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{{short description|Species of plant}}
{{Italic title}}
{{Use mdy dates|date=August 2014}}
{{taxobox
{{speciesbox
|name = ''Oryza sativa''
|image = Rice Plants (IRRI).jpg |image=Mature Rice (India) by Augustus Binu.jpg
|image_caption=Mature seed heads
|regnum = ]ae
|image2=Oryza sativa at Kadavoor.jpg
|divisio = ]
|image2_caption=Inflorescence
|classis = ]
|genus=Oryza
|ordo = ]
|species=sativa
|familia = ]
|authority=]
|genus = '']''
|synonyms_ref=<ref name="316812-2" >{{cite web |url=https://powo.science.kew.org/taxon/urn:lsid:ipni.org:names:316812-2 |title=''Oryza sativa'' L. |author=<!--Not stated--> |date=2017 |website= ] |publisher=Board of Trustees of the Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew |access-date=21 December 2020 }}</ref>
|species = '''''O. sativa'''''
|synonyms={{collapsible list|
|binomial = ''Oryza sativa''
* ''Oryza aristata'' <small>Blanco</small>
|binomial_authority = ]
* ''Oryza communissima'' <small>Lour.</small>
|}}
* ''Oryza denudata'' <small>(Desv.) Steud.</small>
'''''Oryza sativa''''', ] as '''Asian rice''', is the plant species most commonly referred to in English as ]. ''Oryza sativa'' is the ] with the smallest ], consisting of just 430] across 12 chromosomes. It is renowned for being easy to genetically modify, and is a model organism for cereal biology.
* ''Oryza elongata'' <small>(Desv.) Steud.</small>
* ''Oryza formosana'' <small>Masam. & Suzuki</small>
* ''Oryza glutinosa'' <small>Lour.</small>
* ''Oryza marginata'' <small>(Desv.) Steud.</small>
* ''Oryza montana'' <small>Lour.</small>
* ''Oryza mutica'' <small>Steud.</small>
* ''Oryza palustris'' <small>Salisb.</small>
* ''Oryza parviflora'' <small>P.Beauv.</small>
* ''Oryza perennis'' <small>Moench</small>
* ''Oryza plena'' <small>(Prain) N.P.Chowdhury</small>
* ''Oryza praecox'' <small>Lour.</small>
* ''Oryza pubescens'' <small>(Desv.) Steud.</small>
* ''Oryza pumila'' <small>Steud.</small>
* ''Oryza repens'' <small>Buch.-Ham. ex Steud.</small>
* ''Oryza rubribarbis'' <small>(Desv.) Steud.</small>
* ''Oryza sativa'' subsp. ''indica'' <small>Shig.Kato</small>
* ''Oryza sativa'' subsp. ''japonica'' <small>Shig.Kato</small>
* ''Oryza segetalis'' <small>Russell ex Steud.</small>
}}}}


'''''Oryza sativa''''', having the common name '''Asian cultivated rice''',<ref>{{cite web|author= |title=Oryza sativa (Asian cultivated rice) |publisher=National Library of Medicine |url= https://pubchem.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/taxonomy/Oryza-sativa |date= |accessdate=24 July 2024 }}</ref> is the much more common of the two ] species cultivated as a ], the other species being '']'', African rice. It was ] in the ] basin in China 13,500 to 8,200 years ago.<ref name="Normile">{{cite journal |last=Normile |first=Dennis |year=1997 |title=Yangtze seen as earliest rice site |journal=Science |volume=275 |issue=5298 |pages=309–310 |doi=10.1126/science.275.5298.309 |s2cid=140691699}}</ref><ref name="Vaughanetal2008">{{cite journal |last1=Vaughan |first1=D.A. |last2=Lu |first2=B. |last3=Tomooka |first3=N. |year=2008 |title=The evolving story of rice evolution |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/222526251 |journal=Plant Science |volume=174 |issue=4 |pages=394–408 |doi=10.1016/j.plantsci.2008.01.016|bibcode=2008PlnSc.174..394V }}</ref><ref name="harris">{{cite book |last=Harris |first=David R. |title=The Origins and Spread of Agriculture and Pastoralism in Eurasia |publisher=Psychology Press |year=1996 |isbn=978-1-85728-538-3 |page=565}}</ref><ref name="Zhang2012">{{cite journal |last1=Zhang |first1=Jianping |last2=Lu |first2=Houyuan |last3=Gu |first3=Wanfa |last4=Wu |first4=Naiqin |last5=Zhou |first5=Kunshu |last6=Hu |first6=Yayi |last7=Xin |first7=Yingjun |last8=Wang |first8=Can |last9=Kashkush |first9=Khalil |date=December 17, 2012 |title=Early Mixed Farming of Millet and Rice 7800 Years Ago in the Middle Yellow River Region, China |journal=PLOS ONE |volume=7 |issue=12 |pages=e52146 |bibcode=2012PLoSO...752146Z |doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0052146 |pmc=3524165 |pmid=23284907 |doi-access=free}}</ref>
==Classification==
''Oryza sativa'' contains two major subspecies: the sticky, short grained ''japonica'' or ''sinica'' variety, and the non-sticky, long-grained '']'' variety. ''Japonica'' are usually cultivated in dry fields, in temperate East Asia, upland areas of Southeast Asia and high elevations in South Asia, while ''indica'' are mainly lowland rices, grown mostly submerged, throughout tropical Asia. Rice is known to come in a variety of colors, including: white, brown, black, purple, and red.<ref>Oka (1988)</ref>


