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{{Short description|Spiritual teacher and guide}}
{{otheruses}}
{{Other uses}}
A '''Guru''' ({{lang-sa|गुरू}}, {{IAST|guru}}) is a ] in ], ], and ]. Based on a long line of ] understanding as to the importance of knowledge, the guru is seen in these religions as a sacred conduit, or a way to ]. In ] and among people of ], ], or ] belief, the title retains a relgious connotation.


]
"Guru" also refers in Sanskrit to ], a Hindu figure analogous to the Roman planet/god ]. In ], Guru or Brihaspati is believed to exert teaching influences. Indeed, in many ] such as ], the occidental ] is called either ''Brihaspativaar'' or ''Guruvaar'' (''vaar'' meaning day of the week).
'''Guru''' ({{IPAc-en|ˈ|ɡ|uː|r|uː}} {{langx|sa|गुरु}}; ]: ''gurū'') is a ] term for a "], ], ], or master" of certain knowledge or field.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Pertz |first1=Stefan |year=2013 |title=The Guru in Me - Critical Perspectives on Management |publisher=GRIN Verlag |isbn=978-3638749251 |pages=2–3}}</ref> In pan-], a guru is more than a teacher: traditionally, the guru is a reverential figure to the disciple (or '']'' in Sanskrit, literally ''seeker ) or student, with the guru serving as a "counselor, who helps mold values, shares ] as much as ], an ], an inspirational source and who helps in the spiritual evolution of a student".<ref name=joelmlecko/> Whatever language it is written in, ] says that a ] spiritual text is often codified in an obscure ] so that it cannot be understood by anyone without the verbal explanation of a qualified teacher, the guru.<ref>{{cite book |author-link=Judith Simmer-Brown |last=Simmer-Brown |first=Judith |year=2002 |title=Dakini's Warm Breath: The Feminine Principle in Tibetan Buddhism |location=Boston, Massachusetts |publisher=Shambhala Publications|page=169|isbn=978-1-57062-920-4}}</ref> A guru is also one's spiritual guide, who helps one to discover the same potentialities that the ''guru'' has already realized.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/guru-Hinduism |title=Guru |publisher=Encyclopædia Britannica |year=2013}}</ref>


The oldest references to the concept of ''guru'' are found in the earliest ] ] of ].<ref name=joelmlecko/> The ''guru'', and '']'' – a school run by ''guru'', were an established tradition in India by the ], and these helped compose and transmit the various ], the ], texts of various schools of ], and post-Vedic ] ranging from spiritual knowledge to various arts so also specific science and technology.<ref name=joelmlecko/><ref name=tamara/><ref name=scharfetempleschools2/> By about mid 1st millennium CE, ] and ] suggest numerous larger institutions of ''gurus'' existed in India, some near ], where ] helped preserve, create and transmit various fields of knowledge.<ref name=scharfetempleschools2/> These gurus led broad ranges of studies including ], ], ], ], ], ] and ].<ref name=scharfetempleschools2/><ref name=michelltempleschool/>
In contemporary India and ], "guru" is widely used within the general meaning of "teacher". In Western usage, the original meaning of guru has been extended to cover anyone who acquires followers, though not necessarily in an established school of philosophy or religion. In a further metaphorical extension, guru is used to refer to a person who has authority because of his or her perceived knowledge or skills in a domain of expertise.


The tradition of the guru is also found in ], referring to a spiritual preceptor, a role typically served by a ] ].<ref name="Jeffery D Long 2009 pages 110, 196">Jeffery D Long (2009), Jainism: An Introduction, IB Tauris, {{ISBN|978-1845116262}}, pages 110, 196</ref><ref name=patridge252/> In ], the ''guru'' tradition has played a key role since its founding in the 15th century, its founder is referred to as ], and its scripture as ].<ref>William Owen Cole (1982), The Guru in Sikhism, Darton Longman & Todd, {{ISBN|9780232515091}}, pages 1-4</ref><ref name=singhakaur/> The guru concept has thrived in ] Buddhism, where the tantric guru is considered a figure to worship and whose instructions should never be violated.<ref name=berkwitz130/><ref name=johnston371/>
The importance of discerning between a true guru and a false one is explored in scriptures and teachings of religions in which a guru plays a role. The assessment and criticism of gurus and the ] are espoused in the discourse about ]s and ]s by Western secular scholars, ], ] and by ] both in the West and in India.


== Definition and etymology ==
{{Wiktionary}}


The word ''{{IAST|guru}}'' (Sanskrit: {{lang|sa|गुरु}}), a noun, connotes "teacher" in ], but in ] it has contextual meanings with significance beyond what teacher means in English.<ref name="joelmlecko">{{cite journal | last=Mlecko | first=Joel D. | title=The Guru in Hindu Tradition | journal=Numen | publisher=Brill | volume=29 | issue=1 | year=1982 | issn=0029-5973 | doi=10.1163/156852782x00132 | pages=33–61 | jstor=3269931}}</ref> The ''guru'' is more than someone who teaches a specific type of knowledge, and included in the term's scope is someone who is also a "counselor, a sort of parent of mind ('']'') and Self ('']''), who helps ] (] and ]) and experiential knowledge as much as ], an exemplar in life, an inspirational source and who reveals the ]."<ref name=joelmlecko/> The word has the same meaning in other languages derived from or borrowing words from Sanskrit, such as ], ], ], ], ], ], ], ], ], ] and ]. The Malayalam term Acharyan or ] is derived from the Sanskrit word ].
== Etymology==
The word ''{{IAST|guru}}'' means "teacher" in ], as well as in other languages derived from Sanskrit, such as Hindi, ] and ]. The word is attested from the ] as an adjective meaning "heavy", its opposite being ''{{IAST|laghu}}'' "light". It derives from ] {{PIE|*g<sup>w</sup>rus}}, cognate to ] ''barus'', ] ''gravis'', both likewise meaning "heavy".


