| Revision as of 16:27, 2 January 2013 view sourceBobrayner (talk | contribs)Autopatrolled, Extended confirmed users, Pending changes reviewers, Rollbackers53,708 edits Yes, there is actually a border with Serbia. Source added just in case anybody really believes that there's no border.← Previous edit |
Latest revision as of 07:59, 23 July 2022 view source No such user (talk | contribs)Autopatrolled, Extended confirmed users, Page movers, Pending changes reviewers, Rollbackers35,812 edits Undid revision 1099912354 by JPxG (talk): had better R categories beforeTag: Undo |
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#REDIRECT ] |
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{{About|the partially recognised independent republic declared in 2008|the state proclaimed in 1991|Republic of Kosova|the Kosovo region|Kosovo|other uses|Kosovo (disambiguation)}} |
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{{Use dmy dates|date=December 2012}} |
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{{pp-semi-indef}} |
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<!-----Please be very careful in editing the introduction of this article. The Arbitration Committee has placed this article on probation. While this occurred in 2006, it was never lifted; thus, this page is still under probation. If any editor makes disruptive edits, they may be banned by an administrator from this and related articles, or other reasonably related pages. See the talk page for more information. |
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Please also note that the current delicate (and controversial) political situation of Kosovo makes the terms of article probation all the more important. DO ''not'' ENGAGE IN EDIT-WARRING ON THIS ARTICLE or any related articles. Edit-warring on this article will result in immediate blocking and application of additional sanctions under the terms of probation as administrators and/or the community deem appropriate. Thank you. |
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Prior to a change (other than minor edits), discussion NEEDS to take place. PRIOR TO not afterwards. Please address such controversial edits within the Talk Page first.'''</u>------> |
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{{Republic of Kosovo}} |
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{{R from long name}} |
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{{History of Kosovo}} |
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The '''Republic of Kosovo''' (]: ''Republika e Kosovës''; ]: Република Косово, ''Republika Kosovo'') is a ] state in ]. Its largest city and capital is ]. Kosovo is landlocked and is bordered by the ] to the south, ] to the west, ] to the northwest, and ] to the north;<ref>{{cite news|url=http://setimes.com/cocoon/setimes/xhtml/en_GB/features/setimes/features/2012/08/23/feature-01|title=Kosovo seeks firm borders with Montenegro, Serbia|date=23 August 2012|work=SETimes|accessdate=2 January 2013}}</ref> the former three states recognise the Republic of Kosovo. Kosovo institutions have control over most of the territory of Kosovo, while ], the largest Serb-majority enclave, is largely outside their control and is run by local Serbian institutions with funds and support from ]. |
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Following an insurgency by Albanians from 1997-1999, after a failure to produce results from non-violent resistance to Serbian rule from 1990,<ref>Malcolm, Noel, ''Kosovo: A Short History'', pp. 354-356</ref> NATO launched a ] on ] to halt the war in Kosovo. In 1999 the ] through ] began overseeing the administration of the province after a UN Security Council (UNSC) resolution. On 17 February 2008 ], as the "Republic of Kosovo", which has received ] from some nation states. ] and a number of other countries do not recognise the unilateral secession of Kosovo<ref>Staff (23 July 2010) ''BBC News''</ref> and consider it a ] ] within its ].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.venice.coe.int/site/dynamics/N_Opinion_ef.asp?L=E&OID=405 |title=Documents by Opinion and Study |publisher=Venice.coe.int |accessdate=20 July 2009}}</ref> |
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The Republic of Kosovo has been recognised by {{Numrec|Kos|by|UN member states}} and is a member of the ] (IMF), ], and ]; it is set to join the ].<ref name=KosovoMembership>{{cite news|title=EBRD votes to give Kosovo membership|url=http://uk.reuters.com/article/2012/11/16/uk-kosovo-ebrd-idUKBRE8AF1A720121116|accessdate=17 November 2012|publisher=http://uk.reuters.com|date=16 November 2012}}</ref> |
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==History== |
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{{Main|History of Kosovo|20th century history of Kosovo}} |
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=== Disintegration of Yugoslavia === |
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{{Main|Kosovo War|Autonomous Province of Kosovo and Metohija|Republic of Kosova (1990–2000)}} |
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{{Further|Disintegration of Yugoslavia}} |
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] over the ], connecting the ] and Albanian south of the city of ].]] |
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Inter-ethnic tensions continued to worsen in Kosovo throughout the 1980s. |
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The 1986 ] warned that Yugoslavia was suffering from ethnic strife and the disintegration of the Yugoslav economy into separate economic sectors and territories, which was transforming the federal state into a loose confederation.<ref>SANU (1986): . GIP Kultura. Belgrade.</ref> |
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On 28 June 1989, ] delivered the ] in front of a large number of ethnic Serbs at the main celebration marking the 600th anniversary of the ] at the ]. Many think that this speech helped Milošević consolidate his authority in Serbia.<ref>''The Economist'', 5 June 1999, U.S. Edition, 1041 words, "What's next for Slobodan Milošević?"</ref> |
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In 1989, Milošević, employing a mix of intimidation and political manoeuvring, drastically reduced Kosovo's special autonomous status within Serbia and started cultural oppression of the ethnic Albanian population.<ref name="rogel">Rogel, Carole. . ''International Journal of Politics, Culture, and Society'', Vol. 17, No. 1 (September 2003): 167–82.</ref> Kosovo Albanians responded with a ] separatist movement, employing widespread ] and creation of parallel structures in ] care, and taxation, with the ultimate goal of achieving the ].<ref>Clark, Howard. ''Civil Resistance in Kosovo''. London: ], 2000. ISBN 0-7453-1569-0.</ref> |
