTION=American ], 37th ] (1969–1974)
	|DATE OF BIRTH=January 9, 1913
	|PLACE OF BIRTH=], ], United States
	|DATE OF DEATH=April 22, 1994
	|PLACE OF DEATH=], ], United States}}
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	{{lifetime|1913|1994|Nixon, Richard}}
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Latest revision as of 06:03, 5 January 2025

President of the United States from 1969 to 1974 "Nixon" redirects here. For other uses, see Nixon (disambiguation) and Richard Nixon (disambiguation).

Richard Nixon
Official portrait, 1972
37th President of the United States
In office January 20, 1969 – August 9, 1974
Vice President	Spiro Agnew (1969–1973) None (Oct–Dec 1973) Gerald Ford (1973–1974)
Preceded by	Lyndon B. Johnson
Succeeded by	Gerald Ford
36th Vice President of the United States
In office January 20, 1953 – January 20, 1961
President	Dwight D. Eisenhower
Preceded by	Alben W. Barkley
Succeeded by	Lyndon B. Johnson
United States Senator from California
In office December 1, 1950 – January 1, 1953
Preceded by	Sheridan Downey
Succeeded by	Thomas Kuchel
Member of the U.S. House of Representatives from California's 12th district
In office January 3, 1947 – November 30, 1950
Preceded by	Jerry Voorhis
Succeeded by	Patrick J. Hillings
Personal details
Born	Richard Milhous Nixon (1913-01-09)January 9, 1913 Yorba Linda, California, U.S.
Died	April 22, 1994(1994-04-22) (aged 81) New York City, U.S.
Resting place	Richard Nixon Presidential Library and Museum
Political party	Republican
Spouse	Pat Ryan ​ ​(m. 1940; died 1993)​
Children	Tricia Julie
Parents	Francis A. Nixon Hannah Milhous
Education	Whittier College (BA) Duke University (JD)
Occupation	Author lawyer politician
Signature
Military service
Branch/service	United States Navy
Years of service	1942–1946 (active) 1946–1966 (inactive)
Rank	Commander
Battles/wars	World War II (Pacific War)
Awards	Navy and Marine Corps Commendation Medal American Campaign Medal Asiatic–Pacific Campaign Medal World War II Victory Medal Armed Forces Reserve Medal
Richard Nixon's voice Nixon speaks on peace in Vietnam Recorded November 3, 1969

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Richard Milhous Nixon (January 9, 1913 – April 22, 1994) was the 37th president of the United States, serving from 1969 until his resignation in 1974. A member of the Republican Party, he previously served as a representative and senator from California and as the 36th vice president from 1953 to 1961 under President Dwight D. Eisenhower. His presidency saw the reduction of U.S. involvement in the Vietnam War, détente with the Soviet Union and China, the Apollo 11 Moon landing, and the establishment of the Environmental Protection Agency and Occupational Safety and Health Administration. Nixon's second term ended early when he became the only U.S. president to resign from office, as a result of the Watergate scandal.

Nixon was born into a poor family of Quakers in Yorba Linda, Southern California. He graduated with a Bachelor of Arts degree from Whittier College in 1934 and a Juris Doctor from Duke University in 1937, practiced law in California, and then moved with his wife Pat to Washington, D.C., in 1942 to work for the federal government. After serving active duty in the Naval Reserve during World War II, he was elected to the House of Representatives in 1946. His work on the Alger Hiss case established his reputation as a leading anti-communist. In 1950, he was elected to the Senate. Nixon was the running mate of Eisenhower, the Republican Party's presidential nominee in the 1952 election, and served for eight years as vice president. He narrowly lost the 1960 presidential election to John F. Kennedy. After his loss in the 1962 race for governor of California, he announced his retirement from politics. However, in 1968, he made another run for the presidency and narrowly defeated the Democratic incumbent vice president Hubert Humphrey.

Seeking to bring the North Vietnamese to the negotiating table, Nixon ordered military operations and carpet bombing campaigns in Cambodia. He covertly aided Pakistan during the Bangladesh Liberation War in 1971 and ended American combat involvement in Vietnam in 1973 and the military draft the same year. His visit to China in 1972 eventually led to diplomatic relations between the two nations, and he then finalized the Anti-Ballistic Missile Treaty with the Soviet Union. Domestically, Nixon pushed for the Controlled Substances Act and began the war on drugs. Nixon's first term took place at the height of the American environmental movement and enacted many progressive environmental policy shifts; his administration created the Environmental Protection Agency and passed legislation such as the Endangered Species Act and the Clean Air Acts. He implemented the ratified Twenty-sixth Amendment, which lowered the voting age from 21 to 18, and enforced the desegregation of Southern schools. Under Nixon, relations with Native Americans improved, seeing an increase in self-determination for Native Americans and his administration rescinded the termination policy. Nixon imposed wage and price controls for 90 days, began the war on cancer, and presided over the Apollo 11 Moon landing, which signaled the end of the Space Race. He was re-elected in 1972, when he defeated George McGovern in one of the largest landslide victories in American history.

In his second term, Nixon ordered an airlift to resupply Israeli materiel losses in the Yom Kippur War, a conflict which led to the oil crisis at home. From 1973, ongoing revelations from the Nixon administration's involvement in Watergate eroded his support in Congress and the country. The scandal began with a break-in at the Democratic National Committee office, ordered by administration officials, and escalated despite cover-up efforts by the Nixon administration, of which he was aware. On August 9, 1974, facing almost certain impeachment and removal from office, Nixon resigned. Afterward, he was issued a controversial pardon by his successor, Gerald Ford. During nearly 20 years of retirement, Nixon wrote nine books and undertook many foreign trips, rehabilitating his image into that of an elder statesman and leading expert on foreign affairs. On April 18, 1994, he suffered a debilitating stroke, and died four days later. Rankings of his time in office have proven complex, with the successes of his presidency contrasted against the circumstances of both his ascension and his departure from office.

Early life and education

Richard Milhous Nixon was born on January 9, 1913, in what was then the township precinct of Yorba Linda, California, in a house built by his father, on his family's lemon ranch. His parents were Francis A. Nixon and Hannah (Milhous) Nixon. His mother was a Quaker, and his father converted from Methodism to the Quaker faith. Through his mother, Nixon was a descendant of the early English settler Thomas Cornell.

Nixon's upbringing was influenced by Quaker observances of the time such as abstinence from alcohol, dancing, and swearing. He had four brothers: Harold (1909–1933), Donald (1914–1987), Arthur (1918–1925), and Edward (1930– 2019). Four of the five Nixon boys were named after historic British kings; Richard, for example, was named after Richard the Lionheart.

Nixon's early life was marked by hardship, and he later quoted Dwight Eisenhower in describing his boyhood: "We were poor, but the glory of it was we didn't know it". The Nixon family ranch failed in 1922, and the family moved to Whittier, California. In an area of East Whittier with many Quakers, Frank Nixon opened a grocery store and gas station at what is now the corner of Whittier Boulevard and Santa Gertrudes Avenue. During this time period, the Nixon family attended East Whittier Friends Church. Richard's younger brother Arthur died in 1925 at the age of seven after a short illness. Richard was 12 years old when a spot was found on his lung; with a family history of tuberculosis, he was forbidden to play sports. The spot turned out to be scar tissue from an early bout of pneumonia.

Primary and secondary education

Nixon attended East Whittier Elementary School, where he was president of his eighth-grade class. His older brother Harold had attended Whittier High School, which his parents thought resulted in Harold's dissolute lifestyle, before he contracted tuberculosis (that killed him in 1933). They decided to send Nixon to the larger Fullerton Union High School. Though he had to ride a school bus an hour each way during his freshman year, he attained excellent grades. Later, he lived with an aunt in Fullerton during the week. He played junior varsity football, and seldom missed a practice, though he rarely was used in games. He had greater success as a debater, winning a number of championships and taking his only formal tutelage in public speaking from Fullerton's Head of English, H. Lynn Sheller. Nixon later mused on Sheller's words, "Remember, speaking is conversation...don't shout at people. Talk to them. Converse with them." Nixon said he tried to use a conversational tone as much as possible.

At the start of his junior year in September 1928, Nixon's parents permitted him to transfer to Whittier High School. At Whittier, Nixon lost a bid for student body president—his first electoral defeat. He often rose at 4 a.m. to drive the family truck to Los Angeles to purchase vegetables at the market and then drove to the store to wash and display them before going to school. Harold was diagnosed with tuberculosis the previous year; when their mother took him to Arizona hoping to improve his health, the demands on Nixon increased, causing him to give up football. Nevertheless, Nixon graduated from Whittier High third in his class of 207.

College and law school

Nixon was offered a tuition grant to attend Harvard University, but with Harold's continued illness requiring his mother's care, Richard was needed at the store. He remained in his hometown, and enrolled at Whittier College in September 1930. His expenses were met by his maternal grandfather. Nixon played for the basketball team; he also tried out for football, and though he lacked the size to play, he remained on the team as a substitute and was noted for his enthusiasm. Instead of fraternities and sororities, Whittier had literary societies. Nixon was snubbed by the only one for men, the Franklins, many of whom were from prominent families, unlike Nixon. He responded by helping to found a new society, the Orthogonian Society. In addition to the society, his studies, and work at the store, Nixon engaged in several extracurricular activities; he was a champion debater and hard worker. In 1933, he was engaged to Ola Florence Welch, daughter of the Whittier police chief, but they broke up in 1935.

After graduating summa cum laude with a Bachelor of Arts degree in history from Whittier in 1934, Nixon was accepted at the new Duke University School of Law, which offered scholarships to top students, including Nixon. It paid high salaries to its professors, many of whom had national or international reputations. The number of scholarships was greatly reduced for second- and third-year students, creating intense competition. Nixon kept his scholarship, was elected president of the Duke Bar Association, inducted into the Order of the Coif, and graduated third in his class in June 1937.

Early career and marriage

After graduating from Duke, Nixon initially hoped to join the FBI. He received no response to his letter of application, and learned years later that he had been hired, but his appointment had been canceled at the last minute due to budget cuts. He was admitted to the California bar in 1937, and began practicing in Whittier with the law firm Wingert and Bewley in the National Bank of Whittier Building. His work concentrated on commercial litigation for local petroleum companies and other corporate matters, as well as on wills. Nixon was reluctant to work on divorce cases, disliking frank sexual talk from women. In 1938, he opened up his own branch of Wingert and Bewley in La Habra, California, and became a full partner in the firm the following year. In later years, Nixon proudly said he was the only modern president to have previously worked as a practicing attorney. During this period, Nixon was also the president of the Citra-Frost Company, which attempted to produce and sell frozen orange juice, but the company went bankrupt after just 18 months.

In January 1938, Nixon was cast in the Whittier Community Players production of The Dark Tower in which he played opposite his future wife, a high school teacher named Thelma "Pat" Ryan. In his memoirs, Nixon described it as "a case of love at first sight", but apparently for Nixon only, since Pat Ryan turned him down several times before agreeing to date him. Once they began their courtship, Ryan was reluctant to marry Nixon; they dated for two years before she assented to his proposal. They wed in a small ceremony on June 21, 1940. After a honeymoon in Mexico, the Nixons began their married life in Whittier. They had two daughters: Tricia, born in 1946, and Julie, born in 1948.

Military service

In January 1942, the couple moved to the Northern Virginia suburbs, where Nixon took a job at the Office of Price Administration in Washington, D.C. In his political campaigns, Nixon suggested that this was his response to Pearl Harbor, but he had sought the position throughout the latter part of 1941. Both Nixon and his wife believed he was limiting his prospects by remaining in Whittier. He was assigned to the tire rationing division, where he was tasked with replying to correspondence. He did not enjoy the role, and four months later applied to join the United States Navy. Though he could have claimed an exemption from the draft as a birthright Quaker, or a deferral due to his government service, Nixon nevertheless sought a commission in the Navy. His application was approved, and he was appointed a lieutenant junior grade in the United States Naval Reserve on June 15, 1942.

In October 1942, he was given his first assignment as aide to the commander of the Naval Air Station Ottumwa in Wapello County, Iowa, until May 1943. Seeking more excitement, he requested sea duty; on July 2, 1943, he was assigned to Marine Aircraft Group 25 and the South Pacific Combat Air Transport Command (SCAT), where he supported the logistics of operations in the South Pacific theater during World War II.

On October 1, 1943, Nixon was promoted to lieutenant. Nixon commanded the SCAT forward detachments at Vella Lavella, Bougainville, and finally at Nissan Island. His unit prepared manifests and flight plans for R4D/C-47 operations and supervised the loading and unloading of the transport aircraft. For this service, he received a Navy Letter of Commendation, awarded a Navy Commendation Ribbon, which was later updated to the Navy and Marine Corps Commendation Medal, from his commanding officer for "meritorious and efficient performance of duty as Officer in Charge of the South Pacific Combat Air Transport Command". Upon his return to the U.S., Nixon was appointed the administrative officer of the Alameda Naval Air Station in Alameda, California.

In January 1945, he was transferred to the Bureau of Aeronautics office in Philadelphia, where he helped negotiate the termination of World War II contracts, and received his second letter of commendation, from the Secretary of the Navy for "meritorious service, tireless effort, and devotion to duty". Later, Nixon was transferred to other offices to work on contracts, and he moved from the Virginia suburbs of Washington, D.C. to Philadelphia, New York and finally to Baltimore. On October 3, 1945, he was promoted to lieutenant commander. On March 10, 1946, he was relieved of active duty. On June 1, 1953, he was promoted to commander in the U.S. Naval Reserve, and he retired from the U.S. Naval Reserve on June 6, 1966.

While in the Navy, Nixon became a very good five-card stud poker player, helping finance his first congressional campaign with the winnings. In a 1983 interview, he described turning down an invitation to dine with Charles Lindbergh because he was hosting a game.

U.S. House of Representatives (1947–1950)

Further information: 1946 California's 12th congressional district election

Republicans in California's 12th congressional district were frustrated by their inability to defeat Democratic representative Jerry Voorhis, and they sought a consensus candidate who would run a strong campaign against him. In 1945, they formed a "Committee of 100" to decide on a candidate, hoping to avoid internal dissensions which had led to previous Voorhis victories. After the committee failed to attract higher-profile candidates, Herman Perry, manager of Whittier's Bank of America branch, suggested Nixon, a family friend with whom he had served on Whittier College's board of trustees before the war. Perry wrote to Nixon in Baltimore, and after a night of excited conversation with his wife, Nixon gave Perry an enthused response, confirming that he was registered to vote in California at his parents' Whittier residence. Nixon flew to California and was selected by the committee. When he left the Navy at the start of 1946, Nixon and his wife returned to Whittier, where he began a year of intensive campaigning. He contended that Voorhis had been ineffective as a representative and suggested that Voorhis's endorsement by a group linked to Communists meant that Voorhis must have radical views. Nixon won the election, receiving 65,586 votes to Voorhis's 49,994.

