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{{Short description|Transgression against divine law}}
:''This page is about sin in the context of morality. For other meanings, see ]''
{{About|the religious concept|the trigonometric function commonly written as sin|Sine|other uses}}
{{Redirect-multi|2|Sinful|Sinners}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=June 2015}}
] ('']'' by ] and ])]]
In ] context, '''sin''' is a transgression against ] or a law of the ].<ref>{{cite web|url=https://en.oxforddictionaries.com/definition/sin|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170704101243/https://en.oxforddictionaries.com/definition/sin|url-status=dead|archive-date=4 July 2017|title=sin|publisher=]|access-date=28 August 2017}}</ref> Each ] has its own interpretation of what it means to commit a sin. While sins are generally considered actions, any thought, word, or act considered immoral, selfish, shameful, harmful, or alienating might be termed "sinful".<ref name=":0">{{cite web|title=sin|url=http://oed.com/view/Entry/180030?isAdvanced=false&result=1&rskey=9Bb3P3&|access-date=16 September 2013|work=Oxford English Dictionary}}</ref>


==Etymology==
'''Sin''' has been a term most usually used in a religious context, and today describes any lack of conformity to the will of ]; especially, any willful disregard for the norms revealed by God is a '''sin'''. The word is from the old English ''synn'', presumed to be from Germanic *sun(d)j&#333; (lit: "it is true"). {{ref|bartlebySin}} It is recorded in use as early as the ]. The most common formal definition is an infraction against religious or moral law. Colloquially, any thought, word, or act considered faulty, ], harmful to oneself or to others, or which alienates self from others and especially from God, can be called a '''sin'''. Through sin, ] is incurred; and according to guilt, ] is deserved. Compare '']'' and '']''. ] is a concept of justice and mercy, and "payment" for one's sins. An example is found in traditions of ] (as found in early ], for example). Atonement for one's sins thought through the agency of a Messiah became the central idea of many forms of ] ]. ] is the act of turning from and ceasing from sin. It also implies rectifying past sins, insofar as reasonably possible.
From Middle English {{lang|enm|sinne}}, {{lang|enm|synne}}, {{lang|enm|sunne}}, {{lang|enm|zen}}, from Old English {{lang|ang|synn}} ("sin"), from Proto-West Germanic *sunnju, from Proto-Germanic *sunjō ('truth', 'excuse') and *sundī, *sundijō ("sin"), from Proto-Indo-European *h₁s-ónt-ih₂, from *h₁sónts ("being, true", implying a verdict of "truly guilty" against an accusation or charge), from *h₁es- ("to be"); compare Old English {{lang|ang|sōþ}} ("true"; see sooth). Doublet of suttee.


== Etymology == ==Bahá'í==
{{Anchor|Bahá'í faith }}
The English word ''sin'' derives from ] ''synn.'' The same root appears in several other Germanic languages, e.g. ] ''synd'', or ] ''S&uuml;nde''. The word may derive, ultimately, from ''*es-'', one of the ] roots that meant "to be," and is a present participle, "being." ], also has an old present participle of ''esse'' in the word ''sons,'' ''sont-'', which came to mean "guilty" in Latin. The root meaning would appear to be, "it is true;" that is, "the charge has been proven." The Greek word ''hamartia'' (ἁμαρτία) is often translated as ''sin'' in the ]; it means "to miss the mark" or "to miss the target".
{{Main|Bahá'í views on sin}}
{{unreferenced section|date=December 2022}}
Baháʼís consider humans to be naturally good, fundamentally spiritual beings. Human beings were created because of God's immeasurable love for us. However, the Baháʼí teachings compare the human heart to a mirror, which, if turned away from the light of the sun (i.e. God), is incapable of receiving God's love. It is only by turning unto God that spiritual advancement can be made. In this sense, "sinning" is to follow the inclinations of one's own lower nature, to turn the mirror of one's heart away from God. One of the main hindrances to spiritual development is the Baháʼí concept of the "insistent self" which is a self-serving inclination within all people. Baháʼís interpret this to be the true meaning of Satan, often referred to in the Baháʼí Writings as "the Evil One".<blockquote>Watch over yourselves, for the Evil One is lying in wait, ready to entrap you. Gird yourselves against his wicked devices, and, led by the light of the name of the All-Seeing God, make your escape from the darkness that surroundeth you. — ]</blockquote><blockquote>This lower nature in humans is symbolized as Satan—the evil ego within us, not an evil personality outside.—]</blockquote>


==Buddhism==
"]" was also the name of the Babylonian moon god. Some students in recent times have postulated a connection with the modern English word "sin", but this can only be a ], because the etymology shown above from Anglo-Saxon ''synn'' is historically documented, the certified cognates are in Germanic languages, and no connection with the Babylonian religion can be cited.
{{Main|Buddhist views on sin}}
There are a few differing Buddhist views on sin. American ] author ] states that in Buddhism there is no concept of sin at all.<ref>{{cite book| last =Warner| first =Brad| author-link =Brad Warner| title =]| publisher =Wisdom Publications| year=2003| pages =144| isbn = 0-86171-380-X}}</ref><ref>{{cite book| last =Warner| first =Brad| author-link =Brad Warner| title=]| publisher =New World Library| year =2010| pages =72| isbn = 978-1-57731-910-8 }}</ref> The Buddha Dharma Education Association also expressly states "The idea of sin or original sin has no place in Buddhism."<ref>{{cite web|title=Buddhism: Major Differences|url=http://www.buddhanet.net/e-learning/snapshot01.htm|publisher=Buddha Dharma Education Association|access-date=May 13, 2013}}</ref>


] ] explained, "In Buddhist thinking the whole universe, men as well as gods, are subject to a reign of law. Every action, good or bad, has an inevitable and automatic effect in a long chain of causes, an effect that is independent of the will of any deity. Even though this may leave no room for the concept of 'sin' in the sense of an act of defiance against the authority of a personal god, Buddhists speak of 'sin' when referring to transgressions against the universal moral code."<ref>{{cite journal|last=von Fürer-Haimendorf|first=Christoph|year=1974|title=The Sense of Sin in Cross-Cultural Perspective|journal = Man|volume = New Series 9.4|pages=539–556}}</ref>
== Jewish views of sin ==
] regards the violation of divine commandments to be a sin. Judaism teaches that sin is an act and not a state of being. Mankind was created with an inclination to do evil (Genesis
8:21), and the ability to master this inclination (Genesis 4:7) and choose good over evil (Psalm 37:27) {{ref|EnglishHandBook}}. Judaism uses the term "sin" to include violations of ] that are not necessarily a lapse in morality. Judaism holds that all people sin at various points in their lives, and hold that ] tempers ] with mercy.


