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| {{short description|Behavior in dogs}} | |||
| '''] aggression''' is a term used by ] and ] to describe canine-to-canine ]. | |||
| {{Use mdy dates|date=October 2020}} | |||
| ] | |||
| '''Dog aggression''' expressed by ]s is considered to be normal ] and various types of ] are influenced by a dog's environment and genetic predisposition.<ref name=pmid12854682>{{cite journal |last1=Jacobs |first1=C. |last2=De Keuster |first2=T. |last3=Simoens |first3=P. |title=Assessing the pathological extent of aggressive behaviour in dogs. A review of the literature |journal=Veterinary Quarterly |date=June 2003 |volume=25 |issue=2 |pages=53–60 |doi=10.1080/01652176.2003.9695145 |pmid=12854682 |doi-access=free }}</ref> Dogs commonly display possessive aggression when defending resources or themselves.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Jacobs |first1=Jacquelyn A. |last2=Coe |first2=Jason B. |last3=Widowski |first3=Tina M.|author3-link=Tina M. Widowski |last4=Pearl |first4=David L. |last5=Niel |first5=Lee |title=Defining and Clarifying the Terms Canine Possessive Aggression and Resource Guarding: A Study of Expert Opinion |journal=Frontiers in Veterinary Science |date=11 June 2018 |volume=5 |pages=115 |doi=10.3389/fvets.2018.00115 |pmid=29942810 |pmc=6004413 |doi-access=free }}</ref> | |||
| Canine aggression may be influenced by a dog's age, sex, health and ].<ref>{{cite book |last1=Lockwood |first1=Randall |chapter=The ethology and epidemiology of canine aggression |pages=131–138 |chapter-url=https://archive.org/details/domesticdogitsev00serp/page/131 |editor1-last=Serpell |editor1-first=James |year=1995 |title=The Domestic Dog: Its Evolution, Behaviour and Interactions with People |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-0-521-42537-7 }}</ref> Canine aggression is one of the most serious behavior problems in animal behavioral ].<ref name=pmid24972077>{{cite journal |last1=Arata |first1=Sayaka |last2=Takeuchi |first2=Yukari |last3=Inoue |first3=Mai |last4=Mori |first4=Yuji |title='Reactivity to Stimuli' Is a Temperamental Factor Contributing to Canine Aggression |journal=PLOS ONE |date=27 June 2014 |volume=9 |issue=6 |pages=e100767 |doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0100767 |pmid=24972077 |pmc=4074066 |bibcode=2014PLoSO...9j0767A |doi-access=free }}</ref> Aggression in canines is particularly important because a dog's sharp teeth can result in serious injuries,<ref name=pmid24972077/> or even ] in the young or frail. | |||
| ] itself is usually defined by canine ] as "the intent to do harm". Many dogs will show "displays of aggression" such as barking, growling, or snapping in the air without actually having any aggressive intent. Some dog-aggressive dogs display aggression that is mainly defensive, and they will actually harm another dog only if they perceive that they have no other option. These dogs are normally termed "fear aggressive". Other dogs may attack due to a desire to gain status or resources, or because of personality traits that prompt them to dominate other dogs. Yet other dogs may develop dog-aggressive behaviour due to medical reasons, such as hormonal imbalances. | |||
| The determinants for each type of aggression are different, but there are specific ] that are common to canine aggression.<ref name=pmid24972077/> The types of aggression include dominance aggression, defensive aggression, predatory aggression and maternal aggression. Aggression in canines may be a self-defense response to a person or animal entering a dog's space,<ref name="frank">{{cite journal |last1=Frank |first1=Diane |title=Aggressive dogs: What questions do we need to ask? |journal=The Canadian Veterinary Journal |date=2013 |volume=54 |issue=6 |pages=554–556 |pmc=3659447 |pmid=24155444 }}</ref> which may be ritualized aggression, not actual aggression, if the violation includes a threat. Aggressive behavior in scared dogs is typically not true aggression but rather ritualized behavior intended to avoid physical altercation by way of faking aggression<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.britannica.com/science/display-behaviour|title=Display behaviour | animal behaviour|website=Encyclopedia Britannica}}</ref> rather than actual aggression, ], diet, ] or ] background. Some aggression can be treated through animal ] or avoided by proper ] during puppyhood. | |||
| ] aggression is a common dog behavior, and can be seen in all breeds of dogs, although some ]s have a ] to display such aggression. The ] usually spells out whether dog aggression is common in the breed and to what degree it is allowed. Most of the ] breeds and the ] breeds have a higher likelihood of developing dominance-based dog aggression upon reaching maturity. Individual dogs may or may not display the level of aggression that their breed standard suggests. | |||
| == Types of aggression == | |||
| As well as breeding, a dog's experiences may affect his chance of developing dog aggression. A dog that is attacked as a puppy may develop fear-based dog aggression towards all dogs, or perhaps only towards dogs that resemble the dog that attacked him. | |||
| === Dominance aggression === | |||
| It is important to note that dogs that display dog-aggressive behaviour do not necessarily show aggressive behaviour towards humans. The two types of aggression are not necessarily related, and do not always occur in the same animal. | |||
| 1) Punishing dogs has been associated with a strong likelihood of new or increased aggression and other behavior problems; 2) dominance in pet dogs is not a character trait of a dog but rather a power agreement between dogs regarding who has best access to particular resources; and 3) the behavior of dogs controlling access to resources is fluid, not static, depending on context. There is also data suggesting that the concept of spoiling a dog is often a misnomer, that this perceived spoiling is often a matter of meeting the dog's emotional and physical needs.<ref name="Hsu & Sun 2010">{{cite journal |last1=Hsu |first1=Yuying |last2=Sun |first2=Liching |title=Factors associated with aggressive responses in pet dogs |journal=Applied Animal Behaviour Science |date=1 March 2010 |volume=123 |issue=3 |pages=108–123 |doi=10.1016/j.applanim.2010.01.013 }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://apdt.com/resource-center/dominance-and-dog-training/|title=Dominance and Dog Training}}</ref> | |||
| == |
=== Defensive aggression === | ||