In June 1947, Nixon supported the Taft–Hartley Act, a federal law that monitors the activities and power of labor unions, and he served on the Education and Labor Committee. In August 1947, he became one of 19 House members to serve on the Herter Committee, which went to Europe to report on the need for U.S. foreign aid. Nixon was the youngest member of the committee and the only Westerner. Advocacy by Herter Committee members, including Nixon, led to congressional passage of the Marshall Plan.

In his memoirs, Nixon wrote that he joined the House Un-American Activities Committee (HUAC) "at the end of 1947". However, he was already a HUAC member in early February 1947, when he heard "Enemy Number One" Gerhard Eisler and his sister Ruth Fischer testify. On February 18, 1947, Nixon referred to Eisler's belligerence toward HUAC in his maiden speech to the House. Also by early February 1947, fellow U.S. Representative Charles J. Kersten had introduced him to Father John Francis Cronin in Baltimore. Cronin shared with Nixon his 1945 privately circulated paper "The Problem of American Communism in 1945", with much information from the FBI's William C. Sullivan who by 1961 headed domestic intelligence under J. Edgar Hoover. By May 1948, Nixon had co-sponsored the Mundt–Nixon Bill to implement "a new approach to the complicated problem of internal communist subversion ... It provided for registration of all Communist Party members and required a statement of the source of all printed and broadcast material issued by organizations that were found to be Communist fronts." He served as floor manager for the Republican Party. On May 19, 1948, the bill passed the House by 319 to 58, but later it failed to pass the Senate. The Nixon Library cites this bill's passage as Nixon's first significant victory in Congress.

Nixon first gained national attention in August 1948, when his persistence as a House Un-American Activities Committee member helped break the Alger Hiss spy case. While many doubted Whittaker Chambers's allegations that Hiss, a former State Department official, had been a Soviet spy, Nixon believed them to be true and pressed for the committee to continue its investigation. After Hiss filed suit, alleging defamation, Chambers produced documents corroborating his allegations, including paper and microfilm copies that Chambers turned over to House investigators after hiding them overnight in a field; they became known as the "Pumpkin Papers". Hiss was convicted of perjury in 1950 for denying under oath he had passed documents to Chambers. In 1948, Nixon successfully cross-filed as a candidate in his district, winning both major party primaries, and was comfortably reelected.

U.S. Senate (1950–1953)

See also: 1950 United States Senate election in California

In 1949, Nixon began to consider running for the United States Senate against the Democratic incumbent, Sheridan Downey, and entered the race in November. Downey, faced with a bitter primary battle with Representative Helen Gahagan Douglas, announced his retirement in March 1950. Nixon and Douglas won the primary elections and engaged in a contentious campaign in which the ongoing Korean War was a major issue. Nixon tried to focus attention on Douglas's liberal voting record. As part of that effort, a "Pink Sheet" was distributed by the Nixon campaign suggesting that Douglas's voting record was similar to that of New York Congressman Vito Marcantonio, reputed to be a communist, and their political views must be nearly identical. Nixon won the election by almost twenty percentage points. During the campaign, Nixon was first called "Tricky Dick" by his opponents for his campaign tactics.

In the Senate, Nixon took a prominent position in opposing global communism, traveling frequently and speaking out against it. He maintained friendly relations with Joseph McCarthy, his fellow anti-communist, controversial U.S. Senate colleague from Wisconsin, but was careful to keep some distance between himself and McCarthy's allegations. Nixon criticized President Harry S. Truman's handling of the Korean War. He supported statehood for Alaska and Hawaii, voted in favor of civil rights for minorities, and supported federal disaster relief for India and Yugoslavia. He voted against price controls and other monetary restrictions, benefits for illegal immigrants, and public power.

Vice presidency (1953–1961)

See also: Presidency of Dwight D. Eisenhower Further information: Checkers speech

General Dwight D. Eisenhower was nominated for president by the Republicans in 1952. He had no strong preference for a vice-presidential candidate, and Republican officeholders and party officials met in a "smoke-filled room" and recommended Nixon to the general, who agreed to the senator's selection. Nixon's youth (he was then 39), stance against communism, and political base in California—one of the largest states—were all seen as vote-winners by the leaders. Among the candidates considered along with Nixon were Senator Robert A. Taft of Ohio, Governor Alfred Driscoll of New Jersey, and Senator Everett Dirksen of Illinois. On the campaign trail, Eisenhower spoke of his plans for the country, and left the negative campaigning to his running mate.

In mid-September, the Republican ticket faced a major crisis when the media reported that Nixon had a political fund, maintained by his backers, which reimbursed him for political expenses. Such a fund was not illegal, but it exposed Nixon to allegations of a potential conflict of interest. With pressure building for Eisenhower to demand Nixon's resignation from the ticket, Nixon went on television to address the nation on September 23, 1952. The address, later named the Checkers speech, was heard by about 60 million Americans, which represented the largest audience ever for a television broadcast at that point. In the speech, Nixon emotionally defended himself, stating that the fund was not secret and that his donors had not received special favors. He painted himself as a patriot and man of modest means, mentioning that his wife had no mink coat; instead, he said, she wore a "respectable Republican cloth coat". The speech was remembered for the gift which Nixon had received, but which he would not give back, which he described as "a little cocker spaniel dog ...sent all the way from Texas. And our little girl—Tricia, the 6-year-old—named it Checkers." The speech prompted a huge public outpouring of support for Nixon. Eisenhower decided to retain him on the ticket, and the ticket was victorious in the November election.

Eisenhower granted Nixon more responsibilities during his term than any previous vice president. Nixon attended Cabinet and National Security Council meetings and chaired them in Eisenhower's absence. A 1953 tour of the Far East succeeded in increasing local goodwill toward the United States and gave Nixon an appreciation of the region as a potential industrial center. He visited Saigon and Hanoi in French Indochina. On his return to the United States at the end of 1953, Nixon increased the time he devoted to foreign relations.

Biographer Irwin Gellman, who chronicled Nixon's congressional years, said of his vice presidency:

Eisenhower radically altered the role of his running mate by presenting him with critical assignments in both foreign and domestic affairs once he assumed his office. The vice president welcomed the president's initiatives and worked energetically to accomplish White House objectives. Because of the collaboration between these two leaders, Nixon deserves the title, "the first modern vice president".

Los Angeles TimesSan Francisco ChronicleAmerican newspaper covers on May 9, 1958, covering student protests against Nixon at the National University of San Marcos in Lima, Peru

Despite intense campaigning by Nixon, who reprised his strong attacks on the Democrats, the Republicans lost control of both houses of Congress in the 1954 elections. These losses caused Nixon to contemplate leaving politics once he had served out his term. On September 24, 1955, President Eisenhower suffered a heart attack and his condition was initially believed to be life-threatening. Eisenhower was unable to perform his duties for six weeks. The Twenty-fifth Amendment to the United States Constitution had not yet been proposed, and the vice president had no formal power to act. Nonetheless, Nixon acted in Eisenhower's stead during this period, presiding over Cabinet meetings and ensuring that aides and Cabinet officers did not seek power. According to Nixon biographer Stephen Ambrose, Nixon had "earned the high praise he received for his conduct during the crisis ... he made no attempt to seize power".

His spirits buoyed, Nixon sought a second term, but some of Eisenhower's aides aimed to displace him. In a December 1955 meeting, Eisenhower proposed that Nixon not run for reelection and instead become a Cabinet officer in a second Eisenhower administration, to give him administrative experience before a 1960 presidential run. Nixon believed this would destroy his political career. When Eisenhower announced his reelection bid in February 1956, he hedged on the choice of his running mate, saying it was improper to address that question until he had been renominated. Although no Republican was opposing Eisenhower, Nixon received a substantial number of write-in votes against the president in the 1956 New Hampshire primary election. In late April, the President announced that Nixon would again be his running mate. Eisenhower and Nixon were reelected by a comfortable margin in the November 1956 election.

In early 1957, Nixon undertook another foreign trip, this time to Africa. On his return, he helped shepherd the Civil Rights Act of 1957 through Congress. The bill was weakened in the Senate, and civil rights leaders were divided over whether Eisenhower should sign it. Nixon advised the President to sign the bill, which he did. Eisenhower suffered a mild stroke in November 1957, and Nixon gave a press conference, assuring the nation that the Cabinet was functioning well as a team during Eisenhower's brief illness.

On April 27, 1958, Richard and Pat Nixon reluctantly embarked on a goodwill tour of South America. In Montevideo, Uruguay, Nixon made an impromptu visit to a college campus, where he fielded questions from students on U.S. foreign policy. The trip was uneventful until the Nixon party reached Lima, Peru, where he was met with student demonstrations. Nixon went to the historical campus of National University of San Marcos, the oldest university in the Americas, got out of his car to confront the students, and stayed until forced back into the car by a volley of thrown objects. At his hotel, Nixon faced another mob, and one demonstrator spat on him. In Caracas, Venezuela, Nixon and his wife were spat on by anti-American demonstrators and their limousine was attacked by a pipe-wielding mob. According to Ambrose, Nixon's courageous conduct "caused even some of his bitterest enemies to give him some grudging respect". Reporting to the cabinet after the trip, Nixon claimed there was "absolute proof that were directed and controlled by a central Communist conspiracy." Secretary of State John Foster Dulles and his brother, Director of Central Intelligence Allen Dulles, both concurred with Nixon.

In July 1959, President Eisenhower sent Nixon to the Soviet Union for the opening of the American National Exhibition in Moscow. On July 24, Nixon was touring the exhibits with Soviet first secretary and premier Nikita Khrushchev when the two stopped at a model of an American kitchen and engaged in an impromptu exchange about the merits of capitalism versus communism that became known as the "Kitchen Debate".

1960 presidential campaign

Main article: Richard Nixon 1960 presidential campaign See also: 1960 Republican Party presidential primaries and 1960 United States presidential election

In 1960, Nixon launched his first campaign for President of the United States, officially announcing on January 9, 1960. He faced little opposition in the Republican primaries and chose former Massachusetts senator Henry Cabot Lodge Jr. as his running mate. His Democratic opponent was John F. Kennedy and the race remained close for the duration. Nixon campaigned on his experience, but Kennedy called for new blood and claimed the Eisenhower–Nixon administration had allowed the Soviet Union to overtake the U.S. in quantity and quality of ballistic missiles. While Kennedy faced issues about his Catholicism, Nixon remained a divisive figure to some.

Televised presidential debates made their debut as a political medium during the campaign. In the first of four such debates, Nixon appeared pale, with a five o'clock shadow, in contrast to the photogenic Kennedy. Nixon's performance in the debate was perceived to be mediocre in the visual medium of television, though many people listening on the radio thought Nixon had won. Nixon narrowly lost the election, with Kennedy winning the popular vote by only 112,827 votes (0.2 percent).

There were charges of voter fraud in Texas and Illinois, both states won by Kennedy. Nixon refused to consider contesting the election, feeling a lengthy controversy would diminish the United States in the eyes of the world and that the uncertainty would hurt U.S. interests. At the end of his term of office as vice president in January 1961, Nixon and his family returned to California, where he practiced law and wrote a bestselling book, Six Crises, which included coverage of the Hiss case, Eisenhower's heart attack, and the Fund Crisis, which had been resolved by the Checkers speech.

1962 California gubernatorial campaign

Main article: 1962 California gubernatorial election

Local and national Republican leaders encouraged Nixon to challenge incumbent Pat Brown for governor of California in the 1962 gubernatorial election. Despite initial reluctance, Nixon entered the race. The campaign was clouded by public suspicion that Nixon viewed the office as a stepping stone for another presidential run, some opposition from the far-right of the party, and his own lack of interest in being California's governor. Nixon hoped a successful run would confirm his status as the nation's leading active Republican politician, and ensure he remained a major player in national politics. Instead, he lost to Brown by more than five percentage points, and the defeat was widely believed to be the end of his political career.

In an impromptu concession speech the morning after the election, Nixon blamed the media for favoring his opponent, saying, "You won't have Nixon to kick around anymore because, gentlemen, this is my last press conference." The California defeat was highlighted in the November 11, 1962, episode of Howard K. Smith's ABC News show, Howard K. Smith: News and Comment, titled "The Political Obituary of Richard M. Nixon". Alger Hiss appeared on the program, and many members of the public complained that it was unseemly to give a convicted felon air time to attack a former vice president. The furor drove Smith and his program from the air, and public sympathy for Nixon grew.

Wilderness years

In 1963 the Nixon family traveled to Europe, where Nixon gave press conferences and met with leaders of the countries he visited. The family moved to New York City, where Nixon became a senior partner in the leading law firm Nixon, Mudge, Rose, Guthrie & Alexander. When announcing his California campaign, Nixon had pledged not to run for president in 1964; even if he had not, he believed it would be difficult to defeat Kennedy, or after his assassination, Kennedy's successor, Lyndon Johnson.

In 1964, Nixon won write-in votes in the primaries, and was considered a serious contender by both Gallup polls and members of the press. He was even placed on a primary ballot as an active candidate by Oregon's secretary of state. As late as two months before the 1964 Republican National Convention, however, Nixon fulfilled his promise to remain out of the presidential nomination process and instead endorsed Arizona senator Barry Goldwater, the eventual Republican nominee. When Goldwater won the nomination, Nixon was selected to introduce him at the convention. Nixon felt that Goldwater was unlikely to win, but campaigned for him loyally. In the 1964 general election, Goldwater lost in a landslide to Johnson and Republicans experienced heavy losses in Congress and among state governors.

Nixon was one of the few leading Republicans not blamed for the disastrous results, and he sought to build on that in the 1966 congressional elections in which he campaigned for many Republicans and sought to regain seats lost in the Johnson landslide. Nixon was credited with helping Republicans win major electoral gains that year.

In 1967, Nixon was approached by an associate at his firm in Leonard Garment about a case involving the press and perceived invasion of privacy. Garment suggested Nixon to argue on behalf of the Hill family in Time, Inc. v. Hill at the Supreme Court of the United States. Nixon studied strenuously in the months prior to the oral argument before the Court. While the final decision was in favor of Time Inc., Nixon was encouraged by the praise he received for his argument. It was the first and only case he argued in front of the Supreme Court.

1968 presidential campaign

Main article: Richard Nixon 1968 presidential campaign See also: 1968 Republican Party presidential primaries and 1968 United States presidential election

At the end of 1967, Nixon told his family he planned to run for president a second time. Pat Nixon did not always enjoy public life, being embarrassed, for example, by the need to reveal how little the family owned in the Checkers speech. She still managed to be supportive of her husband's ambitions. Nixon believed that with the Democrats torn over the issue of the Vietnam War, a Republican had a good chance of winning, although he expected the election to be as close as in 1960.