As a noun the word means the imparter of knowledge ('']''; also ]: ''ñāna''). As an adjective, it means 'heavy,' or 'weighty,' in the sense of "heavy with knowledge,"{{refn|"Guru: a spiritual master; one who is heavy with knowledge of the Absolute and who removes nescience with the light of the divine."<ref name="tirha">Tirtha Goswami Maharaj, ''A Taste of Transcendence'', (2002) p. 161, Mandala Press. {{ISBN|1-886069-71-9}}.</ref>|group=Note}} heavy with spiritual wisdom,<ref name="lipner">],''Their Religious Beliefs and Practices'' p.192, Routledge (UK), {{ISBN|0-415-05181-9}}</ref> "heavy with spiritual weight,"<ref name="cornille">Cornille, C. ''The Guru in Indian Catholicism'' (1991) p.207. Peeters Publishers {{ISBN|90-6831-309-6}}</ref> "heavy with the good qualities of scriptures and realization,"<ref name="hopkins">Hopkins, Jeffrey ''Reflections on Reality'' (2002) p. 72. University of California Press. {{ISBN|0-520-21120-0}}</ref> or "heavy with a wealth of knowledge."<ref name="varene">Varene, Jean. ''Yoga and the Hindu Tradition'' (1977). p.226. University of Chicago Press. {{ISBN|0-226-85116-8}}</ref> The word has its roots in the Sanskrit ''gri'' (to invoke, or to praise), and may have a connection to the word ''gur'', meaning 'to raise, lift up, or to make an effort'.<ref name=Lowitz>{{cite book|title=Sacred Sanskrit Words|first=Leza A.|last=Lowitz|page=85|publisher=Stone Bridge Press|year=2004|id=1-880-6568-76}}</ref>
The word holds a special place in Hinduism, signifying both the sacred place of knowledge (]) and the imparter of knowledge. The adjective meaning "heavy, weighty" is used in the sense of "heavy with knowledge" {{ref|Tirha}}, "heavy with spiritual wisdom"{{ref|Lipner}}, "heavy with spiritual weight" {{ref|Cornille}}, "heavy with the good qualities of scriptures and realization" {{ref|Hopkins}}, "heavy with a wealth of knowledge"{{ref|Varene}}.


Sanskrit ''guru'' is ] with Latin ''gravis'' 'heavy; grave, weighty, serious'<ref>{{cite book |title=The Barnhart Dictionary of Etymology|first=Robert K.|last=Barnhart|page=447|publisher=H.W. Wilson Co.|year=1988|isbn=978-0-8242-0745-8}}</ref> and Greek βαρύς ''barus'' 'heavy'. All three derive from the ] ''*gʷerə-'', specifically from the ] form *''gʷr̥ə-''.<ref>{{cite book|title=''The American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language''|publisher=Houghton Mifflin|edition=4th|year=2000|isbn=978-0-395-82517-4|page=|url=https://archive.org/details/americanheritage0000unse_a1o7/page/2031}}</ref>
A notable esoteric etymology or interpretation of the term "guru" is based on a metaphorical interplay between darkness and light, in which the Guru is seen as the dispeller of darkness{{ref|Dict}}{{ref|Dict2}}{{ref|krs}} . In some texts it is described that the syllables ''gu'' ({{lang|sa|गु}}) and ''ru'' ({{lang|sa|रू}}) stand for darkness and light , respectively{{ref|Murray}}.
:''The syllable gu means shadows ''
:''The syllable ru, he who disperses them,''
:''Because of the power to disperse darkness''
:''the guru is thus named.''
::<small>Advayataraka ] 14--18, verse 5) </small>


=== Darkness and light ===
A similar interpretation describes the guru as the one that "removes the darkness of ignorance" is based on the ] (literally "song of the spiritual teacher"), a spiritual text describing a dialogue between ] and his consort ] on the nature of the guru and the ].
{{poem quote|
{{lang|sa|'''गु'''शब्दस्त्वन्धकारः स्यात्‌ '''रु'''शब्दस्तन्निरोधकः ।
अन्धकारनिरोधित्वात्‌ '''गुरु'''रित्यभिधीयते ॥ १६॥}}
The syllable ''gu'' means darkness, the syllable ''ru'', he who dispels them,
Because of the power to dispel darkness, the guru is thus named.
|]| Verse 16<ref> {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150924020854/http://www.gayathrimanthra.com/contents/documents/Vedic-related/Advayataraka_Upanishad.pdf |date=2015-09-24 }}, Verse 16, Sanskrit</ref><ref>G Feuerstein (1989), Yoga, Tarcher, {{ISBN|978-0874775259}}, pages 240-243</ref>}}


A popular etymological theory considers the term "guru" to be based on the syllables ''gu'' ({{lang|sa|गु}}) and ''ru'' ({{lang|sa|रु}}), which it claims stands for darkness and "light that dispels it", respectively.{{refn|" the term is a combination of the two words ''gu''(darkness) and ''ru'' (light), so together they mean 'divine light that dispels all darkness.'" "Guru is the light that disperses the darkness of ignorance."<ref name="murray">Murray, Thomas R. ''Moral Development Theories - Secular and Religious: A Comparative Study.'' (1997). p. 231. Greenwood Press.</ref>|group=Note}} The guru is seen as the one who "dispels the darkness of ignorance."{{refn|"The etymological derivation of the word guru is in this verse from ]: 'The root ''gu'' stands for darkness; ''ru'' for its removal. The removal of the darkness of ignorance in the heart is indicated by the word "guru'" (Note: Guru Gita is a spiritual text in the ], in the form of a dialog between Siva and Parvati on the nature of the guru and the guru/disciple relationship.) the meanings of ''gu'' and ''ru'' can also be traced to the ''Panini-sutras gu samvarane'' and ''ru himsane'', indicating concealment and its annulment."<ref name="dict">Grimes, John. ''A Concise Dictionary of Indian Philosophy: Sanskrit Terms Defined in English.'' (1996) p.133. SUNY Press. {{ISBN|0-7914-3067-7}}</ref>|group=Note}}{{refn|"Guru: remover of darkness, bestower of light'"<ref name="dict"/>|group=Note}}<ref name="krs">] ''The Awakening of Intelligence.'' (1987) p.139. HarperCollins. {{ISBN|0-06-064834-1}}</ref>
] a Dutch religious scholar, dismisses the etymology based on the ], the Guru Gītā, the ] scriptures, the writings of ], and other scholar's opinions such as those of John Grimes, Thomas Murray, and others, by stating that the etymology of darkness and light has nothing to do with word guru and describes it is as "people's etymology". {{ref|Kraneborg2002}}