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On 2 July 1990 a majority of members of the Kosovo Assembly passed a resolution declaring the ] within the Yugoslav Federation; in September 1991 (after the dissolution of the Assembly by Serbia) they passed a Constitution which would have given the Republic effective sovereignty but which might have also been compatible with a Yugoslav confederation if this had existed; in September 1992 they declared the Republic a sovereign and independent state.<ref>Noel Malcolm, ''A Short History of Kosovo'' pp. 346-7.</ref> In May 1992, ] was elected president.<ref name="babuna">Babuna, Aydın. . ''Perceptions'' 8(3), September–November 2003: 43–69.</ref> During its lifetime, the Republic of Kosova was only officially ] by ]; it was formally disbanded in 2000, after the Kosovo War, when its institutions were replaced by the ] established by the ] (UNMIK). |
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=== Kosovo War === |
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{{Main|Kosovo War|War crimes in the Kosovo War }} |
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{{see also|Organ theft in Kosovo}} |
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In 1995 the ] ended the ], drawing considerable international attention. However, despite the hopes of Kosovar Albanians, the situation in Kosovo remained largely un-addressed by the ], and by 1996 the ] (KLA), an ethnic ] guerrilla group, had prevailed over the ] movement and had started offering armed resistance to ] and ] security forces, resulting in early stages of the ].<ref name="rogel"/><ref>Rama, Shinasi A. . ''The International Journal of Albanian Studies'', 1 (1998), pp. 15–19.</ref> |
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By 1998, as the violence had worsened and displaced scores of Albanians, Western interest had increased. The Serbian authorities were compelled to sign a ] and partial retreat, monitored by ] (OSCE) observers according to an agreement negotiated by ]. However, the ceasefire did not hold and fighting resumed in December 1998. The ] in January 1999 in particular brought new international attention to the conflict.<ref name="rogel"/> Within weeks, a multilateral international conference was convened and by March had prepared a draft agreement known as the ], calling for restoration of Kosovo's autonomy and deployment of ] ] forces. The ] found the terms unacceptable and refused to sign the draft. |
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Between 24 March and 10 June 1999, ] by bombing Yugoslavia aimed to force Milošević to withdraw his forces from Kosovo,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.nato.int/kosovo/all-frce.htm|title=Operation Allied Force|publisher=]}}</ref> though NATO could not appeal to any particular motion of the Security Council of the United Nations to help legitimise its intervention. Combined with continued skirmishes between Albanian guerrillas and Yugoslav forces the conflict resulted in a further massive displacement of population in Kosovo.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.unhcr.org/partners/PARTNERS/3bb051c54.pdf|title=NATO and Humanitarian Action in the Kosovo Crisis|author=Larry Minear, Ted van Baarda, Marc Sommers|year=2000|publisher=]|format=PDF}}</ref> |
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During the conflict, roughly a million ethnic Albanians fled or were forcefully driven from Kosovo. Altogether, more than 11,000 deaths have been reported to ] by her prosecutors.<ref name="BBC">{{Cite news|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/europe/514828.stm |title=World: Europe UN gives figure for Kosovo dead |work=BBC News | date=10 November 1999 | accessdate=5 January 2010}}</ref> Some 3,000 people are still missing, of which 2,500 are Albanian, 400 Serbs and 100 ].<ref>{{Cite news|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/europe/781310.stm |title=3,000 missing in Kosovo |author=KiM Info-Service |date= 7 June 2000 |work=BBC News | accessdate=5 January 2010}}</ref> Ultimately by June, Milošević had agreed to a foreign military presence within Kosovo and withdrawal of his troops. |
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Since May 1999, the ] has prosecuted crimes committed during the Kosovo War. Nine Serbian and Yugoslavian commanders have been indicted so far for ] and violations of the ] in Kosovo in 1999: Yugoslavian President ], Serbian President ], Yugoslavian ] ], Yugoslavian Chief of the General Staff Gen. ], Serbian Interior Minister ], Gen. ], Gen. ''Vladimir Lazarević'', Deputy Interior Minister of Serbia ] and Chief of the Interior for Kosovo ]. Stojiljković killed himself while at large in 2002 and Milošević died in custody during the trial in 2006. In 2009 Milutinovic was acquitted by the Trial Chamber; five defendants were found guilty (three sentenced to 15 years imprisonment, and two to 22 years; and in 2011 the remaining defendant, who had been in hiding when the main trial started, was found guilty and sentenced to 27 years.<ref>http://www.icty.org/sid/10095</ref> The verdicts are under appeal. The indictment against the nine alleged that they directed, encouraged or supported a campaign of terror and violence directed at Kosovo Albanian civilians and aimed at the expulsion of a substantial portion of them from Kosovo. It has been alleged that about 800,000 Albanians were expelled as a result. In particular, in the indictment of June 2006, the accused were charged with murder of 919 identified Kosovo Albanian civilians aged from one to 93, both male and female.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.icty.org/x/cases/slobodan_milosevic/cis/en/cis_milosevic_slobodan.pdf |title=ICTY.org |format=PDF |accessdate=28 April 2010}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.icty.org/x/cases/milutinovic/cis/en/cis_milutinovic_al_en.pdf |title=ICTY.org |format=PDF |accessdate=28 April 2010}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.icty.org/x/cases/djordjevic/cis/en/cis_djordjevic_en.pdf |title=ICTY.org |format=PDF |accessdate=28 April 2010}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.icty.org/x/cases/djordjevic/ind/en/dor-3rdai070119.pdf |title=ICTY/org |format=PDF |accessdate=28 April 2010}}</ref> |
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In addition, the Office of the Serbian War Crimes Prosecutor has secured final judgements involving the conviction of 7 persons, sentenced to a total of 136 years imprisonment for war crimes in Kosovo involving 89 Albanian victims. As of June 2012, a trial of 12 defendants for an alleged massacre of 44 Albanian victims in Čuška (Alb: Qyshk) is ongoing.<ref>http://www.tuzilastvorz.org.rs/html_trz/predmeti_eng.htm</ref> |
