Misplaced Pages

Latest revision as of 06:25, 9 January 2025

Miscegenation (/mɪˌsɛdʒəˈneɪʃən/ mih-SEJ-ə-NAY-shən) is a pejorative term for a marriage or admixture between people who are members of different races or ethnicities. Modern science regards race as a social construct, an identity which is assigned based on rules made by society. While partly based on physical similarities within groups, race does not have an inherent physical or biological meaning. The concept of race is foundational to racism, the belief that humans can be divided based on the superiority of one race over another.

Etymology: The term miscegenation is derived from a combination of the Latin terms miscere ('to mix') and genus ('race' or 'kind').

The word first appeared in Miscegenation: The Theory of the Blending of the Races, Applied to the American White Man and Negro, an anti-abolitionist pamphlet David Goodman Croly and others published anonymously in advance of the 1864 presidential election in the United States. The term came to be associated with laws that banned interracial marriage and sex, which were known as anti-miscegenation laws. These laws were overruled federally in 1967, and by the year 2000, all states had removed them from their laws, with Alabama being the last to do so on November 7, 2000. In the 21st century, newer scientific data shows that human populations are actually genetically quite similar. The scientific consensus is that race is an arbitrary social construct, and that it does not actually have a major genetic delineation, or indeed any scientific validity.

Usage

In the present day, the use of the word miscegenation is avoided by many scholars because the term suggests that race is a concrete biological phenomenon, rather than a categorization which is imposed on certain relationships. The term's historical usage in contexts which typically implied disapproval is also a reason why more unambiguously neutral terms such as interracialism, interethnicism or cross-culturalism are more common in contemporary usage. The term remains in use among scholars when referring to past practices concerning multiraciality, such as anti-miscegenation laws that banned interracial marriages.

In Spanish, Portuguese, and French, the words used to describe the mixing of races are mestizaje, mestiçagem, and métissage respectively. These words, much older than the term miscegenation, are derived from the Late Latin mixticius for "mixed", which is also the root of the Spanish word mestizo. (Portuguese also uses miscigenação, derived from the same Latin root as the English word.) These non-English terms for "race-mixing" are not considered as offensive as "miscegenation", although they have historically been tied to the caste system (casta) that was established during the colonial era in Spanish-speaking Latin America.

Today, the mixes among races and ethnicities are diverse, so it is considered preferable to use the term "mixed-race" or simply "mixed" (mezcla). In Portuguese-speaking Latin America (i.e., Brazil), a milder form of caste system existed, although it also provided for legal and social discrimination among individuals belonging to different races, since slavery for black people existed until the late 19th century. Intermarriage occurred significantly from the very first settlements to the present day, affording mixed people upward mobility in Brazil for Black Brazilians, a phenomenon known as the "mulatto escape hatch". To this day, there are controversies regarding whether the Brazilian class system would be drawn mostly around socioeconomic lines, not racial ones (in a manner similar to other former Portuguese colonies). Conversely, people classified in censuses as black, brown ("pardo") or indigenous have disadvantaged social indicators in comparison to the white population.

The concept of miscegenation is tied to concepts of racial difference. As the different connotations and etymologies of miscegenation and mestizaje suggest, definitions of race, "race mixing" and multiraciality have diverged globally as well as historically, depending on changing social circumstances and cultural perceptions. Mestizo are people of mixed white and indigenous, usually Amerindian ancestry, who do not self-identify as indigenous peoples or Native Americans. In Canada, however, the Métis, who also have partly Amerindian and partly white, often French Canadian, ancestry, have identified as an ethnic group and are a constitutionally recognized aboriginal people.

Interracial marriages are often disparaged in racial minority communities as well. Data from the Pew Research Center has shown that African Americans are twice as likely as white Americans to believe that interracial marriage "is a bad thing". There is a considerable amount of scientific literature that demonstrates similar patterns. The differences between related terms and words which encompass aspects of racial admixture show the impact of different historical and cultural factors leading to changing social interpretations of race and ethnicity. Thus the Comte de Montlosier, in exile during the French Revolution, equated class difference in 18th-century France with racial difference. Borrowing Boulainvilliers' discourse on the "Nordic race" as being the French aristocracy that invaded the plebeian "Gauls", he showed his contempt for the lowest social class, the Third Estate, calling it "this new person born of slaves ... a mixture of all races and of all times".

Etymological history

Miscegenation comes from the Latin miscere, 'to mix' and genus, 'kind'. The word was coined in an anonymous propaganda pamphlet published in New York City in December 1863, during the American Civil War. The pamphlet was entitled Miscegenation: The Theory of the Blending of the Races, Applied to the American White Man and Negro. It purported to advocate the intermarriage of whites and blacks until they were indistinguishably mixed, as desirable, and further asserted that this was a goal of the Republican Party. The pamphlet was a hoax, concocted by Democrats to discredit the Republicans by imputing to them what were then radical views that would offend the vast majority of whites, even those who opposed slavery. The issue of miscegenation, raised by the opponents of Abraham Lincoln, featured prominently in the election campaign of 1864. In his fourth debate with Stephen A. Douglas, Lincoln took great care to emphasize that he supported the law of Illinois which forbade "the marrying of white people with negroes".

The pamphlet and variations on it were reprinted widely in both the North and South by Democrats and Confederates. Only in November 1864, after Lincoln had won the election, was the pamphlet exposed in the United States as a hoax. It was written by David Goodman Croly, managing editor of the New York World, a Democratic Party paper, and George Wakeman, a World reporter. By then, the word miscegenation had entered the common language of the day as a popular buzzword in political and social discourse. Before the publication of Miscegenation, the words racial intermixing and amalgamation were used as general terms for ethnic and racial genetic mixing. Contemporary usage of the amalgamation metaphor, borrowed from metallurgy, was that of Ralph Waldo Emerson's private vision in 1845 of America as an ethnic and racial smelting-pot, a variation on the concept of the melting pot. Opinions in the United States on the desirability of such intermixing, including that between white Protestants and Irish Catholic immigrants, were divided. The term miscegenation was coined to refer specifically to the intermarriage of blacks and whites, with the intent of galvanizing opposition to the war.