] disagrees, stating that darkness and light have nothing to do with the word ''guru''. He describes this as a ].{{refn|Dutch original: "a. De goeroe als geestelijk raadsman Als we naar het verschijnsel goeroe in India kijken, kunnen we constateren dat er op zijn minst vier vormen van goeroeschap te onderscheiden zijn. De eerste vorm is die van de 'geestelijk raadsman'. Voordat we dit verder uitwerken eerst iets over de etymologie. Het woord goeroe komt uit het Sanskriet, wordt geschreven als 'guru' en betekent 'zwaar zijn', 'gewichtig zijn', vooral in figuurlijk opzicht. Zo krijgt het begrip 'guru' de betekenis van 'groot', 'geweldig' of 'belangrijk', en iets verdergaand krijgt het aspecten van 'eerbiedwaardig' en 'vererenswaardig'. Al vrij snel word dit toegepast op de 'geestelijk leraar'. In allerlei populaire literatuur, ook in India zelf, wordt het woord 'guru' uiteengelegd in 'gu' en 'ru', als omschrijvingen voor licht en duister; de goeroe is dan degene die zijn leerling uit het materiële duister overbrengt naar het geestelijk licht. Misschien doe een goeroe dat ook inderdaad, maar het heeft niets met de betekenis van het woord te maken, het is volksetymologie."<br />English translation "a. The guru as spiritual adviser: If we look at the phenomenon of gurus in India then we can see that there are at least four forms of guruship that can be distinguished. The first form is that of the "spiritual adviser." Before we will elaborate on this, first something about the etymology. The word ''guru'' comes from Sanskrit, is written as 'guru' and connotes philosophically 'being heavy' or 'being weighty'. In that way, the concept of guru gets the meaning of 'big', 'great', or 'important' and somewhat further it also gets aspects of 'respectable' and 'honorable'. Soon it is applied to the 'spiritual adviser'. In various popular literature, in India herself too, the word 'guru' is explained in the parts 'gu' and 'ru', as descriptions for light and darkness: the guru is then the person who bring the student from the material darkness into the spiritual light. A guru may indeed do that, but it has nothing to do with the meaning of the word, it is folk etymology."<ref name="kraneborg2002">Kranenborg, Reender (Dutch language) ''Neohindoeïstische bewegingen in Nederland : een encyclopedisch overzicht'' page 50 (En: ''Neo-Hindu movements in the Netherlands'', published by Kampen Kok cop. (2002) {{ISBN|90-435-0493-9}} Kranenborg, Reender (Dutch language) Neohindoeïstische bewegingen in Nederland : een encyclopedisch overzicht (En: Neo-Hindu movements in the Netherlands, published by Kampen Kok cop. (2002) {{ISBN|90-435-0493-9}} page 50</ref>|group=Note}}
In the ''Western Esotericism and the Science of Religion'', the author makes a distinction between "esoteric etymologies" and "scientific etymologies" presenting as an example the etymology of "guru", in which the former is presented as ''ru'' ("to push away") and ''gu'' ("darkness"), and the latter as "guru" as "heavy".{{ref|WESR}}


Joel Mlecko states, "''Gu'' means ignorance, and ''Ru'' means dispeller," with ''guru'' meaning the one who "dispels ignorance, all kinds of ignorance", ranging from spiritual to skills such as dancing, music, sports and others.<ref name="joelmlecko"/> Karen Pechilis states that, in the popular parlance, the "dispeller of darkness, one who points the way" definition for ''guru'' is common in the Indian tradition.<ref>Karen Pechilis (2004), ''The Graceful Guru'', Oxford University Press, {{ISBN|978-0195145373}}, pages 25-26</ref>
Another etymology of the word "guru" found in the Guru Gita, includes ''gu'' as "beyond the qualities" and ''ru'' as "devoid of form", stating that "He who bestows that nature which trascend the qualities is said to be guru". {{ref|gurugita}}


In ''Western Esotericism and the Science of Religion'', Pierre Riffard makes a distinction between "occult" and "scientific" etymologies, citing as an example of the former the etymology of 'guru' in which the derivation is presented as ''gu'' ("darkness") and ''ru'' ('to push away'); the latter he exemplifies by "guru" with the meaning of 'heavy.'<ref name="wesr">Riffard, Pierre A. in ''Western Esotericism and the Science of Religion'' Faivre A. & ] (Eds.) Peeters Publishers( 1988), {{ISBN|90-429-0630-8}}</ref>
== Guru in Hinduism ==
{{Hinduism portal}}


== In Hinduism ==
The importance of finding a guru who can impart transcendental knowledge (''vidyā'') is one of the tenets of Hinduism. One of the main Hindu texts, the ], is a dialogue between God in the form of ] and ] a nobleman. Not only does their dialogue outlines many of the ideals of Hinduism, but the discussion and relationship between the two considered to be an expression of the ideal Guru/disciple relationship. In the Gita itself, Krishna speaks of the importance of finding a guru to Arjuna:
{{Further|list of Hindu gurus}}
:''Acquire the transcendental knowledge from a Self-realized master by humble reverence, by sincere inquiry, and by service. The wise ones who have realized the Truth will impart the Knowledge to you.'' (], c4 s34)
{{Hinduism}}
The Guru is an ancient and central figure in the traditions of ].<ref name=joelmlecko/> Ultimate liberation or '']'' and inner perfection is considered achievable in Hinduism with the help of a ''guru''.<ref name=joelmlecko/> The Guru can also serve as a teacher of skills, a counselor, one who helps in the realization of one's Self (]), who instills values and experiential knowledge, an exemplar, an inspiration and one who helps guide a student's ('']'') spiritual development.<ref name=joelmlecko/> At a social and religious level, the Guru helps continue the religion and Hindu way of life.<ref name=joelmlecko/> Guru thus has a historic, reverential and an important role in the Hindu culture.<ref name=joelmlecko/>


===Scriptures===
In the sense mentioned above, ''guru'' is used more or less interchangeably with "]" (literally: ''true teacher'') and ''satpurusha''. Compare also ]. The disciple of a guru is called a '']'' or '']''. Often, a guru lives in an ] or in a '']'' (the guru's household) together with his disciples. The lineage of a guru, spread by worthy disciples who carry on that guru's particular message, is known as the guru '']'' or disciplic succession.
The word Guru is mentioned in the earliest layer of ] texts. The hymn 4.5.6 of Rigveda describes the guru as, "the source and inspirer of the knowledge of the Self, the essence of reality," for one who seeks.<ref>Sanskrit original: {{lang|sa|इदं मे अग्ने कियते पावकामिनते '''गुरुं''' भारं न मन्म । बृहद्दधाथ धृषता गभीरं यह्वं पृष्ठं प्रयसा सप्तधातु ॥६॥}} – Wikisource<br />English Translation: Joel Mlecko (1982), Numen, Volume 29, Fasc. 1, page 35</ref>