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Six KLA commanders were indicted by ICTY in two cases: ], ] and ],<ref>Another Albanian was indicted together with them, but the charges against him were promptly withdrawn after his arrest, as he turned out not to be the person referred to in the indictment.</ref> as well as ], ''Idriz Balaj'' and ''Lahi Brahimaj''. They were charged with crimes against humanity and violations of the laws and customs of war in Kosovo in 1998, consisting in persecutions, cruel treatment, torture, murders and rape of several dozens of the local Serbs, Albanians and other civilians perceived un-loyal to the KLA. In particular, Limaj, Musliu and Bala were accused of murder of 22 identified detainees at or near the ]. In 2005 Limaj and Musliu were found not guilty on all charges, Bala was found guilty of persecutions, cruel treatment, murders and rape and sentenced to 13 years. The appeal chamber affirmed the judgements in 2007. In 2008 Ramush Haradinaj and Idriz Balaj were acquitted, whereas Lahi Brahimaj was found guilty of cruel treatment and torture and sentenced to six years.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.icty.org/x/cases/limaj/cis/en/cis_limaj_al_en.pdf |title=ICTY.org |format=PDF |accessdate=28 April 2010}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.icty.org/x/cases/haradinaj/cis/en/cis_haradinaj_al_en.pdf |title=ICTY.org |format=PDF |accessdate=28 April 2010}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.icty.org/x/cases/limaj/ind/en/lim-2ai040212e.pdf|title=Second Amended Indictment – Limaj et al |publisher=Icty.org |accessdate=20 July 2009}}</ref> The Office of the Prosecutor appealed their acquittals, resulting in the ICTY ordering a partial retrial; however on 29 November 2012 all three were acquitted of all charges.<ref name="Haradinaj cleared">{{cite news|title=Kosovo ex-PM Ramush Haradinaj cleared of war crimes|url=http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-europe-20536318|accessdate=29 November 2012|publisher=BBC News|date=29 November 2012}}</ref> |
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===UN administration period=== |
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{{Main|Kosovo (UNMIK)|Kosovo status process}} |
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] |
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On 10 June 1999, the UN Security Council passed ], which placed Kosovo under transitional UN administration (UNMIK) and authorised ] (KFOR), a NATO-led peacekeeping force. Resolution 1244 provided that Kosovo would have autonomy within the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia, and affirmed the ] of Yugoslavia, which has been legally succeeded by the Republic of Serbia.<ref name="autogenerated1999">{{Cite news|title=Resolution 1244 (1999) |date=17 June 1999 |publisher=BBC News |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/europe/371562.stm |accessdate=19 February 2008 }}</ref> |
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Estimates of the number of Serbs who left when Serbian forces left Kosovo vary from 65,000 <ref>European Stability Initiative (ESI): , 7 June 2004.</ref> to 250,000<ref>Coordinating Centre of Serbia for Kosovo-Metohija: .</ref> (194,000 Serbs were recorded as living in Kosovo in the census of 1991. But many Roma also left and may be included in the higher estimates). The majority of Serbs who left were from urban areas, but Serbs who stayed (whether in urban or rural areas) suffered violence which largely (but not entirely) ceased between early 2001 and the riots of March 2004, and ongoing fears of harassment may be a factor deterring their return. |
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International negotiations began in 2006 to determine the final status of Kosovo, as envisaged under ]. The UN-backed talks, led by UN ] ], began in February 2006. Whilst progress was made on technical matters, both parties remained diametrically opposed on the question of status itself.<ref>" ", ''BBC News'', 9 October 2006.</ref> |
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In February 2007, Ahtisaari delivered a draft status settlement proposal to leaders in Belgrade and Pristina, the basis for a draft ] which proposed 'supervised independence' for the province. A draft resolution, backed by the United States, the United Kingdom and other European members of the ], was presented and rewritten four times to try to accommodate Russian concerns that such a resolution would undermine the principle of state sovereignty.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.setimes.com/cocoon/setimes/xhtml/en_GB/newsbriefs/setimes/newsbriefs/2007/06/29/nb-07 |title=Russia reportedly rejects fourth draft resolution on Kosovo status |author=Southeast European Times |date=29 June 2007 |accessdate=24 July 2009}}</ref> |
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Russia, which holds a veto in the Security Council as one of five permanent members, had stated that it would not support any resolution which was not acceptable to both Belgrade and Kosovo Albanians.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.setimes.com/cocoon/setimes/xhtml/en_GB/newsbriefs/setimes/newsbriefs/2007/07/10/nb-02 |title=UN Security Council remains divided on Kosovo |author=Southeast European Times |date= 10 July 2007 |accessdate=24 July 2009}}</ref> Whilst most observers had, at the beginning of the talks, anticipated independence as the most likely outcome, others have suggested that a rapid resolution might not be preferable.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.ft.com/cms/s/0/985caa90-de5a-11db-afa7-000b5df10621.html?nclick_check=1 |title=A long reconciliation process is required |author=James Dancer |date=30 March 2007 |work=Financial Times }}</ref> |
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After many weeks of discussions at the UN, the United States, United Kingdom and other European members of the Security Council formally 'discarded' a draft resolution backing Ahtisaari's proposal on 20 July 2007, having failed to secure Russian backing. Beginning in August, a "]" consisting of negotiators from the ] (]), the United States (]) and ] (Alexander Botsan-Kharchenko) launched a new effort to reach a status outcome acceptable to both Belgrade and Pristina. Despite Russian disapproval, the U.S., the United Kingdom, and France appeared likely to recognise Kosovar independence.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.guardian.co.uk/international/story/0,,2209907,00.html |title=Bosnian nightmare returns to haunt EU |author=Simon Tisdall |date=13 November 2007 |work=The Guardian |location=UK }}</ref> A declaration of independence by Kosovar Albanian leaders was postponed until the end of the ] (4 February 2008). Most ] and the US had feared that a premature declaration could boost support in Serbia for the ultra-nationalist candidate, ].<ref>{{Cite news|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/europe/6386467.stm |title=Europe , Q&A: Kosovo's future |publisher=BBC News |date=11 July 2008 |accessdate=20 July 2009}}</ref> |