However, there are five heinous crimes in Buddhism that bring immediate disaster through ].<ref name=Obeyesekere>{{citation|title=The Work of Culture: Symbolic Transformation in Psychoanalysis and Anthropology |author= Gananath Obeyesekere|year=1990|publisher=]|url= https://books.google.com/books?id=-nLv_IiMTA4C&pg=PA305|isbn=978-0-226-61599-8}}</ref> These five crimes are collectively referred to as ] in ]<ref name=Obeyesekere/> and ''pañcānantarya'' (Pāli) in the ] ''Sutra Preached by the Buddha on the Total Extinction of the Dharma'',<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=3lHag-M0quUC&pg=PA128|title= A Dictionary of Chinese Buddhist Terms: With Sanskrit and English Equivalents and a Sanskrit-Pali Index|publisher=]|year=1995|isbn=978-0700703555|page=128|author-link1=Lewis Hodous|last1=Hodous|first1=Lewis|author-link2=William Edward Soothill|last2=Soothill|first2=William Edward}}</ref> The five crimes or sins are:<ref>{{cite book |last=Rām Garg |first=Gaṅgā |url=https://archive.org/details/encyclopaediaofh0000garg/page/433 |title=Encyclopaedia of the Hindu World |publisher=Concept Publishing Company |year=1992 |isbn=9788170223757 |page=433 |url-access=registration}}</ref>
The generic ] word for any kind of sin is ''aveira''. Based on verses in the Hebrew Bible, Judaism describes three levels of sin.
# Injuring a ]
*''Pesha'' or ''Mered'' - An intentional sin; an action committed in deliberate defiance of God;
# Killing an ]
*''Avon'' - This is a sin of lust or uncontrollable emotion. It is a sin done knowingly, but not done to defy God;
# Creating ] in the society of ]
*''Cheit'' - This is an unintentional sin.
# ]
# ]


==Christianity==
Judaism holds that no human being is perfect, and all people have sinned many times. However certain states of sin (i.e. ''avon'' or ''cheit'') does not condemn a person to damnation; only one or two truly grievous sins lead to anything approaching the Biblical conception of hell. The Biblical and rabbinic conception of God is that of a creator who tempers justice with mercy. Based on the views of Rabbeinu Tam in the Babylonian ] (tractate Rosh HaShanah 17b), God is said to have thirteen attributes of mercy:
===Hamartiology===
{{Main|Christian views on sin}}
{{See also|Seven deadly sins}}
] at ], France]]
The doctrine of sin is central to Christianity, since its ] is about ] in ].<ref>Rahner, p. 1588</ref> Christian ] describes sin as an act of offense against ] by despising his ] and ], and by injuring others.<ref>Sabourin, p. 696</ref> In Christian views it is an ] human act, which violates the rational nature of man as well as ] and his ]. According to the classical definition of ] sin is "a word, deed, or desire in opposition to the eternal law of God."<ref>''Contra Faustum Manichaeum'', 22, 27; ] 42, 418; cf. ], ] I–II q71 a6.</ref><ref>Mc Guinness, p. 241</ref> Thus, sin requires redemption, a metaphor alluding to atonement, in which the death of Jesus is the price that is paid to release the faithful from the bondage of sin.<ref>Gruden, Wayne. Systemic Theology: An Introduction to Biblical Doctrine, Nottingham: Intervarsity Press, p. 580</ref> In some forms of ], it also requires reparation (see ]).


Among some scholars, sin is understood mostly as a legal infraction or contract violation of non-binding philosophical frameworks and perspectives of ], and so ] tends to be viewed in legal terms. Other Christian scholars understand sin to be fundamentally relational—a loss of love for the ] and an elevation of ] ("concupiscence", in this sense), as was later propounded by Augustine in his debate with the ].<ref>''On Grace and Free Will'' (see ''Nicene and Post-Nicene Fathers'', trans. P.Holmes, vol. 5; 30–31 ).</ref> As with the legal definition of sin, this definition also affects the understanding of ] and salvation, which are thus viewed in relational terms.<ref>For a historical review of this understanding, see R.N.Frost, "Sin and Grace", in Paul L. Metzger, ''Trinitarian Soundings'', T&T Clark, 2005.</ref>
# God is merciful before someone sins, even though God knows that a person is capable of sin.
# God is merciful to a sinner even after the person has sinned.
# God represents the power to be merciful even in areas that a human would not expect or deserve.
# God is compassionate, and eases the punishment of the guilty.
# God is gracious even to those who are not deserving.
# God is slow to anger.
# God is abundant in kindness.
# God is a god of truth, thus we can count on God's promises to forgive repentant sinners.
# God guarantees kindness to future generations, as the deeds of the righteous patriarchs (], ] and ]) have benefits to all their descendants.
# God forgives intentional sins if the sinner repents.
# God forgives a deliberate angering of Him if the sinner repents.
# God forgives sins that are committed in error.
# God wipes away the sins from those who repent.


===Original sin{{Anchor|Original sin}}===
As Jews are commanded in '']'', emulating God, ]s take these attributes into account in deciding ] and its contemporary application.
{{Main|Original sin}}
] ] depicts the ] of ] for ] not to eat ] of the ].]]
This condition has been characterized in many ways, ranging from something as insignificant as the tendency toward sin, referred to as a "sin nature", to something as drastic as ], the teaching that humans, apart from God's grace, are incapable of choosing to do good.<ref name="Burson2016">{{cite book |last1=Burson |first1=Scott R. |title=Brian McLaren in Focus: A New Kind of Apologetic |date=13 September 2016 |publisher=ACU Press |isbn=978-0-89112-650-8 |language=English |quote=...affirms the total depravity of human beings and their utter helplessness even to exercise a good will toward God apart from God's supernatural, assisting grace.}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last=Brodd|first=Jeffrey|title=World Religions|publisher=Saint Mary's Press|year=2003|location=Winona, MN|isbn=978-0-88489-725-5}}</ref>