In chapter 4.4 within the ], a guru is described as one whom one attains knowledge that matters, the insights that lead to Self-knowledge.<ref name=mleckopage35/> Verse 1.2.8 of the ] declares the guru "as indispensable to the acquisition of knowledge."<ref name=mleckopage35>English Translation: Joel Mlecko (1982), Numen, Volume 29, Fasc. 1, pages 35-36</ref> In chapter 3 of ], human knowledge is described as that which connects the teacher and the student through the medium of exposition, just like a child is the connecting link between the father and the mother through the medium of procreation.<ref>Paul Deussen, Sixty Upanishads of the Veda, Volume 1, Motilal Banarsidass, {{ISBN|978-8120814684}}, pages 222-223</ref><ref> SS Sastri (Translator), The Aitereya and Taittiriya Upanishad, pages 65-67</ref> In the Taittiriya Upanishad, the ''guru'' then urges a student to "struggle, discover and experience the Truth, which is the source, stay and end of the universe."<ref name=mleckopage35/>
In the traditional sense, the word ''guru'' describes a relationship rather than an absolute and is used as a form of address only by a disciple addressing his master. Some Hindu denominations like ] hold that a personal relationship with a living guru, revered as the embodiment of God, is essential in seeking ]. The guru is the one who guides his or her disciple to become ],
the liberated soul able to achieve salvation in his or her lifetime through God-realization.


The ancient tradition of reverence for the ''guru'' in Hindu scriptures is apparent in 6.23 of the ], which equates the need of reverence and devotion for ''guru'' to be the same as for god,<ref>Robert Hume (1921), , The Thirteen Principal Upanishads, Oxford University Press, page 411</ref><ref name=mlecko37>Joel Mlecko (1982), Numen, Volume 29, Fasc. 1, page 37</ref>
The role of the guru continues in the original sense of the word in such Hindu traditions as the ], ], ] and ] schools. Indeed, it is now a standard part of Hinduism (as defined by the six Vedic streams and the tantric ] streams) , that a guru is one's spiritual guide on earth. In some more mystical traditions, it is believed that the guru could awaken dormant spiritual knowledge within the pupil, known as ].


{{Blockquote|
In Hinduism, the guru is considered a respected person with saintly qualities who enlightens the mind of his or her disciple, an educator from whom one receives the initiatory mantra, and one who instructs in rituals and religious ceremonies. The ] and ] regard the teacher, along with the mother and the father, as the most venerable gurus (teachers) of an individual.
<poem>
{{lang|sa|यस्य देवे परा भक्तिः यथा देवे तथा '''गुरौ'''}} <nowiki>।</nowiki>
{{lang|sa|तस्यैते कथिता ह्यर्थाः प्रकाशन्ते महात्मनः <nowiki>॥ २३ ॥</nowiki>}}<ref> Wikisource</ref>
He who has highest '']'' (love, devotion)<ref name=paulcarus>Paul Carus, {{Google books|96sLAAAAIAAJ|The Monist|PA514}}, pages 514-515</ref> of '']'' (god),
just like his ''Deva'', so for his '''Guru''',
To him who is high-minded,
these teachings will be illuminating.
</poem>
|Shvetashvatara Upanishad 6.23<ref>Paul Deussen, Sixty Upanishads of the Veda, Volume 1, Motilal Banarsidass, {{ISBN|978-8120814684}}, page 326</ref><ref>Max Muller, , The Upanishads, Part II, Oxford University Press, page 267</ref>}}


The ] also exemplifies the importance of a guru within ]. ] when faced with the realization of having to wage war with his kin is paralyzed with grief and remorse. Overwhelmed he lays down his weapons and refuses to fight. Despite his intellectual prowess and skill in warfare he finds himself lacking in ] (moral) clarity. At this moment he turns to Krishna for guidance and in essence seeks Krishna as his guru. This interaction exemplifies the importance within the Hindu tradition for a disciple to seek guidance from an experienced spiritual guru.<ref>{{Cite book |title=The Bhagavad Gita |date=2007 |publisher=Nilgiri Press |isbn=978-1-58638-019-9 |editor-last=Eknath |editor-first=Easwaran |edition=2nd |series=The classics of Indian spirituality |location=Tomales, CA |pages=Chapter 2}}</ref> Additionally, other references to the role of a guru in the ] include verse 4.34 - those who know their subject well are eager for good students, and the student can learn from such a ''guru'' through reverence, service, effort and the process of inquiry.<ref name="chapple">Christopher Key Chapple (Editor) and Winthrop Sargeant (Translator), ''The Bhagavad Gita: Twenty-fifth–Anniversary Edition'', State University of New York Press, {{ISBN|978-1438428420}}, page 234</ref><ref>Jeaneane D. Fowler (2012), The Bhagavad Gita, Sussex Academic Press, {{ISBN|978-1845193461}}, page 87</ref>
Some influential gurus in the Hindu tradition (there have been many) include ], ], and ]. Other gurus whose legacy of continuing the Hindu ] tradition grew in the ] were men like ], ], ], ], ] and ]. See also the ].


===Capabilities, role and methods for helping a student===
In Indian culture, someone not having a guru or a teacher (]) was once looked down upon as being an orphan, and as under a sign of misfortune. The word ''anatha'' in Sanskrit means "the one without a teacher". An acharya is the giver of ''gyan'' (knowledge) in the form of ''shiksha'' (instruction). A guru also gives '']'' ''initiation'' which is the spiritual awakening of the disciple by the grace of the guru. Diksha is also considered to be the procedure of bestowing the divine powers of a guru upon the disciple, through which the disciple progresses continuously along the path to divinity.
] with Disciples'', by ] (1904)]]