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Under the Constitutional Framework, Kosovo had a 120-member Kosovo Assembly. The Assembly includes twenty reserved seats: ten for Kosovo Serbs and ten for non-Serb and non-Albanian nations (e.g. Bosniaks, Roma, etc.). The Kosovo Assembly was responsible for electing the President, Prime Minister, and Government of Kosovo, and for passing legislation which was vetted and promulgated by UNMIK. |
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====Provisional institutions of self-government==== |
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In November 2001, the ] supervised the first elections for the Kosovo Assembly.<ref>" ", Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe</ref> After that election, Kosovo's political parties formed an all-party unity coalition and elected ] as President and ] (PDK) as Prime Minister.<ref>" ", ], 21 February 2002</ref> After Kosovo-wide elections in October 2004, the LDK and AAK formed a new governing coalition that did not include PDK and Ora. This coalition agreement resulted in ] (AAK) becoming Prime Minister, while Ibrahim Rugova retained the position of President. PDK and Ora were critical of the coalition agreement and have since frequently accused that government of corruption.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.publicinternationallaw.org/docs/BW2005/Balkan_Watch.11April_05.pdf |title=Publicinternationallaw.org |format=PDF |accessdate=28 April 2010}}</ref> |
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] were held on 17 November 2007. After early results, ] who was on course to gain 35 per cent of the vote, claimed victory for PDK, the ], and stated his intention to declare independence. Thaçi formed a coalition with current President ]'s ] which was in second place with 22 percent of the vote.<ref>" ", BBC News, 9 January 2008</ref> The turnout at the election was particularly low. Most members of the Serb minority refused to vote.<ref>. Retrieved 18 November 2007.</ref> |
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However, since 1999, ] has remained largely outside the control of the Kosovo Government. |
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===Declaration of independence=== |
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].]] |
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] |
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{{Main|2008 Kosovo declaration of independence|International recognition of Kosovo|2008 unrest in Kosovo}} |
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Kosovo declared independence on 17 February 2008<ref name="bbc_proclaim">"", ], 17 February 2008</ref> and over the following days, a number of ] (the United States, Turkey, ], Austria, ], Germany, ], France, the United Kingdom, the ],<ref>{{Cite news|url=http://www.taipeitimes.com/News/taiwan/archives/2008/02/20/2003402059|title=Taiwan officially recognizes Kosovo|work=The Taipei Times |author=Hsu, Jenny W|date=20 February 2008|accessdate=13 May 2008}}</ref> Australia, Poland and others) announced their recognition, despite protests by ] and others in the UN.<ref name="bbc=recog1">"", BBC News Online, 18 February 2008</ref> {{Numrec|Kos|asof=S||UN states}} recognise the independence of Kosovo and it has become a member country of the ] and ] as the Republic of Kosovo.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.imf.org/external/np/ms/2009/062409.htm |title=Republic of Kosovo – IMF Staff Visit, Concluding Statement |publisher=Imf.org |date=24 June 2009 |accessdate=20 July 2009}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://web.worldbank.org/WBSITE/EXTERNAL/COUNTRIES/0,,pagePK:180619~theSitePK:136917,00.html#k |title=World Bank Cauntries}}</ref> |
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The UN Security Council remains divided on the question ({{As of|2008|7|4|lc=on}}). Of the five members with ], USA, UK, and France ] the declaration of independence, and the People's Republic of China has expressed concern, while Russia considers it ]. {{As of|2010|05}}, no member-country of ], ] or ] has recognised Kosovo as independent. Kosovo has not made a formal application for UN membership yet in view of a possible veto from Russia and China.{{Citation needed|date=June 2010}} |
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The ] has no official position towards Kosovo's status, but has decided to deploy the ] to ensure a continuation of international civil presence in Kosovo. {{As of|2008|4}}, most of the member-countries of ], EU, ] and ] have recognised Kosovo as independent.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.kosovothanksyou.com/stats.php |title=Recognition Information and Statistics – Who Recognized Kosova? The Kosovar people thank you – Who Recognized Kosovo and Who Recognizes Kosovo |publisher=Kosovothanksyou.com |date=1 May 2007 |accessdate=20 July 2009}}</ref> |
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{{As of|2008|10|9}}, all of Kosovo's immediate neighbour states except ] have recognised the declaration of independence. ] and ] announced their recognition of Kosovo on 9 October 2008.<ref>. Retrieved 10 October 2008.</ref> Albania, ], Bulgaria and ] have also recognised the independence of Kosovo.<ref>. Retrieved 19 March 2008.</ref> |
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The Serb minority of Kosovo, which largely opposes the declaration of independence, has formed the ] in response. The creation of the assembly was condemned by Kosovo's president Fatmir Sejdiu, while UNMIK has said the assembly is not a serious issue because it will not have an operative role.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.setimes.com/cocoon/setimes/xhtml/en_GB/features/setimes/features/2008/06/30/feature-01 |title=Kosovo Serbs convene parliament; Pristina, international authorities object (SETimes.com) |publisher=SETimes.com |date=30 June 2008 |accessdate=20 July 2009}}</ref> |
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On 8 October 2008, the UN General Assembly resolved, on a proposal by Serbia,to ask the International Court of Justice to render an advisory opinion on the legality of Kosovo's declaration of independence. The advisory opinion, which is not binding over decisions by states to recognise or not recognise Kosovo, was rendered on 22 July 2010, holding that Kosovo's declaration of independence was not in violation either of general principles of international law, which do not prohibit unilateral declarations of independence, nor of specific international law - in particular UNSCR 1244 - which did not define the final status process nor reserve the outcome to a decision of the Security Council.<ref>http://www.icj-cij.org/docket/index.php?p1=3&p2=4&code=kos&case=141&k=21</ref> |