In Spanish America, the term mestizaje, which is derived from mestizo, a term used to describe a person who is the offspring of an Indigenous American and a European. The primary reason why there are so few indigenous peoples of Central and South America remaining is because of the persistent and pervasive miscegenation between the Iberian colonists and the indigenous American population, which is the most common admixture of ethnicities found in the genetic tests of present-day Latinos. This explains why Latinos in North America, the vast majority of whom are immigrants or descendants of immigrants from Central and South America, carry an average of 18% Native American ancestry, and 65.1% European ancestry (mostly from the Iberian Peninsula).

Laws banning miscegenation

Sex and the law
Social issues
Consent Reproductive rights Homophobia (Criminalization · Capital punishment) LGBTQ rights (Conversion therapy · Decriminalization · Civil union · Same-sex marriage · Adoption · Intersex · Transgender) Age of consent Marriageable age Pedophile advocacy Deviant sexual intercourse Miscegenation Norms Public morality Antisexualism Ethics Objectification Pornography Laws Prostitution law Red-light district Reproductive rights Right to sexuality Sex industry (Workers' rights · Decriminalization · World Charter) Survival sex Bodily integrity Circumcision
Specific offences (varies by jurisdiction)
Adultery Laws Anti-miscegenation U.S. laws Bestiality Child grooming Child pornography Laws Child prostitution Criminal transmission of HIV Cybersex trafficking Female genital mutilation Forcible touching Fornication Incest Obscenity U.S. law Pimping Prostitution forced procuring Public indecency Rape statutory marital Revenge porn Seduction Sex trafficking Sexting Sexual abuse child Sexual assault Sexual harassment Slavery Sodomy U.S. laws Female sodomy UK Section 63 (2008) Violence Trafficking Voyeurism
Sex offender registration
Sex offender registry Sex offender registries in the United States
Portals
Human sexuality portal Law portal
v t e

Laws banning "race-mixing" were enforced in certain U.S. states until 1967 (but they were still on the books in some states until 2000), in Nazi Germany (the Nuremberg Laws) from 1935 until 1945, and in South Africa during the apartheid era (1949–1985). All of these laws primarily banned marriage between persons who were members of different racially or ethnically defined groups, which was termed "amalgamation" or "miscegenation" in the United States. The laws in Nazi Germany and the laws in many U.S. states, as well as the laws in South Africa, also banned sexual relations between such individuals.

In the United States, various state laws prohibited marriages between whites and blacks, and in many states, they also prohibited marriages between whites and Native Americans as well as marriages between whites and Asians. In the United States, such laws were known as anti-miscegenation laws, with the Maryland General Assembly the first to criminalize interracial marriage in 1691. From 1913 until 1948, 30 out of the then 48 states enforced such laws. Although an "Anti-Miscegenation Amendment" to the United States Constitution was proposed in 1871, in 1912–1913, and again in 1928, no nationwide law against racially mixed marriages was ever enacted. In 1967, the United States Supreme Court unanimously ruled in Loving v. Virginia that anti-miscegenation laws are unconstitutional via the Fourteenth Amendment adopted in 1868. With this ruling, these laws were no longer in effect in the remaining 16 states which still had them.

The Nazi ban on interracial sexual relations and marriages was enacted in September 1935 as part of the Nuremberg Laws, the Gesetz zum Schutze des deutschen Blutes und der deutschen Ehre (The Law for the Protection of German Blood and German Honour). The Nuremberg Laws classified Jews as a race, and they also forbade extramarital sexual relations and marriages between persons who were classified as "Aryans" and persons who were classified as "non-Aryans". Violations of these laws were condemned as Rassenschande (lit. "race-disgrace/race-shame") and they could be punished by imprisonment (usually followed by deportation to a concentration camp) and could even be punished by death.

The Prohibition of Mixed Marriages Act in South Africa, enacted in 1949, banned intermarriages between members of different racial groups, including intermarriages between whites and non-whites. The Immorality Act, enacted in 1950, also made it a criminal offense for a white person to have any sexual relations with a person who was a member of a different race. Both of these laws were repealed in 1985.

History

Interracial relationships have profoundly influenced various regions throughout history. Africa has had a long history of interracial mixing with non-Africans, since prehistoric times, with migrations from the Levant leading to significant admixture. This continued into antiquity with Arab and European explorers, traders, and soldiers having relationships with African women. Mixed-race communities like the Coloureds in South Africa and Basters in Namibia emerged from these unions. In the Americas and Asia, similar patterns of interracial relationships and communities formed. In the US, historical taboos and laws against interracial marriage evolved, culminating in the landmark Loving v. Virginia case in 1967. Latin America, particularly Brazil, has a rich history of racial mixing, reflected in its diverse population. In Asia, countries like India, China, and Japan experienced interracial unions through trade, colonization, and migration, contributing to diverse genetic and cultural landscapes.

In Europe, Nazi Germany's anti-miscegenation laws sought to maintain "racial purity," specifically targeting Jewish-German unions. Hungary and France saw mixed marriages through historical conquests and colonialism, such as between Vietnamese men and French women during the early 20th century. In Oceania, particularly Australia and New Zealand, dynamics varied; Australia had policies like the White Australia policy and practices affecting Indigenous populations, while New Zealand saw significant Māori and European intermarriages. In the Middle East, inter-ethnic relationships were common, often involving Arab and non-Arab unions. Portuguese colonies encouraged mixed marriages to integrate populations, notably seen in Brazil and other territories, resulting in diverse, multicultural societies.

Demographics of ethnoracial admixture

United States

According to the U.S. Census, in 2000 there were 504,119 Asian–white marriages, 287,576 black-white marriages, and 31,271 Asian–black marriages. The black–white marriages increased from 65,000 in 1970 to 403,000 in 2006, and 558,000 in 2010, according to Census Bureau figures.