''Oryza sativa'' belongs to the genus '']'' and the ] in the grass family ]. With a ] consisting of 430{{nbsp}}] across 12 ]s, it is renowned for being easy to ] and is a ] for the study of the biology of ]s and ].<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Haberer |first1=Georg |last2=Mayer |first2=Klaus F.X. |last3=Spannagl |first3=Manuel |date=2016-04-01 |title=The big five of the monocot genomes |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1369526616300048 |journal=Current Opinion in Plant Biology |series=SI: 30: Genome studies and molecular genetics |volume=30 |pages=33–40 |doi=10.1016/j.pbi.2016.01.004 |pmid=26866569 |bibcode=2016COPB...30...33H |issn=1369-5266}}</ref>
A third subspecies, which is broad-grained and thrives under tropical conditions, was identified based on morphology and initially called ''javanica'', but is now known as ''tropical japonica''. Examples of this variety include the medium grain 'Tinawon' and 'Unoy' cultivars, which are grown in the high-elevation rice terraces of the ] of northern ], Philippines.<ref>CECAP, PhilRice and IIRR. 2000. “Highland Rice Production in the Philippine Cordillera.”</ref>


== Description ==
Glaszmann (1987) used ]s to sort ''Oryza sativa'' into six groups: ''japonica'', ''aromatic'', ''indica'', ''aus'', ''rayada'', and ''ashina''.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Glaszmann|first=J. C.|year=2004|title=Isozymes and classification of Asian rice varieties|journal=Theoretical and Applied Genetics}}</ref>


''O. sativa'' has an erect stalk stem that grows {{cvt|80|-|120|cm|round=5}} tall, with a smooth surface. The leaf is lanceolate, {{cvt|15|-|30|cm|frac=8}} long, and grows from a ] {{cvt|10|-|20|mm|frac=8}} long.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Catindig |first1=J.L.A. |last2=Lubigan |first2=R.T. |last3=Johnson |first3=D. |date=n.d. |title=Oryza sativa |url=http://www.knowledgebank.irri.org/training/fact-sheets/item/oryza-sativa |website=Rice Knowledge Bank |publisher=] |access-date=29 June 2023}}</ref>
Garris ''et al.'' (2004) used ]s to sort ''Oryza sativa'' into five groups; ''temperate japonica'', ''tropical japonica'' and ''aromatic'' comprise the ''japonica'' varieties, while ''indica'' and ''aus'' comprise the ''indica'' varieties.<ref>{{cite journal|author=Garris ''et al.''|year=2004|title=Genetic structure and diversity in ''Oryza sativa'' L.|journal=Genetics|url=http://www.genetics.org/cgi/content/abstract/genetics.104.035642v1?ck=nck|pmid=15654106|doi=10.1534/genetics.104.035642|last2=Tai|first2=TH|last3=Coburn|first3=J|last4=Kresovich|first4=S|last5=McCouch|first5=S|volume=169|issue=3|pages=1631–8|pmc=1449546}}</ref>


<gallery mode="packed">
== Nomenclature and taxonomy ==
Image:Kerbau Jawa.jpg|] ploughing a rice paddyfield, ]
]
File:Jumli Marshi Oryza sativa Rice.jpg|Jumli Marshi, brown rice from Nepal
]
File:Niyamgiri rice.jpg|Traditional rice of ], India
]</br>B: ]</br>C:Rice with ]</br>D: ] with ] ]</br>E:Musenmai (Japanese:]), "Polished and ready to boil rice", literally, non-wash rice</br>(1):]</br>(2):]</br>(3):Bran ]</br>(4):]</br>(5):]]]
File:Medicinal Rice.jpg|From ]
{{Expand section|date=December 2009}}
File:Koeh-232.jpg|
File:RiceStemcs400x1.jpg|Stem ] magnified 400 times
</gallery>


==List of the cultivars == == Classification ==
]]]
* Indica<ref name=mcap>{{cite journal
| last = Lapitan
| first = Victoria C. ''et al.''
| title = Molecular characterization and agronomic performance of DH lines from the F1 of indica and japonica cultivars of rice (''Oryza sativa'' L.)
| journal = Field Crops Research
| volume = 112
| issue = 2-3
| pages = 222–8
| year = 2009
| doi = 10.1016/j.fcr.2009.03.008
| last2 = Redoña
| first2 = Edilberto D.
| last3 = Abe
| first3 = Toshinori
| last4 = Brar
| first4 = Darshan S.}}</ref> (long grain)
* Japonica<ref name=mcap /> (short grain)


{{see also|History of rice cultivation|List of rice varieties}}
{{Expand section|date=December 2009}}
{{See|List of rice varieties}}


The generic name '']''<ref name="oryza-MW">{{cite Merriam-Webster|oryza}}</ref> is a classical Latin word for rice, while the specific epithet '']'' means "cultivated".<ref name="sativa-dict">{{cite Lexico|sativa}}</ref><ref>{{cite Merriam-Webster|sativa}}</ref>
== History of domestication and cultivation ==


''Oryza sativa'' contains two major subspecies: the sticky, short-grained ] variety, and the nonsticky, long-grained ''{{visible anchor |indica}}'' {{small |1={{bracket |{{ill|籼稻|zh|vertical-align=sup}}}} {{bracket |{{ill|インディカ米|ja|vertical-align=sup}}}}}} rice variety. ''Japonica'' was domesticated in the ] 9–6,000 years ago,<ref name="Purugganan-Fuller-2009">{{cite journal |last1=Purugganan |first1=Michael D. |last2=Fuller |first2=Dorian Q. |title=The nature of selection during plant domestication |journal=] |publisher=] |volume=457 |issue=7231 |year=2009 |issn=0028-0836 |doi=10.1038/nature07895 |pages=843–848 |pmid=19212403 |bibcode=2009Natur.457..843P |s2cid=205216444 }}</ref> and its varieties can be cultivated in dry fields (it is cultivated mainly submerged in Japan), in temperate East Asia, upland areas of Southeast Asia, and high elevations in South Asia, while ''indica'' was domesticated around the ] 8,500–4,500 years ago,<ref name="Purugganan-Fuller-2009" /> and its varieties are mainly lowland rices, grown mostly submerged, throughout tropical Asia. Rice grain occurs in a variety of colors, including ], ], ] (purple when cooked), and ].<ref>Oka (1988)</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Mohammadi Shad |first1=Z. |last2=Atungulu |first2=G. |title=Post-harvest kernel discoloration and fungi activity in long-grain hybrid, pureline and medium-grain rice cultivars as influenced by storage environment and antifungal treatment |journal=Journal of Stored Products Research |date=March 2019 |volume=81 |pages=91–99 |doi=10.1016/j.jspr.2019.02.002 |s2cid=92050510 |doi-access=free}}</ref>
=== Origins ===