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==Government and politics== |
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===Government=== |
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{{Main|Government of Kosovo}} |
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] |
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The government of the Republic of Kosovo is defined under the 2008 ] as a ] ] ] republic. ] is vested in both the ] and the ministers within their competencies. The ] is the ] and represents the "unity of the people". The ] exercises the ] and is composed of the ] as the ], the deputy prime ministers, and the ministers of the various ministries. The legal system is composed of an independent ] composed of the ] and subordinate courts, a ], and an independent prosecutorial institution. There also exist multiple independent institutions defined by the Constitution and law, as well as local governments. |
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International civil and security presences are operating under auspices of the ] ]. Previously this included only the ] (UNMIK), but has since expanded to include the ] (EULEX). In December 2008, EULEX was deployed throughout the territory of Kosovo, assuming responsibilities in the areas of police, customs and the judiciary.<ref>{{citation | title= Kosovo Under UNSCR 1244/99 2009 Progress Report | publisher=] | page= 6 | date= 14 October 2009 | url= http://www.delprn.ec.europa.eu/repository/docs/ks_rapport_2009_en.pdf }}</ref> |
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A Kosovo Police Force was established in 1999. |
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====Continued International Supervision==== |
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{{Main|European Union Rule of Law Mission in Kosovo}} |
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]]] |
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The Ahtisaari Plan envisaged two forms of international supervision of Kosovo after independence: the International Civilian Office (ICO), which would monitor the implementation of the Plan and would have a wide range of veto powers over legislative and executive actions, and the European Union Rule of Law Mission to Kosovo (EULEX) which would have the narrower mission of deploying police and civilian resources (including prosecutors) with the aim of developing the Kosovo police and judicial systems but also with its own powers of arrest and prosecution. |
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The Kosovo Declaration of Independence and subsequent Constitution granted these bodies the powers assigned to them by the Ahtisaari Plan. Since the Plan was not voted on by the UN Security Council, the ICO's legal status within Kosovo was dependent on the de facto situation and Kosovo legislation; it was supervised by an International Steering Group (ISG) composed of the main states which recognised Kosovo. It was never recognised by Serbia or other non-recognising states. EULEX was also initially opposed by Serbia, but its mandate and powers were accepted in late 2008 by Serbia and the UN Security Council as operating under the umbrella of the continuing UNMIK mandate, in a status-neutral way, but with its own operational independence. |
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The ICO's existence terminated on 10 September 2012, after the ISG had determined that Kosovo had substantially fulfilled its obligations under the Ahtisaari Plan. EULEX continues its existence under both Kosovo and international law; in 2012 the Kosovo president formally requested a continuation of its mandate until 2014. |
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===Constitution=== |
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{{Further|Constitution of Kosovo}} |
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The Republic of Kosovo is governed by legislative, executive and judicial institutions which derive from the Constitution of Kosovo, adopted in June 2008, although (as noted previously) North Kosovo is in practice largely controlled by institutions of the Republic of Serbia or parallel institutions funded by Serbia. The Constitution provides for a temporary international supervisory function exercised by the International Civilian Office (ICO), and, in the field of the rule of law, by EULEX. The International Steering Group has announced that the ICO's mandate has been successfully concluded and that the ICO ceased to exist on 10 September 2012 <ref>http://www.msnbc.msn.com/id/48043687/ns/world_news-europe/t/west-end-kosovo-independence-oversight-september</ref> |
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The Constitution<ref>, Republic of Kosovo constitution,</ref> provides for a primarily parliamentary democracy, although the President has the power to return draft legislation to the Assembly for reconsideration, and has a role in foreign affairs and certain official appointments. It specifies that "the Republic of Kosovo is a secular state and is neutral in matters of religious beliefs". Like the Constitutional Framework before it, it guarantees a minimum of ten seats in the 120-member Assembly for Serbs, and ten for other minorities, and also guarantees Serbs and other minorities places in the Government. |
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A wide range of legislation affecting minority communities requires not only a majority in the Assembly for passage or amendment, but also the agreement of a majority of those Assembly members who are Serbs or from other minorities. Although Kosovo is not currently a member of the Council of Europe (and thus her citizens cannot appeal to the European Court of Human Rights) the Constitution enshrines the European Convention on Human Rights in Kosovo law, and gives it primacy over any domestic Kosovo laws. Kosovo's independent Constitutional Court has indeed overturned executive actions on the grounds that they infringe upon the Convention. |
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The Constitution provides extensive powers to the municipalities; boundaries of municipalities cannot be changed without their agreement. Three Serb-majority municipalities (North Mitrovica, Gračanica, and Štrpce) are directly given powers which other Kosovo municipalities do not have in the fields of university education and secondary health care; the constitutional right of Serb municipalities to associate and co-operate with each other means that, indirectly, they too have potential powers in these fields |
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===Politics=== |
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{{Main|Politics of Kosovo}} |