In the United States, rates of interracial cohabitation are significantly higher than those of marriage. Although only 7 percent of married African American men have Caucasian American wives, 13% of cohabitating African American men have Caucasian American partners. 25% of married Asian American women have Caucasian spouses, but 45% of cohabitating Asian American women are with Caucasian American men. Of cohabiting Asian men, slightly over 37% of Asian men have white female partners over 10% married White American women. Asian American women and Asian American men who live with a white partner, 40 and 27 percent, respectively (Le, 2006b). In 2008, of new marriages including an Asian man, 80% were to an Asian spouse and 14% to a White spouse; of new marriages involving an Asian woman, 61% were to an Asian spouse and 31% to a White spouse. Almost 30% of Asians and Latinos outmarry, with 86.8 and 90% of these, respectively, being to a white person. According to Karyn Langhorne Folan, "although the most recent census available reported that 70% of African American women are single, African American women have the greatest resistance to marrying 'out' of the race."

One survey revealed that 19% of black males had engaged in sexual activity with white women. A Gallup poll on interracial dating in June 2006 found 75% of Americans approving of a white man dating a black woman, and 71% approving of a black man dating a white woman. Among people between the ages of 18 and 29, the poll found that 95% approved of blacks and whites dating, and about 60% said they had dated someone of a different race. 69% of Hispanics, 52% of non-Hispanic blacks, and 45% of non-Hispanic whites said they have dated someone of another race or ethnic group. In 1980, just 17% of all respondents said they had dated someone from a different racial background.

However, according to a study from the University of California at Berkeley, using data from over 1 million profiles of singles from online dating websites, whites were far more reluctant to date outside their race than non-whites. The study found that over 80% of whites, including whites who stated no racial preference, contacted other whites, whereas about 3% of whites contacted blacks, a result that held for younger and older participants. Only 5% of whites responded to inquiries from blacks. Black participants were ten times more likely to contact whites than whites were to contact blacks, however black participants sent inquiries to other blacks more often than otherwise.

Interracial marriage is still relatively uncommon, despite the increasing rate. In 2010, 15% of new marriages were interracial, and of those only 9% of Whites married outside of their race. However, this takes into account inter ethnic marriages, this meaning it counts white Hispanics marrying non-Hispanic whites as interracial marriages, despite both bride and groom being racially white. Of the 275,000 new interracial marriages in 2010, 43% were white-Hispanic, 14.4% were white-Asian, 11.9% were white-black and the rest were other combinations. However, interracial marriage has become more common over the past decades due to increasing racial diversity, and liberalizing attitudes toward the practice. The number of interracial marriages in the United States increased by 65% between 1990 and 2000, and by 20% between 2000 and 2010. "A record 14.6% of all new marriages in the United States in 2008 were between spouses of a different race or ethnicity from one another. ... Rates more than doubled among whites and nearly tripled among blacks between 1980 and 2008. But for both Hispanics and Asians, rates were nearly identical in 2008 and 1980", according to a Pew Research Center analysis of demographic data from the U.S. Census Bureau.

According to studies by Jenifer L. Bratter and Rosalind B. King made publicly available on the Education Resources Information Center, White female-Black male and White female-Asian male marriages are more prone to divorce than White-White pairings. Conversely, unions between White males and non-White females (and between Hispanics and non-Hispanic persons) have similar or lower risks of divorce than White-White marriages, unions between white male-black female last longer than white-white pairings or white-Asian pairings.

Brazil

In the 2022 census, 92.1 million people or 45.3% of Brazil's population identified themselves as "pardos", meaning brown or mixed race. According to some DNA researches, Brazilians predominantly possess some degree of mixed-race ancestry, though less than half of the country's population classified themselves as "pardos" in the census. Multiracial Brazilians live in all regions of Brazil, they are mainly people of mixed European, African, East Asian (mostly Japanese) and Amerindian ancestry.

Interracial marriages constituted 22.6% of all marriages in 2000. 15.7% of blacks, 24.4% of whites and 27.6% of Pardos (mixed-race/brown) married someone whose race was different from their own.

Genetic admixture

Sexual reproduction between two populations reduces the genetic distance between the populations. During the Age of Discovery which began in the early 15th century, European explorers sailed all across the globe reaching all the major continents. In the process they came into contact with many populations that had been isolated for thousands of years. The Tasmanian Aboriginals were one of the most isolated groups on the planet. Many died from disease and conflict, but a number of their descendants survive today as multiracial people of Tasmanian and European descent. This is an example of how modern migrations may reduce the genetic divergence of the human species, which would usually lead to speciation.

New World demographics were radically changed within a short time following the voyage of Columbus. The colonization of the Americas brought Native Americans into contact with the distant populations of Europe, Africa and Asia. As a result, many countries in the Americas have significant and complex multiracial populations.

Admixture in the United States

Genetic studies indicate that many African-Americans possess varying degrees of European admixture, although it is suggested that the Native American admixture in African-Americans is exaggerated. Some estimates from studies indicated that many of the African-Americans who took part, had European admixture ranging from 25 to 50% in the Northeast and less than 10% in the South (where a vast majority of the population reside). A 2003 study by Mark D. Shriver of a European-American sample found that the average admixture in the individuals who participated was 0.7% African and 3.2% Native American. However, 70% of the sample had no African admixture. The other 30% had African admixture ranging from 2% to 20% with an average of 2.3%. By extrapolating these figures to the whole population some scholars suggest that up to 74 million European-Americans may have African admixture in the same range (2–20%). Recently J.T. Frudacas, Shriver's partner in DNA Print Genomics, contradicted him stating "Five percent of European Americans exhibit some detectable level of African ancestry."

Historians estimate that 58% of enslaved women in the United States aged 15–30 years were sexually assaulted by their slave owners and other White men. One such slave owner, Thomas Jefferson, fathered his slave Sally Hemings child. While publicly opposed to race mixing, in his Notes on the State of Virginia published in 1785, Jefferson wrote: "The improvement of the blacks in body and mind, in the first instance of their mixture with the whites, has been observed by every one, and proves that their inferiority is not the effect merely of their condition of life".

Within the African-American population, the amount of African admixture is directly correlated with darker skin since less selective pressure against dark skin is applied within the group of "non-passing" individuals. Thus, African-Americans may have a much wider range of African admixture (>0–100%), whereas European-Americans have a lower range (2–20%).