The concept of original sin was first alluded to in the 2nd century by ], ] in his controversy with certain ] ].<ref>"In the person of the first Adam we offend God, disobeying His precept" (Haeres., V, xvi, 3).</ref> Other church fathers such as ] also shaped and developed the doctrine,<ref>Patte, Daniel. The Cambridge Dictionary of Christianity. Ed. Daniel Patte. New York: Cambridge University Press, 2010, p. 892</ref> seeing it as based on the ] teaching of ] (] {{bibleref2-nb|Romans|5:12–21}} and ] {{bibleref2-nb|1 Corinthians|15:21–22}}) and the ] verse of ] {{bibleref2-nb|Psalm|51:5}}.<ref>{{cite web|author=Peter Nathan |url=http://www.vision.org/visionmedia/article.aspx?id=227 |title=The Original View of Original Sin |website=Vision.org |access-date=24 January 2017}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.philvaz.com/apologetics/num54.htm |title=Original Sin Explained and Defended: Reply to an Assemblies of God Pastor |website=Philvaz.com |access-date=24 January 2017}}</ref><ref> {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131020030856/http://nazarene.org/ministries/administration/visitorcenter/articles/ |date=20 October 2013 }} – V. Sin, Original and Personal – Church of the Nazarene. Retrieved 13 October 2013.</ref><ref> {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131021173528/http://www.topicalbiblestudies.com/original-sin.php |date=21 October 2013 }} – Topical Bible Studies. Retrieved 13 October 2013.</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last= |title=Original Sin: Psalm 51:5 |url=https://www.catholicnewsagency.com/resource/55992/original-sin |access-date=2023-05-19 |website=Catholic News Agency |language=en}}</ref> ], ], ] and ] considered that humanity shares in Adam's sin, transmitted by human generation. ] formulation of original sin after 412 CE was popular among ], such as ] and ], who equated original sin with ] (or "hurtful desire"), affirming that it persisted even after ] and completely destroyed freedom to do good. Before 412 CE, Augustine said that free will was weakened but not destroyed by original sin. But after 412 CE this changed to a loss of free will except to sin.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Wilson |first1=Kenneth |title=Augustine's Conversion from Traditional Free Choice to "Non-free Free Will": A Comprehensive Methodology |date=2018 |publisher=Mohr Siebeck |location=Tübingen |isbn=9783161557538 |pages=16–18, 157–187}}</ref> Calvinism holds the later ] view. The ] movement, which the Catholic Church declared to be heretical, also maintained that original sin destroyed ].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/08285a.htm |title=CATHOLIC ENCYCLOPEDIA: Jansenius and Jansenism |website=Newadvent.org |date=1 October 1910 |access-date=24 January 2017}}</ref> Instead the Catholic Church declares that Baptism erases original sin.<ref>Catholic Church. ''Catechism of the Catholic Church''. ''LA Santa Sede''. 19 November 2019.</ref> ] teaches that original sin is eradicted through ].<ref name="Whidden2005">{{cite web |last1=Whidden |first1=Woodrow W. |title=Adventist Theology: The Wesleyan Connection |url=https://adventistbiblicalresearch.org/es/node/203 |publisher=Biblical Research Institute |access-date=30 June 2019 |language=en |date=18 April 2005}}</ref>
A classical rabbinic work, ] ''Avot de Rabbi Natan'', states:
:One time, when Rabban Yochanan ben Zakkai was walking in ] with ], they arrived at where the ] now stood in ruins. "Woe to us" cried Rabbi Yehoshua, "for this house where atonement was made for Israel's sins now lies in ruins!" Answered Rabban Yochanan, "We have another, equally important source of atonement, the practice of gemilut hasadim (loving kindness), as it is stated 'I desire loving kindness and not sacrifice'".


==Islam==
The Babylonian ] teaches that "Rabbi Yochanan and Rabbi Eleazar both explain that as long as the Temple stood, the altar atoned for Israel, but now, one's table atones ." (Tractate Berachot, 55a.)
{{Main|Islamic views on sin}}
Sin (khiṭʾ) is an important concept in ]. ]s see sin as anything that goes against the commands of ] (]), a breach of the laws and norms laid down by religion.<ref name="oxfordislamicstudies">{{cite web|title=Oxford Islamic Studies Online|url=http://www.oxfordislamicstudies.com/article/opr/t125/e2211|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180116193723/http://www.oxfordislamicstudies.com/article/opr/t125/e2211|url-status=dead|archive-date=16 January 2018|work=Sin|publisher=Oxford University Press}}</ref> ] teaches that sin is an act and not a state of being. It is believed that God weighs an individual's good deeds against his or her sins on the ] and punishes those individuals whose evil deeds outweigh their good deeds. These individuals are thought to be sentenced to an afterlife in the fires of '']'' (Hell).


Islamic terms for sin include ''dhanb'' and ''khaṭīʾa'', which are synonymous and refer to intentional sins; ''khiṭʾ'', which means simply a sin; and ''ithm'', which is used for grave sins.<ref>{{Cite encyclopedia|author=Wensinck, A. J. | year= 2012 | title=K̲h̲aṭīʾa |encyclopedia=Encyclopaedia of Islam| edition=2nd|publisher=Brill |editor1=P. Bearman |editor2=Th. Bianquis |editor3=C.E. Bosworth |editor4=E. van Donzel |editor5=W.P. Heinrichs| doi= 10.1163/2214-871X_ei1_SIM_4141 }}</ref>
The ] of the ''Days of Awe'' (the High Holy Days; i.e. ] and ]) states that ], repentance and tzedakah (charitable actions) are ways to repent for sin. In Judaism, sins committed against people (rather than against God or in the heart) must first be corrected and put right to the best of a person's ability; a sin which has not also been put right as best as possible cannot truly be said to be repented.


==Judaism==
=== Jewish conceptions of atonement for sin ===
{{Main|Jewish views on sin}}
{{details|Repentance in Judaism}}
] regards the violation of any of the 613 commandments as a sin. Judaism teaches that sin is a part of life, since there is no perfect man and everyone has an inclination to do evil. Sin has many classifications and degrees, but the principal classification is that of "missing the mark" (cheit in Hebrew).<ref>Silver, Jonathan, host. ''The Tikvah Podcast'', The ], 3 Oct. 2019.</ref>{{better source needed|date=July 2022}} Some sins are punishable with death by the court, others with death by heaven, others with lashes, and others without such punishment, but no sins committed with willful intentions go without consequence. Sins committed out of lack of knowledge are not considered sins, since sin cannot be a sin if the one who committed it did not know it was wrong. Unintentional sins are considered less severe sins.<ref name="jewishvirtuallibrary.org">{{Cite web|url=https://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/jsource/Judaism/qorbanot.html|title=Sacrifices and Offerings (Karbanot)}}</ref>
Atonement for sins is discussed in the ], known to Christians as the ]. Rituals for atonement occurred in the ], and were performed by the ], the Israelite priests. These services included song, prayer, offerings and animal ]s known as the '']''. The rites for ], the Day of Atonement, are prescribed in the book of ] chapter 15. The ritual of the ], sent into the wilderness to be claimed by ], was one of these observances (Lev. 15:20-22).


Sins between people are considered much more serious in Judaism than sins between man and God. ], the main day of repentance in Judaism, can atone for sins between man and God, but not for sins between man and his fellow, that is until he has appeased his friend.<ref>], ], 8:9</ref> ] derived : "From all your sins before God you shall be cleansed" (], 16:30) – for sins between man and God Yom Kippur atones, but for sins between man and his fellow Yom Kippur does not atone until he appeases his fellow.<ref name="Schuster 1986">Simon and Schuster, 1986, Nine Questions People Ask About Judaism, New York: Touchstone book.</ref><ref>{{Cite web |url = http://thetorah.com/historical-uniqueness-and-centrality-of-yom-kippur/ |title = The Historical Uniqueness and Centrality of Yom Kippur |publisher = thetorah.com}}</ref>
A number of animal sacrifices were prescribed in the ] (five books of Moses) to make atonement: a ] for sins, and a ] for religious trespasses. The significance of animal sacrifice is not expanded on at length in the Torah, though ] IX:4 and Leviticus XVII suggest that blood and vitality were linked. Later Biblical ]s occasionally make statements to the effect that the hearts of the people were more important than their sacrifices - "Does the LORD delight in burnt offerings and sacrifices as much as in obeying the voice of the LORD? To obey is better than sacrifice, and to heed is better than the fat of rams" (I Samuel 15:22); "For I desire mercy, not sacrifice, and acknowledgement of God rather than burnt offerings" (Hosea 6:6); "The sacrifices of God are a broken spirit, a broken and contrite heart" (Psalm 51:17) (see also Psalm 40:6-8).