The 8th century Hindu text ''Upadesasahasri'' of the ] philosopher ] discusses the role of the guru in assessing and guiding students.<ref name="ŚaṅkarācāryaMayeda1979">{{cite book|author1=Śaṅkarācārya|author2=Sengaku Mayeda|title=A Thousand Teachings: The Upadeśasāhasrī of Śaṅkara|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=KcNM17mfaRgC&pg=PR15|access-date=28 June 2012|year=1979|publisher=SUNY Press|isbn=978-0-7914-0944-2|pages=15–17}}</ref><ref name="Jacobsen2008">{{cite book|author=Knut A. Jacobsen|title=Theory and Practice of Yoga : 'Essays in Honour of Gerald James Larson|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=jPK2spNnwm4C&pg=PA75|access-date=28 June 2012|date=1 January 2008|publisher=Motilal Banarsidass|isbn=978-81-208-3232-9|pages=75–76}}</ref> In Chapter 1, he states that teacher is the pilot as the student walks in the journey of knowledge, he is the raft as the student rows. The text describes the need, role and characteristics of a teacher,<ref name=mayeda92>{{cite book|author1=Śaṅkarācārya|author2=Sengaku Mayeda|title=A Thousand Teachings: The Upadeśasāhasrī of Śaṅkara|year=2006|publisher=SUNY Press|isbn=978-8120827714|page=92}}</ref> as follows,
The origin of concept of "guru" can be traced as far back as the early ], where the conception of the Divine Teacher on earth first manifested from its early ] associations.
{{Blockquote|
When the teacher finds from signs that knowledge has not been grasped or has been wrongly grasped by the student, he should remove the causes of non-comprehension in the student. This includes the student's past and present knowledge, want of previous knowledge of what constitutes subjects of discrimination and rules of reasoning, behavior such as unrestrained conduct and speech, courting popularity, vanity of his parentage, ethical flaws that are means contrary to those causes. The teacher must enjoin means in the student that are enjoined by the ] and ], such as avoidance of anger, ] consisting of ] and others, also the rules of conduct that are not inconsistent with knowledge. He should also thoroughly impress upon the student qualities like humility, which are the means to knowledge.
|Adi Shankara, Upadesha Sahasri 1.4-1.5<ref>'''Sanskrit''': {{lang|sa|शिष्यस्य ज्ञानग्रहणं च लिन्गैर्बुद्ध्वा तदग्रहणहेतूनधर्म लौकिकप्रमादनित्यानित्य(वस्तु) विवेकविषयासञ्जातदृढपूर्वश्रुतत्व-लोक-चिन्तावेक्षण-जात्याद्यभिमानादींस्तत्प्रतिपक्षैः श्रुतिस्मृतिविहितैरपनयेदक्रोधादिभिरहिंसादिभिश्च यमैर्ज्ञानाविरुद्धैश्च नियमैः ॥ ४॥ अमानित्वादिगुणं च ज्ञानोपायं सम्यग् ग्राहयेत् ॥ ५॥}} ;<br />'''English Translation 1''': S Jagadananda (Translator, 1949), Upadeshasahasri, Vedanta Press, {{ISBN|978-8171200597}}, pages 3-4; {{oclc|218363449}}<br/>'''English Translation 2''': {{cite book|author1=Śaṅkarācārya|author2=Sengaku Mayeda|title=A Thousand Teachings: The Upadeśasāhasrī of Śaṅkara|year=2006|publisher=SUNY Press|isbn=978-8120827714}}</ref><ref>Karl Potter (2008), Encyclopedia of Indian Philosophies Vol. III, Motilal Banarsidass, {{ISBN|978-8120803107}}, pages 218-219</ref>}}


{{Blockquote|
There is an understanding in some sects that if the devotee were presented with the guru and God, first he would pay respect to the guru, since the guru had been instrumental in leading him to God. Some traditions claim "Guru, God and Self (Self meaning soul, not personality) are one and the same. In this context, saints and poets in India, have expressed their views about the relationship between Guru and God:
The teacher is one who is endowed with the power of furnishing arguments pro and con, of understanding questions , and remembers them. The teacher possesses tranquility, self-control, compassion and a desire to help others, who is versed in the Śruti texts (], ]), and unattached to pleasures here and hereafter, knows the subject and is established in that knowledge. He is never a transgressor of the rules of conduct, devoid of weaknesses such as ostentation, pride, deceit, cunning, jugglery, jealousy, falsehood, egotism and attachment. The teacher's sole aim is to help others and a desire to impart the knowledge.
|Adi Shankara, Upadesha Sahasri 1.6<ref>S Jagadananda (Translator, 1949), Upadeshasahasri, Vedanta Press, {{ISBN|978-8171200597}}, page 5; {{oclc|218363449}}<br/>'''English Translation 2''': {{cite book|author1=Śaṅkarācārya|author2=Sengaku Mayeda|title=A Thousand Teachings: The Upadeśasāhasrī of Śaṅkara|year=2006|publisher=SUNY Press|isbn=978-8120827714}}</ref>}}


Adi Shankara presents a series of examples wherein he asserts that the best way to guide a student is not to give immediate answers, but posit dialogue-driven questions that enable the student to discover and understand the answer.<ref>Sanskrit: ;<br />English Translation: S Jagadananda (Translator, 1949), Upadeshasahasri, Vedanta Press, {{ISBN|978-8171200597}}, prose section, page 43; {{oclc|218363449}}</ref>
*''']'''
::''Guru and God both appear before me. To whom should I prostrate?''
::''I bow before Guru who introduced God to me.''


=== Reverence and ''Guru-Bhakti'' ===
*''']'''
Reverence for the guru is a fundamental principle in Hinduism, as illustrated in the ] by the following shloka <ref>{{Cite book |last=Griffin |first=Mark |title=Shri Guru Gita |date=2011 |publisher=Hard Light Center of Awakening |year=2011 |isbn=978-0-975902-07-3 |edition=2nd}}</ref>
::''It's my great fortune that I found Satguru, all my doubts are removed.''
::''I bow before Guru. Guru's glory is greater than God's.''


{{Blockquote|text=गुरु ब्रह्मा गुरु विष्णु गुरु देवो महेश्वरः।
* ''']'''
गुरु साक्षात् परम ब्रह्म तस्मै श्री गुरुवे नमः।
::''Guru is Shiva ''sans'' his three eyes, ''
::''Vishnu ''sans'' his four arms''
::''Brahma ''sans'' his four heads. ''
::''He is parama Shiva himself in human form''


Transliteration: Guru Brahma, Guru Vishnu, Guru Devo Maheshwara,
* ], widely considered one of the most important figures of Indian intellectual history, begins his ''Gurustotram'' or ''Verses to the Guru'' with the following ] '']'', that is a widely sung ]:
Guru Sakshat Parabrahma, Tasmai Shri Gurave Namah.
::''Guru Brahma Guru Vishnu Guru Devo Maheshwara''
::''Guru Sakshath Parambrahma Tasmai Shri Gurave Namaha''
::This means: ''Guru is creator ]; Guru is preserver ]; Guru is also the destroyer ] and he is the source of the Absolute. I offer all my efforts to the Guru. ''