| Defensive aggression, also known as fear aggression or avoidance-motivated aggression, occurs when an individual approaches and interacts with a human-avoidant dog. The dog might first try to flee, but may resort to aggressive behavior if cornered, as a means to try to defend itself from a real or perceived threat. The dog displays aggressive behavior in an attempt to avoid a real or perceived negative consequence, such as to avoid pain. Dogs may display a multitude of behaviors leading up to an attack including fear and stress signals, defensive posturing, facial expressions, or no signals at all. Signals are generally different for self-defensive dogs versus those who are truly aggressive, as in competitive aggression.<ref name="frank" /> | |||
| Factors contributing to the likelihood of the development of dog aggression include (in no particular order): | |||
| Tortora in 1983 experimented with a shock therapy to retrain avoidance-motivated aggressive dogs to condition them with safety cues, a process which he called Safety Training. He wrote that this therapy, when successful, had long-term benefit for the dog and its owners.<ref name=tortora>{{cite journal |last1=Tortora |first1=Daniel |title=Safety training: the elimination of avoidance-motivated aggression in dogs |journal=Journal of Experimental Psychology |date=1983 |volume=112 |issue=2 |pages=176–214 |doi=10.1037/0096-3445.112.2.176 |pmid=6223971 |url=https://cpb-us-w2.wpmucdn.com/about.illinoisstate.edu/dist/6/45/files/2019/10/tortora-1983-safety-signal-training-elimination-of-avoidance-motivated-aggression-in-dogs.pdf |access-date=6 October 2020}}</ref> | |||
| * Lack of exercise, which contributes to the dogs high energy and unstable state of mind | |||
| * Lack of discipline | |||
| * Insecurity in the dog, which is often a result of a traumatic experience | |||
| * Breed predisposition | |||
| * A non-existent pack leader, or non-dominant owner (for example, an owner may not establish him or herself as the leader and dominant one), which would result in the dog become the "owner" of its surroundings, and it establishing itself as the dominant leader -- this would result in aggressive behaviour (submissive or non-dominant dogs do not let out aggression) | |||
| * Living as part of a multidog household | |||
| * Lack of proper exposure to other dogs during the critical ] period | |||
| * Lack of exposure to other dogs in general, which would result in the dog being insecure and also, unsure how to socialize | |||
| * Early ] by an aggressive or nervous ] | |||
| * Being raised as part of a large ] (more than 5 puppies) | |||
| * A traumatic experience associated with other dogs, such as being attacked or having seen a fight | |||
| * Lack of abundant resources (food, water, sex, etc.) in the environment | |||
| * ] malfunction or other medical conditions | |||
| === Predatory aggression === | |||
| Dog aggression does not usually become a serious behavior in most dogs until they reach the age of 1.5 - 3 years. Prior to that age, most dogs show only the seeds of developing aggression, such as fear and/or nervousness around other dogs, displays of aggression only under certain circumstances (while on leash, in the presence of food, in the presence of the owner, etc.), or most commonly, over-the-top play behavior. Play behavior such as tackling, chasing, mouthing, nipping, pawing, and wrestling are all normal ] behaviors that serve the evolutionary function of preparing the young dog for later combat and hunting. Young dogs that engage in excessive amounts of these behaviors are much more likely to develop dog aggression as they age. | |||
| ] | |||
| Predatory aggression is usually seen as part of the ] sequence starting with a visual or auditory trigger followed by chase, capture and kill.<ref name="frank" /> Predatory aggression is impacted by anxious influences, which results in the expression of affective aggression.<ref name="Chávez & Opazo 2012">{{cite journal |last1=Chávez |first1=Gonzalo A. |last2=Opazo |first2=Álvaro J. |title=Predatory aggression in a German shepherd dog |journal=Journal of Veterinary Behavior |date=November 2012 |volume=7 |issue=6 |pages=386–389 |doi=10.1016/j.jveb.2012.02.004 }}</ref> This type of aggression is caused by ] activation and is non-affective.<ref name="Chávez & Opazo 2012" /> Based on a study that examines the predatory aggression in ] dogs, this type of aggression is rarely displayed by dogs.<ref name="Chávez & Opazo 2012" /> However, if it does occur, it is usually directed towards unfamiliar dogs.<ref name="Chávez & Opazo 2012" /> Furthermore, predatory behavior activates reward centers in ].<ref name="Chávez & Opazo 2012" /> According to Gonzalo and colleagues, this type of behavior is rewarding and therefore difficult to change.<ref name="Chávez & Opazo 2012" /> Predatory aggression is displayed by mature and intact males and this type of aggression results in serious damage to others.<ref name="Chávez & Opazo 2012" /> It includes actions such as chasing, ], catching and may involve death or injury.<ref>{{cite thesis |last=Jacobs |first=Jacquelyn |date=April 2016 |title=Understanding Canine Resource Guarding Behaviour: An Epidemiological Approach |hdl=10214/9642 }}</ref> | |||
| ] | |||
| === Maternal aggression === | |||
| Dog aggression should not be confused with human aggression, which is allowed in some breed standards as well, as long as the aggression springs from a desire to defend the dog's owner or territory. | |||
| Maternal aggression is displayed by mothers when they are approached and particularly when their offspring are young. This type of aggression is linked to pain such as in cases of ].<ref name=pmid31620484>{{cite journal |last1=Lezama-García |first1=Karina |last2=Mariti |first2=Chiara |last3=Mota-Rojas |first3=Daniel |last4=Martínez-Burnes |first4=Julio |last5=Barrios-García |first5=Hugo |last6=Gazzano |first6=Angelo |title=Maternal behaviour in domestic dogs |journal=International Journal of Veterinary Science and Medicine |date=2 January 2019 |volume=7 |issue=1 |pages=20–30 |doi=10.1080/23144599.2019.1641899 |pmid=31620484 |pmc=6776987 }}</ref> ] plays an important role in the early bonding between the mother and her offspring.<ref name=pmid31620484/> Dogs with maternal aggressiveness are protective of their offspring and nest.<ref name=pmid31620484/> The change in ] is linked to ], and the mothers can change the dogs' perception and assessment .<ref name=pmid31620484/> Maternal aggression may lead to bites or other attacks.<ref name=pmid31620484/> Maternal aggressiveness affects the growth and socialization of puppies.<ref name=pmid31620484/> Furthermore, this type of aggression may stem from unstable ]s.<ref name=pmid31620484/> Maternal dogs are very protective of their puppies and their aggressive tendencies decreases as their offspring grow up and they are able to defend themselves.<ref name=pmid31620484/> | |||