A third subspecies, which is broad-grained and thrives under tropical conditions, was identified based on morphology and initially called ''javanica'', but is now known as ''tropical japonica''. Examples of this variety include the medium-grain 'Tinawon' and 'Unoy' cultivars, which are grown in the high-elevation rice ]s of the ] of northern ], Philippines.<ref>CECAP, PhilRice and IIRR. 2000. "Highland Rice Production in the Philippine Cordillera."</ref>
There have been plenty of debates on the origins of the domesticated rice. However, in 2011, a combined effort by ], ], ], and ] has provided conclusive evidence that domesticated rice has a single origin in the ] of ].<ref>http://www.sciencenewsline.com/biology/2011050313000047.html</ref>


Glaszmann (1987) used ]s to sort ''O. sativa'' into six groups: '']'', ''aromatic'', ''indica'', ''aus'', ''rayada'', and ''ashina''.<ref name="Glaszmann 1987">{{cite journal |last1=Glaszmann |first1=J. C. |title=Isozymes and classification of Asian rice varieties |journal=Theoretical and Applied Genetics |date=May 1987 |volume=74 |issue=1 |pages=21–30 |doi=10.1007/BF00290078 |pmid=24241451 |s2cid=22829122}}</ref>
The precise date of the first domestication is unknown, but depending on the molecular clock estimate used by the scientists, the date is estimated to be 8,200 to 13,500 years ago. This is consistent with known archaeological data on the subject.<ref>http://www.pnas.org/content/early/2011/04/27/1104686108.short</ref>


Garris ''et al.'' (2004) used ]s to sort ''O. sativa'' into five groups: '']'', ''tropical japonica'' and ''aromatic'' comprise the ''japonica'' varieties, while ''indica'' and ''aus'' comprise the ''indica'' varieties.<ref name="Garris Tai Coburn 2004">{{cite journal |last1=Garris |first1=Amanda J. |last2=Tai |first2=T. H. |last3=Coburn |first3=J. |last4=Kresovich |first4=S. |last5=McCouch |first5=S. |author5-link=Susan McCouch |year=2004 |title=Genetic structure and diversity in ''Oryza sativa'' L. |journal=] |pmid=15654106 |doi=10.1534/genetics.104.035642 |volume=169 |issue=3 |pages=1631–1638 |pmc=1449546}}</ref> The Garris scheme has held up against newer analyses as of 2019,<ref name=civan>{{cite journal |last1=Civáň |first1=Peter |last2=Ali |first2=Sajid |last3=Batista-Navarro |first3=Riza |last4=Drosou |first4=Konstantina |last5=Ihejieto |first5=Chioma |last6=Chakraborty |first6=Debarati |last7=Ray |first7=Avik |last8=Gladieux |first8=Pierre |last9=Brown |first9=Terence A |title=Origin of the Aromatic Group of Cultivated Rice ( Oryza sativa L.) Traced to the Indian Subcontinent |journal=Genome Biology and Evolution |date=2019-03-01 |volume=11 |issue=3 |pages=832–843 |doi=10.1093/gbe/evz039|pmid=30793171 |pmc=6427689 }}</ref> though one 2014 article argues that ''rayada'' is distinct enough to be its own group under ''japonica''.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Wang |first1=C-H |last2=Zheng |first2=X-M |last3=Xu |first3=Q |last4=Yuan |first4=X-P |last5=Huang |first5=L |last6=Zhou |first6=H-F |last7=Wei |first7=X-H |last8=Ge |first8=S |title=Genetic diversity and classification of Oryza sativa with emphasis on Chinese rice germplasm |journal=Heredity |date=May 2014 |volume=112 |issue=5 |pages=489–496 |doi=10.1038/hdy.2013.130|pmid=24326293 |pmc=3998783 }}</ref>
==== Earlier debates ====


== Genetics ==
Based on one ] and two ] regions, Londo ''et al.'' (2006) concluded ''Oryza sativa'' rice was domesticated at least twice—''indica'' in eastern ], ] and ]; and ''japonica'' in southern ] and ]—though they concede that there is archaeological and genetic evidence for a single domestication of rice in the lowlands of China.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Londo JP, Chiang YC, Hung KH, Chiang TY, Schaal BA |title=Phylogeography of Asian wild rice, ''Oryza rufipogon'', reveals multiple independent domestications of cultivated rice, ''Oryza sativa'' |journal=Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. |volume=103 |issue=25 |pages=9578–83 |year=2006 |month=June |pmid=16766658 |pmc=1480449 |doi=10.1073/pnas.0603152103 |url=http://www.pnas.org/content/103/25/9578.long}}</ref> (See "Origins" section directly above for the latest updates)