When the ] yet stood in Jerusalem, people would offer ] (sacrifices) for their misdeeds. The atoning aspect of ''korbanot'' is carefully circumscribed. For the most part, ''korbanot'' only expiates unintentional sins, that is, sins committed because a person forgot that this thing was a sin or by mistake. No atonement is needed for violations committed under duress or through lack of knowledge, and for the most part, ''korbanot'' cannot atone for a malicious, deliberate sin. In addition, ''korbanot'' have no expiating effect unless the person making the offering sincerely ] of his or her actions before making the offering, and makes restitution to any person who was harmed by the violation.<ref name="jewishvirtuallibrary.org"/>
Hebrew Bible teaches that it is possible to return to God through repentence and prayer alone. In the books of Jonah and Esther, where both Jews and non-Jews repented, prayed to God and were forgiven for their sins without having offered any sacrifices. {{ref|EnglishHandBook}}


Judaism teaches that all willful sin has consequences. The completely righteous suffer for their sins (by humiliation, poverty, and suffering that God sends them) in this world and receive their reward in the world to come. The in-between (not completely righteous or completely wicked), suffer for and repent their sins after death and thereafter join the righteous. The very evil do not repent even at the gates of hell. Such people prosper in this world to receive their reward for any good deed, but cannot be cleansed by and hence cannot leave '']'', because they do not or cannot repent. This world can therefore seem unjust where the righteous suffer, while the wicked prosper. Many great thinkers have contemplated this.<ref>
Repentance is a means of atonement. The Hebrew word for repentance is ''teshuvah'' which literally means to "return to God." Judaism teaches that our personal relationship with God allows us to turn directly to Him at any time, as it says in Malachi 3:7, "Return to Me and I shall return to you," and in Ezekiel 18:27, "When the wicked man turns away from his wickedness that he has committed, and does that which is lawful and right, he shall save his soul alive." Additionally, God is extremely compassionate and forgiving as is indicated in Daniel 9:18, "We do not present our supplications before You because of our righteousness, but because of Your abundant mercy." {{ref|EnglishHandBook}}
{{cite encyclopedia
| url= https://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/jsource/judaica/ejud_0002_0017_0_16693.html
| title= Reward and Punishment | encyclopedia= Jewish Virtual Library
| access-date= 1 March 2015
}}</ref>


==Shinto==
Note that ]'s views on sin and atonement are not identical to those in the Hebrew Bible alone, but rather are based on the laws of the Bible as seen through the Jewish ].
The Shinto concept of sin is inexorably linked to concepts of purity and pollution. Shinto does not have a concept of original sin and instead believes that all human beings are born pure.<ref name=":1">{{Cite web|title=Shinto Concept of Sin (Tsumi) and Impurity (Kegare)｜TSURUGAOKA HACHIMANGU|url=http://www.tsurugaoka-hachimangu.jp/shinto_is/shinto_concept.html|access-date=2020-09-23|website=www.tsurugaoka-hachimangu.jp|archive-date=11 February 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200211140138/http://www.tsurugaoka-hachimangu.jp/shinto_is/shinto_concept.html|url-status=dead}}</ref> Sin, also called ], is anything that makes people impure (i.e. anything that separates them from the ''kami'').<ref name=":2">{{Cite web|title=BBC – Religions – Shinto: Purity in Shinto|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/religion/religions/shinto/beliefs/purity.shtml|access-date=2020-09-23|website=www.bbc.co.uk|language=en-GB}}</ref> However, Shinto does not believe this impurity is the result of human actions, but rather the result of evil spirits or other external factors.<ref name=":1" /><ref name=":2" />


Sin can have a variety of consequences in Japan, including disaster and disease.<ref name=":1" /><ref name=":2" /> Therefore, purification rituals, or ], are viewed as important not just to the spiritual and physical health of the individual but also to the well-being of the nation.<ref name=":1" />
=== Hebrew concept of sin ===
The Hebrew word translated as sin is ''khate'', ]:2399—a crime, sin, fault. The root of ''khate'' is ''khaw-taw'', Strong:2398—to miss, to err from the mark (speaking of an archer), to sin, to stumble.

== Christian views of sin ==
=== In general ===
In ], sin is often viewed as a legal infraction or contract violation, and so salvation tends to be viewed in legal terms. In ], sin is more often viewed in terms of its effects on relationships, both among people and between people and God. The Greek word in the ] that is translated in English as "sin" is ''hamartia'', which literally means ''missing the target''. Consequently, salvation is viewed more in terms of reconciliation and vastly improved relationships. These two perspectives are not necessarily mutually exclusive. ] 3:4 states: "Everyone who commits sin is guilty of ]; sin is lawlessness." (])

=== Roman Catholic views ===
Roman Catholic doctrine distinguishes between personal sin and ]. Personal sins are either mortal or venial.

Mortal sins are sins of grave (serious) matter, where the sinner is aware that the act (or omission) is both a sin and a grave matter, and performs the act (or omission) with deliberate consent. The act of committing a mortal sin cuts off the sinner from God's grace; it is in itself a rejection of God. If left un-reconciled, mortal sins result in eternal punishment in Hell.

Venial sins are sins which do not meet the conditions for mortal sins. The sin may be one that is not a grave matter, or if a grave matter, the individual does not realize that the act is a sin or grave matter, or does not deliberately consent to the sin. The act of committing a venial sin does not cut off the sinner from God's grace, as the sinner has not rejected God. However, venial sins do injure the relationship between the sinner and God, and as such, must be reconciled to God, either through the sacrament of reconciliation or receiving the Eucharist.

Both mortal and venial sins have a dual nature of punishment. They incur both guilt for the sin, yielding eternal punishment, and temporal punishment for the sin. Reconciliation is an act of God's mercy, and addresses the guilt and eternal punishment for sin. Purgatory and indulgences address the temporal punishment for sin, and exercise of God's justice.

Catholic doctrine also sees sin as being twofold: Sin is, at once, any evil or immoral ''action'' which infracts God's law and the inevitable consequences, the ''state of being'' that comes about by committing the sinful action. Sin can and does alienate a person both from God and the community. Hence, the Catholic Church's insistence on reconciliation with both God and the Church itself.

According to Roman Catholicism, in addition to ], the ] also lived her entire life without sin. It is believed that Jesus assumed her directly into heaven after the end of her life on Earth; see ]. The belief in Mary's sinlessness is shared by many Eastern Orthodox theologians, but is not universally held and is not generally considered to be a point of dogma. In addition, the Orthodox view of the sinlessness of the ] is not quite of the same nature as that held by Roman Catholics, since the Roman teaching of the ] is not an Orthodox doctrine.