| ==Causes== | |||
| === Gut microbiome === | |||
| ===Correcting Dog Aggression=== | |||
| ] | |||
| The gut microbiome is linked to numerous health problems such as ] and bowel disease, which results in pain and can possibly lead to aggression.<ref name=pmid30643689>{{Cite journal |last1=Kirchoff |first1=Nicole S. |last2=Udell |first2=Monique A. R. |last3=Sharpton |first3=Thomas J. |title=The gut microbiome correlates with conspecific aggression in a small population of rescued dogs (Canis familiaris) |journal=PeerJ |year=2019 |volume=7 |pages=e6103 |doi=10.7717/peerj.6103 |pmid=30643689 |pmc=6330041 |doi-access=free }}</ref> The gut microbiome affects the affective disorders such as anxiety, which contribute to canine aggression.<ref name=pmid30643689/> Based on a study carried out by Kirchoff and colleagues, the composition of gut microbiome differs on the basis of aggressive and non-aggressive assessments.<ref name=pmid30643689/> In this study, the researchers tested rescued dogs that possessed aggressive and non aggressive behavior.<ref name=pmid30643689/> The dogs were tested in the same environment, ate the same diet, and were consistent ], but variation was still present in the gut ].<ref name=pmid30643689/> The results of this study show the difference and abundance in lineages in aggressive and non-aggressive groups, indicating that an aggressive dog displays physiological conditions in their gut, which affects the composition of the gut microbiome.<ref name=pmid30643689/> It also shows that the gut microbiome is associated with aggressive behavior.<ref name=pmid30643689/> '']'' are present in the guts of dogs that exhibit aggressive behavior, even though strains of '']'' reduce stress and anxiety in mice.<ref name=pmid30643689/> However, '']'' is present in the stool sample of dogs that display non-aggressive behavior, even though it is known to evoke pro-inflammatory effects of gut microbiome.<ref name=pmid30643689/> | |||
| === Anxiety === | |||
| The form that treatment for dog aggression takes depends on the underlying cause of the aggression, and an accurate diagnosis is therefore essential. Most reputable trainers will recommend that a dog has a vet check to screen for medical changes that may be the cause of the dog aggression before attempting any form of behavioural modification. | |||
| Some aggression stems from generalized anxiety. The dog cannot determine the difference between a legitimate and false threat. Some signs of anxiety include dilated pupils, constant yawning and lip licking, ears pulled back, trembling, tail tucked and lowered body or head. An anxious dog may pace or be unable to relax even when there is no threat present.<ref name="frank" /> | |||
| Anxiety screening was used in behavioral evaluation of children-directed aggressive behavior in dogs and according to Reisner and colleagues, 77% of animals displayed abnormalities.<ref name=pmid17916894>{{cite journal |last1=Reisner |first1=I. R |last2=Shofer |first2=F. S |last3=Nance |first3=M. L |title=Behavioral assessment of child-directed canine aggression |journal=Injury Prevention |date=1 October 2007 |volume=13 |issue=5 |pages=348–351 |doi=10.1136/ip.2007.015396 |pmid=17916894 |pmc=2610618 }}</ref> Aggressive behavior in dogs is often associated with fear, the separation from their owner, or noise sensitivity, all of which may result in or contribute to anxiety disorder.<ref name=pmid17916894/> | |||
| Dogs that are aggressive from fear can be that way either from genetic predisposition ("weak nerves"), or from a traumatic experience. With these dogs, a programme of gradual desensitisation is often used in order to reduce the dog's reactivity to other dogs. The fearful dog may be praised or rewarded for non-aggressive behaviour, with bad behaviour being ignored. | |||
| === Fear === | |||
| However, there are some behavourists who rehabillitate dogs in a more direct, and dominant approach (see ]) which involves a three step process; by exercising the dog first, so as to lose its energy and make it easier to handle, and then, to apply discipline to the dog; that is, instead of ignoring bad behaviour and rewarding the good, the dog behaviourist would simply punish or correct the bad behaviour before it is allowed to escalate. Also, part of the discipline involves establishing to the dog that the owner is the dominant one and the leader. For example, before enganging in a walk, the owner may open the door but wait until the dog sits and shows signs of being calm and submissive. Then, the owner proceeds out the door -- the owner is the one who leads, not the dog. The third step, after exercising and discipline (the discipline depends on the source of the aggression), is affection; although, only shown at the right time (when the dog shows signs of being calm, and submissive). So, this new approach to correcting dog aggression is not simply to ignore the bad and reward the good, but to establish dominance and to correct and sometimes punish the "bad", and to reward the good (although the latter is less stressed upon). | |||
| In a study that examines the prevalence, ], and behavioral variation in canine anxiety, owners of fearful dogs reported that their dogs demonstrate behaviors they consider aggressive, such as barking and growling, to strangers and other dogs.<ref name="Tiira et al 2016">{{cite journal |last1=Tiira |first1=Katriina |last2=Sulkama |first2=Sini |last3=Lohi |first3=Hannes |title=Prevalence, comorbidity, and behavioral variation in canine anxiety |journal=Journal of Veterinary Behavior |date=1 November 2016 |volume=16 |pages=36–44 |doi=10.1016/j.jveb.2016.06.008 |doi-access=free }}</ref> The owners of 673 dogs noted that their dogs express fear by barking, and ]. The presence of aggression in dogs is associated with ].<ref name="Tiira et al 2016"/> Based on this study, there was an increase in bites towards strangers and familiar people when the self-defense response was not heeded, such as by cornering an avoidant dog.<ref name="Tiira et al 2016"/> However, Abrantes points out that aggressive behavior in dogs is behavior that causes pain or injury,<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://ethology.eu/aggressive-behavior-the-making-of-a-definition/|title = Aggressive Behavior—the Making of a Definition|date = June 12, 2014}}</ref> and HSUS explains that barking and growling are normal communicative behaviors for dogs not necessarily indicative of aggression.<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.thehumanesociety.org/wp-content/uploads/2013/04/barking.pdf |title=Archived copy |access-date=December 6, 2020 |archive-date=October 20, 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201020041721/http://www.thehumanesociety.org/wp-content/uploads/2013/04/barking.pdf |url-status=dead }}</ref> | |||