A statistical analysis done in 1958 using historical census data and historical data on immigration and birth rates concluded that 21% of the white population had black ancestors. The growth in the White population could not be attributed to births in the White population and immigration from Europe alone, but had received significant contribution from the African American population as well. The author states in 1958:

The data presented in this study indicate that the popular belief in the non-African background of white persons is invalid. Over twenty-eight million white persons are descendants of persons of African origin. Furthermore, the majority of the persons with African ancestry are classified as White.

A 2003 study on Y-chromosomes and mtDNA detected no African admixture in the European-Americans who took part in it. The sample included 628 European-American Y-chromosomes and mtDNA from 922 European-Americans According to a genome-wide study by 23andMe, White Americans (European Americans) who participated were: "98.6 percent European, 0.19 percent African and 0.18 percent Native American on average."

In the United States, intermarriage among Filipinos with other races is common. They have the largest number of interracial marriages among Asian immigrant groups, as documented in California. It is also noted that 21.8% of Filipino Americans are of mixed blood, second among Asian Americans, and is the fastest growing.

Admixture in Latin America

Background

Prior to the European conquest of the Americas the demographics of Latin America was naturally 100% American Indian. Today those who identify themselves as Native Americans are small minorities in many countries. For example, the CIA lists Argentina's at 0.9%, Brazil's at 0.4%, and Uruguay's at 0%. However, the range varies widely from country to country in Latin America with some countries having significantly larger Amerindian minorities.

The early conquest of Latin America was primarily carried out by male soldiers and sailors from Spain and Portugal. Since they carried very few European women on their journeys the new settlers married and fathered children with Amerindian women and also with women taken by force from Africa. This process of miscegenation was even encouraged by the Spanish Monarchy and it led to the system of stratification known as the Casta. This system had Europeans (Spaniards and Portuguese) at the top of the hierarchy followed by those of mixed race. Unmixed Blacks and Native Americans were at the bottom. A philosophy of whitening, an example of scientific racism in favor of white supremacy, emerged in which Amerindian and African culture were stigmatized in favor of European values. Many Amerindian languages were lost as mixed race offspring adopted Spanish and Portuguese as their first languages. Only towards the end of the 19th century and beginning of the 20th century did large numbers of Europeans begin to migrate to South America and consequently altering its demographics.

In addition many Africans were shipped to regions all over the Americas and were present in many of the early voyages of the conquistadors. Brazil has the largest population of African descendants outside Africa. Other countries such as Jamaica, Cuba, Puerto Rico, Dominican Republic, Haiti, Venezuela, Colombia, and Ecuador still have sizeable populations identified as Black. However countries such as Argentina do not have a visible African presence today. Census information from the early 19th century shows that people categorized as Black made up to 30% of the population, or around 400,000 people. Though almost completely absent today, their contribution to Argentine culture is significant and include the tango, the milonga and the zamba, words of Bantu origin.

The ideology of whitening encouraged non-whites to seek white or lighter skinned partners. This dilution of non-white admixture would be beneficial to their offspring as they would face less stigmatization and find it easier to assimilate into mainstream society. After successive generations of European gene flow, non-white admixture levels would drop below levels at which skin color or physical appearance is not affected thus allowing individuals to identify as White. In many regions, the native and black populations were simply overwhelmed by a succession of waves of European immigration.

Historians and scientists are thus interested in tracing the fate of Native Americans and Africans from the past to the future. The questions remain about what proportion of these populations simply died out and what proportion still has descendants alive today including those who do not racially identify themselves as their ancestors would have. Admixture testing has thus become a useful objective tool in shedding light on the demographic history of Latin America.

Recent studies

Unlike the United States, there were no anti-miscegenation policies in Latin America. Though still a racially stratified society there were no significant barriers to gene flow between the three populations. As a result, admixture profiles are a reflection of the colonial populations of Africans, Europeans and Amerindians. The pattern is also sex biased in that the African and Amerindian maternal lines are found in significantly higher proportions than African or Amerindian Y chromosomal lines. This is an indication that the primary mating pattern was that of European males with Amerindian or African females. According to the study more than half the White populations of the Latin American countries studied have some degree of either Native American or African admixture (MtDNA or Y chromosome). In countries such as Chile and Colombia almost the entire white population was shown to have some non-white admixture.

Frank Moya Pons, a Dominican historian documented that Spanish colonists intermarried with Taíno women, and, over time, these mestizo descendants intermarried with Africans, creating a tri-racial Creole culture. 1514 census records reveal that 40% of Spanish men in the colony of Santo Domingo had Taíno wives. A 2002 study conducted in Puerto Rico suggests that over 61% of the population possess Amerindian mtDNA.

Admixture in the Philippines

Historically, admixture has been a common phenomenon in the Philippines. The Philippines were originally settled by Australoid peoples called Negritos which now form the country's aboriginal community. Admixture occurred between this earlier group and the mainstream Malayo-Polynesian population.

There has been Indian migration to and influence in the Philippines since the precolonial era. About 25% of the words in the Tagalog language are Sanskrit terms and about 5% of the country's population possess Indian ancestry from antiquity. There has been a Chinese presence in the Philippines since the 9th century. However, large-scale migrations of Chinese to the Philippines only started during the Spanish colonial era, when the world market was opened to the Philippines. It is estimated that among Filipinos, 10%–20% have some Chinese ancestry and 1.5% are "full-blooded" Chinese.

According to the American anthropologist Dr. H. Otley Beyer, the ancestry of Filipinos is 2% Arab. This dates back to when Arab traders intermarried with the local Malay Filipina female populations during the pre-Spanish history of the Philippines. A recent genetic study by Stanford University indicates that at least 3.6% of the population are European or of part European descent from both Spanish and United States colonization.

Admixture among the Romani people

Genetic evidence has shown that the Romani people ("Gypsies") originated from the Indian subcontinent and mixed with the local populations in Central Asia, the Middle East, and Europe. In the 1990s, it was discovered that Romani populations carried large frequencies of particular Y chromosomes (inherited paternally) that otherwise exist only in populations from South Asia, in addition to fairly significant frequencies of particular mitochondrial DNA (inherited maternally) that is rare outside South Asia.