An exceptionally tumultuous primary election season began as the Tet Offensive was launched in January 1968. President Johnson withdrew as a candidate in March, after an unexpectedly poor showing in the New Hampshire primary. In June, Senator Robert F. Kennedy, a Democratic candidate, was assassinated just moments after his victory in the California primary. On the Republican side, Nixon's main opposition was Michigan governor George Romney, though New York governor Nelson Rockefeller and California governor Ronald Reagan each hoped to be nominated in a brokered convention. Nixon secured the nomination on the first ballot. He was able to secure the nomination to the support of many Southern delegates, after he and his subordinates made concessions to Strom Thurmond and Harry Dent. He selected Maryland governor Spiro Agnew as his running mate, a choice which Nixon believed would unite the party, appealing both to Northern moderates and to Southerners disaffected with the Democrats.

Nixon's Democratic opponent in the general election was Vice President Hubert Humphrey, who was nominated at a convention marked by violent protests. Throughout the campaign, Nixon portrayed himself as a figure of stability during this period of national unrest and upheaval. He appealed to what he later called the "silent majority" of socially conservative Americans who disliked the hippie counterculture and the anti-war demonstrators. Agnew became an increasingly vocal critic of these groups, solidifying Nixon's position with the right.

Nixon waged a prominent television advertising campaign, meeting with supporters in front of cameras. He stressed that the crime rate was too high, and attacked what he perceived as a surrender of the United States' nuclear superiority by the Democrats. Nixon promised "peace with honor" in the Vietnam War and proclaimed that "new leadership will end the war and win the peace in the Pacific". He did not give specifics of how he hoped to end the war, resulting in media intimations that he must have a "secret plan". His slogan of "Nixon's the One" proved to be effective.

Johnson's negotiators hoped to reach a truce in Vietnam, or at least a cessation of bombings. On October 22, 1968, candidate Nixon received information that Johnson was preparing a so-called "October surprise", abandoning three non-negotiable conditions for a bombing halt, to help elect Humphrey in the last days of the campaign. Whether the Nixon campaign interfered with negotiations between the Johnson administration and the South Vietnamese by engaging Anna Chennault, a fundraiser for the Republican party, remains a controversy. It is not clear whether the government of South Vietnam needed encouragement to opt out of a peace process they considered disadvantageous.

In a three-way race between Nixon, Humphrey, and American Independent Party candidate George Wallace, Nixon defeated Humphrey by only 500,000 votes, a margin almost as close as in 1960, with both elections seeing a gap of less than one percentage point of the popular vote. However, Nixon earned 301 electoral votes to 191 for Humphrey and 46 for Wallace, a majority. He became the first non-incumbent vice president to be elected president. In his victory speech, Nixon pledged that his administration would try to bring the divided nation together. Nixon said: "I have received a very gracious message from the Vice President, congratulating me for winning the election. I congratulated him for his gallant and courageous fight against great odds. I also told him that I know exactly how he felt. I know how it feels to lose a close one."

Presidency (1969–1974)

Main article: Presidency of Richard NixonFor a chronological guide, see Timeline of the Richard Nixon presidency.

Nixon was inaugurated as president on January 20, 1969, sworn in by his onetime political rival, Chief Justice Earl Warren. Pat Nixon held the family Bibles open at Isaiah 2:4, which reads, "They shall beat their swords into plowshares, and their spears into pruning hooks." In his inaugural address, which received almost uniformly positive reviews, Nixon remarked that "the greatest honor history can bestow is the title of peacemaker"—a phrase that found a place on his gravestone. He spoke about turning partisan politics into a new age of unity:

In these difficult years, America has suffered from a fever of words; from inflated rhetoric that promises more than it can deliver; from angry rhetoric that fans discontents into hatreds; from bombastic rhetoric that postures instead of persuading. We cannot learn from one another until we stop shouting at one another, until we speak quietly enough so that our words can be heard as well as our voices.

Foreign policy

Main article: Foreign policy of the Richard Nixon administration

China

Main article: 1972 visit by Richard Nixon to China President Nixon shakes hands with Chinese Premier Zhou Enlai upon arriving in Beijing, 1972Nixon and Zhou Enlai toast during Nixon's 1972 visit to China

Nixon laid the groundwork for his overture to China before he became president, writing in Foreign Affairs a year before his election: "There is no place on this small planet for a billion of its potentially most able people to live in angry isolation." Among the reasons that Nixon sought to improve relations with China was in the hope of weakening the Soviet Union and decreasing China's support to the North in the Vietnam War. Nixon ultimately used the idea of gaining leverage against the Soviet Union through relations with China to obtain the support of key conservative figures including Barry Goldwater and Ronald Reagan.

Assisting him in pursuing relations with China was Henry Kissinger, Nixon's national security advisor and future secretary of state. They collaborated closely, bypassing Cabinet officials. With relations between the Soviet Union and China at a nadir—border clashes between the two took place during Nixon's first year in office—Nixon sent private word to the Chinese that he desired closer relations. A breakthrough came in early 1971, when Chinese Communist Party (CCP) chairman Mao Zedong invited a team of American table tennis players to visit China and play against top Chinese players. Nixon followed up by sending Kissinger to China for clandestine meetings with Chinese officials. On July 15, 1971, with announcements from Washington and Beijing, it was learned that the President would visit China the following February. The secrecy had allowed both sets of leaders time to prepare the political climate in their countries for the visit.

In February 1972, Nixon and his wife traveled to China after Kissinger briefed Nixon for over 40 hours in preparation. Upon touching down, the President and First Lady emerged from Air Force One and were greeted by Chinese Premier Zhou Enlai. Nixon made a point of shaking Zhou's hand, something which then-secretary of state John Foster Dulles had refused to do in 1954 when the two met in Geneva. More than a hundred television journalists accompanied the president. On Nixon's orders, television was strongly favored over printed publications, as Nixon felt that the medium would capture the visit much better than print. It also gave him the opportunity to snub the print journalists he despised.

Nixon and Kissinger immediately met for an hour with CCP Chairman Mao Zedong and Premier Zhou at Mao's official private residence, where they discussed a range of issues. Mao later told his doctor that he had been impressed by Nixon's forthrightness, unlike the leftists and the Soviets. He said he was suspicious of Kissinger, though the National Security Advisor referred to their meeting as his "encounter with history". A formal banquet welcoming the presidential party was given that evening in the Great Hall of the People. The following day, Nixon met with Zhou; the joint communique following this meeting recognized Taiwan as a part of China and looked forward to a peaceful solution to the problem of reunification. When not in meetings, Nixon toured architectural wonders, including the Forbidden City, the Ming tombs, and the Great Wall. Americans took their first glance into everyday Chinese life through the cameras that accompanied Pat Nixon, who toured the city of Beijing and visited communes, schools, factories, and hospitals.

The visit ushered in a new era of US–China relations. Fearing the possibility of a US–China alliance, the Soviet Union yielded to pressure for détente with the United States. This was one component of triangular diplomacy.

Vietnam War

Main articles: Vietnam War, Vietnamization, and Role of the United States in the Vietnam War

When Nixon took office, about 300 American soldiers were dying each week in Vietnam, and the war was widely unpopular in the United States, the subject of ongoing violent protests. The Johnson administration had offered to suspend bombing unconditionally in exchange for negotiations, but to no avail. According to Walter Isaacson, Nixon concluded soon after taking office that the Vietnam War could not be won, and he was determined to end it quickly. He sought an arrangement that would permit American forces to withdraw while leaving South Vietnam secure against attack.

Nixon approved a secret B-52 carpet bombing campaign of North Vietnamese and Khmer Rouge positions in Cambodia beginning in March 1969 and code-named Operation Menu, without the consent of Cambodian leader Norodom Sihanouk. In mid-1969, Nixon began efforts to negotiate peace with the North Vietnamese, sending a personal letter to their leaders, and peace talks began in Paris. Initial talks did not result in an agreement, and in May 1969 he publicly proposed to withdraw all American troops from South Vietnam provided North Vietnam did so, and suggesting South Vietnam hold internationally supervised elections with Viet Cong participation.

In July 1969, Nixon visited South Vietnam, where he met with his U.S. military commanders and President Nguyễn Văn Thiệu. Amid protests at home demanding an immediate pullout, he implemented a strategy of replacing American troops with Vietnamese troops, known as "Vietnamization". He soon instituted phased U.S. troop withdrawals, but also authorized incursions into Laos, in part to interrupt the Ho Chi Minh trail passing through Laos and Cambodia and used to supply North Vietnamese forces. In March 1970, at the explicit request of the Khmer Rouge and negotiated by Pol Pot's then-second-in-command, Nuon Chea, North Vietnamese troops launched an offensive and overran much of Cambodia. Nixon announced the ground invasion of Cambodia on April 30, 1970, against North Vietnamese bases in the east of the country, and further protests erupted against perceived expansion of the conflict, which resulted in Ohio National Guardsmen killing four unarmed students at Kent State University. Nixon's responses to protesters included an impromptu, early morning meeting with them at the Lincoln Memorial on May 9, 1970. Nixon's campaign promise to curb the war, contrasted with the escalated bombing, led to claims that Nixon had a "credibility gap" on the issue. It is estimated that between 50,000 and 150,000 people were killed during the bombing of Cambodia between 1970 and 1973.

In 1971, excerpts from the "Pentagon Papers", which had been leaked by Daniel Ellsberg, were published by The New York Times and The Washington Post. When news of the leak first appeared, Nixon was inclined to do nothing; the Papers, a history of United States' involvement in Vietnam, mostly concerned the lies of prior administrations and contained few real revelations. He was persuaded by Kissinger that the Papers were more harmful than they appeared, and the President tried to prevent publication, but the Supreme Court ruled in favor of the newspapers.

As U.S. troop withdrawals continued, conscription was phased out by 1973, and the armed forces became all-volunteer. After years of fighting, the Paris Peace Accords were signed at the beginning of 1973. The agreement implemented a cease fire and allowed for the withdrawal of remaining American troops without requiring withdrawal of the 160,000 North Vietnam Army regulars located in the South. Once American combat support ended, there was a brief truce, before fighting resumed, and North Vietnam conquered South Vietnam in 1975.

Latin American policy

See also: U.S. intervention in Chile § 1973 coup, and Operation Condor

Nixon had been a firm supporter of Kennedy during the 1961 Bay of Pigs Invasion and 1962 Cuban Missile Crisis. On taking office in 1969, he stepped up covert operations against Cuba and its president, Fidel Castro. He maintained close relations with the Cuban-American exile community through his friend, Bebe Rebozo, who often suggested ways of irritating Castro. The Soviets and Cubans became concerned, fearing Nixon might attack Cuba and break the understanding between Kennedy and Khrushchev that ended the missile crisis. In August 1970, the Soviets asked Nixon to reaffirm the understanding, which he did, despite his hard line against Castro. The process was not completed before the Soviets began expanding their base at the Cuban port of Cienfuegos in October 1970. A minor confrontation ensued, the Soviets stipulated they would not use Cienfuegos for submarines bearing ballistic missiles, and the final round of diplomatic notes were exchanged in November.

The election of Marxist candidate Salvador Allende as President of Chile in September 1970 spurred a vigorous campaign of covert opposition to him by Nixon and Kissinger. This began by trying to convince the Chilean congress to confirm Jorge Alessandri as the winner of the election, and then messages to military officers in support of a coup. Other support included strikes organized against Allende and funding for Allende opponents. It was even alleged that "Nixon personally authorized" $700,000 in covert funds to print anti-Allende messages in a prominent Chilean newspaper. Following an extended period of social, political, and economic unrest, General Augusto Pinochet assumed power in a violent coup d'état on September 11, 1973; among the dead was Allende.

Soviet Union

Nixon used the improving international environment to address the topic of nuclear peace. Following the announcement of his visit to China, the Nixon administration concluded negotiations for him to visit the Soviet Union. The President and First Lady arrived in Moscow on May 22, 1972, and met with Leonid Brezhnev, the general secretary of the Communist Party; Alexei Kosygin, the Chairman of the Council of Ministers; and Nikolai Podgorny, the Chairman of the Presidium of the Supreme Soviet, among other leading Soviet officials.

Nixon engaged in intense negotiations with Brezhnev. Out of the summit came agreements for increased trade and two landmark arms control treaties: SALT I, the first comprehensive limitation pact signed by the two superpowers, and the Anti-Ballistic Missile Treaty, which banned the development of systems designed to intercept incoming missiles. Nixon and Brezhnev proclaimed a new era of "peaceful coexistence". A banquet was held that evening at the Kremlin.

Nixon and Kissinger planned to link arms control to détente and to the resolution of other urgent problems through what Nixon called "linkage." David Tal argues:

The linkage between strategic arms limitations and outstanding issues such as the Middle East, Berlin and, foremost, Vietnam thus became central to Nixon's and Kissinger's policy of détente. Through the employment of linkage, they hoped to change the nature and course of U.S. foreign policy, including U.S. nuclear disarmament and arms control policy, and to separate them from those practiced by Nixon's predecessors. They also intended, through linkage, to make U.S. arms control policy part of détente ... His policy of linkage had in fact failed. It failed mainly because it was based on flawed assumptions and false premises, the foremost of which was that the Soviet Union wanted strategic arms limitation agreement much more than the United States did.

Seeking to foster better relations with the United States, China and the Soviet Union both cut back on their diplomatic support for North Vietnam and advised Hanoi to come to terms militarily. Nixon later described his strategy:

I had long believed that an indispensable element of any successful peace initiative in Vietnam was to enlist, if possible, the help of the Soviets and the Chinese. Though rapprochement with China and détente with the Soviet Union were ends in themselves, I also considered them possible means to hasten the end of the war. At worst, Hanoi was bound to feel less confident if Washington was dealing with Moscow and Beijing. At best, if the two major Communist powers decided that they had bigger fish to fry, Hanoi would be pressured into negotiating a settlement we could accept.

In 1973, Nixon encouraged the Export-Import Bank to finance in part a trade deal with the Soviet Union in which Armand Hammer's Occidental Petroleum would export phosphate from Florida to the Soviet Union, and import Soviet ammonia. The deal, valued at $20 billion over 20 years, involved the construction of two major Soviet port facilities at Odessa and Ventspils, and a pipeline connecting four ammonia plants in the greater Volga region to the port at Odessa. In 1973, Nixon announced his administration was committed to seeking most favored nation trade status with the USSR, which was challenged by Congress in the Jackson-Vanik Amendment.