| === Breed, socialization, and health status === | |||
| True dominance based dog aggression is less common than fear aggression. Dominance aggression is influenced by several factors. Male dogs (especially entire males) are more likely to display this type of aggression than female dogs are, and several terrier breeds are particularly prone to developing this type of aggression. Dogs with mild dominance aggression may respond to the same treatment as fear aggressive dogs. However, dogs with moderate to severe dominance aggression will find fighting too rewarding to be fully rehabilitated. With these dogs, trainers may resort to the use of ] (for example, the ]) in order to make the aggressive behaviour less appealing, or exploit the use of a dog's other ] in order to keep the dog's attention in the presence of other dogs. | |||
| ] | |||
| It is important to recognize that aggression is displayed more in certain breeds, which indicates the influence of genetic background on aggression in dogs.<ref name=pmid12854682/> According to Roll and Unshelm, German Shepherd dogs and Bull Terriers are more likely to display violent behavior to others.<ref name=pmid12854682/> Voith and Borchelt found that higher incidences of aggressive behavior were displayed in ]s when compared with ].<ref name=pmid12854682/> Often, aggression in adult dogs is usually a result of little to no contact in early life.<ref name=pmid12854682/> In other words, as a result of missed early socialization, a dog will not know how to interact with others, how to follow rules or how to adapt to new environments.<ref name=pmid12854682/> Aggressive behavior is more prominent in intact males when compared with ] males and in sterilized females than intact females.<ref name=pmid12854682/> According to Hoerlein, the removal of a male's testicles has significant impact on aggressive and dominant males.<ref name=pmid12854682/> ] of the central nervous system, infectious diseases, developmental and ]s may impact aggression in dogs.<ref name=pmid12854682/> Many of these illnesses can cause aggressive and violent behavior, especially when located in the frontal cortex, the hypothalamus, the thalamus, the amygdaloid body, the medial mammillary, the nucleus, the habenular nuclei, the hippocampus and the caudate nucleus.<ref name=pmid12854682/> | |||
| == Research == | |||
| Some believe extremely rank aggressive dogs may have to spend their lives separated from other dogs. However, there are many behaviourists who believe no dog is impossible to be rehabilitated; but the process requires a great understanding of dog psychology. Older dogs are harder to rehabilitate. A common misconception is that some dogs can never be rehabillitated, and must be put down. Because dogs react, and do not rationalize, they are able to move on much faster than humans; in extreme cases of aggression, it takes much more time and patience to correct, but it is still possible, as long as the rehabillitation process is effective and done routinely. | |||
| ] | |||
| == |
=== Gonadectomy === | ||
| ] is used to treat aggressive behavior of dogs. Farhoody and colleagues carried out a study to determine the impact of gonadectomy on the aggressive behavior of dogs using the Canine Behavioral Assessment Research Questionnaire (C-BARQ).<ref name=pmid29536014>{{cite journal |last1=Farhoody |first1=Parvene |last2=Mallawaarachchi |first2=Indika |last3=Tarwater |first3=Patrick M. |last4=Serpell |first4=James A. |last5=Duffy |first5=Deborah L. |last6=Zink |first6=Chris |title=Aggression toward Familiar People, Strangers, and Conspecifics in Gonadectomized and Intact Dogs |journal=Frontiers in Veterinary Science |date=26 February 2018 |volume=5 |pages=18 |doi=10.3389/fvets.2018.00018 |pmid=29536014 |pmc=5834763 |doi-access=free }}</ref> According to the data collected, gonadectomized dogs between the ages of 7 and 12 months were more likely to be aggressive to strangers.<ref name=pmid29536014/> | |||
| The ] has the highest reported incidence of dog aggression problems of any country in the world. One of the major contributing factors to the development of dog aggression is living as part of a multidog (more than one) household. More than a third of dogs in the United States—a higher percentage than any other country in the world—live as part of multidog households. | |||
| Furthermore, gonadectomized dogs of all ages do not display violent behavior to familiar people or strangers.<ref name=pmid29536014/> The data does not show that gonadectomy prevent or treat aggressive behavior of dogs.<ref name=pmid29536014/> | |||
| Another reason for this is that in America, a more developed country, people often shower their dogs with affection and toys; leading to the dog believing that it is dominant and the leader of the household. This could then lead to aggressive behavior. | |||
| Based on McMillan and colleagues’ research, aggressive behavior was prominent in dogs obtained from pet stores.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=McMillan |first1=Franklin D. |last2=Serpell |first2=James A. |last3=Duffy |first3=Deborah L. |last4=Masaoud |first4=Elmabrok |last5=Dohoo |first5=Ian R. |title=Differences in behavioral characteristics between dogs obtained as puppies from pet stores and those obtained from noncommercial breeders |journal=Journal of the American Veterinary Medical Association |date=15 May 2013 |volume=242 |issue=10 |pages=1359–1363 |doi=10.2460/javma.242.10.1359 |pmid=23634679 |doi-access=free }}</ref> Guy and colleagues found that environmental factors directly contributed to aggression in dogs.<ref name="Guy et al 2001">{{cite journal |last1=Guy |first1=N. C |last2=Luescher |first2=U. A |last3=Dohoo |first3=S. E |last4=Spangler |first4=E |last5=Miller |first5=J. B |last6=Dohoo |first6=I. R |last7=Bate |first7=L. A |title=Risk factors for dog bites to owners in a general veterinary caseload |journal=Applied Animal Behaviour Science |date=11 September 2001 |volume=74 |issue=1 |pages=29–42 |doi=10.1016/S0168-1591(01)00154-X }}</ref> For instance, a dog that lives in a home with an adolescent or has a skin disorder is more likely to exhibit aggressive behavior to familiar people and strangers.<ref name="Guy et al 2001" /> | |||