47.3% of Romani males carry Y chromosomes of haplogroup H-M82 which is rare outside of the Indian subcontinent. Mitochondrial haplogroup M, most common in Indian subjects and rare outside Southern Asia, accounts for nearly 30% of Romani people. A more detailed study of Polish Romani shows this to be of the M5 lineage, which is specific to India. Moreover, a form of the inherited disorder congenital myasthenia is found in Romani subjects. This form of the disorder, caused by the 1267delG mutation, is otherwise only known in subjects of Indian ancestry. This is considered to be the best evidence of the Indian ancestry of the Romanies.

The Romanis have been described as "a conglomerate of genetically isolated founder populations", while a number of common Mendelian disorders among Romanies from all over Europe indicates "a common origin and founder effect". See also this table:

A study from 2001 by Gresham et al. suggests "a limited number of related founders, compatible with a small group of migrants splitting from a distinct caste or tribal group". Also the study pointed out that "genetic drift and different levels and sources of admixture, appear to have played a role in the subsequent differentiation of populations". The same study found that "a single lineage ... found across Romani populations, accounts for almost one-third of Romani males. A similar preservation of a highly resolved male lineage has been reported elsewhere only for Jewish priests". See also the Cohen Modal Haplotype.

A 2004 study by Morar et al. concluded that the Romani are "a founder population of common origins that has subsequently split into multiple socially divergent and geographically dispersed Gypsy groups". The same study revealed that this population "was founded approximately 32–40 generations ago, with secondary and tertiary founder events occurring approximately 16–25 generations ago".

Admixture in South Africa

Coloureds (Afrikaans: Kleurlinge or Bruinmense, lit. "Brown people") are a multiracial ethnic group native to Southern Africa who have ancestry from more than one of the various populations inhabiting the region, including Khoisan, Bantu, European, Austronesian, East Asian or South Asian. Because of the combination of ethnicities, different families and individuals within a family may have a variety of different physical features. Coloured was a legally defined racial classification during apartheid. In the Western Cape, a distinctive Cape Coloured and affiliated Cape Malay culture developed. In other parts of Southern Africa, people classified as Coloured were usually the descendants of individuals from two distinct ethnicities. Genetic studies suggest the group has the highest levels of mixed ancestry in the world. Mitochondrial DNA studies have demonstrated that the maternal lines of the Coloured population are descended mostly from African Khoisan women. This ethnicity shows a gender-biased admixture. While a plurality of male lines have come from Ngunis, Southern African, West African and East African populations, 45.2%, Western European lineages contributed 37.3% to paternal components and South Asian/ Southeast Asian lineages 17.5%.

Coloureds are to be mostly found in the western part of South Africa. In Cape Town, they form 45.4% of the total population, according to the South African National Census of 2011.

See also

• Cousin marriage
• Exogamy
• Interethnic marriage
• Interracial marriage
• Interracial pornography
• Interfaith marriage
• Interdenominational marriage
• Multiculturalism
• Multiracialism
• Plaçage
• Race and genetics
• Race and society
• Race of the future
• Racial antisemitism
• Racial segregation
• Racism
• Racism by country
• Same-sex marriage
• Transnational marriage