During the previous two years, Nixon had made considerable progress in U.S.–Soviet relations, and he embarked on a second trip to the Soviet Union in 1974. He arrived in Moscow on June 27 to a welcome ceremony, cheering crowds, and a state dinner at the Grand Kremlin Palace that evening. Nixon and Brezhnev met in Yalta, where they discussed a proposed mutual defense pact, détente, and MIRVs. Nixon considered proposing a comprehensive test-ban treaty, but he felt he would not have time to complete it during his presidency. There were no significant breakthroughs in these negotiations.

Middle Eastern policy

As part of the Nixon Doctrine, the U.S. avoided giving direct combat assistance to its allies and instead gave them assistance to defend themselves. During the Nixon administration, the U.S. greatly increased arms sales to the Middle East, particularly Israel, Iran and Saudi Arabia. The Nixon administration strongly supported Israel, an American ally in the Middle East, but the support was not unconditional. Nixon believed Israel should make peace with its Arab neighbors and that the U.S. should encourage it. The president believed that—except during the Suez Crisis—the U.S. had failed to intervene with Israel, and should use the leverage of the large U.S. military aid to Israel to urge the parties to the negotiating table. The Arab-Israeli conflict was not a major focus of Nixon's attention during his first term—for one thing, he felt that no matter what he did, American Jews would oppose his reelection.

On October 6, 1973, an Arab coalition led by Egypt and Syria, supported with arms and materiel by the Soviet Union, attacked Israel in the Yom Kippur War. Israel suffered heavy losses and Nixon ordered an airlift to resupply Israeli losses, cutting through inter-departmental squabbles and bureaucracy and taking personal responsibility for any response by Arab nations. More than a week later, by the time the U.S. and Soviet Union began negotiating a truce, Israel had penetrated deep into enemy territory. The truce negotiations rapidly escalated into a superpower crisis; when Israel gained the upper hand, Egyptian president Sadat requested a joint U.S.–USSR peacekeeping mission, which the U.S. refused. When Soviet Premier Brezhnev threatened to unilaterally enforce any peacekeeping mission militarily, Nixon ordered the U.S. military to DEFCON3, placing all U.S. military personnel and bases on alert for nuclear war. This was the closest the world had come to nuclear war since the Cuban Missile Crisis. Brezhnev backed down as a result of Nixon's actions.

Because Israel's victory was largely due to U.S. support, the Arab OPEC nations retaliated by refusing to sell crude oil to the U.S., resulting in the 1973 oil crisis. The embargo caused gasoline shortages and rationing in the United States in late 1973, but was eventually ended by the oil-producing nations as peace in the Middle East took hold.

After the war, and under Nixon's presidency, the U.S. reestablished relations with Egypt for the first time since 1967. Nixon used the Middle East crisis to restart the stalled Middle East Peace Negotiations; he wrote in a confidential memo to Kissinger on October 20:

I believe that, beyond a doubt, we are now facing the best opportunity we have had in 15 years to build a lasting peace in the Middle East. I am convinced history will hold us responsible if we let this opportunity slip by ... I now consider a permanent Middle East settlement to be the most important final goal to which we must devote ourselves.

Nixon made one of his final international visits as president to the Middle East in June 1974, and became the first president to visit Israel.

South Asia policy

Since 1960s, the United States perceived Pakistan as an integral bulwark against global communism in the Cold War. Nixon was fond of Pakistani president Yahya Khan and according to American journalist Gary Bass, "Nixon liked very few people, but he did like General Agha Muhammad Yahya Khan."

During the Bangladesh Liberation War, the United States stood by Pakistan against Bengali nationalists in terms of diplomacy and military threats. Nixon urged President Khan multiple times to exercise restraint, fearing an Indian invasion of Pakistan that would lead to Indian domination of the subcontinent and strengthen the position of the Soviet Union. In the wake of the Third India–Pakistan War, Nixon issued a statement blaming Pakistan for starting the conflict and blaming India for escalating it while personally favoring a ceasefire. The United States used the threat of an aid cut-off to force Pakistan to back down, while its continued military aid to Islamabad prevented India from launching incursions deeper into the country. Nixon denied getting involved in the situation, saying that it was an internal matter of Pakistan, but when Pakistan's defeat seemed certain, he sent the aircraft carrier USS Enterprise to the Bay of Bengal.

Domestic policy

Economy

Further information: Nixon shock and 1970s energy crisis

At the time Nixon took office in 1969, inflation was at 4.7 percent—its highest rate since the Korean War. The Great Society had been enacted under Johnson, which, together with the Vietnam War costs, was causing large budget deficits. Unemployment was low, but interest rates were at their highest in a century. Nixon's major economic goal was to reduce inflation; the most obvious means of doing so was to end the war. This could not be accomplished overnight, and the U.S. economy continued to struggle through 1970, contributing to a lackluster Republican performance in the midterm congressional elections (Democrats controlled both Houses of Congress throughout Nixon's presidency). According to political economist Nigel Bowles in his 2011 study of Nixon's economic record, the new president did little to alter Johnson's policies through the first year of his presidency.

Nixon was far more interested in foreign affairs than domestic policies, but he believed that voters tend to focus on their own financial condition and that economic conditions were a threat to his reelection. As part of his "New Federalism" views, he proposed grants to the states, but these proposals were for the most part lost in the congressional budget process. However, Nixon gained political credit for advocating them. In 1970, Congress had granted the president the power to impose wage and price freezes, though the Democratic majorities, knowing Nixon had opposed such controls throughout his career, did not expect Nixon to actually use the authority. With inflation unresolved by August 1971, and an election year looming, Nixon convened a summit of his economic advisers at Camp David. Nixon's options were to limit fiscal and monetary expansionist policies that reduced unemployment or end the dollar's fixed exchange rate; Nixon's dilemma has been cited as an example of the Impossible trinity in international economics. He then announced temporary wage and price controls, allowed the dollar to float against other currencies, and ended the convertibility of the dollar into gold. Bowles points out,

by identifying himself with a policy whose purpose was inflation's defeat, Nixon made it difficult for Democratic opponents ... to criticize him. His opponents could offer no alternative policy that was either plausible or believable since the one they favored was one they had designed but which the president had appropriated for himself.

Nixon's policies dampened inflation through 1972, although their aftereffects contributed to inflation during his second term and into the Ford administration. Nixon's decision to end the gold standard in the United States led to the collapse of the Bretton Woods system. According to Thomas Oatley, "the Bretton Woods system collapsed so that Nixon might win the 1972 presidential election."

After Nixon won re-election, inflation was returning. He reimposed price controls in June 1973. The price controls became unpopular with the public and businesspeople, who saw powerful labor unions as preferable to the price board bureaucracy. The controls produced food shortages, as meat disappeared from grocery stores and farmers drowned chickens rather than sell them at a loss. Despite the failure to control inflation, controls were slowly ended, and on April 30, 1974, their statutory authorization lapsed.

Governmental initiatives and organization

Nixon advocated a "New Federalism", which would devolve power to state and local elected officials, though Congress was hostile to these ideas and enacted few of them. He eliminated the Cabinet-level United States Post Office Department, which in 1971 became the government-run United States Postal Service.

Nixon was a late supporter of the conservation movement. Environmental policy had not been a significant issue in the 1968 election, and the candidates were rarely asked for their views on the subject. Nixon broke new ground by discussing environmental policy in his State of the Union speech in 1970. He saw that the first Earth Day in April 1970 presaged a wave of voter interest on the subject, and sought to use that to his benefit; in June he announced the formation of the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA). He relied on his domestic advisor John Ehrlichman, who favored protection of natural resources, to keep him "out of trouble on environmental issues." Other initiatives supported by Nixon included the Clean Air Act of 1970 and the Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA), and the National Environmental Policy Act required environmental impact statements for many Federal projects. Nixon vetoed the Clean Water Act of 1972—objecting not to the policy goals of the legislation but to the amount of money to be spent on them, which he deemed excessive. After Congress overrode his veto, Nixon impounded the funds he deemed unjustifiable.

In 1971, Nixon proposed health insurance reform—a private health insurance employer mandate, federalization of Medicaid for poor families with dependent minor children, and support for health maintenance organizations (HMOs). A limited HMO bill was enacted in 1973. In 1974, Nixon proposed more comprehensive health insurance reform—a private health insurance employer mandate and replacement of Medicaid by state-run health insurance plans available to all, with income-based premiums and cost sharing.

Nixon was concerned about the prevalence of domestic drug use in addition to drug use among American soldiers in Vietnam. He called for a war on drugs and pledged to cut off sources of supply abroad. He also increased funds for education and for rehabilitation facilities.

As one policy initiative, Nixon called for more money for sickle-cell research, treatment, and education in February 1971 and signed the National Sickle Cell Anemia Control Act on May 16, 1972. While Nixon called for increased spending on such high-profile items as sickle-cell disease and for a war on cancer, at the same time he sought to reduce overall spending at the National Institutes of Health.

Civil rights

The Nixon presidency witnessed the first large-scale integration of public schools in the South. Nixon sought a middle way between the segregationist Wallace and liberal Democrats, whose support of integration was alienating some Southern whites. Hopeful of doing well in the South in 1972, he sought to dispose of desegregation as a political issue before then. Soon after his inauguration, he appointed Vice President Agnew to lead a task force, which worked with local leaders—both white and black—to determine how to integrate local schools. Agnew had little interest in the work, and most of it was done by Labor Secretary George Shultz. Federal aid was available, and a meeting with President Nixon was a possible reward for compliant committees. By September 1970, less than ten percent of black children were attending segregated schools. By 1971, however, tensions over desegregation surfaced in Northern cities, with angry protests over the busing of children to schools outside their neighborhood to achieve racial balance. Nixon opposed busing personally but enforced court orders requiring its use.

Some scholars, such as James Morton Turner and John Isenberg, believe that Nixon, who had advocated for civil rights in his 1960 campaign, slowed down desegregation as president, appealing to the racial conservatism of Southern whites, who were angered by the civil rights movement. This, he hoped, would boost his election chances in 1972.

In addition to desegregating public schools, Nixon implemented the Philadelphia Plan in 1970—the first significant federal affirmative action program. He also endorsed the Equal Rights Amendment after it passed both houses of Congress in 1972 and went to the states for ratification. He also pushed for African American civil rights and economic equity through a concept known as black capitalism. Nixon had campaigned as an ERA supporter in 1968, though feminists criticized him for doing little to help the ERA or their cause after his election. Nevertheless, he appointed more women to administration positions than Lyndon Johnson had.

Space policy

Further information: Space policy of the United States

After a nearly decade-long national effort, the United States won the race to land astronauts on the Moon on July 20, 1969, with the flight of Apollo 11. Nixon spoke with Neil Armstrong and Buzz Aldrin during their moonwalk. He called the conversation "the most historic phone call ever made from the White House".

Nixon was unwilling to keep funding for the National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) at the high level seen during the 1960s as NASA prepared to send men to the Moon. NASA Administrator Thomas O. Paine drew up ambitious plans for the establishment of a permanent base on the Moon by the end of the 1970s and the launch of a crewed expedition to Mars as early as 1981. Nixon rejected both proposals due to the expense. Nixon also canceled the Air Force Manned Orbital Laboratory program in 1969, because uncrewed spy satellites were a more cost-effective way to achieve the same reconnaissance objective. NASA cancelled the last three planned Apollo lunar missions to place Skylab in orbit more efficiently and free money up for the design and construction of the Space Shuttle.

On May 24, 1972, Nixon approved a five-year cooperative program between NASA and the Soviet space program, culminating in the 1975 joint mission of an American Apollo and Soviet Soyuz spacecraft linking in space.

Reelection, Watergate scandal, and resignation

1972 presidential campaign

Main articles: Richard Nixon 1972 presidential campaign and 1972 United States presidential election

Nixon believed his rise to power had peaked at a moment of political realignment. The Democratic "Solid South" had long been a source of frustration to Republican ambitions. Goldwater had won several Southern states by opposing the Civil Rights Act of 1964 but had alienated more moderate Southerners. Nixon's efforts to gain Southern support in 1968 were diluted by Wallace's candidacy. Through his first term, he pursued a Southern Strategy with policies, such as his desegregation plans, that would be broadly acceptable among Southern whites, encouraging them to realign with the Republicans in the aftermath of the civil rights movement. He nominated two Southern conservatives, Clement Haynsworth and G. Harrold Carswell, to the Supreme Court, but neither was confirmed by the Senate.

Nixon entered his name on the New Hampshire primary ballot on January 5, 1972, effectively announcing his candidacy for reelection. Virtually assured the Republican nomination, the President had initially expected his Democratic opponent to be Massachusetts senator Ted Kennedy (brother of the late president), who was largely removed from contention after the July 1969 Chappaquiddick incident. Instead, Maine senator Edmund Muskie became the front runner, with South Dakota senator George McGovern in a close second place.

On June 10, McGovern won the California primary and secured the Democratic nomination. The following month, Nixon was renominated at the 1972 Republican National Convention. He dismissed the Democratic platform as cowardly and divisive. McGovern intended to sharply reduce defense spending and supported amnesty for draft evaders as well as abortion rights. With some of his supporters believed to be in favor of drug legalization, McGovern was perceived as standing for "amnesty, abortion and acid". McGovern was also damaged by his vacillating support for his original running mate, Missouri senator Thomas Eagleton, dumped from the ticket following revelations that he had received electroshock treatment for depression. Nixon was ahead in most polls for the entire election cycle, and was reelected on November 7, 1972, in one of the largest landslide election victories in American history. He defeated McGovern with over 60 percent of the popular vote, losing only in Massachusetts and D.C.

Watergate

Main articles: Watergate scandal and Impeachment process against Richard Nixon

The term Watergate has come to encompass an array of clandestine and often illegal activities undertaken by members of the Nixon administration. Those activities included "dirty tricks", such as bugging the offices of political opponents, and the harassment of activist groups and political figures. The activities were brought to light after five men were caught breaking into the Democratic party headquarters at the Watergate complex in Washington, D.C., on June 17, 1972. The Washington Post picked up on the story; reporters Carl Bernstein and Bob Woodward relied on an informant known as "Deep Throat"—later revealed to be Mark Felt, associate director at the FBI—to link the men to the Nixon administration. Nixon downplayed the scandal as mere politics, calling news articles biased and misleading. A series of revelations made it clear that the Committee to Re-elect President Nixon, and later the White House, were involved in attempts to sabotage the Democrats. Senior aides such as White House Counsel John Dean faced prosecution; in total 48 officials were convicted of wrongdoing.