| ⚫ | ==External links== | ||
| * articles on how to solve aggressive dog problems | |||
| Roll and Unshelm believed that the reason for buying or adopting a dog was a significant factor that correlated with aggression.<ref name="Roll & Unshelm 1997">{{cite journal |last1=Roll |first1=A. |last2=Unshelm |first2=J. |title=Aggressive conflicts amongst dogs and factors affecting them |journal=Applied Animal Behaviour Science |date=1 April 1997 |volume=52 |issue=3 |pages=229–242 |doi=10.1016/S0168-1591(96)01125-2 }}</ref> They also argued that the relationship between the owner and dog determined whether or not the dog would exhibit aggressive behavior.<ref name="Roll & Unshelm 1997" /> For instance, the owner's attitude towards training, or physical mistreatment endured by the dog at the hands of the owner resulted in aggressive behavior towards others.<ref name="Roll & Unshelm 1997" /> Many factors impact the aggressive behavior displayed by dogs.<ref name="Roll & Unshelm 1997" /> | |||
| === Reactivity to stimuli === | |||
| According to Arata and colleagues, reactivity to stimuli is involved in various types of aggression.<ref name=pmid24972077/> The researchers used a questionnaire survey to assess approximately 5000 dogs of 17 breeds.<ref name=pmid24972077/> In this study, a factor analysis was used to extract five consistent factors in 14 of the 17 breeds.<ref name=pmid24972077/> Using 14 behavioral items, the researchers were able to see the consistent presence of these factors in dogs, indicating that these factors are linked to canine aggression.<ref name=pmid24972077/> | |||
| The collected data and the established factor system indicated that the ], ], ], and ] did not display aggressive behavior.<ref name=pmid24972077/> However, the ] and ] were more aggressive and more likely to chase others.<ref name=pmid24972077/> | |||
| Based on this study, reactivity to stimuli was linked to owner-directed aggressive behavior in 13 different breeds, child-directed aggressive behavior in eight different breeds, stranger-directed aggressive behavior in nine breeds and dog-directed aggressive behavior in five breeds.<ref name=pmid24972077/> In this study, dogs that are highly reactive to stimuli were either uneasy and reacted to all movements or less engaged and overreacted to unexpected stimuli.<ref name=pmid24972077/> | |||
| The association between canine aggression and sociability with humans and likeliness to chase were examined.<ref name=pmid24972077/> Sociability with humans was linked to child-, stranger-, and dog-directed aggressive behavior in more than seven breeds.<ref name=pmid24972077/> Moreover, likeliness to chase was primarily linked to dog-directed aggressive behavior in 10 ]s and dogs that were more likely to chase smaller animals displayed aggressive behavior when interacting with other dogs.<ref name=pmid24972077/> Reactivity to stimuli was proven to be an underlying temperamental factor that leads to canine aggression.<ref name=pmid24972077/> | |||
| Other work has detailed how external stimuli significantly influences the experience of dog walking, sometimes “extracting a considerable social and emotional toll” for dog walkers.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=O’Hare |first=Paul |date=2024-02-02 |title=A walk with “that wild dog of yours”: tales of circumscribed, co-negotiated and adaptive walking practices |url=https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/14649365.2024.2308912 |journal=Social & Cultural Geography |language=en |pages=1–20 |doi=10.1080/14649365.2024.2308912 |issn=1464-9365|doi-access=free }}</ref> | |||
| == Treatment == | |||
| ] | |||
| Treatment differs for each circumstance, and treatment plans are based heavily on the type of aggression.<ref name=Blackshaw1991>{{cite journal |last1=Blackshaw |first1=Judith K. |title=An overview of types of aggressive behaviour in dogs and methods of treatment |journal=Applied Animal Behaviour Science |date=1 May 1991 |volume=30 |issue=3 |pages=351–361 |doi=10.1016/0168-1591(91)90140-S }}</ref> Based on Judith Blackshaw's study, dogs exhibited dominance aggression towards familiar people and therefore suggested obedience training as the proper treatment.<ref name=Blackshaw1991/> According to a study conducted in 1983 by Tortora, avoidance based aggression was treated by conditioning the dog to a safety tone, this resulted in a complete elimination of the aggressive behavior for the duration of the dogs lives.<ref name=tortora /> Aggression can also be reduced in adult dogs during their socialization period as a puppy. Studies show that exposing puppies to their new owners and homing before 8 weeks can drastically reduce aggression later in life.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Jokinen|first1=Olli|last2=Appleby|first2=David|last3=Sandbacka-Saxén|first3=Sofi|last4=Appleby|first4=Tuulia|last5=Valros|first5=Anna|date=2017-10-01|title=Homing age influences the prevalence of aggressive and avoidance-related behaviour in adult dogs|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0168159117301806|journal=Applied Animal Behaviour Science|language=en|volume=195|pages=87–92|doi=10.1016/j.applanim.2017.06.003|issn=0168-1591|hdl=10138/307995|hdl-access=free}}</ref> However, it is still imperative for an owner to train their dog every day for a minimum of 10 minutes.<ref name=Blackshaw1991/> More specifically, it is recommended for males to be neutered as this ensures that inherited aggression will not be passed on.<ref name=Blackshaw1991/> It is suggested to use synthetic progestins with castration to reduce and eliminate aggressive behavior in dogs.<ref name=Blackshaw1991/> Predatory and intermale aggression is inherent and related to testosterone secretion and as a result restrain, castration and the use of progestins are essential in reducing aggression in dogs.<ref name=Blackshaw1991/> Some studies suggest that aversive means of control and training contribute to new and increased aggression rather than reduce it.<ref name="Hsu & Sun 2010"/> | |||
| ==See also== | |||
| *] | |||
| *] | |||
| ==References== | |||
| {{reflist}} | |||
| ⚫ | ==External links== | ||
| * | |||
| * | |||
| ] | ] | ||
Latest revision as of 09:26, 11 November 2024
Behavior in dogs
Dog aggression expressed by dogs is considered to be normal behaviour and various types of aggression are influenced by a dog's environment and genetic predisposition. Dogs commonly display possessive aggression when defending resources or themselves.