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The largest ] are the centre-right ] (LDK), which has its origins in the 1990s non-violent resistance movement to Miloševic's rule and was led by ] until his death in 2006,<ref name="ku">" ", European Forum, 18 March 2008</ref> and two parties having their roots in the ] (KLA): the centre-left ] (PDK) led by former KLA leader ] and the centre-right ] (AAK) led by former KLA commander ].<ref name="ku"/> In 2006 Swiss-Kosovar businessman ], reputed to be the richest living Albanian, founded the ] (AKR), which came third in the 2007 elections and fourth in those of 2010. |
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In 2010, the Constitutional Court ruled that the first President of the Republic, ], was violating the Constitution by remaining leader of the LDK as well as being President. He chose to resign the Presidency rather than resign as leader of the party, but lost his leadership of the LDK anyway to ], who campaigned for the leadership on a platform of leaving the Government coalition with the PDK. In the early elections which resulted from this political crisis, the PDK emerged as victors over the LDK, and formed a coalition with ], the Serb Samostralna Liberalna Stranka, and other minority community parties. |
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The Assembly narrowly elected ] as President, but his election was subsequently declared invalid by the Constitutional Court on the grounds that it was unconstitutional for a Presidential election to have only one candidate. He was succeeded by ]. |
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Politics in Serb areas south of the River Ibar are dominated by the Independent Liberal Party (]), led by ]; Serbs north of the river almost totally boycotted the Assembly elections of 2010 |
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In February 2007 the Union of Serbian Districts and District Units of Kosovo and Metohija transformed into the Serbian Assembly of Kosovo and Metohija.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.alertnet.org/thenews/newsdesk/L28603646.htm |title=Reuters AlertNet – Kosovo Serbs convene parliament, rejecting new state |publisher=Alertnet.org |date=28 June 2008 |accessdate=20 July 2009}}</ref> On 18 February 2008, day after Kosovo's unilateral declaration of independence, the Assembly declared it "null and void". |
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===Foreign relations=== |
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{{Main|Foreign relations of Kosovo}} |
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Currently 19 countries maintain ]. {{Numrec|Kos|asof=S}} countries recognise Republic of Kosovo as independent. ] is ] of the Republic of Kosovo.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.balkaninsight.com/en/main/news/8228 |title=Kosovo Foreign Ministry 'Soon' |publisher=BalkanInsight.com |accessdate=20 July 2009}} {{Dead link|date=October 2010|bot=H3llBot}}</ref> |
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===Military=== |
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A 2,500-strong ] (KSF) was trained by ] instructors and became operational in September 2009.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.gazetaexpress.com/web/index.php/artikujt/lexo/15467/C4/C16/|title=FSK nis zyrtarisht punën|date=18 September 2009|accessdate=14 January 2010|publisher=Gazeta Express|language=Albanian|location=Pristina, Kosovo}}</ref> The KSF did not replace the ] (KPC) which was disbanded several months later. ] is the current Minister of Security Forces of the Republic of Kosovo.<ref> ''kryeministri-ks.com'' 22 February 2011 Link retrieved 23 February 2011</ref> |
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==Economy== |
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{{Main|Economy of Kosovo}} |
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] reserves compared to the world]] |
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] mural, ] in Pristina.]] |
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Kosovo was the poorest part of the former Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia (SFRY), and in the 1990s its economy suffered from the combined results of political upheaval, the Yugoslav wars, Serbian dismissal of Kosovo employees, and international sanctions on Serbia, of which it was then part. |
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After 1999, it had an economic boom as a result of post-war reconstruction and foreign assistance. In the period from 2003 to 2011, despite declining foreign assistance, growth of GDP averaged over 5% a year. This was despite the global financial crisis of 2009 and the subsequent eurozone crisis. Inflation was low. |
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Kosovo has a strongly negative balance of trade; in 2004, the deficit of the balance of goods and services was close to 70 percent of GDP, and was 39% of GDP in 2011. Remittances from the Kosovo diaspora accounted for an estimated 14 percent of GDP, little changed over the previous decade.<ref name="IMF Country Report No 12/100"> '' IMF Country Report No 12/100 '' http://www.imf.org/external/pubs/ft/scr/2012/cr12100.pdf "Unemployment, around 40% of the population, is a significant problem that encourages outward migration and black market activity."</ref><ref name=autogenerated1>http://ec.europa.eu/economy_finance/publications/enlargement_papers/2005/elp26en.pdf</ref> Most economic development since 1999 has taken place in the trade, retail and construction sectors. The private sector which has emerged since 1999 is mainly small-scale. The industrial sector remains weak. The economy, and its sources of growth, are therefore geared far more to demand than production, as shown by the current account, which was in 2011 in deficit by about 20% of GDP. Consequently Kosovo is highly dependent on remittances from the diaspora (the majority of these from Germany and Switzerland), FDI (of which a high proportion also comes from the diaspora), and other capital inflows.<ref name="IMF Country Report No 12/100"/> |
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Government revenue is also dependent on demand rather than production; only 14% of revenue comes from direct taxes and the rest mainly from customs duties and taxes on consumption. In part this reflects low levels of production as shown in the current account; but in part it reflects very low direct taxation rates. In 2009 corporation tax was halved from 20% to 10%; the highest rate of income tax is also 10%. |