In July 1973, White House aide Alexander Butterfield testified under oath to Congress that Nixon had a secret taping system and recorded his conversations and phone calls in the Oval Office. These tapes were subpoenaed by Watergate Special Counsel Archibald Cox; Nixon provided transcripts of the conversations but not the actual tapes, citing executive privilege. With the White House and Cox at loggerheads, Nixon had Cox fired in October in the "Saturday Night Massacre"; he was replaced by Leon Jaworski. In November, Nixon's lawyers revealed that a tape of conversations held in the White House on June 20, 1972, had an 18+1⁄2 minute gap. Rose Mary Woods, the President's personal secretary, claimed responsibility for the gap, saying that she had accidentally wiped the section while transcribing the tape, but her story was widely mocked. The gap, while not conclusive proof of wrongdoing by the President, cast doubt on Nixon's statement that he had been unaware of the cover-up.

Though Nixon lost much popular support, even from his own party, he rejected accusations of wrongdoing and vowed to stay in office. He admitted he had made mistakes but insisted he had no prior knowledge of the burglary, did not break any laws, and did not learn of the cover-up until early 1973. On October 10, 1973, Vice President Agnew resigned for reasons unrelated to Watergate: he was convicted on charges of bribery, tax evasion and money laundering during his tenure as governor of Maryland. Believing his first choice, John Connally, would not be confirmed by Congress, Nixon chose Gerald Ford, Minority Leader of the House of Representatives, to replace Agnew. One researcher suggests Nixon effectively disengaged from his own administration after Ford was sworn in as vice president on December 6, 1973.

On November 17, 1973, during a televised question-and-answer session with 400 Associated Press managing editors, Nixon said, "People have got to know whether or not their president is a crook. Well, I'm not a crook. I've earned everything I've got."

The legal battle over the tapes continued through early 1974, and in April Nixon announced the release of 1,200 pages of transcripts of White House conversations between himself and his aides. The House Judiciary Committee opened impeachment hearings against the President on May 9, 1974, which were televised on the major TV networks. These hearings culminated in votes for impeachment. On July 24, the Supreme Court ruled unanimously that the full tapes, not just selected transcripts, must be released.

The scandal grew to involve a slew of additional allegations against the President, ranging from the improper use of government agencies to accepting gifts in office and his personal finances and taxes; Nixon repeatedly stated his willingness to pay any outstanding taxes due, and later paid $465,000 (equivalent to $2.9 million in 2023) in back taxes in 1974.

Even with support diminished by the continuing series of revelations, Nixon hoped to fight the charges. But one of the new tapes, recorded soon after the break-in, demonstrated that Nixon had been told of the White House connection to the Watergate burglaries soon after they took place, and had approved plans to thwart the investigation. In a statement accompanying the release of what became known as the "Smoking Gun Tape" on August 5, 1974, Nixon accepted blame for misleading the country about when he had been told of White House involvement, stating that he had had a lapse of memory. Senate Minority Leader Hugh Scott, Senator Barry Goldwater, and House Minority Leader John Jacob Rhodes met with Nixon soon after. Rhodes told Nixon he faced certain impeachment in the House. Scott and Goldwater told the president that he had, at most, only 15 votes in his favor in the Senate, far fewer than the 34 needed to avoid removal from office.

Resignation

In light of his loss of political support and the near-certainty that he would be impeached and removed from office, Nixon resigned the presidency on August 9, 1974, after addressing the nation on television the previous evening. The resignation speech was delivered from the Oval Office and was carried live on radio and television. Nixon said he was resigning for the good of the country and asked the nation to support the new president, Gerald Ford. Nixon went on to review the accomplishments of his presidency, especially in foreign policy. He defended his record as president, quoting from Theodore Roosevelt's 1910 speech Citizenship in a Republic:

Sometimes I have succeeded and sometimes I have failed, but always I have taken heart from what Theodore Roosevelt once said about the man in the arena, "whose face is marred by dust and sweat and blood, who strives valiantly, who errs and comes up short again and again because there is not effort without error and shortcoming, but who does actually strive to do the deed, who knows the great enthusiasms, the great devotions, who spends himself in a worthy cause, who at the best knows in the end the triumphs of high achievements and who at the worst, if he fails, at least fails while daring greatly".

Nixon's speech received generally favorable initial responses from network commentators, with only Roger Mudd of CBS stating that Nixon had not admitted wrongdoing. It was termed "a masterpiece" by Conrad Black, one of his biographers. Black opined that "What was intended to be an unprecedented humiliation for any American president, Nixon converted into a virtual parliamentary acknowledgement of almost blameless insufficiency of legislative support to continue. He left while devoting half his address to a recitation of his accomplishments in office."

Post-presidency (1974–1994)

Pardon and illness

Further information: Pardon of Richard Nixon

Following his resignation, the Nixons flew to their home La Casa Pacifica in San Clemente, California. According to his biographer, Jonathan Aitken, "Nixon was a soul in torment" after his resignation. Congress had funded Nixon's transition costs, including some salary expenses, though reducing the appropriation from $850,000 to $200,000. With some of his staff still with him, Nixon was at his desk by 7:00 a.m. with little to do. His former press secretary, Ron Ziegler, sat with him alone for hours each day.

Nixon's resignation had not put an end to the desire among many to see him punished. The Ford White House considered a pardon of Nixon, even though it would be unpopular in the country. Nixon, contacted by Ford emissaries, was initially reluctant to accept the pardon, but then agreed to do so. Ford insisted on a statement of contrition, but Nixon felt he had not committed any crimes and should not have to issue such a document. Ford eventually agreed and, on September 8, 1974, he granted Nixon a "full, free, and absolute pardon", which ended any possibility of an indictment. Nixon then released a statement:

I was wrong in not acting more decisively and more forthrightly in dealing with Watergate, particularly when it reached the stage of judicial proceedings and grew from a political scandal into a national tragedy. No words can describe the depth of my regret and pain at the anguish my mistakes over Watergate have caused the nation and the presidency, a nation I so deeply love, and an institution I so greatly respect.

In October 1974, Nixon fell ill with phlebitis. Told by his doctors that he could either be operated on or die, a reluctant Nixon chose surgery, and President Ford visited him in the hospital. Nixon was under subpoena for the trial of three of his former aides—Dean, Haldeman, and John Ehrlichman—and The Washington Post, disbelieving his illness, printed a cartoon showing Nixon with a cast on the "wrong foot". Judge John Sirica excused Nixon's presence despite the defendants' objections. Congress instructed Ford to retain Nixon's presidential papers—beginning a three-decade legal battle over the documents that was eventually won by the former president and his estate. Nixon was in the hospital when the 1974 midterm elections were held, and Watergate and the pardon were contributing factors to the Republican loss of 49 seats in the House and four in the Senate.

Return to public life

In December 1974, Nixon began planning his comeback despite the considerable ill will against him in the country. He wrote in his diary, referring to himself and Pat,

So be it. We will see it through. We've had tough times before and we can take the tougher ones that we will have to go through now. That is perhaps what we were made for—to be able to take punishment beyond what anyone in this office has had before particularly after leaving office. This is a test of character and we must not fail the test.

By early 1975, Nixon's health was improving. He maintained an office in a Coast Guard station 300 yards (270 m) from his home, at first taking a golf cart and later walking the route each day; he mainly worked on his memoirs. He had hoped to wait before writing his memoirs; the fact that his assets were being eaten away by expenses and lawyer fees compelled him to begin work quickly. He was handicapped in this work by the end of his transition allowance in February, which compelled him to part with many of his staff, including Ziegler. In August of that year, he met with British talk-show host and producer David Frost, who paid him $600,000 (equivalent to $3.4 million in 2023) for a series of sit-down interviews, filmed and aired in 1977. They began on the topic of foreign policy, recounting the leaders he had known, but the most remembered section of the interviews was that on Watergate. Nixon admitted he had "let down the country" and that "I brought myself down. I gave them a sword and they stuck it in. And they twisted it with relish. And, I guess, if I'd been in their position, I'd have done the same thing." The interviews garnered 45–50 million viewers—becoming the most-watched program of its kind in television history.

The interviews helped improve Nixon's financial position—at one point in early 1975 he had only $500 in the bank—as did the sale of his Key Biscayne property to a trust set up by wealthy friends of Nixon, such as Bebe Rebozo. In February 1976, Nixon visited China at the personal invitation of Mao. Nixon had wanted to return to China but chose to wait until after Ford's own visit in 1975. Nixon remained neutral in the close 1976 primary battle between Ford and Reagan. Ford won, but was defeated by Georgia governor Jimmy Carter in the general election. The Carter administration had little use for Nixon and blocked his planned trip to Australia, causing the government of Prime Minister Malcolm Fraser to withhold its official invitation.

In 1976, Nixon was disbarred by the New York State Bar Association for obstruction of justice in the Watergate affair. He chose not to present any defense. In early 1978, he visited the United Kingdom; there, he was shunned by American diplomats, most ministers of the James Callaghan government, and two former prime ministers, Harold Macmillan and Edward Heath. He was welcomed, however, by the Leader of the Opposition, Margaret Thatcher, and former prime ministers Lord Home and Sir Harold Wilson. Nixon addressed the Oxford Union regarding Watergate:

felt that on this matter that I had not handled it properly, and they were right. I screwed it up and I paid the price.

Author and elder statesman

In 1978, Nixon published his memoirs, RN: The Memoirs of Richard Nixon, the first of nine books he was to author in his retirement. John A. Farrell deemed it one of the better presidential memoirs, candid and capturing its author's voice; he deemed its rise up the bestseller lists justified. Nixon visited the White House in 1979, invited by Carter for the state dinner for Chinese Vice Premier Deng Xiaoping. Carter had not wanted to invite Nixon, but Deng had said he would visit Nixon in California if the former president was not invited. Nixon had a private meeting with Deng and visited Beijing again in mid-1979.

On August 10, 1979, the Nixons purchased a 12‐room condominium occupying the seventh floor of 817 Fifth Avenue New York City after being rejected by two Manhattan co-ops. When the deposed Shah of Iran died in Egypt in July 1980, Nixon defied the State Department, which intended to send no U.S. representative, by attending the funeral. Though Nixon had no official credentials, as a former president he was seen as the American presence at its former ally's funeral. Nixon supported Ronald Reagan for president in 1980, making television appearances portraying himself as, in biographer Stephen Ambrose's words, "the senior statesman above the fray". He wrote guest articles for many publications both during the campaign and after Reagan's victory. After 18 months in the New York City townhouse, Nixon and his wife moved in 1981 to Saddle River, New Jersey.

Throughout the 1980s, Nixon maintained an ambitious schedule of speaking engagements and writing, traveled, and met with many foreign leaders, especially those of Third World countries. He joined former presidents Ford and Carter as representatives of the United States at the funeral of Egyptian president Anwar Sadat. On a trip to the Middle East, Nixon made his views known regarding Saudi Arabia and Libya, which attracted significant U.S. media attention; The Washington Post ran stories on Nixon's "rehabilitation". Nixon visited the Soviet Union in 1986 and on his return sent President Reagan a lengthy memorandum containing foreign policy suggestions and his personal impressions of Soviet general secretary Mikhail Gorbachev. Following this trip, Nixon was ranked in a Gallup poll as one of the ten most admired men in the world.

In 1986, Nixon addressed a convention of newspaper publishers, impressing his audience with his tour d'horizon of the world. At the time, political pundit Elizabeth Drew wrote, "Even when he was wrong, Nixon still showed that he knew a great deal and had a capacious memory, as well as the capacity to speak with apparent authority, enough to impress people who had little regard for him in earlier times." Newsweek ran a story on "Nixon's comeback" with the headline "He's back".

On July 19, 1990, the Richard Nixon Library and Birthplace in Yorba Linda, California, opened as a private institution with the Nixons in attendance. They were joined by a large crowd of people, including Presidents Ford, Reagan, and George H. W. Bush, as well as their wives, Betty, Nancy, and Barbara. In January 1994, the former president founded the Nixon Center (today the Center for the National Interest), a Washington policy think tank and conference center.

Pat Nixon died on June 22, 1993, of emphysema and lung cancer. Her funeral services were held on the grounds of the Richard Nixon Library and Birthplace. Former president Nixon was distraught throughout the interment and delivered a tribute to her inside the library building.

Death and funeral

Main article: Death and state funeral of Richard Nixon

Nixon suffered a severe stroke on April 18, 1994, while preparing to eat dinner in his home at Park Ridge, New Jersey. A blood clot resulting from the atrial fibrillation he had suffered for many years had formed in his upper heart, broken off, and traveled to his brain. He was taken to NewYork-Presbyterian Hospital in Manhattan, initially alert but unable to speak or to move his right arm or leg. Damage to the brain caused swelling (cerebral edema), and Nixon slipped into a deep coma. He died at 9:08 p.m. on April 22, 1994, with his daughters at his bedside. He was 81 years old.

Nixon's funeral took place on April 27, 1994, in Yorba Linda, California. Eulogists at the Nixon Library ceremony included President Bill Clinton, former secretary of state Henry Kissinger, Senate Minority Leader Bob Dole, California governor Pete Wilson, and the Reverend Billy Graham. Also in attendance were former presidents Ford, Carter, Reagan, George H. W. Bush, and their wives.

Richard Nixon was buried beside his wife Pat on the grounds of the Nixon Library. He was survived by his two daughters, Tricia and Julie, and four grandchildren. In keeping with his wishes, his funeral was not a full state funeral, though his body did lie in repose in the Nixon Library lobby from April 26 to the morning of the funeral service. Mourners waited in line for up to eight hours in chilly, wet weather to pay their respects. At its peak, the line to pass by Nixon's casket was three miles long with an estimated 42,000 people waiting.

John F. Stacks of Time magazine said of Nixon shortly after his death,

An outsize energy and determination drove him on to recover and rebuild after every self-created disaster that he faced. To reclaim a respected place in American public life after his resignation, he kept traveling and thinking and talking to the world's leaders ... and by the time Bill Clinton came to the White House , Nixon had virtually cemented his role as an elder statesman. Clinton, whose wife served on the staff of the committee that voted to impeach Nixon, met openly with him and regularly sought his advice.

Tom Wicker of The New York Times noted that Nixon had been equalled only by Franklin Roosevelt in being five times nominated on a major party ticket and, quoting Nixon's 1962 farewell speech, wrote,

Richard Nixon's jowly, beard-shadowed face, the ski-jump nose and the widow's peak, the arms upstretched in the V-sign, had been so often pictured and caricatured, his presence had become such a familiar one in the land, he had been so often in the heat of controversy, that it was hard to realize the nation really would not "have Nixon to kick around anymore".

Ambrose said of the reaction to Nixon's death, "To everyone's amazement, except his, he's our beloved elder statesman."