References

1. "Miscegenation Definition & Meaning". britannica.com. Britannica Dictionary. Retrieved 24 March 2023.
2. ^ Harper, Douglas. "miscegenation". Online Etymology Dictionary. Retrieved 1 August 2021.
3. "Miscegenation; the theory of the blending of the races, applied to the American white man and negro". Library of Congress. Retrieved 1 August 2021.
4. Downing, Karen; Nichols, Darlene; Webster, Kelly (2005). Multiracial America: A Resource Guide on the History and Literature of Interracial Issues. Lanham, Maryland: Scarecrow Press. p. 9. ISBN 978-0-8108-5199-3.
5. "Race Is a Social Construct, Scientists Argue". Scientific American.
6. Newman, Richard (1999). "Miscegenation". In Kwame Anthony Appiah and Henry Louis Gates Jr. (ed.). Africana: The Encyclopedia of the African and African American Experience (1st ed.). New York: Basic Civitas Books. p. 1320. ISBN 978-0-465-00071-5. Miscegenation, a term for sexual relations across racial lines; no longer in use because of its racist implications
7. Pascoe, P. (1996). "Miscegenation Law, Court Cases, and Ideologies of "Race" in Twentieth-Century America". The Journal of American History. 83 (1): 44–69. doi:10.2307/2945474. JSTOR 2945474.
8. Roth, W.D. (2012). Race Migrations: Latinos and the Cultural Transformation of Race. Stanford University Press. pp. 191–192. ISBN 978-0-8047-8253-1. Retrieved 22 October 2023.
9. "Censo Demografico 2010" (PDF). Biblioteca.ibge.gov.br. Retrieved 29 May 2018.
10. "Censo Demografico 2010" (PDF). Biblioteca.ibge.gov.br. Retrieved 29 May 2018.
11. "How Racial Minorities View Interracial Couples | Psychology Today Canada". www.psychologytoday.com. Retrieved 1 August 2021.
12. "2. Public views on intermarriage". Pew Research Center’s Social & Demographic Trends Project. 18 May 2017. Retrieved 1 August 2021.
13. Paset, P. S.; Taylor, R. D. (December 1991). "Black and white women's attitudes toward interracial marriage". Psychological Reports. 69 (3 Pt 1): 753–754. doi:10.2466/pr0.1991.69.3.753. ISSN 0033-2941. PMID 1784661. S2CID 29540796.
14. Chuang, Roxie; Wilkins, Clara; Tan, Mingxuan; Mead, Caroline (1 April 2021). "Racial minorities' attitudes toward interracial couples: An intersection of race and gender". Group Processes & Intergroup Relations. 24 (3): 453–467. doi:10.1177/1368430219899482. ISSN 1368-4302. S2CID 216166130.
15. Gove, Philip B., ed. (1961). Webster's Third New International Dictionary of the English Language, Unabridged. Springfield, MA: G. & C. Merriam.
16. "The Miscegenation Hoax". Museum of Hoaxes. Retrieved 2 April 2008.
17. Lincoln, Abraham; Douglas, Stephen A. (18 September 1858). "The Lincoln–Douglas Debates 4th Debate Part 1". Teaching American History.
18. Hollinger, D. A. (2003). "Amalgamation and Hypodescent: The Question of Ethnoracial Mixture in the History of the United States". The American Historical Review. 108 (5): 1363–1390. doi:10.1086/529971.
19. Bryc, Katarzyna; Durand, Eric Y.; Macpherson, J. Michael; Reich, David; Mountain, Joanna L. (8 January 2015). "The Genetic Ancestry of African Americans, Latinos, and European Americans across the United States". The American Journal of Human Genetics. 96 (1): 37–53. doi:10.1016/j.ajhg.2014.11.010. ISSN 0002-9297. PMC 4289685. PMID 25529636.
20. "Genetically, There's No Such Thing as a Mexican". NBC News. 12 June 2014. Retrieved 2 August 2021.
21. Wade, Lizzie (18 December 2014). "Genetic study reveals surprising ancestry of many Americans". Science. American Association for the Advancement of Science. Retrieved 2 August 2021.
22. Bonilla, C.; Parra, E. J.; Pfaff, C. L.; Dios, S.; Marshall, J. A.; Hamman, R. F.; Ferrell, R. E.; Hoggart, C. L.; McKeigue, P. M.; Shriver, M. D. (2004). "Admixture in the Hispanics of the San Luis Valley, Colorado, and its implications for complex trait gene mapping". Annals of Human Genetics. 68 (2): 139–153. doi:10.1046/j.1529-8817.2003.00084.x. hdl:2027.42/65937. ISSN 1469-1809. PMID 15008793. S2CID 13702953.
23. "Groundbreaking Interracial Marriage". ABC News. 14 June 2007.
24. Karthikeyan, Hrishi; Chin, Gabriel (2002). "Preserving Racial Identity: Population Patterns and the Application of Anti-Miscegenation Statutes to Asian Americans, 1910–1950". Asian Law Journal. 9 (1). SSRN 283998.
25. "Eugenics, Race, and Marriage". Facing History.org. Retrieved 21 July 2024.
26. "Where were Interracial Couples Illegal?". LovingDay. Archived from the original on 31 December 2007. Retrieved 13 July 2008.
27. "Courtroom History" Archived 31 December 2007 at the Wayback Machine Lovingday.org Retrieved 28 June 2007
28. Stein, Edward (2004). "Past and present proposed amendments to the United States constitution regarding marriage". Washington University Law Quarterly. 82 (3). SSRN 576181.
29. "Loving v. Virginia". LII / Legal Information Institute. Archived from the original on 15 October 2019. Retrieved 22 July 2024.
30. Hispanic Origin and Race of Coupled Households: 2000 U.S. Census. Retrieved 29 June 2007.
31. "More black women consider 'dating out'". USA Today. Retrieved 22 October 2017.
32. "Table FG4. Married Couple Family Groups, by Presence of Own Children In Specific Age Groups, and Age, Earnings, Education, and Race and Hispanic Origin of Both Spouses: 2010 (thousands)". U.S. Census Bureau.
33. After 40 years, interracial marriage flourishing. NBC News. 15 April 2007.
34. Swanbrow, Diane (23 March 2000). "Intimate Relationships Between Races More Common Than Thought". University of Michigan. Retrieved 15 July 2008.
35. Degrading Stereotypes Ruin Dating Experience Archived 4 March 2016 at the Wayback Machine. Modelminority.com (22 October 2002). Retrieved 11 December 2011.
36. Jeffrey S. Passel, Wendy Wang and Paul Taylor Marrying Out: One-in-Seven New U.S. Marriages Is Interracial or Interethnic Archived 11 June 2016 at the Wayback Machine. (PDF). Pew Research Center. 4 June 2010
37. McClain DaCosta, Kimberly (2007). Making multiracials: state, family, and market in the redrawing of the color line. Stanford University Press. p. 9. ISBN 978-0-8047-5546-7.
38. Langhorne Folan, Karyn (2010). Don't Bring Home a White Boy: And Other Notions That Keep Black Women from Dating Out. Simon and Schuster. p. 11. ISBN 978-1-4391-5475-5.
39. Staples, Robert (2006). Exploring black sexuality. Rowman & Littlefield. p. 124. ISBN 978-0-7425-4659-2.
40. "New generation doesn't blink at interracial relationships". USA Today (2 August 2006).
41. "Most Americans Approve of Interracial Dating". Gallup.com. 7 October 2005.
42. "Interracial and Cross Cultural Dating of Generation Y Archived 4 March 2016 at the Wayback Machine". St. Cloud State University.
43. "In online dating, blacks more open to romancing whites than vice versa". Berkeley.edu 11 February 2011.
44. "Love Isn't Color-Blind: White Online Daters Spurn Blacks". Time. 22 February. 2011
45. Jordan, Miriam (17 February 2012). "More Marriages Cross Race, Ethnicity Lines". The Wall Street Journal. Theosophical University Press. Retrieved 18 February 2012.
46. Yen, Hope (26 May 2010). "Interracial Marriage Still Rising, But Not As Fast: Report". HuffPost. Associated Press.
47. "Marrying Out". Jeffrey S. Passel, Wendy Wang and Paul Taylor, Pew Research Center. 4 June 2010.
48. ^ Bratter, J. L.; King, R. B. (2008). "'But Will It Last?': Marital Instability Among Interracial and Same-Race Couples". Family Relations. 57 (2): 160–171. doi:10.1111/j.1741-3729.2008.00491.x. S2CID 146490809.
49. "Censo 2022: Pela 1ª vez, Brasil se declara mais pardo que branco; populações preta e indígena também crescem". 22 December 2023. Archived from the original on 22 December 2023. Retrieved 22 December 2023.
50. "Nação Mestiça - Movimento Pardo-Mestiço Brasileiro". Retrieved 27 June 2016.
51. Escóssia, F. (23 October 2000) "Casamento reflete discriminação racial." Folha de S.Paulo.
52. ^ Chasteen, John Charles; Wood, James A (2003). Problems in modern Latin American history, sources and interpretations. Sr Books. pp. 4–10. ISBN 978-0-8420-5060-9.
53. ^ Bryc, Katarzyna; Durand, Eric Y.; Macpherson, J. Michael; Reich, David; Mountain, Joanna L. (18 September 2014). "The genetic ancestry of African, Latino, and European Americans across the United States". bioRxiv 10.1101/009340.. "Supplemental Tables and Figures". p. 42. 18 September 2014. Retrieved 16 July 2015.