{{visible anchor|SPL14}}/{{visible anchor|LOC4345998}} is a gene that regulates the overall ]/] of the plant. Some of its ]s increase rice yield.<ref name="Stange-et-al-2021">{{cite journal |last1=Stange |first1=Madlen |last2=Barrett |first2=Rowan D. H. |last3=Hendry |first3=Andrew P. |title=The importance of genomic variation for biodiversity, ecosystems and people |journal=] |publisher=] |volume=22 |issue=2 |date=February 2021 |issn=1471-0056 |doi=10.1038/s41576-020-00288-7 |pages=89–105 |pmid=33067582 |s2cid=223559538|id=MS ] ). (RDHB ] )}}</ref> An accurate and usable ] marker set was developed and used to generate a ].<ref name="Rasheed-et-al-2017" /> A multiplex ] system has been developed but as with other crop HTMAS systems has proven difficult to customize, costly (both directly and for the equipment), and inflexible.<ref name="Rasheed-et-al-2017">{{cite journal|publisher=]|last1=Rasheed |first1=Awais |last2=Hao |first2=Yuanfeng |last3=Xia |first3=Xianchun |last4=Khan |first4=Awais |last5=Xu |first5=Yunbi |last6=Varshney |first6=Rajeev K. |last7=He |first7=Zhonghu |title=Crop Breeding Chips and Genotyping Platforms: Progress, Challenges, and Perspectives |journal=]|id=]+Chinese Society for Plant Biology+]|volume=10|issue=8|year=2017 |issn=1674-2052 |doi=10.1016/j.molp.2017.06.008 |pages=1047–1064 |s2cid=33780984 |pmid=28669791|doi-access=free }}</ref> Other ] tools have produced ] resistant cultivars.<ref name="Miah-et-al-2012">{{cite journal |last1=Miah |first1=G. |last2=Rafii |first2=M. Y. |last3=Ismail |first3=M. R. |last4=Puteh |first4=A. B. |last5=Rahim |first5=H. A. |last6=Asfaliza |first6=R. |last7=Latif |first7=M. A. |title=Blast resistance in rice: a review of conventional breeding to molecular approaches |journal=] |publisher=] |volume=40 |issue=3 |date=2012-11-27 |issn=0301-4851 |doi=10.1007/s11033-012-2318-0 |pages=2369–2388|pmid=23184051 |s2cid=8922855 |url=http://psasir.upm.edu.my/id/eprint/29230/1/29230.pdf }}</ref><ref name="Rao-et-al-2014">{{cite journal |last1=Rao |first1=Yuchun |last2=Li |first2=Yuanyuan |last3=Qian |first3=Qian |title=Recent progress on molecular breeding of rice in China |journal=] |publisher=] |volume=33 |issue=4 |date=2014-01-19 |issn=0721-7714 |doi=10.1007/s00299-013-1551-x |pages=551–564|pmid=24442397 |pmc=3976512 }}</ref><ref name="Rasheed-et-al-2017" /> ] has been used to advance understanding of ] in rice, ] has been used to elucidate seedling vigor, and ] (GWAS) by ] (WGS) has been used to investigate various ]s.<ref name="Rasheed-et-al-2017" />
] rice fields in ], ] Province, southern ]]]


In total, 641 ]s are known.<ref name="Rasheed-et-al-2017" /> ] often reveals new ]s in rice, due to its large genome and high degree of DNA repetition.<ref name="Rasheed-et-al-2017" />
Because the functional ] for nonshattering, the critical indicator of domestication in grains, as well as five other ]s, is identical in both ''indica'' and ''japonica'', Vaughan ''et al.'' (2008) determined there was a single domestication event for ''Oryza sativa'' in the region of the Yangtze river valley.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Vaughan ''et al.'' |year=2008 |title=The evolving story of rice evolution |journal=Plant Science |volume=174 |issue=4 |pages=394–408 |doi=10.1016/j.plantsci.2008.01.016|last2=Lu|first2=B|last3=Tomooka|first3=N}}</ref>


Resistance to the rice blast fungus '']'' is provided by various ]s including ''{{visible anchor|Pi1}}'', ''{{visible anchor|Pi54}}'', and ''{{visible anchor|Pita}}''.<ref name="Mehta-et-al-2019">{{cite book |editor-last=Wani |editor-first=Shabir Hussain |title=Disease Resistance in Crop Plants: Molecular, Genetic and Genomic Perspectives |publisher=] |year=2019 |isbn=978-3-030-20727-4 |oclc=1110184027 |pages=83–112/xii+307 |chapter=5 Rice, Marker-Assisted Breeding, and Disease Resistance |last1=Mehta |first1=Sahil |last2=Singh |first2=Baljinder |last3=Dhakate |first3=Priyanka |last4=Rahman |first4=Mehzabin |last5=Islam |first5=Muhammad Aminul}}</ref> ''O. sativa'' uses the plant hormones ] and ] to regulate immune responses. Salicylic acid broadly stimulates, and abscisic acid suppresses, immunity to ''M. grisea''; success depends on the balance between their levels.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Pieterse |first1=Corné M.J. |last2=Van der Does |first2=Dieuwertje |last3=Zamioudis |first3=Christos |last4=Leon-Reyes |first4=Antonio |last5=Van Wees |first5=Saskia C.M. |title=Hormonal Modulation of Plant Immunity |journal=] |publisher=] |volume=28 |issue=1 |date=2012-11-10 |issn=1081-0706 |doi=10.1146/annurev-cellbio-092910-154055 |pages=489–521 |s2cid=18180536 |pmid=22559264|hdl=1874/274421 |url=https://dspace.library.uu.nl/handle/1874/274421 |ref=none}}
=== Continental East Asia ===
|{{cite journal|publisher=] |last1=Atkinson |first1=Nicky J. |last2=Urwin |first2=Peter E. |title=The interaction of plant biotic and abiotic stresses: from genes to the field |journal=] |volume=63 |issue=10 |date=2012-03-30 |issn=0022-0957 |doi=10.1093/jxb/ers100 |pages=3523–3543 |s2cid=205195661 |pmid=22467407|doi-access=free}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Liu |first1=Wende |last2=Liu |first2=Jinling |last3=Triplett |first3=Lindsay |last4=Leach |first4=Jan E. |last5=Wang |first5=Guo-Liang |title=Novel Insights into Rice Innate Immunity Against Bacterial and Fungal Pathogens |journal=] |publisher=] |volume=52 |issue=1 |date=2014-08-04 |issn=0066-4286 |doi=10.1146/annurev-phyto-102313-045926 |pages=213–241 |s2cid=9244874 |pmid=21380629}}</ref>
Rice appears to have been used by the early ] populations of Lijiacun and Yunchanyan.<ref name="Crawford and Shen 1998">Crawford and Shen 1998</ref> Evidence of possible rice cultivation in ] from c. 11,500 ] has been found, however it is still questioned whether the rice was indeed being cultivated, or instead being ] as wild rice.<ref name="Harrington">{{cite journal |last=Harrington |first=Spencer P.M. |date=June 11, 1997 |title=Earliest Rice |journal=Archaeology |publisher=Archaeological Institute of America | url =http://www.archaeology.org/online/news/rice.html |quote=Rice cultivation began in China ca. 11,500 years ago, some 3,500 years earlier than previously believed}}</ref> Bruce Smith, an archaeologist at the ] in Washington, D.C., who has written on the origins of ], says that evidence has been mounting that the ] was probably the site of the earliest rice cultivation.<ref name="Normile">{{cite journal|last=Normile|first=Dennis|year=1997|title=Yangtze seen as earliest rice site|journal=Science|volume=275|issue=5298|pages=309–310|doi=10.1126/science.275.5298.309}}</ref>