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However, Kosovo has very low levels of general government debt (only 5.8% of GDP),<ref name="IMF Country Report No 12/100"/> although this would rise if Serbia recognised Kosovo and an agreement was reached on Kosovo's share of SFRY debt (which Serbia estimated in 2009 at $1.264 billion <ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.reuters.com/article/worldNews/idUSL2637230220080226 |title=Serbia should stop servicing Kosovo debt: EconMin , International |agency=Reuters |date=26 February 2008 |accessdate=20 July 2009}}</ref> and which it is currently servicing, though Kosovo is putting money into a separate account to take account, on a conservative basis, of potential liabilities). The Government also has liquid assets resulting from past fiscal surpluses (deposited in the Central Bank and invested abroad). Under applicable Kosovo law, there are also substantial assets from privatisation of socially-owned enterprises (SOEs), also invested abroad by the Central Bank, which should mostly accrue to the Government when liquidation processes have been completed.<ref name="IMF Country Report No 12/100"/> |
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The net foreign assets of the financial corporations and the Pension Fund amount to well over 50% of GDP. Moreover, the banking system in Kosovo seems very sound. For the banking system as a whole, the Tier One Capital Ratio as of January 2012 was 17.5%, double the ratio required in the EU; the proportion of non-performing loans was 5.9%, well below the regional average; and the credit to deposit ratio was only just above 80%. The assets of the banking system have increased from 5% of GDP in 2000 to 60% of GDP as of January 2012.<ref name="IMF Country Report No 12/100"/> Since the housing stock in Kosovo is generally good by South-East European standards, this suggests that (if the legal system's ability to enforce claims on collateral and resolve property issues is trusted), credit to Kosovars could be safely expanded. |
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The United Nations Interim Administration Mission in Kosovo (UNMIK) introduced an external trade office and customs administration on 3 September 1999, when it established border controls in Kosovo. All goods imported to Kosovo face a flat 10% duty.<ref name=autogenerated2></ref> These taxes are collected at all Customs Points at Kosovo's borders, including that between Kosovo and Serbia.<ref>http://www.seerecon.org/kosovo/documents/wb_econ_report/wb-kosovo-econreport-2-2.pdf</ref> UNMIK and Kosovo institutions have signed free-trade agreements with Croatia,<ref>, ], 2 October 2006</ref> Bosnia and Herzegovina,<ref></ref> Albania<ref></ref> and the Republic of Macedonia.<ref name=autogenerated2 /> |
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The euro is the official currency of Kosovo.<ref></ref> Kosovo adopted the German mark in 1999 to replace the Serbian dinar,<ref></ref> and later replaced it with the euro, although the Serbian dinar is still used in some Serb-majority areas (mostly in the north). This means that Kosovo has no levers of monetary policy over its economy, and must rely on a conservative fiscal policy to provide the means to respond to external shocks.<ref name="IMF Country Report No 12/100"/> Officially registered unemployment stood at 40% of the labour force in January 2012,<ref name="IMF Country Report No 12/100"/><ref name="autogenerated1"/> although some estimates have put it as high as 60%.<ref></ref> The IMF have pointed out, however, that informal employment is widespread, and the ratio of wages to per capita GDP is the second highest in South-East Europe; the true rate may therefore be lower.<ref name="IMF Country Report No 12/100"/> Unemployment among the Roma minority may be as high as 90%.<ref> 28 October 2010.</ref> The mean wage in 2009 was $2.98 per hour. |
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The dispute over Kosovo's international status, and the interpretation which some non-recognising states place on symbols which may or may not imply sovereignty, continues to impose economic costs on Kosovo. Examples include flight diversions because of a Serbian ban on flights to Kosovo over its territory; loss of revenues because of a lack of a regional dialling code (end-user fees on fixed lines accrue to Serbian Telecoms, while Kosovo has to pay Monaco and Slovenia for use of their regional codes for mobile phone connections; no IBAN code for bank transfers; and no regional Kosovo code for the internet. |
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A major deterrent to foreign manufacturing investment in Kosovo was removed in 2011 when the European Council accepted a Convention allowing Kosovo to be accepted as part of its rules for diagonal cumulative origination, allowing the label of Kosovo origination to goods which have been processed there but originated in a country elsewhere in the Convention. Since 2002 the European Commission has compiled a yearly progress report on Kosovo, evaluating its political and economic situation. Kosovo became a member of the World Bank and the International Monetary Fund on 29 June 2009. |
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===Trade and investment=== |
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Free trade: |
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Customs-free access to the EU market based on the EU Autonomous Trade Preference (ATP) Regime, Central European Free Trade Area–CEFTA<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.pak-ks.org/?id=19 |title= Economic Description:free trade |author=PAK }}</ref> |
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Kosovo enjoys a free trade within ] (CEFTA), agreed with UNMIK, enabling its producers to access the regional market with its 28 million consumers, free of any customs duties. According to the Business Registry data for 2007, there are 2,012 companies of foreign and mixed ownership that have already used the opportunity to invest in Kosovo.{{Citation needed|date=March 2011}} |
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The ] (MIGA, a member of the World Bank Group) guarantees investments in Kosovo in |
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the value of 20 million Euro.{{Citation needed|date=March 2011}} The US Overseas Private Investment Corporation (OPIC) also provides political risk insurance for foreign investors in Kosovo.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.eciks.org/english/publications/investorsguide09.pdf |title=Investments |author=ECIKS}}</ref> |
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==Municipalities and cities== |
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] |
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{{Main|Municipalities of Kosovo}} |