Upon Nixon's death, the news coverage mentioned Watergate and the resignation but much of the coverage was favorable to the former president. The Dallas Morning News stated, "History ultimately should show that despite his flaws, he was one of our most farsighted chief executives." This offended some; columnist Russell Baker complained of "a group conspiracy to grant him absolution". Cartoonist Jeff Koterba of the Omaha World-Herald depicted History before a blank canvas, his subject Nixon, as America looks on eagerly. The artist urges his audience to sit down; the work will take some time to complete, as "this portrait is a little more complicated than most". Hunter S. Thompson wrote a scathing piece denouncing Nixon for Rolling Stone, entitled "He Was a Crook" (which also appeared a month later in The Atlantic). In his article, Thompson described Nixon as "a political monster straight out of Grendel and a very dangerous enemy".

Legacy

Main article: List of awards and honors received by Richard Nixon

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Historian and political scientist James MacGregor Burns asked of Nixon, "How can one evaluate such an idiosyncratic president, so brilliant and so morally lacking?" Evaluations of his presidency have proven complex, contrasting his presidency's domestic and foreign policy successes with the acrimonious circumstances of his departure. According to Ambrose, "Nixon wanted to be judged by what he accomplished. What he will be remembered for is the nightmare he put the country through in his second term and for his resignation." Irwin Gellman, who chronicled Nixon's congressional career, suggests, "He was remarkable among his congressional peers, a success story in a troubled era, one who steered a sensible anti-Communist course against the excess of McCarthy." Aitken feels that "Nixon, both as a man and as a statesman, has been excessively maligned for his faults and inadequately recognised for his virtues. Yet even in a spirit of historical revisionism, no simple verdict is possible."

Nixon saw his policies on Vietnam, China, and the Soviet Union as central to his place in history. Nixon's onetime opponent George McGovern commented in 1983, "President Nixon probably had a more practical approach to the two superpowers, China and the Soviet Union, than any other president since World War II ... With the exception of his inexcusable continuation of the war in Vietnam, Nixon really will get high marks in history." Political scientist Jussi Hanhimäki disagrees, saying that Nixon's diplomacy was merely a continuation of the Cold War policy of containment by diplomatic, rather than military, means. Historian Christopher Andrew concludes that "Nixon was a great statesman on the world stage as well as a shabby practitioner of electoral politics in the domestic arena. While the criminal farce of Watergate was in the making, Nixon's inspirational statesmanship was establishing new working relationships both with Communist China and with the Soviet Union."

Nixon's stance on domestic affairs has been credited with the passage and enforcement of environmental and regulatory legislation. In a 2011 paper on Nixon and the environment, historian Paul Charles Milazzo points to Nixon's creation of the United States Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), and to his enforcement of legislation such as the 1973 Endangered Species Act, stating that "though unsought and unacknowledged, Richard Nixon's environmental legacy is secure". Nixon himself did not consider the environmental advances he made in office an important part of his legacy; some historians contend that his choices were driven more by political expediency than any strong environmentalism. Some historians say Nixon's Southern Strategy turned the Southern United States into a Republican stronghold, while others deem economic factors more important in the change. Throughout his career, Nixon moved his party away from the control of isolationists, and as a Congressman he was a persuasive advocate of containing Soviet communism.

Historian Keith W. Olson has written that Nixon left a legacy of fundamental mistrust of government, rooted in Vietnam and Watergate. During the impeachment of Bill Clinton in 1998, both sides tried to use Nixon and Watergate to their advantage: Republicans suggested that Clinton's misconduct was comparable to Nixon's, while Democrats contended that Nixon's actions had been far more serious than Clinton's. For a time, there was a decrease in the power of the presidency as Congress passed restrictive legislation in the wake of Watergate. Olson suggests that legislation in the aftermath of the September 11 attacks restored the president's power.

According to his biographer Herbert Parmet, "Nixon's role was to steer the Republican party along a middle course, somewhere between the competitive impulses of the Rockefellers, the Goldwaters, and the Reagans."

Personality and public image

Nixon's career was frequently dogged by his persona and the public's perception of it. Editorial cartoonists and comedians often exaggerated his appearance and mannerisms, to the point where the line between the human and the caricature became increasingly blurred. He was often portrayed with unshaven jowls, slumped shoulders, and a furrowed, sweaty brow.

Nixon had a complex personality, both very secretive and awkward, yet strikingly reflective about himself. He was inclined to distance himself from people and was formal in all aspects, wearing a coat and tie even when home alone. Nixon biographer Conrad Black described him as being "driven" though also "uneasy with himself in some ways". According to Black, Nixon

thought that he was doomed to be traduced, double-crossed, unjustly harassed, misunderstood, underappreciated, and subjected to the trials of Job, but that by the application of his mighty will, tenacity, and diligence, he would ultimately prevail.

Nixon sometimes drank alcohol to excess, especially during 1970. He also was prescribed sleeping pills. According to Ray Price, Nixon sometimes took them in together. Nixon also took dilantin, recommended by Jack Dreyfus. That medicine is usually prescribed to treat and prevent seizures, but in Nixon's case it was for depression. His periodic overindulgences, especially during stressful times such as during Apollo 13, concerned Price and others, including then-advisor Ehrlichman and long-time valet Manolo Sanchez. Author and former British politician David Owen deemed Nixon an alcoholic.

Biographer Elizabeth Drew summarized Nixon as a "smart, talented man, but most peculiar and haunted of presidents". In his account of the Nixon presidency, author Richard Reeves described Nixon as "a strange man of uncomfortable shyness, who functioned best alone with his thoughts". Nixon's presidency was doomed by his personality, Reeves argues:

He assumed the worst in people and he brought out the worst in them ... He clung to the idea of being "tough". He thought that was what had brought him to the edge of greatness. But that was what betrayed him. He could not open himself to other men and he could not open himself to greatness.

In October 1999, a volume of 1971 White House audio tapes was released which contained multiple statements by Nixon deemed derogatory toward Jews. In one conversation with H. R. Haldeman, Nixon said that Washington was "full of Jews" and that "most Jews are disloyal", making exceptions for some of his top aides. He then added, "But, Bob, generally speaking, you can't trust the bastards. They turn on you. Am I wrong or right?" Elsewhere on the 1971 recordings, Nixon denies being antisemitic, saying, "If anybody who's been in this chair ever had reason to be antisemitic, I did ... And I'm not, you know what I mean?"

Nixon believed that putting distance between himself and other people was necessary for him as he advanced in his political career and became president. Even Bebe Rebozo, by some accounts his closest friend, did not call him by his first name. Nixon said of this,

Even with close friends, I don't believe in letting your hair down, confiding this and that and the other thing—saying, "Gee, I couldn't sleep ..." I believe you should keep your troubles to yourself. That's just the way I am. Some people are different. Some people think it's good therapy to sit with a close friend and, you know, just spill your guts ... reveal their inner psyche—whether they were breast-fed or bottle-fed. Not me. No way.

When Nixon was told that most Americans felt they did not know him even at the end of his career, he replied, "Yeah, it's true. And it's not necessary for them to know."

Books

• Nixon, Richard M. (1960). Six Crises, Doubleday, ISBN 978-0-385-00125-0.
• Nixon, Richard M. (1978). RN: The Memoirs of Richard Nixon, Simon & Schuster, ISBN 978-0-671-70741-5.
• Nixon, Richard M. (1980). The Real War, Sidgwick & Jackson Ltd. ISBN 978-0-283-98650-5.
• Nixon, Richard M. (1982). Leaders, Random House ISBN 978-0-446-51249-7.
• Nixon, Richard M. (1984). Real Peace, Sidgwick & Jackson Ltd. ISBN 978-0-283-99076-2.

External videos
Part One of Booknotes interview with Nixon on Seize the Moment, February 23, 1992
Part Two of Booknotes interview, March 1, 1992

• Nixon, Richard M. (1987). No More Vietnams, Arbor House Publishing. ISBN 978-0-87795-668-6.
• Nixon, Richard M. (1988). 1999: Victory Without War, Simon & Schuster. ISBN 978-0-671-62712-6.
• Nixon, Richard M. (1990). In the Arena: A Memoir of Victory, Defeat, and Renewal, Simon & Schuster. ISBN 978-0-671-72318-7.
• Nixon, Richard M. (1992). Seize the Moment: America's Challenge in a One-Superpower World, Simon & Schuster. ISBN 978-0-671-74343-7.
• Nixon, Richard M. (1994). Beyond Peace, Random House. ISBN 978-0-679-43323-1.

See also

• Cultural depictions of Richard Nixon
• Electoral history of Richard Nixon
• List of presidents of the United States
• List of presidents of the United States by previous experience
• Nixon, film, 1995
• Presidential transition of Richard Nixon
• Timeline of the Watergate scandal

Notes

1. Black, pp. 583–585. In 1972, Nixon did more than double his percentage of the Jewish vote, from 17 percent to 35 percent. Merkley, p. 68.
2. ^ Voluntary for employees
3. See especially page 2 (after introductory material) in which a bar graph displays NHLBI funding for sickle cell research from FY 1972 through FY 2001, totaling $923 million for these thirty years, starting at $10 million for 1972, then about $15 million a year through 1976, about $20 million for 1977, etc.

References

Citations

1. ^ "Richard Nixon Presidential Library and Museum" (PDF). September 21, 2015. Archived from the original (PDF) on September 21, 2015.
2. "Richard Nixon in the U.S. Census Records". National Archives. August 15, 2016. Retrieved August 31, 2022.
3. NPS, Nixon Birthplace.
4. Ferris, p. 209.
5. Reitwiesner, William Addams. "The Ancestors of Senator John Forbes Kerry (b. 1943)". Archived from the original on April 27, 2019. Retrieved August 31, 2016.
6. Nixon Library, Childhood.
7. Aitken, p. 11.
8. Aitken, p. 12.
9. Aitken, p. 21.
10. Paul Carter (January 9, 2023). "Whittier to the White House".
11. Paul Carter (January 9, 2023). "Whittier to the White House".
12. Ambrose 1987, p. 41.
13. Aitken, p. 27.
14. Ambrose 1987, pp. 56–57.
15. Black, p. 16.
16. Morris, p. 89.
17. Black, pp. 17–19.
18. Morris, p. 91.
19. Morris, p. 92.
20. ^ Aitken, p. 28.
21. Black, pp. 20–23.
22. Black, pp. 23–24.
23. Gellman, p. 15.
24. Black, pp. 24–25.
25. Ambrose 1987, p. 61.
26. Aitken, pp. 58–63.
27. ^ Nixon Library, Student & Sailor.
28. "Richard M. Nixon's '34 100th birthday celebrated". Whittier College. January 9, 2013. Retrieved March 29, 2024.
29. ^ Ambrose 1987, pp. 33–34.
30. Aitken, p. 67.
31. Parmet, p. 81.
32. Nixon Library, Family Collection Guide.
33. Aitken, p. 76.
34. Keith Durflinger (August 29, 2017). "Historic Whittier bank building was President Nixon's law office at one time". Whittier Daily News.
35. Aitken, pp. 79–82.
36. ^ Morris, p. 193.
37. Black, p. 44.
38. Black, p. 43.
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• Safire, William (2005) . Before The Fall: An Insider View of the Pre-Watergate White House, with a 2005 Preface by the Author. Transaction Publishers. ISBN 978-1-4128-0466-0. Originally published: Garden City, N.Y.: Doubleday, 1975 (new material 2005)
• Small, Melvin, ed. (2011). A Companion to Richard M. Nixon. Oxford: Wiley-Blackwell. ISBN 978-1-4443-3017-5.; Emphasis on historiography
• Schulzinger, Robert D. (2003). A Companion to American Foreign Relations. Oxford: Blackwell Publishing. ISBN 978-1-4051-4986-0.
• Thompson, John B. (2000). Political Scandal: Power and Visibility in the Media Age. Cambridge: Polity Press. ISBN 978-0-7456-2550-8.
• Tyler, Patrick (2010). A World of Trouble: The White House and the Middle East—from the Cold War to the War on Terror. New York: Macmillan.
• White, Theodore H. (1973). The Making of the President 1972. New York: Antheneum. ISBN 978-0-689-10553-1.

Nixon Library

• "Childhood". The Life. Richard Nixon Presidential Library and Museum. Archived from the original on October 21, 2013. Retrieved July 16, 2011.
• "A Student & Sailor". The Life. Richard Nixon Presidential Library and Museum. Archived from the original on October 21, 2013. Retrieved July 16, 2011.
• "The Nixon Family". The Life. Richard Nixon Presidential Library and Museum. Archived from the original on October 21, 2013. Retrieved July 16, 2011.
• "The Congressman". The Life. Richard Nixon Presidential Library and Museum. Archived from the original on June 15, 2013. Retrieved July 17, 2011.
• "The Senator". The Life. Richard Nixon Presidential Library and Museum. Archived from the original on February 16, 2013. Retrieved July 17, 2011.
• "The Vice President". The Life. Richard Nixon Presidential Library and Museum. Archived from the original on June 15, 2013. Retrieved July 17, 2011.
• "The President". The Life. Richard Nixon Presidential Library and Museum. Archived from the original on November 20, 2012. Retrieved July 17, 2011.
• "Post Presidency". The Life. Richard Nixon Presidential Library and Museum. Archived from the original on October 21, 2013. Retrieved March 5, 2012.
• Lee, Meghan (June 22, 2004). "Guide to the Nixon Family Collection (1909–1967)" (PDF). Richard Nixon Presidential Library and Museum.