Canine aggression may be influenced by a dog's age, sex, health and reproductive status. Canine aggression is one of the most serious behavior problems in animal behavioral medical science. Aggression in canines is particularly important because a dog's sharp teeth can result in serious injuries, or even fatalities in the young or frail.
The determinants for each type of aggression are different, but there are specific factors that are common to canine aggression. The types of aggression include dominance aggression, defensive aggression, predatory aggression and maternal aggression. Aggression in canines may be a self-defense response to a person or animal entering a dog's space, which may be ritualized aggression, not actual aggression, if the violation includes a threat. Aggressive behavior in scared dogs is typically not true aggression but rather ritualized behavior intended to avoid physical altercation by way of faking aggression rather than actual aggression, anxiety disorder, diet, gut microbiome or genetic background. Some aggression can be treated through animal behaviour therapy or avoided by proper socialization during puppyhood.
Types of aggression
Dominance aggression
1) Punishing dogs has been associated with a strong likelihood of new or increased aggression and other behavior problems; 2) dominance in pet dogs is not a character trait of a dog but rather a power agreement between dogs regarding who has best access to particular resources; and 3) the behavior of dogs controlling access to resources is fluid, not static, depending on context. There is also data suggesting that the concept of spoiling a dog is often a misnomer, that this perceived spoiling is often a matter of meeting the dog's emotional and physical needs.
Defensive aggression
Defensive aggression, also known as fear aggression or avoidance-motivated aggression, occurs when an individual approaches and interacts with a human-avoidant dog. The dog might first try to flee, but may resort to aggressive behavior if cornered, as a means to try to defend itself from a real or perceived threat. The dog displays aggressive behavior in an attempt to avoid a real or perceived negative consequence, such as to avoid pain. Dogs may display a multitude of behaviors leading up to an attack including fear and stress signals, defensive posturing, facial expressions, or no signals at all. Signals are generally different for self-defensive dogs versus those who are truly aggressive, as in competitive aggression.
Tortora in 1983 experimented with a shock therapy to retrain avoidance-motivated aggressive dogs to condition them with safety cues, a process which he called Safety Training. He wrote that this therapy, when successful, had long-term benefit for the dog and its owners.
Predatory aggression
Predatory aggression is usually seen as part of the prey drive sequence starting with a visual or auditory trigger followed by chase, capture and kill. Predatory aggression is impacted by anxious influences, which results in the expression of affective aggression. This type of aggression is caused by sympathetic system activation and is non-affective. Based on a study that examines the predatory aggression in German shepherd dogs, this type of aggression is rarely displayed by dogs. However, if it does occur, it is usually directed towards unfamiliar dogs. Furthermore, predatory behavior activates reward centers in the central nervous system. According to Gonzalo and colleagues, this type of behavior is rewarding and therefore difficult to change. Predatory aggression is displayed by mature and intact males and this type of aggression results in serious damage to others. It includes actions such as chasing, biting, catching and may involve death or injury.
Maternal aggression
Maternal aggression is displayed by mothers when they are approached and particularly when their offspring are young. This type of aggression is linked to pain such as in cases of mastitis. Oxytocin plays an important role in the early bonding between the mother and her offspring. Dogs with maternal aggressiveness are protective of their offspring and nest. The change in hormone is linked to lactation, and the mothers can change the dogs' perception and assessment . Maternal aggression may lead to bites or other attacks. Maternal aggressiveness affects the growth and socialization of puppies. Furthermore, this type of aggression may stem from unstable social environments. Maternal dogs are very protective of their puppies and their aggressive tendencies decreases as their offspring grow up and they are able to defend themselves.
Causes
Gut microbiome
The gut microbiome is linked to numerous health problems such as diarrhea and bowel disease, which results in pain and can possibly lead to aggression. The gut microbiome affects the affective disorders such as anxiety, which contribute to canine aggression. Based on a study carried out by Kirchoff and colleagues, the composition of gut microbiome differs on the basis of aggressive and non-aggressive assessments. In this study, the researchers tested rescued dogs that possessed aggressive and non aggressive behavior. The dogs were tested in the same environment, ate the same diet, and were consistent breed type, but variation was still present in the gut microbiome. The results of this study show the difference and abundance in lineages in aggressive and non-aggressive groups, indicating that an aggressive dog displays physiological conditions in their gut, which affects the composition of the gut microbiome. It also shows that the gut microbiome is associated with aggressive behavior. Lactobacillus are present in the guts of dogs that exhibit aggressive behavior, even though strains of Lactobacillus rhamnosus reduce stress and anxiety in mice. However, Fusobacterium is present in the stool sample of dogs that display non-aggressive behavior, even though it is known to evoke pro-inflammatory effects of gut microbiome.
Anxiety
Some aggression stems from generalized anxiety. The dog cannot determine the difference between a legitimate and false threat. Some signs of anxiety include dilated pupils, constant yawning and lip licking, ears pulled back, trembling, tail tucked and lowered body or head. An anxious dog may pace or be unable to relax even when there is no threat present.
Anxiety screening was used in behavioral evaluation of children-directed aggressive behavior in dogs and according to Reisner and colleagues, 77% of animals displayed abnormalities. Aggressive behavior in dogs is often associated with fear, the separation from their owner, or noise sensitivity, all of which may result in or contribute to anxiety disorder.