Meaning: This shloka praises the Guru, identifying them as the creator (Brahma), the preserver (Vishnu), and the destroyer (Shiva), ultimately recognizing the Guru as the supreme reality.|source=Guru Gita Shloka 22}}Other notable examples of devotion to the guru within Hinduism include the religious festival of ].<ref>{{Cite web |date=2024-07-20 |title=Guru Purnima: Know the date, origin, theme and significance; all you need to know |url=https://indianexpress.com/article/trending/trending-in-india/guru-purnima-know-the-date-origin-theme-and-significance-all-you-need-to-know-9448960/ |access-date=2024-10-13 |website=The Indian Express |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Guru Purnima 2024: Date, Auspicious Times, And Traditional Prasad Recipe |url=https://www.ndtv.com/offbeat/guru-purnima-2024-date-auspicious-times-and-traditional-prasad-recipe-6146806 |access-date=2024-10-13 |website=NDTV.com}}</ref>
'']'' is the day when the disciple wakes up in his fullness and expresses gratitude. The purpose of the Guru Purnima (or Poornima) celebration is to review the preceding year and see in how much one has progressed in life, to renew one's determination and to focus on the progress in the spiritual path.


=== Gurukula and the guru-shishya tradition ===
''Guru ]'' (literally "worship of the guru") the practice of worshiping the guru through the making of offerings and requesting inspiration from the guru. Vows and commitments made by the disciple or ''chela'', which might have lost their strength, are renewed.
]


{{Main|Brahmacharya|Guru-shishya tradition|Parampara|Gurukula}}
''Guru ]'' (literally "devotion to the guru") is considered important in many schools and ]s.


Traditionally, the ''Guru'' would live a simple married life, and accept ''shishya'' (student, Sanskrit: शिष्य) where he lived. A person would begin a life of study in the ] (the household of the ''Guru''). The process of acceptance included proffering firewood and sometimes a gift to the guru, signifying that the student wants to live with, work and help the ''guru'' in maintaining the ''gurukul'', and as an expression of a desire for education in return over several years.<ref name=mlecko37/><ref>Ludo Rocher (2003), The Dharmaśāstas, in ''The Blackwell Companion to Hinduism'' (Editor: Gavin Flood), Blackwell Publishing Oxford, {{ISBN|0-631-21535-2}}, page 102-104</ref> At the Gurukul, the working student would study the basic traditional ] and various practical skills-oriented shastras<ref name=stella>Stella Kramrisch (1958), Traditions of the Indian Craftsman, ''The Journal of American Folklore'', Volume 71, Number 281, Traditional India: Structure and Change (Jul. - Sep., 1958), pages 224-230</ref> along with the religious texts contained within the ] and ].<ref name=tamara/><ref name=sameul>Samuel Parker (1987), Artistic practice and education in India: A historical overview, ''Journal of Aesthetic Education'', pages 123-141</ref><ref>Misra, R. N. (2011), Silpis in Ancient India: Beyond their Ascribed Locus in Ancient Society, ''Social Scientist'', Vol. 39, No. 7/8, pages 43-54</ref> The education stage of a youth with a ''guru'' was referred to as ], and in some parts of India this followed the ] or ] rites of passage.<ref>Mary McGee (2007), Samskara, in ''The Hindu World'' (Editors: Mittal and Thursby), Routledge, {{ISBN|978-0415772273}}, pages 332-356;<br />Kathy Jackson (2005), ''Rituals and Patterns in Children's Lives'', University of Wisconsin Press, {{ISBN|978-0299208301}}, page 46</ref><ref name=kaneupan>PV Kane, , ''History of Dharmasastras'', Vol II, Part I, Bhandarkar Oriental Research Institute, pages 268-287</ref><ref>V Narayanan (Editors: Harold Coward and Philip Cook, 1997), ''Religious Dimensions of Child and Family Life'', Wilfrid Laurier University Press, {{ISBN|978-1550581041}}, page 67</ref>
Gurus of several Hindu denominations, including the ] are often referred to as ]s.


The gurukul would be a hut in a forest, or it was, in some cases, a monastery, called a ''matha'' or '']'' or '']'' in different parts of India.<ref name="michelltempleschool"/><ref>] (1996), ''An Introduction to Hinduism'', Cambridge University Press, {{ISBN|978-0521438780}}, pages 133-135</ref><ref name=scharfetempleschools>Hartmut Scharfe (2002), ''From Temple schools to Universities'', in Education in Ancient India: Handbook of Oriental Studies, Brill Academic, {{ISBN|978-9004125568}}, pages 173-174</ref> Each ashram had a lineage of gurus, who would study and focus on certain schools of Hindu philosophy or trade,<ref name=stella/><ref name=sameul/> also known as the ] (teacher-student tradition).<ref name=tamara>Tamara Sears (2014), ''Worldly Gurus and Spiritual Kings: Architecture and Asceticism in Medieval India'', Yale University Press, {{ISBN|978-0300198447}}, pages 12-23, 27-28, 73-75, 187-230</ref> This ''guru''-driven tradition included arts such as sculpture, poetry and music.<ref>Winand Callewaert and Mukunda Lāṭh (1989), ''The Hindi Songs of Namdev'', Peeters Publishers, {{ISBN|978-906831-107-5}}, pages 57-59</ref><ref name=stellacrafts>Stella Kramrisch (1994), ''Exploring India's Sacred Art'' (Editor: Barbara Miller), Motilal Banarsidass, {{ISBN|978-8120812086}}, pages 59-66</ref>
In the Upanishads, five signs of satguru (true guru) are mentioned.
<blockquote>In the presence of the satguru; Knowledge flourishes (Gyana raksha); Sorrow diminishes (Dukha kshaya); Joy wells up without any reason (Sukha aavirbhava); Abundance dawns (Samriddhi); All talents manifest (Sarva samvardhan).</blockquote>