Other sources

• Bass, Gary J. (2013). The Blood Telegram: Nixon, Kissinger, and a Forgotten Genocide. New York: Alfred A. Knopf. ISBN 978-0-307-70020-9.
• * Black, Conrad (2007). Richard M. Nixon: A Life in Full. New York: PublicAffairs. ISBN 9781586486747.
• "1972: President Nixon arrives in Moscow". BBC. June 11, 2004. Retrieved July 17, 2011.
• "Reagan funeral: Schedule of events". BBC. June 11, 2004. Retrieved May 11, 2012.
• Delaney, Paul (July 20, 1970). "Nixon Plan for Negro Construction Jobs Is Lagging". The New York Times. p. 1.
• "Mourners pay last respects to Nixon". The Deseret News. April 27, 1994. p. 1. Retrieved July 16, 2011.
• Steel, Ronald (May 25, 2003). "The World: New Chapter, Old Debate; Would Kennedy Have Quit Vietnam?". The New York Times. Retrieved July 17, 2011.
• Wicker, Tom (April 24, 1994). "From afar: An indomitable man, an incurable loneliness". The New York Times. Retrieved August 7, 2011.
• Kilpatrick, Carroll (November 18, 1973). "Nixon tells editors, 'I'm not a crook'". The Washington Post. Retrieved July 17, 2011.
• "The Post Investigates". The Washington Post. The Watergate Story. Retrieved July 17, 2011.
• "The Government Acts". The Washington Post. The Watergate Story. Retrieved July 16, 2011.
• "Nixon Resigns". The Washington Post. The Watergate Story. Retrieved July 16, 2011.
• Weil, Martin; Randolph, Eleanor (April 23, 1994). "Richard M. Nixon, 37th President, dies". The Washington Post. p. A01. Retrieved July 16, 2011.
• Lardner, George Jr.; Dobbs, Michael (October 6, 1999). "New tapes reveal depth of Nixon's anti-Semitism". The Washington Post. p. A31. Retrieved April 4, 2011.
• Carlson, Peter (November 17, 2000). "Another Race to the Finish". The Washington Post. p. A01.
• "8,000 Move Into Cambodia". St. Petersburg Independent. AP (Saigon). May 1, 1970. p. 20–A.
• "Nixon Up Early, See Protesters". Beaver County Times. Pennsylvania. UPI. May 9, 1970. p. one .
• Greene, Bob (April 8, 2002). "What Nixon's best friend couldn't buy". Jewish World Review. Retrieved July 16, 2011.
• Greider, William (November 10, 1983). "The McGovern factor". Rolling Stone. p. 13.
• Kiernan, Ben; Owen, Taylor (October 2006). "Bombs over Cambodia" (PDF). The Walrus. Retrieved January 29, 2012.
• Noah, Timothy (October 7, 1999). "Nixon: I Am Not an Anti-Semite". Slate. Retrieved May 11, 2012.
• Sawhill, Ray (February 2011). "The Fall and Rise of an American President". Opera News. Retrieved July 16, 2011.
• "Again, the Credibility Gap?". Time. April 5, 1971. Archived from the original on December 21, 2008. Retrieved July 29, 2011.
• "Behavior: Evaluating Eagleton". Time. August 14, 1972. Archived from the original on January 2, 2008. Retrieved July 23, 2011.
• "Democrats: The long journey to disaster". Time. November 20, 1972. Archived from the original on April 21, 2008. Retrieved July 23, 2011.
• Skidmore, Max J. (2001). "Ranking and Evaluating Presidents: The Case of Theodore Roosevelt". White House Studies. 1 (4).
• Stacks, John F. (May 2, 1994). "Richard Nixon: Victory in Defeat". Time. Archived from the original on January 22, 2011. Retrieved July 16, 2011.
• Morrow, Lance (September 30, 1996). "Naysayer to the nattering nabobs". Time. Archived from the original on November 10, 2006. Retrieved July 16, 2011.
• Allen, Erika Tyler. "The Kennedy–Nixon Presidential Debates, 1960". The Museum of Broadcast Communications. Archived from the original on May 11, 2012. Retrieved May 11, 2012.
• Auster, Albert. "Smith, Howard K". The Museum of Broadcast Communications. Archived from the original on August 5, 2012. Retrieved May 11, 2012.
• Evans, Thomas W. (1993). "The All-Volunteer Army After Twenty Years: Recruiting in the Modern Era". Sam Houston State University. Archived from the original on August 8, 2013. Retrieved July 17, 2011.
• Handlin, Daniel (November 28, 2005). "Just another Apollo? Part two". The Space Review. Retrieved July 16, 2011.
• "American President: Richard Milhous Nixon (1913–1994), Foreign Affairs". Miller Center for Public Affairs, University of Virginia. Archived from the original on August 11, 2011. Retrieved July 17, 2011.
• "Richard M. Nixon Birthplace". National Park Service. Retrieved May 11, 2012.
• "Commander Richard M. Nixon, USNR". Naval Historical Center. United States Navy. August 7, 2006. Archived from the original on August 16, 2011. Retrieved July 16, 2011.
• Nixon, Richard (August 8, 1974). "President Nixon's Resignation Speech". Character Above All. Public Broadcasting Service. Archived from the original on July 18, 2011. Retrieved July 15, 2011.
• "The Nixon Visit (February 21–28, 1972)". American Experience. Public Broadcasting Service. Retrieved July 17, 2011.
• "Richard M. Nixon, Domestic Politics". American Experience. Public Broadcasting Service. Archived from the original on May 23, 2012. Retrieved May 11, 2012.
• Sabia, Joseph J. (May 31, 2004). "Why Richard Nixon Deserves to Be Remembered Along with Brown". History News Network. Retrieved May 11, 2012.
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• "1968 Presidential Election". 1968 Year in Review. United Press International. Retrieved July 16, 2011.
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• "Postage rates for periodicals: A narrative history" (PDF). United States Postal Service. Archived from the original (PDF) on July 30, 2013. Retrieved August 6, 2011.
• Office of the Federal Register (1999). "New Actions To Prevent Illnesses And Accidents". Public Papers of the Presidents of the United States, Richard Nixon, 1971. National Archives and Records Service. ISBN 978-0-16-058863-1.
• "Statement on Signing the National Sickle Cell Anemia Control Act". The American Presidency Project. University of California, Santa Barbara. May 16, 1972.
• National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute (September 2002). "Sickle Cell Research for Treatment and Cure" (PDF). National Institutes of Health. 02-5214. Archived from the original (PDF) on January 31, 2012.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list (link)
• Wailoo, Keith (2001). Dying in the City of the Blues: Sickle Cell Anemia and the Politics of Race and Health. University of North Carolina Press. p. 165. ISBN 978-0-8078-4896-8.
• "Health insurance: hearings on new proposals". Congressional Quarterly Almanac Plus. 27. Washington, D.C.: Congressional Quarterly: 541–544. 1972. ISSN 0095-6007. OCLC 1564784.
• "Limited experimental health bill enacted". Congressional Quarterly Almanac Plus. 29. Washington, D.C.: Congressional Quarterly: 499–508. 1974. ISSN 0095-6007. OCLC 1564784.
• "National health insurance: no action in 1974". Congressional Quarterly Almanac Plus. 30. Washington, D.C.: Congressional Quarterly: 386–394. 1975. ISSN 0095-6007. OCLC 1564784.
• Samson, William (2005). "President Nixon's Troublesome Tax Returns". TaxAnalysts. Retrieved December 20, 2013.
• Grier, Peter (2011). "Tax Day 2011: Why do presidents release tax returns?". The Christian Science Monitor. Retrieved December 20, 2013.

Further reading

• Li, Victor (2018). Nixon in New York: How Wall Street Helped Richard Nixon Win the White House. Madison, NJ: Fairleigh Dickinson University Press. ISBN 978-1-68393-000-6.
• Thomas, Evan (2015). Being Nixon: A Man Divided. New York: Random House. ISBN 978-0-8129-9536-7. OCLC 904756092.

External links

Official websites

• White House biography
• Nixon Presidential Library and Museum
• Richard Nixon Foundation

Media coverage

• Richard Nixon collected news and commentary at The New York Times
• Appearances on C-SPAN
  • "Life Portrait of Richard M. Nixon", from C-SPAN's American Presidents: Life Portraits, November 19, 1999

Other

• United States Congress. "Richard Nixon (id: N000116)". Biographical Directory of the United States Congress.
• Essays on Richard Nixon, each member of his cabinet and First Lady from the Miller Center of Public Affairs
• Richard Nixon: A Resource Guide from the Library of Congress
• "The Presidents: Nixon", an American Experience documentary
• Works by or about Richard Nixon at the Internet Archive
• Works by Richard Nixon at LibriVox (public domain audiobooks)
• Richard Nixon Personal Manuscripts
• Richard Nixon at IMDb 
• Works by Richard Nixon at Project Gutenberg

v t e Richard Nixon
37th President of the United States (1969–1974) 36th Vice President of the United States (1953–1961) U.S. Senator from California (1950–1953) U.S. Representative for CA–12 (1947–1950)
Presidency	Transition First inauguration Second inauguration Nixon Doctrine "Bring Us Together" Economic policies Nixon shock Tar Baby Option Environmental Protection Agency creation National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration Space exploration 1971 National Cancer Act Vietnam War Cambodian bombing Paris Peace Accords "Peace with Honor" Vietnamization Silent majority Cold War period Linkage policy Drug Abuse Prevention and Control Act 1970 Lincoln Memorial visit 1972 visit to China Shanghai Communiqué Détente 1972 Moscow Summit Anti-Ballistic Missile Treaty SALT I Treaty Prevention of Nuclear War Agreement Threshold Test Ban Treaty Endangered Species Act National Commission on Marihuana and Drug Abuse War on Drugs Drug Enforcement Administration Cannabis policy Enemies List list of opponents Operation CHAOS Watergate timeline White House tapes United States v. Nixon Senate Watergate Committee impeachment process "I am not a crook" Resignation speech Pardon State of the Union Address 1970 1971 1972 1973 1974 Wilson desk Judicial appointments Supreme Court controversies Executive Orders Presidential Proclamations
Life and politics	Richard Nixon Foundation Presidential Library and Museum Birthplace and boyhood home Checkers speech 1958 motorcade attack Kitchen Debate Operation 40 "Last press conference" Florida White House "La Casa Pacifica" Nixon Center Nixon v. General Services Administration Death and state funeral
Books	Six Crises (1962) Bibliography
Elections	U.S. House of Representatives: 1946 1948 U.S. Senate: 1950 California gubernatorial election: 1962 GOP presidential primaries: 1960 1964 1968 1972 GOP national conventions: 1952 1956 1960 campaign 1968 campaign 1972 campaign Presidential elections: 1952 transition 1956 1960 debates Kennedy transition 1968 1972
Popular culture	"Nixon goes to China" Millhouse (1971 film) An Evening with Richard Nixon (1972 play) Richard (1972 film) Another Nice Mess (1972 film) Four More Years (1972 film) Impeach the President (1973 song) The Werewolf of Washington (1973 film) White House Madness (1975 film) All the President's Men (1976 film) The Public Burning (1977 novel) Washington: Behind Closed Doors (1977 miniseries) Secret Honor (1984 film) Nixon in China (1987 opera) The Final Days (1989 film) Nixon (1995 film) Elvis Meets Nixon (1997 film) Futurama (1999 TV series) Dick (1999 film) Nixon's China Game (2000 film) Dark Side of the Moon (2002 film) The Assassination of Richard Nixon (2004 film) Frost–Nixon interviews (2006 play, 2008 film) Black Dynamite (2009 film) "The Impossible Astronaut" (2011 TV episode) Our Nixon (2013 film) X-Men: Days of Future Past (2014 film) Crooked (2015 novel) Elvis & Nixon (2016 film) The Post (2017 film) Watergate (2019 board game) U.S. postage stamp
Related	Presidential Recordings and Materials Preservation Act Presidential Townhouse Richard Nixon mask
Staff	Jack Brennan (aide de camp) Murray Chotiner (early campaign manager) Manolo Sanchez (valet) Rose Mary Woods (secretary)
Family	Thelma "Pat" Ryan Nixon (wife) Tricia Nixon Cox (daughter) Julie Nixon Eisenhower (daughter) Christopher Nixon Cox (grandson) Jennie Eisenhower (granddaughter) Francis A. Nixon (father) Hannah Milhous Nixon (mother) Donald Nixon (brother) Edward Nixon (brother)
← Lyndon B. Johnson Gerald Ford → Category

Offices and distinctions

U.S. House of Representatives Preceded byJerry Voorhis Member of the U.S. House of Representatives from California's 12th congressional district 1947–1950 Succeeded byPatrick J. Hillings U.S. Senate Preceded bySheridan Downey United States Senator (Class 3) from California 1950–1953 Served alongside: William Knowland Succeeded byThomas Kuchel Party political offices Preceded byFrederick F. Houser Republican nominee for U.S. Senator from California (Class 3) 1950 Succeeded byThomas Kuchel Preceded byEarl Warren Republican nominee for Vice President of the United States 1952, 1956 Succeeded byHenry Cabot Lodge Jr. Preceded byDwight D. Eisenhower Republican nominee for President of the United States 1960 Succeeded byBarry Goldwater Preceded byWilliam F. Knowland Republican nominee for Governor of California 1962 Succeeded byRonald Reagan Preceded byBarry Goldwater Republican nominee for President of the United States 1968, 1972 Succeeded byGerald Ford Political offices Preceded byAlben W. Barkley Vice President of the United States 1953–1961 Succeeded byLyndon B. Johnson Preceded byLyndon B. Johnson President of the United States 1969–1974 Succeeded byGerald Ford