:''See also:'' ]

=== Eastern/Oriental Orthodox views ===
The ] and ] use sin both to refer to humanity's fallen condition and to refer to individual sinful acts. In many ways the Orthodox Christian view of sin is similar to the Jewish, although neither form of Orthodoxy makes formal distinctions among "grades" of sins.

=== Protestant views ===
Many Protestants teach that due to ], man has lost any and all capacity to move towards reconciliation with God (Romans 3:23;6:23; Ephesians 2:1-3); in fact, this inborn sin turns humans away from God and towards themselves and their own desires (Isaiah 53:6a). Thus, humans may be brought back into a relationship with God only by way of God's rescuing the sinner from his hopeless condition (Galatians 5:17-21; Ephesians 2:4-10) through ]'s ] (Romans 5:6-8; Colossians 2:13-15). Salvation is '']'' (by faith alone); '']'' (by grace alone); and is begun and completed by God alone through ] (Ephesians 2:8,9). This understanding of original sin (Romans 5:12-19), is most closely associated with ] (''vid.'' ]) and ]. ] theology adapts the concept by stating that humans, entirely sinful and totally depraved, can only "do good" through God's '']''.

This is in contrast to the Roman teaching that while sin has tarnished the original goodness of humanity prior to the Fall, it has not entirely extinguished that goodness, or at least the ''potential'' for goodness, allowing humans to reach towards God to share in the ] which Jesus Christ won for them. Some non-Roman or Orthodox groups hold similar views.

==== Defined types of sin ====
*] -- Most denominations of Christianity interpret the ] account in ] in terms of the ]. Adam and Eve's disobedience was the first sin man ever committed, and their ''original sin'' (or the effects of the sin) is passed on to their descendants (or has become a part of their environment). See also: ].

*]

*]

*]

*] -- Commonly called the Unforgivable sin (mentioned in ] chapter 12, verse 31), this is perhaps the most controversial sin, whereby someone has become an ], forever denying himself a life of faith and experience of ]; the precise nature of this sin is often disputed.

*]- The Bible gives us an insight into the origins of sin. Sin didn't originate with man, nowhere does the bible make this claim, in fact Paul tells us in Romans 5:12 'Wherefore, as by one man sin entered into the world, and death by sin; and so death passed upon all men, for all men have sinned' Paul is showing that sin was outside the world and entered, was not originated in the world.
There is dispute about where sin originated some refer to Ezekiel 28 that suggests that sin originated with ] when he coveted the position that rightfully belongs to God.

=== Christian teachings on atonement, or the remedy for sin ===
In Christianity, ] refers to the redemption achieved by ] Christ by his ] and ]. Its centrality means that it has been the source of much discussion and some controversy throughout Christian history. Christians begin with the proposition that the death of Jesus Christ was a sacrifice that relieves believers of the burden of their sins. But what was the actual meaning of Christ's death? Why did He have to die? The meaning of an event of such transcendent significance to Christians is hard to capture in any one verbal formula. But several have been ventured. Ironically, what Jesus himself is said to have taught on the subject of atonement when he was alive, differs from all of these. He stated that in order to find forgiveness from God for our sins, we first had to forgive one another, ]-], see also ].

Some later teachers who came after Jesus are as follows:

* ] taught that the death of Christ was a '']'' paid to ] in satisfaction of his just claim on the souls of humanity as a result of ]. This was opposed by theologians like St. ], who maintained that this would have made Satan equal to God.

*] taught that Christ recapitulated in Himself all the stages of life of sinful man, and that His perfect ''obedience'' substituted for ]'s disobedience.

*] taught that Christ came to overcome death and corruption, and to remake humanity in God's image again. See ''On the Incarnation'' by St. Athanasius.

*] said that sin was not a created thing at all, but that it was "privatio boni", a "taking away of good", and uncreation.

*] taught that Christ's death satisfied God's offended sense of justice over the sins of humanity. Also, God rewarded Christ's obedience, which built up a storehouse of merit and a treasury of grace that believers could share by their faith in Christ. This view is known as the '']'' theory, the ''merit'' theory, or sometimes the ''commercial'' theory. Anselm's teaching is contained in his treatise '']'', which means ''Why God Became Human''. Anselm's ideas were later expanded utilizing ] philosophy into a grand theological system by ] in the 13th century, particularly in his masterpiece, the '']'', which eventually became official ] ].

*] held that Christ's ] was God suffering with His creatures in order to show the greatness of His love for them. This is often known as the '']'' view, and has dominated ].

*] and ], leaders of the ], owed much to Anselm's theory and taught that Christ, the only sinless person, was obedient to take upon Himself the penalty for the sins that should have been visited on men and women. This view is a version of ] and is sometimes called ''substitutionary punishment'' or a '']'', though it is not identical to that of Anselm. Calvin additionally advocated the doctrine of ], which teaches that the atonement applies only to the sins of the ] rather than to all of ].

*] has traditionally taught what is known as "Moral Government" theology or the ''Governmental'' theory. Drawing primarily from the works of ] and ], the ] teaches that Christ suffered for humankind so that God could forgive humans while still maintaining divine justice. Unlike the perspectives of ] or ], this view states that Christ was not punished for humanity, for true forgiveness would not be possible if humankind's offenses were already punished. Christ's suffering was a real and meaningful ] for the punishment humans deserve, but Christ was not punished on behalf of the human race. This view has prospered in traditional ] and all who follow the teachings of ], and has been detailed by, among others, 19th century ] theologian ] in his classic ''Atonement in Christ'' and 20th century ] theologian ] in his ''Wesleyan-Holiness Theology''. Variations of this view have also been espoused by 18th century Puritan ] and 19th century revival leader ].

*] taught that Christ's death manifested God's love and His hatred for sin.

The several ideas of these and many more Christian theologians can perhaps be summed up under these rubrics:

*''Victory'': the idea that Jesus defeated Death through his death, and gave life to those in the grave. Both following models may be understood as variations of the Victory idea:

*''Participation'': the idea that God's death on the cross completed his identification with humanity - God's participation in our sin and sorrow allowing our participation in his love and triumph;

*''Ransom'': the idea that Jesus released humanity from a legal obligation to the ], incurred by sin. (Theories involving ransom owed to divine justice are generally classified under Punishment, below.)

*''Punishment'': the idea that God assumed the penalty for human sins on the ], and volunteered punishment as the price paid to release humanity from so that the faithful might escape it;

*''Government'': the idea that God forgives the penalty due humans for their sins, provisioned on their acceptance of that forgiveness, but that Christ suffered on the ] in order to demonstrate the seriousness of sin;

*''Example'': the idea that Jesus' death was meant as a lesson in ideal submission to the will of God, and to show the path to eternal life;

*'']'': the idea that Jesus' death was meant to reveal God's nature and to help humans know God better.