Inscriptions from 4th century CE suggest the existence of ''gurukuls'' around ]s, called ''Ghatikas'' or ''Mathas'', where the ] were studied.<ref>Hartmut Scharfe (2002), "From Temple schools to Universities", in ''Education in Ancient India: Handbook of Oriental Studies'', Brill Academic, {{ISBN|978-9004125568}}, pages 169-171</ref> In south India, 9th century Vedic schools attached to Hindu temples were called ''Calai'' or ''Salai'', and these provided free boarding and lodging to students and scholars.<ref>Hartmut Scharfe (2002), "From Temple schools to Universities", in ''Education in Ancient India: Handbook of Oriental Studies'', Brill Academic, {{ISBN|978-9004125568}}, page 175</ref> Archaeological and epigraphical evidence suggests that ancient and medieval era gurukuls near Hindu temples offered wide range of studies, ranging from Hindu scriptures to Buddhist texts, grammar, philosophy, martial arts, music and painting.<ref name=scharfetempleschools2>Hartmut Scharfe (2002), "From Temple schools to Universities", in ''Education in Ancient India: Handbook of Oriental Studies'', Brill Academic, {{ISBN|978-9004125568}}, page 176-182</ref><ref name=michelltempleschool>George Michell (1988), ''The Hindu Temple: An Introduction to Its Meaning and Forms'', University of Chicago Press, {{ISBN|978-0226532301}}, pages 58-60</ref>
According to the Indologist ], the preceptors were traditionally treated with great reverence , in correlation with the perceived identification of the enlightened master with the ''] Reality'' . Also , that traditionally, gurus were granted excessive authority and strongly tended to be deified. He writes , probably to counterbalance this, that some Hindu schools began to emphasize that the real teacher is the transcendental '']''. {{ref|Feuerstein1990}}


The ''guru-shishya parampara'', occurs where knowledge is passed down through succeeding generations. It is the traditional, residential form of education, where the Shishya remains and learns with his Guru as a family member.<ref>William Pinch (2012), ''Warrior Ascetics and Indian Empires'', Cambridge University Press, {{ISBN|978-1107406377}}, pages 37-38, 141-144, 110-117<br />William Pinch, ''Peasants and Monks in British India'', University of California Press, {{ISBN|978-0520200616}}, pages 57-78</ref><ref>Sunil Kothari and Avinash Pasricha (2001), Kuchipudi, Abhinav Publications, {{ISBN|978-8170173595}}, pages 155-170 and chapter on dance-arts related ''Guru parampara''</ref><ref>SS Kumar (2010), ''Bhakti - the Yoga of Love'', LIT Verlag, {{ISBN|978-3643501301}}, pages 50-51</ref>
The ], a ] text on ], enshrines the importance of the guru for ] and asserts that the disciple is supposed to give all of his or her property and livestock to the guru upon '']'' (initiation). {{ref|Feuerstein1990}}


====Gender and caste====
The ] and ] regard the Acharya (teacher/guru), along with the mother and the father, as most venerable individuals. The mother and father are the first "guru". The spiritual guru is the second.
The Hindu texts offer a conflicting view of whether access to ''guru'' and education was limited to men and to certain '']'' (castes).<ref name=murty>] (1993), Vedic Hermeneutics, Motilal Banarsidass, {{ISBN|978-8120811058}}, pages 14-17</ref><ref name=asharma/> The Vedas and the Upanishads never mention any restrictions based either on gender or ''varna''.<ref name=murty/> The Yajurveda and Atharvaveda texts state that knowledge is for everyone, and offer examples of women and people from all segments of society who are ''guru'' and participated in vedic studies.<ref name=murty/><ref>D Chand, , Verses 26.2-26.3, Osmania University, page 270</ref> The Upanishads assert that one's birth does not determine one's eligibility for spiritual knowledge, only one's effort and sincerity matters.<ref name=asharma/>


The early Dharma-sutras and Dharma-sastras, such as Paraskara Grhyasutra, Gautama Smriti and Yajnavalkya smriti, state all four varnas are eligible to all fields of knowledge while verses of Manusmriti state that Vedic study is available only to men of three varnas, unavailable to Shudra and women.<ref name=murty/><ref name=asharma>] (2000), ''Classical Hindu Thought: An Introduction'', Oxford University Press, {{ISBN|978-0195644418}}, pages 147-158</ref>{{refn|] notes the modern doubts about the reliability of Manusmriti manuscripts. He writes, "Manusmriti was the first Indian legal text introduced to the western world through the translation of Sir William Jones in 1794. (...) This was based on the Calcutta manuscript with the commentary of Kulluka. It was Kulluka's version that has been assumed to be the original and translated repeatedly from Jone (1794) and ] (1991). The belief in the authenticity of Kulluka's text was openly articulated by Burnell. This is far from the truth. Indeed, one of the great surprises of my editorial work has been to discover how few of the over 50 manuscripts that I collated actually follow the vulgate in key readings."<ref>Patrick Olivelle (2004), ''Manu's Code of Law'', Oxford University Press, {{ISBN|978-0195171464}}, pages 353-354, 356-382</ref><br />Sinha writes, in case of Manusmriti, that "certain verses discouraged, but others allowed women to read Vedic scriptures."<ref>J Sinha (2014), Psycho-Social Analysis of the Indian Mindset, Springer Academic, {{ISBN|978-8132218036}}, page 5</ref>|group=Note}} Kramrisch, Scharfe, and Mookerji state that the guru tradition and availability of education extended to all segments of ancient and medieval society.<ref name=stellacrafts/><ref>Hartmut Scharfe (2007), ''Education in Ancient India: Handbook of Oriental Studies'', Brill Academic, {{ISBN|978-9004125568}}, pages 75-79, 102-103, 197-198, 263-276</ref><ref>Radha Mookerji (2011), ''Ancient Indian Education: Brahmanical and Buddhist'', Motilal Banarsidass, {{ISBN|978-8120804234}}, pages 174-175, 270-271</ref> Lise McKean states the ''guru'' concept has been prevalent over the range of class and caste backgrounds, and the disciples a guru attracts come from both genders and a range of classes and castes.<ref>Lise McKean (1996), ''Divine Enterprise: Gurus and the Hindu Nationalist Movement'', University of Chicago Press, {{ISBN|978-0226560106}}, pages 14-22, 57-58</ref> During the ] of Hinduism, which started in about mid 1st millennium CE, the ''gurus'' included women and members of all ''varna''.<ref>John Stratton Hawley (2015), ''A Storm of Songs: India and the Idea of the Bhakti Movement'', Harvard University Press, {{ISBN|978-0674187467}}, pages 304-310</ref><ref>Richard Kieckhefer and George Bond (1990), ''Sainthood: Its Manifestations in World Religions'', University of California Press, {{ISBN|978-0520071896}}, pages 116-122</ref><ref>Sheldon Pollock (2009), ''The Language of the Gods in the World of Men'', University of California Press, {{ISBN|978-0520260030}}, pages 423-431</ref>
The ] states that the true teacher is well-versed in the ], a devotee of ], free from envy, knows ] and is intent upon it, and always has the ''nature'' of yoga. The text continues by stating that he , or she , who is equipped with devotion to the teacher, has knowledge of the '']'' and who possesses the above mentioned characteristics, may be designated as a ''guru''. {{ref|Feuerstein1990}}