54. Gates, Henry Louis Jr. (11 February 2013). "Exactly How 'Black' Is Black America?".
55. Sailer, Steve (8 May 2002). "Analysis: White prof finds he's not". United Press International.
56. Shriver, et al., "Skin pigmentation, biogeographical ancestry and admixture mapping Archived 30 December 2014 at the Wayback Machine, Hum Genet (2003) 112 : 387–39.
57. Jim Wooten, "Race Reversal Man Lives as ‘Black’ for 50 Years — Then Finds Out He's Probably Not, ABC News (2004).
58. "Racism, African American Women, and Their Sexual and Reproductive Health: A Review of Historical and Contemporary Evidence and Implications for Health Equity". National Institutes of Health (NIH). PMC 6167003.
59. "DNA Study Shows Jefferson Fathered His Slave's Child". Low Angeles Times. Retrieved 19 July 2024.
60. Higginbotham, A. Leon (1980). In the Matter of Color: Race and the American Legal Process. The Colonial Period. p. 10.
61. Stuckert, Robert P. (May 1908). "African Ancestry of the White American Population" (PDF). The Ohio Journal of Science. 58 (3): 155. Retrieved 13 July 2008.
62. Kayser, M.; Brauer, S.; Schädlich, H.; Prinz, M.; Batzer, M. A.; Zimmerman, P. A.; Boatin, B. A.; Stoneking, M. (2003). "Y Chromosome STR Haplotypes and the Genetic Structure of U.S. Populations of African, European, and Hispanic Ancestry". Genome Research. 13 (4): 624–634. doi:10.1101/gr.463003. PMC 430174. PMID 12671003.
63. "Interracial Dating & Marriage". asian-nation.org. Retrieved 30 August 2007.
64. "Multiracial / Hapa Asian Americans". asian-nation.org. Retrieved 30 August 2007.
65. CIA Factbook Archived 7 November 2017 at the Wayback Machine. Cia.gov. Retrieved 11 December 2011.
66. Fejerman, L.; Carnese, F. R.; Goicoechea, A. S.; Avena, S. A.; Dejean, C. B.; Ward, R. H. (2005). "African ancestry of the population of Buenos Aires". American Journal of Physical Anthropology. 128 (1): 164–170. doi:10.1002/ajpa.20083. PMID 15714513.
67. Aidi, Hisham (2 April 2002). "Blacks in Argentina: Disappearing Acts". History Notes. The Global African Community. Retrieved 13 July 2008.
68. Skidmore, Thomas E. (April 1992). "Fact and Myth: Discovering a Racial Problem in Brazil" (PDF). Working Paper. 173.
69. Brasil perde brancos e pretos e ganha 3,2 milhões de pardos. Noticias.uol.com.br (18 September 2009). Retrieved 11 December 2011.
70. Martínez Marignac, Verónica L.; Bianchi Néstor O.; Bertoni Bernardo; Parra Esteban J. (2004). "Characterization of Admixture in an Urban Sample from Buenos Aires, Argentina, Using Uniparentally and Biparentally Inherited Genetic Markers". Human Biology. 76 (4): 543–57. doi:10.1353/hub.2004.0058. PMID 15754971. S2CID 13708018.
71. Gonçalves, V. F.; Prosdocimi F.; Santos L. S.; Ortega J. M.; Pena S. D. J. (9 May 2007). "Sex-biased gene flow in African Americans but not in American Caucasians". Genetics and Molecular Research. 6 (2): 256–61. ISSN 1676-5680. PMID 17573655. Retrieved 13 July 2008.
72. Alves-Silva, Juliana; da Silva Santos, Magda; Guimarães, Pedro E. M.; Ferreira, Alessandro C. S.; Bandelt, Hans-Jürgen; Pena, Sérgio D. J.; et al. (2000). "The Ancestry of Brazilian mtDNA Lineages". The American Journal of Human Genetics. 67 (2): 444–461. doi:10.1086/303004. PMC 1287189. PMID 10873790.
73. Salzano, Francisco M.; Cátira Bortolini, Maria (2002). The Evolution and Genetics of Latin American Populations. Cambridge Studies in Biological and Evolutionary Anthropology. Vol. 28. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. p. 512. ISBN 978-0-521-65275-9.
74. Ferbel, Dr. P. J. "Not Everyone Who Speaks Spanish is from Spain: Taíno Survival in the 21st Century Dominican Republic". Archived 29 May 2010 at the Wayback Machine Kacikie: Journal of Caribbean Amerindian History and Anthropology. . Retrieved 24 September 2009.
75. Martínez Cruzado, Juan C. (2002). The Use of Mitochondrial DNA to Discover Pre-Columbian Migrations to the Caribbean:Results for Puerto Rico and Expectations for the Dominican Republic. Archived 22 June 2004 at the Wayback Machine Kacike: The Journal of Caribbean Amerindian History and Anthropology. Lynne Guitar, Ed. (Retrieved 25 September 2006)
76. Thangaraj, K.; Singh, L.; Reddy, A. G.; Rao, V. R.; Sehgal, S. C.; Underhill, P. A.; et al. (2003). "Genetic Affinities of the Andaman Islanders, a Vanishing Human Population". Current Biology. 13 (2): 86–93. Bibcode:2003CBio...13...86T. doi:10.1016/S0960-9822(02)01336-2. PMID 12546781. S2CID 12155496.
77. Pre Colonial Period. geocities.com
78. :: Overseas Compatriot Affairs Commission, R.O.C. :: Archived 4 January 2011 at the Wayback Machine. Ocac.gov.tw (24 August 2004). Retrieved 14 August 2010.
79. "Arab and native intermarriage in Austronesian Asia". ColorQ World. Retrieved 24 December 2008.
80. Capelli, C.; Wilson, J. F.; Richards, M.; Stumpf, M. P. H.; Gratrix, F.; Oppenheimer, S.; Underhill, P.; Pascali, V. L.; Ko, T. M.; Goldstein, D. B. (2001). "A Predominantly Indigenous Paternal Heritage for the Austronesian-Speaking Peoples of Insular Southeast Asia and Oceania". The American Journal of Human Genetics. 68 (2): 432–443. doi:10.1086/318205. PMC 1235276. PMID 11170891.
81. ^ Kalaydjieva, L.; Morar, B.; Chaix, R.; Tang, H. (2005). "A newly discovered founder population: The Roma/Gypsies". BioEssays. 27 (10): 1084–1094. doi:10.1002/bies.20287. PMID 16163730.
82. Malyarchuk, B. A.; Grzybowski, T.; Derenko, M. V.; Czarny, J.; Miscicka-Sliwka, D. (2006). "Mitochondrial DNA Diversity in the Polish Roma". Annals of Human Genetics. 70 (2): 195–206. doi:10.1111/j.1529-8817.2005.00222.x. PMID 16626330. S2CID 662278.
83. ^ Morar, B.; Gresham, D.; Angelicheva, D.; Tournev, I.; Gooding, R.; Guergueltcheva, V.; et al. (2004). "Mutation History of the Roma/Gypsies". The American Journal of Human Genetics. 75 (4): 596–609. doi:10.1086/424759. PMC 1182047. PMID 15322984.
84. ^ Kalaydjieva, L.; Gresham, D.; Calafell, F. (2001). "Genetic studies of the Roma (Gypsies): A review". BMC Medical Genetics. 2: 5. doi:10.1186/1471-2350-2-5. PMC 31389. PMID 11299048.
85. Kalaydjieva, Luba; Gresham, David; Calafell, Francesc (2001). "Genetic studies of the Roma (Gypsies): A review". BMC Medical Genetics. 2: 5. doi:10.1186/1471-2350-2-5. PMC 31389. PMID 11299048. Figure 4.
86. ^ Gresham, D.; Morar, B.; Underhill, P. A.; Passarino, G.; Lin, A. A.; Wise, C.; et al. (2001). "Origins and Divergence of the Roma (Gypsies)". American Journal of Human Genetics. 69 (6): 1314–1331. doi:10.1086/324681. PMC 1235543. PMID 11704928.
87. "coloured". Oxford Dictionaries. Oxford University. Archived from the original on 9 March 2014. Retrieved 14 April 2014.
88. ^ Posel, Deborah (2001). "What's in a name? Racial categorisations under apartheid and their afterlife" (PDF). Transformation: 50–74. ISSN 0258-7696. Archived from the original (PDF) on 8 November 2006.
89. Pillay, Kathryn (2019). "Indian Identity in South Africa". The Palgrave Handbook of Ethnicity. pp. 77–92. doi:10.1007/978-981-13-2898-5_9. ISBN 978-981-13-2897-8.
90. Schmid, Randolph E. (30 April 2009). "Africans have world's greatest genetic variation". NBC News. Retrieved 23 October 2009.
91. Tishkoff SA, Reed FA, Friedlaender FR, et al. (April 2009). "The Genetic Structure and History of Africans and African Americans". Science. 324 (5930): 1035–44. Bibcode:2009Sci...324.1035T. doi:10.1126/science.1172257. PMC 2947357. PMID 19407144.
92. ^ Quintana-Murci, L; Harmant, C; H, Quach; Balanovsky, O; Zaporozhchenko, V; Bormans, C; van Helden, PD; et al. (2010). "Strong maternal Khoisan contribution to the South African coloured population: a case of gender-biased admixture". The American Journal of Human Genetics. 86 (4): 611–620. doi:10.1016/j.ajhg.2010.02.014. PMC 2850426. PMID 20346436.
93. ^ Schlebusch, CM; Naidoo, T; Soodyall, H (2009). "SNaPshot minisequencing to resolve mitochondrial macro-haplogroups found in Africa". Electrophoresis. 30 (21): 3657–3664. doi:10.1002/elps.200900197. PMID 19810027. S2CID 19515426.
94. Census 2011 Municipal report: Western Cape (PDF). Statistics South Africa. 2012. ISBN 978-0-621-41459-2. Retrieved 30 November 2016.