Articles related to Richard Nixon

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Downey (D) ▌W. Knowland (R) House: ▌C. Lea (D) ▌R. Welch (R) ▌B. Gearhart (R) ▌A. Elliott (D) ▌F. Havenner (D) ▌H. Sheppard (D) ▌J. Anderson (R) ▌J. Hinshaw (R) ▌C. King (D) ▌J. L. Johnson (R) ▌C. Holifield (D) ▌J. Phillips (R) ▌C. Engle (D) ▌W. Bradley (R) ▌H. Gahagan Douglas (D) ▌G. McDonough (R) ▌G. P. Miller (D) ▌J. Allen (R) ▌E. Bramblett (R) ▌D. Jackson (R) ▌R. Nixon (R) ▌N. Poulson (R) ▌C. Fletcher (R) 81st Senate: ▌S. Downey (D) ▌W. Knowland (R) ▌R. Nixon (R) House: ▌R. Welch (R) ▌F. Havenner (D) ▌H. Sheppard (D) ▌J. Anderson (R) ▌J. Hinshaw (R) ▌C. King (D) ▌J. L. Johnson (R) ▌C. Holifield (D) ▌J. Phillips (R) ▌C. Engle (D) ▌H. Gahagan Douglas (D) ▌G. McDonough (R) ▌G. P. Miller (D) ▌J. Allen (R) ▌E. Bramblett (R) ▌D. Jackson (R) ▌R. Nixon (R) ▌N. Poulson (R) ▌C. Doyle (D) ▌C. McKinnon (D) ▌H. Scudder (R) ▌T. Werdel (R) ▌C. White (D) ▌J. Shelley (D) 82nd Senate: ▌W. Knowland (R) ▌R. Nixon (R) ▌T. Kuchel (R) House: ▌F. Havenner (D) ▌H. Sheppard (D) ▌J. Anderson (R) ▌J. Hinshaw (R) ▌C. King (D) ▌J. L. Johnson (R) ▌C. Holifield (D) ▌J. Phillips (R) ▌C. Engle (D) ▌G. McDonough (R) ▌G. P. Miller (D) ▌J. Allen (R) ▌E. Bramblett (R) ▌D. Jackson (R) ▌N. Poulson (R) ▌C. Doyle (D) ▌C. McKinnon (D) ▌H. Scudder (R) ▌T. Werdel (R) ▌J. Shelley (D) ▌P. Hillings (R) ▌A. Hunter (R) ▌S. Yorty (D) v t e (← 1948) 1952 United States presidential election (→ 1956) Republican Party Convention Primaries Candidates Nominee: Dwight D. Eisenhower VP nominee: Richard Nixon Other candidates: Riley A. Bender George T. Mickelson Harold Stassen Robert Taft Earl Warren Democratic Party Convention Primaries Candidates Nominee: Adlai Stevenson II VP nominee: John Sparkman Other candidates: Alben W. Barkley Paul A. Dever W. Averell Harriman Hubert Humphrey Estes Kefauver Robert S. Kerr Richard Russell Jr. Third-party and independent candidates Prohibition Party Nominee: Stuart Hamblen VP nominee: Enoch A. Holtwick Progressive Party Nominee: Vincent Hallinan VP nominee: Charlotta Bass Socialist Labor Party Nominee: Eric Hass Socialist Party Nominee: Darlington Hoopes VP nominee: Samuel H. Friedman Socialist Workers Party Nominee: Farrell Dobbs VP nominee: Myra Tanner Weiss Independents and other candidates Edward Longstreet Bodin Henry B. Krajewski Homer Aubrey Tomlinson Other 1952 elections: House Senate v t e (← 1952) 1956 United States presidential election (→ 1960) Republican Party Convention Primaries Candidates Incumbent nominee: Dwight D. Eisenhower Incumbent VP nominee: Richard Nixon Democratic Party Convention Primaries Candidates Nominee: Adlai Stevenson II VP nominee: Estes Kefauver Other candidates: John S. Battle Happy Chandler James C. Davis W. Averell Harriman Lyndon B. Johnson Frank Lausche George Bell Timmerman Jr. Third-party and independent candidates American Vegetarian Party Nominee: Herbert M. Shelton VP nominee: Symon Gould Prohibition Party Nominee: Enoch A. Holtwick VP nominee: Herbert C. Holdridge Socialist Labor Party Nominee: Eric Hass VP nominee: Georgia Cozzini Socialist Party Nominee: Darlington Hoopes VP nominee: Samuel H. Friedman Socialist Workers Party Nominee: Farrell Dobbs VP nominee: Myra Tanner Weiss Independents and other candidates T. Coleman Andrews Gerald L. K. Smith Other 1956 elections: House Senate v t e (← 1956) 1960 United States presidential election (→ 1964) Democratic Party Convention Primaries Candidates Nominee: John F. Kennedy campaign VP nominee: Lyndon B. Johnson Other candidates Ross Barnett Pat Brown Michael DiSalle Paul C. Fisher Hubert Humphrey Lyndon B. Johnson George H. McLain Robert B. Meyner Wayne Morse Albert S. Porter Adlai Stevenson II George Smathers Stuart Symington Republican Party Convention Primaries Candidates Nominee: Richard Nixon campaign VP nominee: Henry Cabot Lodge Jr. Other candidates Barry Goldwater Henry Cabot Lodge Jr. James M. Lloyd Nelson Rockefeller Third-party and independent candidates American Vegetarian Party Nominee Symon Gould National States' Rights Party Nominee Orval Faubus VP nominee J. B. Stoner Prohibition Party Nominee Rutherford Decker VP nominee E. Harold Munn Socialist Labor Party Nominee Eric Hass VP nominee Georgia Cozzini Socialist Workers Party Nominee Farrell Dobbs VP nominee Myra Tanner Weiss Independents and other candidates Harry F. Byrd Merritt B. Curtis Lar Daly George Lincoln Rockwell Charles L. Sullivan Other 1960 elections: House Senate v t e (← 1964) 1968 United States presidential election (1972 →) Republican Party Convention Primaries Candidates Nominee: Richard Nixon campaign VP nominee: Spiro Agnew Other candidates: Frank Carlson Clifford P. Case Hiram Fong John Lindsay Ronald Reagan Jim Rhodes Nelson Rockefeller Winthrop Rockefeller George W. Romney campaign Harold Stassen John A. Volpe Democratic Party Convention protests Primaries Candidates Nominee: Hubert Humphrey campaign VP nominee: Edmund Muskie Other candidates: Roger D. Branigin John G. Crommelin Paul C. Fisher Lyndon B. Johnson withdrawal Robert F. Kennedy campaign Thomas C. Lynch Eugene McCarthy campaign George McGovern Dan K. Moore Channing E. Phillips George Smathers Stephen M. Young American Independent Party Candidates Nominee: George Wallace campaign VP nominee: Curtis LeMay Other third party and independent candidates Communist Party Nominee: Charlene Mitchell VP nominee: Michael Zagarell Peace and Freedom Party Nominee: Eldridge Cleaver VP nominee: Douglas Fitzgerald Dowd Prohibition Party Nominee: E. Harold Munn Socialist Labor Party Nominee: Henning A. Blomen Socialist Workers Party Nominee: Fred Halstead VP nominee: Paul Boutelle Independents and other candidates Dick Gregory Pat Paulsen Pigasus Other 1968 elections: House Senate Gubernatorial v t e (← 1968) 1972 United States presidential election (1976 →) Republican Party Convention Primaries Candidates Incumbent nominee: Richard Nixon campaign Incumbent VP nominee: Spiro Agnew Other candidates: John M. Ashbrook Pete McCloskey Democratic Party Convention Primaries Candidates Nominee: George McGovern campaign VP nominee: Sargent Shriver replacing Thomas Eagleton Other candidates: Shirley Chisholm Walter Fauntroy Fred R. Harris Vance Hartke Wayne Hays Hubert Humphrey Henry M. Jackson John Lindsay Eugene McCarthy Wilbur Mills Patsy Mink Edmund Muskie Terry Sanford George Wallace Sam Yorty Third-party and independent candidates American Independent Party Nominee: John G. Schmitz VP nominee: Thomas J. Anderson Communist Party Nominee: Gus Hall VP nominee: Jarvis Tyner Libertarian Party Nominee: John Hospers VP nominee: Tonie Nathan People's Party Nominee: Benjamin Spock VP nominee: Julius Hobson Prohibition Party Nominee: E. Harold Munn Socialist Labor Party Nominee: Louis Fisher Socialist Workers Party Nominee: Linda Jenness Alternate nominee: Evelyn Reed VP nominee: Andrew Pulley Independent Candidates: Gabriel Green Other 1972 elections: House Senate Gubernatorial v t e Time Persons of the Year 1927–1950 Charles Lindbergh (1927) Walter Chrysler (1928) Owen D. Young (1929) Mohandas Gandhi (1930) Pierre Laval (1931) Franklin D. Roosevelt (1932) Hugh S. Johnson (1933) Franklin D. Roosevelt (1934) Haile Selassie (1935) Wallis Simpson (1936) Chiang Kai-shek / Soong Mei-ling (1937) Adolf Hitler (1938) Joseph Stalin (1939) Winston Churchill (1940) Franklin D. Roosevelt (1941) Joseph Stalin (1942) George Marshall (1943) Dwight D. Eisenhower (1944) Harry S. Truman (1945) James F. Byrnes (1946) George Marshall (1947) Harry S. Truman (1948) Winston Churchill (1949) The American Fighting-Man (1950) 1951–1975 Mohammed Mosaddeq (1951) Elizabeth II (1952) Konrad Adenauer (1953) John Foster Dulles (1954) Harlow Curtice (1955) Hungarian Freedom Fighters (1956) Nikita Khrushchev (1957) Charles de Gaulle (1958) Dwight D. Eisenhower (1959) U.S. Scientists: George Beadle / Charles Draper / John Enders / Donald A. Glaser / Joshua Lederberg / Willard Libby / Linus Pauling / Edward Purcell / Isidor Rabi / Emilio Segrè / William Shockley / Edward Teller / Charles Townes / James Van Allen / Robert Woodward (1960) John F. Kennedy (1961) Pope John XXIII (1962) Martin Luther King Jr. (1963) Lyndon B. Johnson (1964) William Westmoreland (1965) The Generation Twenty-Five and Under (1966) Lyndon B. Johnson (1967) The Apollo 8 Astronauts: William Anders / Frank Borman / Jim Lovell (1968) The Middle Americans (1969) Willy Brandt (1970) Richard Nixon (1971) Henry Kissinger / Richard Nixon (1972) John Sirica (1973) King Faisal (1974) American Women: Susan Brownmiller / Kathleen Byerly / Alison Cheek / Jill Conway / Betty Ford / Ella Grasso / Carla Hills / Barbara Jordan / Billie Jean King / Susie Sharp / Carol Sutton / Addie Wyatt (1975) 1976–2000 Jimmy Carter (1976) Anwar Sadat (1977) Deng Xiaoping (1978) Ayatollah Khomeini (1979) Ronald Reagan (1980) Lech Wałęsa (1981) The Computer (1982) Ronald Reagan / Yuri Andropov (1983) Peter Ueberroth (1984) Deng Xiaoping (1985) Corazon Aquino (1986) Mikhail Gorbachev (1987) The Endangered Earth (1988) Mikhail Gorbachev (1989) George H. W. Bush (1990) Ted Turner (1991) Bill Clinton (1992) The Peacemakers: Yasser Arafat / F. W. de Klerk / Nelson Mandela / Yitzhak Rabin (1993) Pope John Paul II (1994) Newt Gingrich (1995) David Ho (1996) Andrew Grove (1997) Bill Clinton / Ken Starr (1998) Jeff Bezos (1999) George W. Bush (2000) 2001–present Rudolph Giuliani (2001) The Whistleblowers: Cynthia Cooper / Coleen Rowley / Sherron Watkins (2002) The American Soldier (2003) George W. Bush (2004) The Good Samaritans: Bono / Bill Gates / Melinda Gates (2005) You (2006) Vladimir Putin (2007) Barack Obama (2008) Ben Bernanke (2009) Mark Zuckerberg (2010) The Protester (2011) Barack Obama (2012) Pope Francis (2013) Ebola Fighters: Dr. Jerry Brown / Dr. Kent Brantly / Ella Watson-Stryker / Foday Gollah / Salome Karwah (2014) Angela Merkel (2015) Donald Trump (2016) The Silence Breakers (2017) The Guardians: Jamal Khashoggi / Maria Ressa / Wa Lone / Kyaw Soe Oo / Staff of The Capital (2018) Greta Thunberg (2019) Joe Biden / Kamala Harris (2020) Elon Musk (2021) Volodymyr Zelenskyy / Spirit of Ukraine (2022) Taylor Swift (2023) Donald Trump (2024) v t e National Football Foundation Gold Medal winners 1958: Dwight D. Eisenhower 1959: Douglas MacArthur 1960: Herbert Hoover & Amos Alonzo Stagg 1961: John F. Kennedy 1962: Byron "Whizzer" White 1963: Roger Blough 1964: Donold B. Lourie 1965: Juan T. Trippe 1966: Earl H. "Red" Blaik 1967: Frederick L. Hovde 1968: Chester J. LaRoche 1969: Richard Nixon 1970: Thomas J. Hamilton 1971: Ronald Reagan 1972: Gerald Ford 1973: John Wayne 1974: Gerald B. Zornow 1975: David Packard 1976: Edgar B. Speer 1977: Louis H. Wilson 1978: Vincent dePaul Draddy 1979: William P. Lawrence 1980: Walter J. Zable 1981: Justin W. Dart 1982: Silver Anniversary Awards (NCAA) - All Honored Jim Brown, Willie Davis, Jack Kemp, Ron Kramer, Jim Swink 1983: Jack Kemp 1984: John F. McGillicuddy 1985: William I. Spencer 1986: William H. Morton 1987: Charles R. Meyer 1988: Clinton E. Frank 1989: Paul Brown 1990: Thomas H. Moorer 1991: George H. W. Bush 1992: Donald R. Keough 1993: Norman Schwarzkopf 1994: Thomas S. Murphy 1995: Harold Alfond 1996: Gene Corrigan 1997: Jackie Robinson 1998: John H. McConnell 1999: Keith Jackson 2000: Fred M. Kirby II 2001: Billy Joe "Red" McCombs 2002: George Steinbrenner 2003: Tommy Franks 2004: William V. Campbell 2005: Jon F. Hanson 2006: Joe Paterno & Bobby Bowden 2007: Pete Dawkins & Roger Staubach 2008: John Glenn 2009: Phil Knight & Bill Bowerman 2010: Bill Cosby 2011: Robert Gates 2012: Roscoe Brown 2013: National Football League & Roger Goodell 2014: Tom Catena & George Weiss 2015: Condoleezza Rice 2016: Archie Manning 2017: None awarded 2018: Aaron Feis & Jason Seaman 2019: Mark Harmon v t e Cabinet of President Richard Nixon (1969–1974) Cabinet Vice President Spiro Agnew (1969–1973) None (1973) Gerald Ford (1973–1974) Secretary of State William P. Rogers (1969–1973) Henry Kissinger (1973–1974) Secretary of the Treasury David M. Kennedy (1969–1971) John Connally (1971–1972) George Shultz (1972–1974) William E. Simon (1974) Secretary of Defense Melvin Laird (1969–1973) Elliot Richardson (1973) James R. Schlesinger (1973–1974) Attorney General John N. Mitchell (1969–1972) Richard Kleindienst (1972–1973) Elliot Richardson (1973) William B. Saxbe (1974) Postmaster General Winton M. Blount (1969–1971) Secretary of the Interior Wally Hickel (1969–1970) Rogers Morton (1971–1974) Secretary of Agriculture Clifford M. Hardin (1969–1971) Earl Butz (1971–1974) Secretary of Commerce Maurice Stans (1969–1972) Peter G. Peterson (1972–1973) Frederick B. Dent (1973–1974) Secretary of Labor George Shultz (1969–1970) James Day Hodgson (1970–1973) Peter J. Brennan (1973–1974) Secretary of Health, Education, and Welfare Robert Finch (1969–1970) Elliot Richardson (1970–1973) Caspar Weinberger (1973–1974) Secretary of Housing and Urban Development George W. Romney (1969–1973) James Thomas Lynn (1973–1974) Secretary of Transportation John A. Volpe (1969–1973) Claude Brinegar (1973–1974) Cabinet-level Director of the Bureau of the Budget Robert P. Mayo (1969–1970) Director of the Office of Management and Budget George Shultz (1970–1972) Caspar Weinberger (1972–1973) Roy Ash (1973–1974) Ambassador to the United Nations Charles Yost (1969–1971) George H. W. Bush (1971–1973) John A. Scali (1973–1974) Counselor to the President Arthur F. Burns (1969) Daniel Patrick Moynihan (1969–1970) Bryce Harlow (1969–1970) Robert Finch (1970–1972) Donald Rumsfeld (1970–1971) Anne L. Armstrong (1973–1974) Dean Burch (1974) Kenneth Rush (1974)

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