Fear
In a study that examines the prevalence, comorbidity, and behavioral variation in canine anxiety, owners of fearful dogs reported that their dogs demonstrate behaviors they consider aggressive, such as barking and growling, to strangers and other dogs. The owners of 673 dogs noted that their dogs express fear by barking, and growling. The presence of aggression in dogs is associated with defense mechanism. Based on this study, there was an increase in bites towards strangers and familiar people when the self-defense response was not heeded, such as by cornering an avoidant dog. However, Abrantes points out that aggressive behavior in dogs is behavior that causes pain or injury, and HSUS explains that barking and growling are normal communicative behaviors for dogs not necessarily indicative of aggression.
Breed, socialization, and health status
It is important to recognize that aggression is displayed more in certain breeds, which indicates the influence of genetic background on aggression in dogs. According to Roll and Unshelm, German Shepherd dogs and Bull Terriers are more likely to display violent behavior to others. Voith and Borchelt found that higher incidences of aggressive behavior were displayed in purebred dogs when compared with mixed breed dogs. Often, aggression in adult dogs is usually a result of little to no contact in early life. In other words, as a result of missed early socialization, a dog will not know how to interact with others, how to follow rules or how to adapt to new environments. Aggressive behavior is more prominent in intact males when compared with neutered males and in sterilized females than intact females. According to Hoerlein, the removal of a male's testicles has significant impact on aggressive and dominant males. Neoplasia of the central nervous system, infectious diseases, developmental and metabolic disorders may impact aggression in dogs. Many of these illnesses can cause aggressive and violent behavior, especially when located in the frontal cortex, the hypothalamus, the thalamus, the amygdaloid body, the medial mammillary, the nucleus, the habenular nuclei, the hippocampus and the caudate nucleus.
Research
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Gonadectomy
Gonadectomy is used to treat aggressive behavior of dogs. Farhoody and colleagues carried out a study to determine the impact of gonadectomy on the aggressive behavior of dogs using the Canine Behavioral Assessment Research Questionnaire (C-BARQ). According to the data collected, gonadectomized dogs between the ages of 7 and 12 months were more likely to be aggressive to strangers.
Furthermore, gonadectomized dogs of all ages do not display violent behavior to familiar people or strangers. The data does not show that gonadectomy prevent or treat aggressive behavior of dogs.
Based on McMillan and colleagues’ research, aggressive behavior was prominent in dogs obtained from pet stores. Guy and colleagues found that environmental factors directly contributed to aggression in dogs. For instance, a dog that lives in a home with an adolescent or has a skin disorder is more likely to exhibit aggressive behavior to familiar people and strangers.
Roll and Unshelm believed that the reason for buying or adopting a dog was a significant factor that correlated with aggression. They also argued that the relationship between the owner and dog determined whether or not the dog would exhibit aggressive behavior. For instance, the owner's attitude towards training, or physical mistreatment endured by the dog at the hands of the owner resulted in aggressive behavior towards others. Many factors impact the aggressive behavior displayed by dogs.
Reactivity to stimuli
According to Arata and colleagues, reactivity to stimuli is involved in various types of aggression. The researchers used a questionnaire survey to assess approximately 5000 dogs of 17 breeds. In this study, a factor analysis was used to extract five consistent factors in 14 of the 17 breeds. Using 14 behavioral items, the researchers were able to see the consistent presence of these factors in dogs, indicating that these factors are linked to canine aggression.
The collected data and the established factor system indicated that the French Bulldog, Cavalier King Charles Spaniel, Golden Retriever, and Labrador Retriever did not display aggressive behavior. However, the Chihuahua and Miniature Dachshund were more aggressive and more likely to chase others.
Based on this study, reactivity to stimuli was linked to owner-directed aggressive behavior in 13 different breeds, child-directed aggressive behavior in eight different breeds, stranger-directed aggressive behavior in nine breeds and dog-directed aggressive behavior in five breeds. In this study, dogs that are highly reactive to stimuli were either uneasy and reacted to all movements or less engaged and overreacted to unexpected stimuli.
The association between canine aggression and sociability with humans and likeliness to chase were examined. Sociability with humans was linked to child-, stranger-, and dog-directed aggressive behavior in more than seven breeds. Moreover, likeliness to chase was primarily linked to dog-directed aggressive behavior in 10 breeds and dogs that were more likely to chase smaller animals displayed aggressive behavior when interacting with other dogs. Reactivity to stimuli was proven to be an underlying temperamental factor that leads to canine aggression.
Other work has detailed how external stimuli significantly influences the experience of dog walking, sometimes “extracting a considerable social and emotional toll” for dog walkers.
Treatment
Treatment differs for each circumstance, and treatment plans are based heavily on the type of aggression. Based on Judith Blackshaw's study, dogs exhibited dominance aggression towards familiar people and therefore suggested obedience training as the proper treatment. According to a study conducted in 1983 by Tortora, avoidance based aggression was treated by conditioning the dog to a safety tone, this resulted in a complete elimination of the aggressive behavior for the duration of the dogs lives. Aggression can also be reduced in adult dogs during their socialization period as a puppy. Studies show that exposing puppies to their new owners and homing before 8 weeks can drastically reduce aggression later in life. However, it is still imperative for an owner to train their dog every day for a minimum of 10 minutes. More specifically, it is recommended for males to be neutered as this ensures that inherited aggression will not be passed on. It is suggested to use synthetic progestins with castration to reduce and eliminate aggressive behavior in dogs. Predatory and intermale aggression is inherent and related to testosterone secretion and as a result restrain, castration and the use of progestins are essential in reducing aggression in dogs. Some studies suggest that aversive means of control and training contribute to new and increased aggression rather than reduce it.
See also
References
- ^ Jacobs, C.; De Keuster, T.; Simoens, P. (June 2003). "Assessing the pathological extent of aggressive behaviour in dogs. A review of the literature". Veterinary Quarterly. 25 (2): 53–60. doi:10.1080/01652176.2003.9695145. PMID 12854682.
- Jacobs, Jacquelyn A.; Coe, Jason B.; Widowski, Tina M.; Pearl, David L.; Niel, Lee (June 11, 2018). "Defining and Clarifying the Terms Canine Possessive Aggression and Resource Guarding: A Study of Expert Opinion". Frontiers in Veterinary Science. 5: 115. doi:10.3389/fvets.2018.00115. PMC 6004413. PMID 29942810.