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Until 2007, Kosovo was divided into 30 municipalities. It is currently divided into 38 according to Kosovo law, in which ten municipalities have Serb majorities (including around 90% of the Serb population in Kosovo). Since Serbia does not recognise the legal validity of legislation by the Kosovo Assembly after the Declaration of Independence, it cannot recognise the legal validity even of new Serb-majority municipalities. However, the effective exercise of local administration - whether by authorities recognising Kosovo's independence, as is the case for Serb-majority municipalities south of the River Ibar, or not recognising it, as is the case for municipalities north of the River Ibar - follows the current boundaries established by Kosovo law. |
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=== List of Municipalities === |
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<small>The first name is Serbian, and the second one is Albanian. An asterisk denotes a municipality created or enlarged after the Declaration of Independence of 2008, whose legal validity is not recognised by Serbia</small> |
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{{Municipalities of Kosovo}} |
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==Rule of law== |
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Following the ], due to the many weapons in the hands of civilians, law enforcement inefficiencies, and widespread devastation, both ] and ] surged tremendously. The number of reported murders rose 80% from 136 in 2000 to 245 in 2001. The number of reported arsons rose 140% from 218 to 523 over the same period. UNMIK pointed out that the rise in reported incidents might simply correspond to an increased confidence in the police force (i.e., more reports) rather than more actual crime.<ref name="unmikstat">{{cite web|url=http://www.unmikonline.org/civpol/statistics.htm |title=UNMIK statistics |publisher=Unmikonline.org |accessdate=28 April 2010}}</ref> According to the ], by 2008, murder rates in Kosovo had dropped by 75% in five years.<ref>Retrieved from </ref><ref>, ] report, March 2008. P. 39.</ref> |
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Although the number of noted serious crimes increased between 1999 and 2000, since then it has been "starting to resemble the same patterns of other European cities".<ref name="unmikstat"/><ref>, 17 January 2001</ref> According to ], the aftermath of the war resulted in an increase in the ] for sexual exploitation.<ref>, ].</ref><ref>, Amnesty International.</ref><ref>, ].</ref> According to the ] data, in 2000–2004, Kosovo was consistently ranked fourth or fifth among the countries of Southeastern Europe by number of ] victims, after Albania, ], Romania and sometimes ].<ref name="iom.int">. Geneva:International Organization for Migration, 2005. P. 31, 247–295.</ref><ref>, ] report, March 2008. P. 79.</ref> |
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Residual landmines and other ] remain in Kosovo, although all roads and tracks have been cleared. Caution when travelling in remote areas is advisable.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://fco-stage.fco.gov.uk/content/en/travel-advice/europe/12793683/FCO_TRV_ca_kosovo |title=Kosovo travel advice |publisher=Fco-stage.fco.gov.uk |accessdate=20 July 2009}}</ref> |
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Kosovo is extremely vulnerable to ] and thus to ]. In 2000, international agencies estimated that Kosovo was supplying up to 40% of the heroin sold in Europe and North America.<ref>{{Cite news|url=http://www.guardian.co.uk/world/2000/mar/13/balkans |title=Kosovo drug mafia supply heroin to Europe , World news |work=The Guardian |location=UK |accessdate=20 July 2009 | date=13 March 2000 | first=Maggie | last=O'Kane}}</ref> Due to the ] and the ] in 1998–1999 ethnic Albanian traffickers enjoyed a competitive advantage, which has been eroding as the region stabilises.<ref>, ] report, March 2008. P. 14.</ref> However, according to a 2008 report by the ], overall, ethnic Albanians, not only from Kosovo, supply 10 to 20% of the heroin in Western Europe, and the traffic has been declining.<ref>, ] report, March 2008. P. 14, 74.</ref> |
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In 2010, a report by Swiss MP ] claimed to have evidence that a criminal network tied to the ] and the Prime Minister, ], executed prisoners and harvested their kidneys for organ transplantation. The Kosovo government rejected the allegation.<ref>{{cite news|last=BBC|title=Kosovo rejects Hashim Thaci organ-trafficking claims|url=http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-europe-11996255|date=15 December 2010|work=BBC News }}</ref> On 25 January 2011, the ] endorsed the report and called for a full and serious investigation into ].<ref> The Guardian, 14 December 2010. Retrieved 2 February 2011</ref><ref name="Balkan2">{{cite news |title=Council Adopts Kosovo Organ Trafficking Resolution |url=http://www.balkaninsight.com/en/article/council-adopts-kosovo-organ-trafficking-resolution |newspaper=Balkan Insight |date=25 January 2011 |accessdate=26 January 2011}}</ref> |
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==See also== |
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{{Portal|Kosovo}} |
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{{Main|Outline of Kosovo}} |
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<div style="-moz-column-count:2; column-count:2;"> |
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* ] |
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==References== |
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===Notes=== |
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{{Reflist|colwidth=30em}} |
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===Sources=== |
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*{{citation|last=Lellio|first=Anna Di|title=The case for Kosova: passage to independence|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=aNEW0jtOjK8C&pg=PP1|date=2006-06|publisher=Anthem Press|isbn=978-1-84331-229-1}} |
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*{{Citation|last=Elsie |first=Robert |authorlink=Robert Elsie |title=Historical Dictionary of Kosova |publisher=Scarecrow Press |year=2004 |isbn=0-8108-5309-4}} |
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*{{Citation|last=Malcolm |first=Noel |authorlink=Noel Malcolm |title=Kosovo: A Short History |publisher=] |year=1998 |isbn=0-333-66612-7}} |
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==External links== |
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{{Sister project links}} |
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*{{wikiatlas|Kosovo}} |
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*{{CIA World Factbook link|kv|Kosovo}} |
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*{{dmoz|Regional/Europe/Serbia/Kosovo}} |
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*{{Wikivoyage-inline}} |
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{{Kosovo topics}} |
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