Further reading

• Pascoe, Peggy (19 April 2004). "Why the Ugly Rhetoric Against Gay Marriage Is Familiar to this Historian of Miscegenation". George Mason University's History News Network. Retrieved 14 July 2008.
• Novkov, Julie, Racial union: law, intimacy, and the White state in Alabama, 1865–1954, University of Michigan Press, 2008, pp. 125–128.
• Rosenthal, Debra J. (2004). Race Mixture in Nineteenth-Century U.S and Spanish-American Fiction. University of North Carolina Press. ISBN 978-0-8078-5564-5.
• Leupp, Gary P. (2003). Interracial Intimacy in Japan. Continuum International Publishing Group. ISBN 978-0-8264-6074-5.
• Deschamps, Bénédicte, Le racisme anti-italien aux États-Unis (1880–1940), in Exclure au nom de la race (États-Unis, Irlande, Grande-Bretagne), Michel Prum (Éd.). Paris: Syllepse, 2000. 59–81.
• Lemire, Elise (July 2002). "Miscegenation": Making Race in America. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press. ISBN 978-0-8122-3664-4.
• Novkov, J. (2002). "Racial Constructions: The Legal Regulation of Miscegenation in Alabama, 1890–1934". Law and History Review. 20 (2): 225–277. doi:10.2307/744035. JSTOR 744035. S2CID 145460865.
• Werner Sollors, ed. (19 October 2000). Interracialism: Black-White Intermarriage in American History, Literature, and Law (Sollors, Werner ed.). Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-512856-7.
• Hodes, Martha, ed. (1998). "Miscegenation". Reader's Companion to U.S. Women's History. New York, Boston: Houghton Mifflin Company. ISBN 978-0-395-67173-3.
• Jacobson, Matthew Frye, Whiteness of a different color. European Immigrants and the Alchemy of Race, Harvard University Press, 1998.

External links

• The dictionary definition of miscegenation at Wiktionary
• Media related to Miscegenation at Wikimedia Commons

• Interracial relationships