''O. sativa'' has a large number of ] specifically for the ].<ref name="Wang-Han-2022">{{cite journal |last1=Wang |first1=Changsheng |last2=Han |first2=Bin |title=Twenty years of rice genomics research: From sequencing and functional genomics to quantitative genomics |journal=] |publisher=] |volume=15 |issue=4 |year=2022 |issn=1674-2052 |doi=10.1016/j.molp.2022.03.009 |pmid=35331914 |pages=593–619|s2cid=247603925 |doi-access=free }}</ref> {{As of|2022}}, 15 ]s have been cloned and characterized.<ref name="Wang-Han-2022" />
Zhao (1998) argues that collection of wild rice in the ] had, by 6400 BC, led to the use of primarily domesticated rice.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Zhao, Z. |title=The Middle Yangtze Region in China is the Place Where Rice was Domesticated: Phytolithic Evidence from the Diaotonghuan Cave, Northern Jiangxi |journal=Antiquity |volume=72 |issue=278 |pages=885–897 |year=1998 |month=December |url=http://www.antiquity.ac.uk/ant/072/Ant0720885.htm}}</ref> Morphological studies of rice ]s from the Diaotonghuan archaeological site clearly show the transition from the collection of wild rice to the cultivation of domesticated rice. The large number of wild rice phytoliths at the Diaotonghuan level dating from 12,000–11,000 BP indicates that wild rice collection was part of the local means of subsistence. Changes in the morphology of Diaotonghuan phytoliths dating from 10,000–8,000 BP show that rice had by this time been domesticated.<ref>] and Libby J. eds. (1995) ''Origins of Rice Agriculture''. Publications in Anthropology No. 13.</ref> Analysis of Chinese rice residues from ], which were ] to 8200–7800 BCE, show that rice had been domesticated by this time.<ref>''The Formation of Chinese Civilization'' (2005), pp. 298</ref>


== See also ==
In 1998, Crawford and Shen reported the earliest of 14 AMS or radiocarbon dates on rice from at least nine Early to Middle Neolithic sites is no older than 7000 BC, that rice from the ] and Luojiajiao sites indicates that rice domestication likely began before 5000 BC, but that most sites in China from which rice remains have been recovered are younger than 5000 BC.<ref name="Crawford and Shen 1998" />


* ]
=== South Asia ===
* ]
* ]


== References ==
]]]


{{reflist|30em}}
Wild ''Oryza'' rice appeared in the Belan and ] valley regions of ] as early as 4530 BC and 5440 BC, respectively,<ref name="smith2000" /> although many believe it may have appeared earlier. The Encyclopædia Britannica—on the subject of the first certain cultivated rice—holds that:<ref>{{cite encyclopedia | encyclopedia =Encyclopædia Britannica | title = rice | url = http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/502259/rice | year = 2008 | publisher = Encyclopædia Britannica}}</ref>


== External links ==
{{Quotation1|Many cultures have evidence of early rice cultivation, including China, India, and the civilizations of Southeast Asia. However, the earliest archaeological evidence comes from central and eastern China and dates to 7000–5000 BC.}}


* {{Wikispecies-inline|Oryza sativa}}
Denis J. Murphy (2007) further details the spread of cultivated rice from India into ]:<ref name="Murphy178">{{cite book |author=Murphy, Denis J. |title=People, Plants and Genes: The Story of Crops and Humanity |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=2007 |page=178 |isbn=0-19-920713-5 }}</ref>
* {{Commons category-inline|Oryza sativa}}


{{Rice}}
{{Quotation1|Several wild cereals, including rice, grew in the ], and rice cultivation, at sites such as Chopani-Mando and Mahagara, may have been underway as early as 7000 BP. The relative isolation of this area and the early development of rice farming imply that it was developed indigenously.
{{Taxonbar|from=Q161426}}
{{Authority control}}


]
Chopani-Mando and Mahagara are located on the upper reaches of the ] drainage system, and it is likely that migrants from this area spread rice farming down the Ganges valley into the fertile plains of ], and beyond into south-east Asia.}}
]

]
Rice was cultivated in the ].<ref name="Kahn">Kahn, Charles (2005).''World History: Societies of the Past''. Portage & Main Press. 92. ISBN 1553790456.</ref> Agricultural activity during the second millennium BC included rice cultivation in the ] and ] regions.<ref name="smith2000">Smith, C. Wayne (2000). ''Sorghum: Origin, History, Technology, and Production''. John Wiley and Sons. ISBN 0471242373.</ref> Mixed farming was the basis of Indus valley economy.<ref name="Kahn" />
]

According to Zohary and Hopf (2000, p.&nbsp;91), ''O. sativa'' was recovered from a grave at ] in Iran (dated to the 1st century AD) at one end of the ancient world, while at the same time rice was grown in the ] valley in Italy.