:''See also'': ]; ]; ]; ]

== Muslim views of sin ==
] sees sin (''dhanb'' &#1584;&#1606;&#1576;) as anything that goes against the will of ]. Muslims believe that God is angered by sin and punishes some sinners with the fires of Hell (]), but that He is also the Merciful (''ar-rahman'') and the Forgiving (''al-ghaffar''), and forgives those who repent and serve Him:

:Say: "O my Servants who have transgressed against their souls! Despair not of the Mercy of Allah: for Allah forgives all sins: for He is Oft-Forgiving, Most Merciful. (] 39:53)

Some of the major sins are held to be legally punishable in an Islamic state (for example, murder, theft, adultery, and in some views apostasy; see ]). Most are left to God to punish (for example, backbiting, hypocrisy, arrogance, filial disrespect, lying).

== Hindu views of sin ==
In ], the term ''sin'' or ''pavam'' is often used to describe actions that create negative ].

Sin, in Hinduism, besides creating negative karma, is violating moral and ethical codes as in the religions of Judaism, Christianity and Islam. In fact, it is much described in the scriptures that chanting the name of ] or ] or ] is the only way to atone for sins, prevent rebirth and attain ]. For reference, see the famous story of ], described in a story described in the ].{{ref|ajamkila}}

] explains in the lexicon section of his book, ''Dancing with Siva'', that "sin is an intentional transgression of divine law and is not ''viewed in Hinduism'' as a crime against God ''as in Judaeo-Christian religions'', but ''rather'' as ''1)'' an act against ], or moral order and ''2)'' one's own self." Furthermore, he notes that it is thought natural, if unfortunate, that young souls act wrongly, for they are living in nescience, avidya, the darkness of ignorance.

He further mentions that sin in Hinduism is an adharmic course of action which automatically brings negative consequences. Satguru Sivaya Subramuniyaswami explains that the term sin carries a double meaning, as do its Sanskrit equivalents: 1) a wrongful act, 2) the negative consequences resulting from a wrongful act. In Sanskrit the wrongful act is known by several terms, including pataka (from pat, "to fall") papa, enas, kilbisha, adharma, anrita and rina (transgress, in the sense of omission).

He comments that the residue of sin is called ], sometimes conceived of as a sticky, astral substance which can be dissolved through penance (prayashchitta), austerity (tapas) and good deeds (sukritya). Note that papa is also accrued through unknowing or unintentional transgressions of dharma, as in the term aparadha (offense, fault, mistake).

Satguru Sivaya Subramuniyaswami further notes that in Hinduism, ''except for'' ] ''school of'' ], there are no such concepts of inherent or mortal sin, according to some theologies, which he defined as sins so grave that they can never be expiated and which cause the soul to be condemned to suffer eternally in hell.

Adapted and cited from lexicon section of his book, ''Dancing with Siva.'', with italics to indicate non-quotes.

== Atheist views of sin ==
To the ], the concept of sin isn't very useful; human behavior is not regulated by "commandments" given from above, but by moral standards derived from natural sources. This does not mean there are no guiding moral principles, but rather, that morality is not seen as something imposed externally by a divine being or based upon beliefs advocated by a given religion. In this sense, sin is a theological term and atheists are not followers of a theology.

Instead, some atheists draw their sense of morality from other principles such as "do not harm others" or "the greatest good for the greatest number", from their own beliefs about the nature or purpose of life, or from their own personal standards and beliefs generally. Others may simply have no sense of morality whatsoever.
{{ref|atheistEthics}}
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==Notes and references== ==Notes and references==
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#{{note|bartlebySin}} -

#{{note|EnglishHandBook}} -
==Further reading==
#{{note|ajamkila}} -
*{{cite book|chapter=] |title=Sermons from the Latins|year=1902|publisher= Benziger Brothers|first=Robert|last=Bellarmine|author-link=Robert Bellarmine}}
#{{note|atheistEthics}} -
*{{cite book|chapter=]|title=A Complete Catechism of the Catholic Religion|year=1912|publisher=Schwartz, Kirwin & Fauss|first= Joseph|last=Deharbe|translator=Rev. John Fander|author-link=Joseph Deharbe}}
*{{cite book|chapter=]|title=Meditations On The Mysteries Of Our Holy Faith|year=1852|publisher=Richarson and Son|first=Lius|last=de la Puente|author-link=Luis de la Puente}}
* Fredriksen, Paula. ''Sin: The Early History of an Idea.'' Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2012. {{ISBN|978-0-691-12890-0}}.
* Granoff; P E; Shinohara, Koichi; eds. (2012), . Brill. {{ISBN|9004229469}}.
* Hein, David. "Regrets Only: A Theology of Remorse." ''The Anglican'' 33, no. 4 (October 2004): 5–6.
* Lewis, C.S. ''"Miserable Offenders": An Interpretation of Prayer Book Language ,'' in series, ''The Advent Papers''. Cincinnati, Ohio: Forward Movement Publications, .
*{{Cite Catholic Encyclopedia |wstitle=Sin |volume=14 |first=Arthur Charles |last=O'Neil}}
*{{cite book|chapter=]|title=The Moral Concordances of Saint Anthony of Padua|year=1865|publisher=J.T. Hayes|first=St. Anthony of|last=Padua|author-link=Anthony of Padua}}
* Pieper, Josef. ''The Concept of Sin''. Edward T. Oakes SJ (translation from German). South Bend, Indiana: St. Augustine's Press, 2001. {{ISBN|1-890318-08-6}}
* Schumacher, Meinolf. . Munich: Fink, 1996. {{ISBN|3-7705-3127-2}}
*{{cite book|chapter=]|title=Anecdotes and Examples Illustrating The Catholic Catechism|year=1904|publisher=Benzinger Brothers|first=Francis |last=Spirago|translator=James Baxter}}
*{{cite book|chapter=]|title=A manual of moral theology for English-speaking countries|year=1925|publisher=Burns Oates & Washbourne Ltd.|first=Thomas|last=Slater S.J.}}


== External links == ==External links==
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* {{Cite EB1911|wstitle=Sin|short=x}}
* {{Sep entry|sin-christian|Sin in Christian Thought|Kevin Timpe}}


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Latest revision as of 11:03, 12 November 2024

Transgression against divine law This article is about the religious concept. For the trigonometric function commonly written as sin, see Sine. For other uses, see Sin (disambiguation). "Sinful" and "Sinners" redirect here. For other uses, see Sinful (disambiguation) and Sinners (disambiguation).

Depiction of the sin of Adam and Eve (The Garden of Eden with the Fall of Man by Jan Brueghel the Elder and Pieter Paul Rubens)

In religious context, sin is a transgression against divine law or a law of the deities. Each culture has its own interpretation of what it means to commit a sin. While sins are generally considered actions, any thought, word, or act considered immoral, selfish, shameful, harmful, or alienating might be termed "sinful".

Etymology

From Middle English sinne, synne, sunne, zen, from Old English synn ("sin"), from Proto-West Germanic *sunnju, from Proto-Germanic *sunjō ('truth', 'excuse') and *sundī, *sundijō ("sin"), from Proto-Indo-European *h₁s-ónt-ih₂, from *h₁sónts ("being, true", implying a verdict of "truly guilty" against an accusation or charge), from *h₁es- ("to be"); compare Old English sōþ ("true"; see sooth). Doublet of suttee.