- Lockwood, Randall (1995). "The ethology and epidemiology of canine aggression". In Serpell, James (ed.). The Domestic Dog: Its Evolution, Behaviour and Interactions with People. Cambridge University Press. pp. 131–138. ISBN 978-0-521-42537-7.
- ^ Arata, Sayaka; Takeuchi, Yukari; Inoue, Mai; Mori, Yuji (June 27, 2014). "'Reactivity to Stimuli' Is a Temperamental Factor Contributing to Canine Aggression". PLOS ONE. 9 (6): e100767. Bibcode:2014PLoSO...9j0767A. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0100767. PMC 4074066. PMID 24972077.
- ^ Frank, Diane (2013). "Aggressive dogs: What questions do we need to ask?". The Canadian Veterinary Journal. 54 (6): 554–556. PMC 3659447. PMID 24155444.
- "Display behaviour | animal behaviour". Encyclopedia Britannica.
- ^ Hsu, Yuying; Sun, Liching (March 1, 2010). "Factors associated with aggressive responses in pet dogs". Applied Animal Behaviour Science. 123 (3): 108–123. doi:10.1016/j.applanim.2010.01.013.
- "Dominance and Dog Training".
- ^ Tortora, Daniel (1983). "Safety training: the elimination of avoidance-motivated aggression in dogs" (PDF). Journal of Experimental Psychology. 112 (2): 176–214. doi:10.1037/0096-3445.112.2.176. PMID 6223971. Retrieved October 6, 2020.
- ^ Chávez, Gonzalo A.; Opazo, Álvaro J. (November 2012). "Predatory aggression in a German shepherd dog". Journal of Veterinary Behavior. 7 (6): 386–389. doi:10.1016/j.jveb.2012.02.004.
- Jacobs, Jacquelyn (April 2016). Understanding Canine Resource Guarding Behaviour: An Epidemiological Approach (Thesis). hdl:10214/9642.
- ^ Lezama-García, Karina; Mariti, Chiara; Mota-Rojas, Daniel; Martínez-Burnes, Julio; Barrios-García, Hugo; Gazzano, Angelo (January 2, 2019). "Maternal behaviour in domestic dogs". International Journal of Veterinary Science and Medicine. 7 (1): 20–30. doi:10.1080/23144599.2019.1641899. PMC 6776987. PMID 31620484.
- ^ Kirchoff, Nicole S.; Udell, Monique A. R.; Sharpton, Thomas J. (2019). "The gut microbiome correlates with conspecific aggression in a small population of rescued dogs (Canis familiaris)". PeerJ. 7: e6103. doi:10.7717/peerj.6103. PMC 6330041. PMID 30643689.
- ^ Reisner, I. R; Shofer, F. S; Nance, M. L (October 1, 2007). "Behavioral assessment of child-directed canine aggression". Injury Prevention. 13 (5): 348–351. doi:10.1136/ip.2007.015396. PMC 2610618. PMID 17916894.
- ^ Tiira, Katriina; Sulkama, Sini; Lohi, Hannes (November 1, 2016). "Prevalence, comorbidity, and behavioral variation in canine anxiety". Journal of Veterinary Behavior. 16: 36–44. doi:10.1016/j.jveb.2016.06.008.
- "Aggressive Behavior—the Making of a Definition". June 12, 2014.
- "Archived copy" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on October 20, 2020. Retrieved December 6, 2020.
{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: archived copy as title (link) - ^ Farhoody, Parvene; Mallawaarachchi, Indika; Tarwater, Patrick M.; Serpell, James A.; Duffy, Deborah L.; Zink, Chris (February 26, 2018). "Aggression toward Familiar People, Strangers, and Conspecifics in Gonadectomized and Intact Dogs". Frontiers in Veterinary Science. 5: 18. doi:10.3389/fvets.2018.00018. PMC 5834763. PMID 29536014.
- McMillan, Franklin D.; Serpell, James A.; Duffy, Deborah L.; Masaoud, Elmabrok; Dohoo, Ian R. (May 15, 2013). "Differences in behavioral characteristics between dogs obtained as puppies from pet stores and those obtained from noncommercial breeders". Journal of the American Veterinary Medical Association. 242 (10): 1359–1363. doi:10.2460/javma.242.10.1359. PMID 23634679.
- ^ Guy, N. C; Luescher, U. A; Dohoo, S. E; Spangler, E; Miller, J. B; Dohoo, I. R; Bate, L. A (September 11, 2001). "Risk factors for dog bites to owners in a general veterinary caseload". Applied Animal Behaviour Science. 74 (1): 29–42. doi:10.1016/S0168-1591(01)00154-X.
- ^ Roll, A.; Unshelm, J. (April 1, 1997). "Aggressive conflicts amongst dogs and factors affecting them". Applied Animal Behaviour Science. 52 (3): 229–242. doi:10.1016/S0168-1591(96)01125-2.
- O’Hare, Paul (February 2, 2024). "A walk with "that wild dog of yours": tales of circumscribed, co-negotiated and adaptive walking practices". Social & Cultural Geography: 1–20. doi:10.1080/14649365.2024.2308912. ISSN 1464-9365.
- ^ Blackshaw, Judith K. (May 1, 1991). "An overview of types of aggressive behaviour in dogs and methods of treatment". Applied Animal Behaviour Science. 30 (3): 351–361. doi:10.1016/0168-1591(91)90140-S.
- Jokinen, Olli; Appleby, David; Sandbacka-Saxén, Sofi; Appleby, Tuulia; Valros, Anna (October 1, 2017). "Homing age influences the prevalence of aggressive and avoidance-related behaviour in adult dogs". Applied Animal Behaviour Science. 195: 87–92. doi:10.1016/j.applanim.2017.06.003. hdl:10138/307995. ISSN 0168-1591.
External links
- Article from ASPCA Virtual Pet Behaviorist on aggression in dogs
- Article from ASPCA Virtual Pet Behaviorist on working with dogs who are aggressive while on leash