Punjab is the largest producer and consumer of rice in India.

=== Korean peninsula and Japanese archipelago ===

], ''Rice field in Oki province, view of O-Yama''.]]

Mainstream archaeological evidence derived from palaeoethnobotanical investigations indicate dry-land rice was introduced to ] and ] some time between 3500 and 1200 BC. The cultivation of rice in Korea and Japan during that time occurred on a small-scale, fields were impermanent plots, and evidence shows that in some cases domesticated and wild grains were planted together. The technological, subsistence, and social impact of rice and grain cultivation is not evident in archaeological data until after 1500 BC. For example, intensive wet-] rice agriculture was introduced into Korea shortly before or during the Middle ] (c. 850–550 BC) and reached Japan by the final ] or initial ] periods c. 300 BC.<ref name="Crawford and Shen 1998" /><ref>{{cite journal |author=Crawford, G.W. and G.-A. Lee. |title=Agricultural Origins in the Korean Peninsula |journal=Antiquity |volume=77 |issue=295 |pages=87–95 |year=2003 |month=March |url=http://www.antiquity.ac.uk/ant/077/Ant0770087.htm}}</ref>

In 2003, Korean archaeologists alleged they discovered burnt grains of domesticated rice in Soro-ri, Korea, which dated to 13,000 BC. These predate the oldest grains in China, which were dated to 10,000 BC, and potentially challenge the mainstream explanation that domesticated rice originated in China.<ref></ref> The findings were received by academia with strong skepticism, and the results and their publicizing has been cited as being driven by a combination of nationalist and regional interests.<ref>{{Cite book | first=Minkoo |last=Kim |contribution=Multivocality, Multifaceted Voices, and Korean Archaeology |title=Evaluating Multiple Narratives: Beyond Nationalist, Colonialist, Imperialist Archaeologies |publisher = Springer|location= New York |year =2008 |isbn=978-0-387-76459-7}}</ref>

=== Southeast Asia ===

] to plough ] in ]; Indonesia is the world's third-largest paddy rice producer, and its cultivation has transformed much of the country's landscape.]]

Rice is the staple for all classes in contemporary ], from ] to ]. In Indonesia, evidence of wild ''Oryza'' rice on the island of ] dates from 3000 BCE. The evidence for the earliest cultivation, however, comes from eighth-century stone inscriptions from ], which show kings levied taxes in rice. Divisions of labor between men, women, and animals that are still in place in Indonesian rice cultivation, can be seen carved into the ninth-century ] in ]. In the 16th century, Europeans visiting the Indonesian islands saw rice as a new prestige food served to the aristocracy during ceremonies and feasts. Rice production in Indonesian history is linked to the development of iron tools and the domestication of ] for cultivation of fields and ] for fertilizer. Once covered in dense forest, much of the Indonesian landscape has been gradually cleared for permanent fields and settlements as rice cultivation developed over the last 1500 years.<ref>{{cite book |last=Taylor|first=Jean Gelman|title=Indonesia: Peoples and Histories|publisher=Yale University Press|year=2003 |location= New Haven and London|url= |doi= |pages=8–9|isbn= 0-300-10518-5}}</ref>
]]]
In the ], the greatest evidence of rice cultivation since ancient times can be found in the ] of ] in the provinces of ], ], ] and ]. The ] (]: ''Hagdan-hagdang Palayan ng Banaue'') are 2,000 to 3,000-year-old terraces that were carved into the mountains by ancestors of the Batad indigenous people. It is commonly thought that the terraces were built with minimal equipment, largely by hand. The terraces are located approximately 1,500 meters (5,000&nbsp;ft) above sea level and cover 10,360 square kilometers (about 4,000 square miles) of mountainside. They are fed by an ancient irrigation system from the rainforests above the terraces. It is said that if the steps are put end to end it would encircle half the globe. The Rice Terraces (a ]) are commonly referred to by Filipinos as the "Eighth Wonder of the World".

Evidence of wet rice cultivation as early as 2200 BC has been discovered at both ] and Ban Prasat in ].

By the 19th century, encroaching European expansionism in the area increased rice production in much of Southeast Asia, and ], then known as ]. ] became the world's largest exporter of rice, from the turn of the 20th century to the 1970s, when neighbouring ].

==See also==
* ]
* ]
* '']''

==References==
{{wikispecies|Oryza sativa}}
{{commons category|Oryza sativa}}
{{Reflist}}

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Latest revision as of 23:01, 22 December 2024

Species of plant

Oryza sativa
Mature seed heads
Inflorescence
Scientific classification Edit this classification
Kingdom: Plantae
Clade: Tracheophytes
Clade: Angiosperms
Clade: Monocots
Clade: Commelinids
Order: Poales
Family: Poaceae
Genus: Oryza
Species: O. sativa
Binomial name
Oryza sativa
L.
Synonyms
List
    • Oryza aristata Blanco
    • Oryza communissima Lour.
    • Oryza denudata (Desv.) Steud.
    • Oryza elongata (Desv.) Steud.
    • Oryza formosana Masam. & Suzuki
    • Oryza glutinosa Lour.
    • Oryza marginata (Desv.) Steud.
    • Oryza montana Lour.
    • Oryza mutica Steud.
    • Oryza palustris Salisb.
    • Oryza parviflora P.Beauv.
    • Oryza perennis Moench
    • Oryza plena (Prain) N.P.Chowdhury
    • Oryza praecox Lour.
    • Oryza pubescens (Desv.) Steud.
    • Oryza pumila Steud.
    • Oryza repens Buch.-Ham. ex Steud.
    • Oryza rubribarbis (Desv.) Steud.
    • Oryza sativa subsp. indica Shig.Kato
    • Oryza sativa subsp. japonica Shig.Kato
    • Oryza segetalis Russell ex Steud.