Bahá'í

Main article: Bahá'í views on sin
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Baháʼís consider humans to be naturally good, fundamentally spiritual beings. Human beings were created because of God's immeasurable love for us. However, the Baháʼí teachings compare the human heart to a mirror, which, if turned away from the light of the sun (i.e. God), is incapable of receiving God's love. It is only by turning unto God that spiritual advancement can be made. In this sense, "sinning" is to follow the inclinations of one's own lower nature, to turn the mirror of one's heart away from God. One of the main hindrances to spiritual development is the Baháʼí concept of the "insistent self" which is a self-serving inclination within all people. Baháʼís interpret this to be the true meaning of Satan, often referred to in the Baháʼí Writings as "the Evil One".

Watch over yourselves, for the Evil One is lying in wait, ready to entrap you. Gird yourselves against his wicked devices, and, led by the light of the name of the All-Seeing God, make your escape from the darkness that surroundeth you. — Baháʼu'lláh

This lower nature in humans is symbolized as Satan—the evil ego within us, not an evil personality outside.—ʻAbdu'l-Bahá

Buddhism

Main article: Buddhist views on sin

There are a few differing Buddhist views on sin. American Zen author Brad Warner states that in Buddhism there is no concept of sin at all. The Buddha Dharma Education Association also expressly states "The idea of sin or original sin has no place in Buddhism."

Ethnologist Christoph von Fürer-Haimendorf explained, "In Buddhist thinking the whole universe, men as well as gods, are subject to a reign of law. Every action, good or bad, has an inevitable and automatic effect in a long chain of causes, an effect that is independent of the will of any deity. Even though this may leave no room for the concept of 'sin' in the sense of an act of defiance against the authority of a personal god, Buddhists speak of 'sin' when referring to transgressions against the universal moral code."

However, there are five heinous crimes in Buddhism that bring immediate disaster through karmic process. These five crimes are collectively referred to as Anantarika-karma in Theravada Buddhism and pañcānantarya (Pāli) in the Mahayana Sutra Preached by the Buddha on the Total Extinction of the Dharma, The five crimes or sins are:

  1. Injuring a Buddha
  2. Killing an Arhat
  3. Creating schism in the society of Sangha
  4. Matricide
  5. Patricide

Christianity

Hamartiology

Main article: Christian views on sin See also: Seven deadly sins
A sculpture depicting the judgment of sinners by Jesus at Amiens Cathedral, France

The doctrine of sin is central to Christianity, since its basic message is about redemption in Christ. Christian hamartiology describes sin as an act of offense against God by despising his persons and Christian biblical law, and by injuring others. In Christian views it is an evil human act, which violates the rational nature of man as well as God's nature and his eternal law. According to the classical definition of St. Augustine of Hippo sin is "a word, deed, or desire in opposition to the eternal law of God." Thus, sin requires redemption, a metaphor alluding to atonement, in which the death of Jesus is the price that is paid to release the faithful from the bondage of sin. In some forms of Christianity, it also requires reparation (see penance).

Among some scholars, sin is understood mostly as a legal infraction or contract violation of non-binding philosophical frameworks and perspectives of Christian ethics, and so salvation tends to be viewed in legal terms. Other Christian scholars understand sin to be fundamentally relational—a loss of love for the Christian God and an elevation of self-love ("concupiscence", in this sense), as was later propounded by Augustine in his debate with the Pelagians. As with the legal definition of sin, this definition also affects the understanding of Christian grace and salvation, which are thus viewed in relational terms.

Original sin

Main article: Original sin
A Sistine Chapel fresco depicts the expulsion of Adam and Eve for transgressing God's command not to eat the fruit of the Tree of the knowledge of good and evil.

This condition has been characterized in many ways, ranging from something as insignificant as the tendency toward sin, referred to as a "sin nature", to something as drastic as total depravity, the teaching that humans, apart from God's grace, are incapable of choosing to do good.

The concept of original sin was first alluded to in the 2nd century by Irenaeus, Bishop of Lyon in his controversy with certain dualist Gnostics. Other church fathers such as Augustine also shaped and developed the doctrine, seeing it as based on the New Testament teaching of Paul the Apostle (Romans 5:12–21 and 1 Corinthians 15:21–22) and the Old Testament verse of Psalms 51:5. Tertullian, Cyprian, Ambrose and Ambrosiaster considered that humanity shares in Adam's sin, transmitted by human generation. Augustine's formulation of original sin after 412 CE was popular among Protestant reformers, such as Martin Luther and John Calvin, who equated original sin with concupiscence (or "hurtful desire"), affirming that it persisted even after baptism and completely destroyed freedom to do good. Before 412 CE, Augustine said that free will was weakened but not destroyed by original sin. But after 412 CE this changed to a loss of free will except to sin. Calvinism holds the later Augustinian soteriology view. The Jansenist movement, which the Catholic Church declared to be heretical, also maintained that original sin destroyed freedom of will. Instead the Catholic Church declares that Baptism erases original sin. Methodist theology teaches that original sin is eradicted through entire sanctification.

Islam

Main article: Islamic views on sin

Sin (khiṭʾ) is an important concept in Islamic ethics. Muslims see sin as anything that goes against the commands of God (Allah), a breach of the laws and norms laid down by religion. Islam teaches that sin is an act and not a state of being. It is believed that God weighs an individual's good deeds against his or her sins on the Day of Judgement and punishes those individuals whose evil deeds outweigh their good deeds. These individuals are thought to be sentenced to an afterlife in the fires of jahannam (Hell).

Islamic terms for sin include dhanb and khaṭīʾa, which are synonymous and refer to intentional sins; khiṭʾ, which means simply a sin; and ithm, which is used for grave sins.

Judaism

Main article: Jewish views on sin

Judaism regards the violation of any of the 613 commandments as a sin. Judaism teaches that sin is a part of life, since there is no perfect man and everyone has an inclination to do evil. Sin has many classifications and degrees, but the principal classification is that of "missing the mark" (cheit in Hebrew). Some sins are punishable with death by the court, others with death by heaven, others with lashes, and others without such punishment, but no sins committed with willful intentions go without consequence. Sins committed out of lack of knowledge are not considered sins, since sin cannot be a sin if the one who committed it did not know it was wrong. Unintentional sins are considered less severe sins.

Sins between people are considered much more serious in Judaism than sins between man and God. Yom Kippur, the main day of repentance in Judaism, can atone for sins between man and God, but not for sins between man and his fellow, that is until he has appeased his friend. Eleazar ben Azariah derived : "From all your sins before God you shall be cleansed" (Book of Leviticus, 16:30) – for sins between man and God Yom Kippur atones, but for sins between man and his fellow Yom Kippur does not atone until he appeases his fellow.

When the Temple yet stood in Jerusalem, people would offer Korbanot (sacrifices) for their misdeeds. The atoning aspect of korbanot is carefully circumscribed. For the most part, korbanot only expiates unintentional sins, that is, sins committed because a person forgot that this thing was a sin or by mistake. No atonement is needed for violations committed under duress or through lack of knowledge, and for the most part, korbanot cannot atone for a malicious, deliberate sin. In addition, korbanot have no expiating effect unless the person making the offering sincerely repents of his or her actions before making the offering, and makes restitution to any person who was harmed by the violation.

Judaism teaches that all willful sin has consequences. The completely righteous suffer for their sins (by humiliation, poverty, and suffering that God sends them) in this world and receive their reward in the world to come. The in-between (not completely righteous or completely wicked), suffer for and repent their sins after death and thereafter join the righteous. The very evil do not repent even at the gates of hell. Such people prosper in this world to receive their reward for any good deed, but cannot be cleansed by and hence cannot leave gehinnom, because they do not or cannot repent. This world can therefore seem unjust where the righteous suffer, while the wicked prosper. Many great thinkers have contemplated this.

Shinto

The Shinto concept of sin is inexorably linked to concepts of purity and pollution. Shinto does not have a concept of original sin and instead believes that all human beings are born pure. Sin, also called Tsumi, is anything that makes people impure (i.e. anything that separates them from the kami). However, Shinto does not believe this impurity is the result of human actions, but rather the result of evil spirits or other external factors.

Sin can have a variety of consequences in Japan, including disaster and disease. Therefore, purification rituals, or Harae, are viewed as important not just to the spiritual and physical health of the individual but also to the well-being of the nation.

See also

Notes and references

  1. "sin". Oxford University Press. Archived from the original on 4 July 2017. Retrieved 28 August 2017.
  2. "sin". Oxford English Dictionary. Retrieved 16 September 2013.
  3. Warner, Brad (2003). Hardcore Zen: Punk Rock, Monster Movies & the Truth About Reality. Wisdom Publications. p. 144. ISBN 0-86171-380-X.
  4. Warner, Brad (2010). Sex, Sin, and Zen: A Buddhist Exploration of Sex from Celibacy to Polyamory and Everything in Between. New World Library. p. 72. ISBN 978-1-57731-910-8.
  5. "Buddhism: Major Differences". Buddha Dharma Education Association. Retrieved 13 May 2013.
  6. von Fürer-Haimendorf, Christoph (1974). "The Sense of Sin in Cross-Cultural Perspective". Man. New Series 9.4: 539–556.
  7. ^ Gananath Obeyesekere (1990), The Work of Culture: Symbolic Transformation in Psychoanalysis and Anthropology, University of Chicago, ISBN 978-0-226-61599-8
  8. Hodous, Lewis; Soothill, William Edward (1995). A Dictionary of Chinese Buddhist Terms: With Sanskrit and English Equivalents and a Sanskrit-Pali Index. Routledge. p. 128. ISBN 978-0700703555.
  9. Rām Garg, Gaṅgā (1992). Encyclopaedia of the Hindu World. Concept Publishing Company. p. 433. ISBN 9788170223757.
  10. Rahner, p. 1588
  11. Sabourin, p. 696
  12. Contra Faustum Manichaeum, 22, 27; PL 42, 418; cf. Thomas Aquinas, STh I–II q71 a6.
  13. Mc Guinness, p. 241
  14. Gruden, Wayne. Systemic Theology: An Introduction to Biblical Doctrine, Nottingham: Intervarsity Press, p. 580
  15. On Grace and Free Will (see Nicene and Post-Nicene Fathers, trans. P.Holmes, vol. 5; 30–31 ).
  16. For a historical review of this understanding, see R.N.Frost, "Sin and Grace", in Paul L. Metzger, Trinitarian Soundings, T&T Clark, 2005.
  17. Burson, Scott R. (13 September 2016). Brian McLaren in Focus: A New Kind of Apologetic. ACU Press. ISBN 978-0-89112-650-8. ...affirms the total depravity of human beings and their utter helplessness even to exercise a good will toward God apart from God's supernatural, assisting grace.
  18. Brodd, Jeffrey (2003). World Religions. Winona, MN: Saint Mary's Press. ISBN 978-0-88489-725-5.
  19. "In the person of the first Adam we offend God, disobeying His precept" (Haeres., V, xvi, 3).
  20. Patte, Daniel. The Cambridge Dictionary of Christianity. Ed. Daniel Patte. New York: Cambridge University Press, 2010, p. 892
  21. Peter Nathan. "The Original View of Original Sin". Vision.org. Retrieved 24 January 2017.
  22. "Original Sin Explained and Defended: Reply to an Assemblies of God Pastor". Philvaz.com. Retrieved 24 January 2017.
  23. Preamble and Articles of Faith Archived 20 October 2013 at the Wayback Machine – V. Sin, Original and Personal – Church of the Nazarene. Retrieved 13 October 2013.
  24. Are Babies Born with Sin? Archived 21 October 2013 at the Wayback Machine – Topical Bible Studies. Retrieved 13 October 2013.
  25. "Original Sin: Psalm 51:5". Catholic News Agency. Retrieved 19 May 2023.
  26. Wilson, Kenneth (2018). Augustine's Conversion from Traditional Free Choice to "Non-free Free Will": A Comprehensive Methodology. Tübingen: Mohr Siebeck. pp. 16–18, 157–187. ISBN 9783161557538.
  27. "CATHOLIC ENCYCLOPEDIA: Jansenius and Jansenism". Newadvent.org. 1 October 1910. Retrieved 24 January 2017.
  28. Catholic Church. "The Seven Sacraments of the Church." Catechism of the Catholic Church. LA Santa Sede. 19 November 2019.
  29. Whidden, Woodrow W. (18 April 2005). "Adventist Theology: The Wesleyan Connection". Biblical Research Institute. Retrieved 30 June 2019.
  30. "Oxford Islamic Studies Online". Sin. Oxford University Press. Archived from the original on 16 January 2018.
  31. Wensinck, A. J. (2012). "K̲h̲aṭīʾa". In P. Bearman; Th. Bianquis; C.E. Bosworth; E. van Donzel; W.P. Heinrichs (eds.). Encyclopaedia of Islam (2nd ed.). Brill. doi:10.1163/2214-871X_ei1_SIM_4141.
  32. Silver, Jonathan, host. "Podcast: David Bashevkin on Sin and Failure in Jewish Thought." The Tikvah Podcast, The Tikvah Fund, 3 Oct. 2019.
  33. ^ "Sacrifices and Offerings (Karbanot)".
  34. Mishnah, Yoma, 8:9
  35. Simon and Schuster, 1986, Nine Questions People Ask About Judaism, New York: Touchstone book.
  36. "The Historical Uniqueness and Centrality of Yom Kippur". thetorah.com.
  37. "Reward and Punishment". Jewish Virtual Library. Retrieved 1 March 2015.
  38. ^ "Shinto Concept of Sin (Tsumi) and Impurity (Kegare)｜TSURUGAOKA HACHIMANGU". www.tsurugaoka-hachimangu.jp. Archived from the original on 11 February 2020. Retrieved 23 September 2020.
  39. ^ "BBC – Religions – Shinto: Purity in Shinto". www.bbc.co.uk. Retrieved 23 September 2020.

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