Oryza sativa, having the common name Asian cultivated rice, is the much more common of the two rice species cultivated as a cereal, the other species being O. glaberrima, African rice. It was first domesticated in the Yangtze River basin in China 13,500 to 8,200 years ago.

Oryza sativa belongs to the genus Oryza and the BOP clade in the grass family Poaceae. With a genome consisting of 430 Mbp across 12 chromosomes, it is renowned for being easy to genetically modify and is a model organism for the study of the biology of cereals and monocots.

Description

O. sativa has an erect stalk stem that grows 80–120 cm (30–45 in) tall, with a smooth surface. The leaf is lanceolate, 15–30 cm (5+7⁄8–11+3⁄4 in) long, and grows from a ligule 10–20 mm (3⁄8–3⁄4 in) long.

Classification

See also: History of rice cultivation and List of rice varieties

The generic name Oryza is a classical Latin word for rice, while the specific epithet sativa means "cultivated".

Oryza sativa contains two major subspecies: the sticky, short-grained japonica or sinica variety, and the nonsticky, long-grained indica [籼稻] [インディカ米] rice variety. Japonica was domesticated in the Yangtze Valley 9–6,000 years ago, and its varieties can be cultivated in dry fields (it is cultivated mainly submerged in Japan), in temperate East Asia, upland areas of Southeast Asia, and high elevations in South Asia, while indica was domesticated around the Ganges 8,500–4,500 years ago, and its varieties are mainly lowland rices, grown mostly submerged, throughout tropical Asia. Rice grain occurs in a variety of colors, including white, brown, black (purple when cooked), and red.

A third subspecies, which is broad-grained and thrives under tropical conditions, was identified based on morphology and initially called javanica, but is now known as tropical japonica. Examples of this variety include the medium-grain 'Tinawon' and 'Unoy' cultivars, which are grown in the high-elevation rice terraces of the Central Cordillera Mountains of northern Luzon, Philippines.

Glaszmann (1987) used isozymes to sort O. sativa into six groups: japonica, aromatic, indica, aus, rayada, and ashina.

Garris et al. (2004) used simple sequence repeats to sort O. sativa into five groups: temperate japonica, tropical japonica and aromatic comprise the japonica varieties, while indica and aus comprise the indica varieties. The Garris scheme has held up against newer analyses as of 2019, though one 2014 article argues that rayada is distinct enough to be its own group under japonica.

Genetics

SPL14/LOC4345998 is a gene that regulates the overall architecture/growth habit of the plant. Some of its epialleles increase rice yield. An accurate and usable simple sequence repeat marker set was developed and used to generate a high-density map. A multiplex high-throughput marker assisted selection system has been developed but as with other crop HTMAS systems has proven difficult to customize, costly (both directly and for the equipment), and inflexible. Other molecular breeding tools have produced rice blast resistant cultivars. DNA microarray has been used to advance understanding of hybrid vigor in rice, QTL sequencing has been used to elucidate seedling vigor, and genome wide association study (GWAS) by whole genome sequencing (WGS) has been used to investigate various agronomic traits.

In total, 641 copy number variations are known. Exome capture often reveals new single nucleotide polymorphisms in rice, due to its large genome and high degree of DNA repetition.

Resistance to the rice blast fungus Magnaporthe grisea is provided by various resistance genes including Pi1, Pi54, and Pita. O. sativa uses the plant hormones abscisic acid and salicylic acid to regulate immune responses. Salicylic acid broadly stimulates, and abscisic acid suppresses, immunity to M. grisea; success depends on the balance between their levels.

O. sativa has a large number of insect resistance genes specifically for the brown planthopper. As of 2022, 15 R genes have been cloned and characterized.

See also

References

  1. "Oryza sativa L." Plants of the World Online. Board of Trustees of the Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew. 2017. Retrieved December 21, 2020.
  2. "Oryza sativa (Asian cultivated rice)". National Library of Medicine. Retrieved July 24, 2024.
  3. Normile, Dennis (1997). "Yangtze seen as earliest rice site". Science. 275 (5298): 309–310. doi:10.1126/science.275.5298.309. S2CID 140691699.
  4. Vaughan, D.A.; Lu, B.; Tomooka, N. (2008). "The evolving story of rice evolution". Plant Science. 174 (4): 394–408. Bibcode:2008PlnSc.174..394V. doi:10.1016/j.plantsci.2008.01.016.
  5. Harris, David R. (1996). The Origins and Spread of Agriculture and Pastoralism in Eurasia. Psychology Press. p. 565. ISBN 978-1-85728-538-3.
  6. Zhang, Jianping; Lu, Houyuan; Gu, Wanfa; Wu, Naiqin; Zhou, Kunshu; Hu, Yayi; Xin, Yingjun; Wang, Can; Kashkush, Khalil (December 17, 2012). "Early Mixed Farming of Millet and Rice 7800 Years Ago in the Middle Yellow River Region, China". PLOS ONE. 7 (12): e52146. Bibcode:2012PLoSO...752146Z. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0052146. PMC 3524165. PMID 23284907.
  7. Haberer, Georg; Mayer, Klaus F.X.; Spannagl, Manuel (April 1, 2016). "The big five of the monocot genomes". Current Opinion in Plant Biology. SI: 30: Genome studies and molecular genetics. 30: 33–40. Bibcode:2016COPB...30...33H. doi:10.1016/j.pbi.2016.01.004. ISSN 1369-5266. PMID 26866569.
  8. Catindig, J.L.A.; Lubigan, R.T.; Johnson, D. (n.d.). "Oryza sativa". Rice Knowledge Bank. International Rice Research Institute. Retrieved June 29, 2023.
  9. "oryza". Merriam-Webster.com Dictionary. Merriam-Webster.
  10. "sativa". Lexico UK English Dictionary. Oxford University Press. n.d.
  11. "sativa". Merriam-Webster.com Dictionary. Merriam-Webster.
  12. ^ Purugganan, Michael D.; Fuller, Dorian Q. (2009). "The nature of selection during plant domestication". Nature. 457 (7231). Nature Research: 843–848. Bibcode:2009Natur.457..843P. doi:10.1038/nature07895. ISSN 0028-0836. PMID 19212403. S2CID 205216444.
  13. Oka (1988)
  14. Mohammadi Shad, Z.; Atungulu, G. (March 2019). "Post-harvest kernel discoloration and fungi activity in long-grain hybrid, pureline and medium-grain rice cultivars as influenced by storage environment and antifungal treatment". Journal of Stored Products Research. 81: 91–99. doi:10.1016/j.jspr.2019.02.002. S2CID 92050510.
  15. CECAP, PhilRice and IIRR. 2000. "Highland Rice Production in the Philippine Cordillera."
  16. Glaszmann, J. C. (May 1987). "Isozymes and classification of Asian rice varieties". Theoretical and Applied Genetics. 74 (1): 21–30. doi:10.1007/BF00290078. PMID 24241451. S2CID 22829122.
  17. Garris, Amanda J.; Tai, T. H.; Coburn, J.; Kresovich, S.; McCouch, S. (2004). "Genetic structure and diversity in Oryza sativa L." Genetics. 169 (3): 1631–1638. doi:10.1534/genetics.104.035642. PMC 1449546. PMID 15654106.
  18. Civáň, Peter; Ali, Sajid; Batista-Navarro, Riza; Drosou, Konstantina; Ihejieto, Chioma; Chakraborty, Debarati; Ray, Avik; Gladieux, Pierre; Brown, Terence A (March 1, 2019). "Origin of the Aromatic Group of Cultivated Rice ( Oryza sativa L.) Traced to the Indian Subcontinent". Genome Biology and Evolution. 11 (3): 832–843. doi:10.1093/gbe/evz039. PMC 6427689. PMID 30793171.
  19. Wang, C-H; Zheng, X-M; Xu, Q; Yuan, X-P; Huang, L; Zhou, H-F; Wei, X-H; Ge, S (May 2014). "Genetic diversity and classification of Oryza sativa with emphasis on Chinese rice germplasm". Heredity. 112 (5): 489–496. doi:10.1038/hdy.2013.130. PMC 3998783. PMID 24326293.
  20. Stange, Madlen; Barrett, Rowan D. H.; Hendry, Andrew P. (February 2021). "The importance of genomic variation for biodiversity, ecosystems and people". Nature Reviews Genetics. 22 (2). Nature Portfolio: 89–105. doi:10.1038/s41576-020-00288-7. ISSN 1471-0056. PMID 33067582. S2CID 223559538. MS ORCID 0000-0002-4559-2535). (RDHB ORCID 0000-0003-3044-2531).
  21. ^ Rasheed, Awais; Hao, Yuanfeng; Xia, Xianchun; Khan, Awais; Xu, Yunbi; Varshney, Rajeev K.; He, Zhonghu (2017). "Crop Breeding Chips and Genotyping Platforms: Progress, Challenges, and Perspectives". Molecular Plant. 10 (8). Elsevier: 1047–1064. doi:10.1016/j.molp.2017.06.008. ISSN 1674-2052. PMID 28669791. S2CID 33780984. Chinese Academy of Sciences+Chinese Society for Plant Biology+Shanghai Institutes for Biological Sciences.
  22. Miah, G.; Rafii, M. Y.; Ismail, M. R.; Puteh, A. B.; Rahim, H. A.; Asfaliza, R.; Latif, M. A. (November 27, 2012). "Blast resistance in rice: a review of conventional breeding to molecular approaches" (PDF). Molecular Biology Reports. 40 (3). Springer Science+Business Media: 2369–2388. doi:10.1007/s11033-012-2318-0. ISSN 0301-4851. PMID 23184051. S2CID 8922855.
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  24. Mehta, Sahil; Singh, Baljinder; Dhakate, Priyanka; Rahman, Mehzabin; Islam, Muhammad Aminul (2019). "5 Rice, Marker-Assisted Breeding, and Disease Resistance". In Wani, Shabir Hussain (ed.). Disease Resistance in Crop Plants: Molecular, Genetic and Genomic Perspectives. Springer. pp. 83–112/xii+307. ISBN 978-3-030-20727-4. OCLC 1110184027.
  25. Pieterse, Corné M.J.; Van der Does, Dieuwertje; Zamioudis, Christos; Leon-Reyes, Antonio; Van Wees, Saskia C.M. (November 10, 2012). "Hormonal Modulation of Plant Immunity". Annual Review of Cell and Developmental Biology. 28 (1). Annual Reviews: 489–521. doi:10.1146/annurev-cellbio-092910-154055. hdl:1874/274421. ISSN 1081-0706. PMID 22559264. S2CID 18180536. |Atkinson, Nicky J.; Urwin, Peter E. (March 30, 2012). "The interaction of plant biotic and abiotic stresses: from genes to the field". Journal of Experimental Botany. 63 (10). Oxford University Press: 3523–3543. doi:10.1093/jxb/ers100. ISSN 0022-0957. PMID 22467407. S2CID 205195661.
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External links

Rice
History of rice cultivation
Species
Varieties
Varieties of
Asian rice
Varieties of
African rice
Characteristics
Processed forms
Rice dishes
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Taxon identifiers
Oryza sativa
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