=== Attributes ===
The ] says that, in order to realize the supreme godhead, one should surrender one's self before the guru, who knows the secrets of the ].
The ] states that the true teacher is a master in the field of knowledge, well-versed in the ]s, is free from envy, knows ], lives a simple life that of a yogi, has realized the knowledge of the ] (Self).<ref name="feuerstein1990" /> Some scriptures and gurus have warned against false teachers, and have recommended that the spiritual seeker test the guru before accepting him. ] said that there are many incompetent gurus, and that a true guru should understand the spirit of the scriptures, have a pure character and be free from sin, and should be selfless, without desire for money and fame.<ref>{{cite book |last=Vivekananda |first=Swami |date=1982|title= Karma-Yoga and Bhakti-Yoga|location=Oxford |publisher=Ramakrishna-Vivekananda Center |isbn=9780911206227|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=UJA4wQEACAAJ}}</ref>


According to the Indologist ], in some traditions of Hinduism, when one reaches the state of Self-knowledge, one's own Self becomes the ''guru''.<ref name="feuerstein1990">] Dr. ''Encyclopedic dictionary of yoga'' Published by Paragon House 1st edition (1990) {{ISBN|1-55778-244-X}}</ref> In Tantra, states Feuerstein, the guru is the "ferry who leads one across the ocean of existence."<ref name=georgtantra>Georg Feuerstein (1998), ''Tantra: The Path of Ecstasy'', Shambhala Publications, {{ISBN|978-1570623042}}, pages 85-87</ref> A true guru guides and counsels a student's spiritual development because, states ''Yoga-Bija'', endless logic and grammar leads to confusion, and not contentment.<ref name=georgtantra/> However, various Hindu texts caution prudence and diligence in finding the right guru, and avoiding the wrong ones.<ref name=georgtantra91>Georg Feuerstein (1998), ''Tantra: The Path of Ecstasy'', Shambhala Publications, {{ISBN|978-1570623042}}, pages 91-94</ref> For example, in ''Kula-Arnava'' text states the following guidance:
On the role of the guru, ] asks: "Do you realize now the sacred significance and the supreme importance of the Guru's role in the evolution of man? It was not without reason that the India of the past carefully tended and kept alive the lamp of Guru-Tattva. It is therefore not without reason that India, year after year, age after age, commemorates anew this ancient concept of the Guru, adores it and pays homage to it again and again, and thereby re-affirms its belief and allegiance to it. For, the true Indian knows that the Guru is the only guarantee for the individual to transcend the bondage of sorrow and death, and experience the Consciousness of the Reality."


{{Blockquote|
Some scriptures and gurus have warned against false teachers, have recommended the spiritual seeker to test the guru before accepting him, and have outlined criteria on how to distinguish false from genuine ones:
<poem>
*The ] warns against false teachers who may deceive the naive. {{ref|Feuerstein1990}}
Gurus are as numerous as lamps in every house. But, O-Goddess, difficult to find is a guru who lights up everything like a sun.
*The ] states that there are many gurus who may rob the disciple's wealth and few who can remove the disciple's afflictions. {{ref|Feuerstein1990}}
Gurus who are proficient in the Vedas, textbooks and so on are numerous. But, O Goddess, difficult to find is a guru who is proficient in the supreme Truth.
*] said that there are many incompetent gurus and that a true guru should understand the spirit of the scriptures, have a pure character and be free from sin, and should be selfless without desire for money and fame. {{ref|Vivekananda1937}}
Gurus who rob their disciples of their wealth are numerous. But, O Goddess, difficult to find is a guru who removes the disciples' suffering.
*Mirinalini Mata, a direct disciple of ], said that a true guru should be humble (] 1978, Cassette No 2402)
Numerous here on earth are those who are intent on social class, stage of life and family. But he who is devoid of all concerns is a guru difficult to find.
*] said in a discourse (Sathya Sai Speaks, vol I, p. 197) that the hunt for rich disciples who can be fleeced has become a ], and said in the booklet ''Sandeha Nivarini'' that the seeker should test the guru by assessing whether his words are full of wisdom, and whether he puts into practice what he preaches. {{ref|Sathyasaibaba_undated1}}
An intelligent man should choose a guru by whom supreme Bliss is attained, and only such a guru and none other.
</poem>
|Kula-Arnava|13.104 - 13.110, Translated by Georg Feuerstein<ref name=georgtantra91/>}}


A true guru is, asserts ''Kula-Arnava'', one who lives the simple virtuous life he preaches, is stable and firm in his knowledge, master yogi with the knowledge of Self ('']'') and ] (ultimate reality).<ref name=georgtantra91/> The guru is one who initiates, transmits, guides, illuminates, debates and corrects a student in the journey of knowledge and of self-realization.<ref name=georgyoga>Georg Feuerstein (2011), ''The Deeper Dimension of Yoga: Theory and Practice'', Shambhala Publications, {{ISBN|978-1570629358}}, pages 127-131</ref> The attribute of the successful guru is to help make the disciple into another guru, one who transcends him, and becomes a guru unto himself, driven by inner spirituality and principles.<ref name=georgyoga/>
According to Kranenborg (2002), the fact that some people follow false gurus is seen, in India, as due to bad ] on the part of the follower. {{ref|Kraneborg2002}}


=== In modern Hinduism ===
In his ''Encyclopedic Dictionary of Yoga'' (1990), Feuerstein wrote that gurus occasionally exploit their followers because only a few gurus enjoy full enlightenment themselves. He further writes that many gurus in traditional Hinduism expect unquestioned obedience and constant service, and possibly request hefty remuneration for initiation.
{{further|Contemporary Hindu movements|Modern yoga gurus}}


In modern neo-Hinduism, Kranenborg states ''guru'' may refer to entirely different concepts, such as a ''spiritual advisor'', or someone who performs traditional rituals outside a temple, or an ''enlightened master'' in the field of tantra or yoga or eastern arts who derives his authority from his experience, or a reference by a group of devotees of a sect to someone considered a god-like ] by the sect.<ref name="kraneborg2002" />
Continuing the work of the skeptic ]n professor ], the Indian amateur ] ] ,(who is a former follower of several gurus) , tours around the villages of India to educate people by debunking gurus, ], and ]s whom he considers ]s or ], especially if they claim to perform ] feats, or to possess ]s, or actively promote belief in ]s. The ]an ], physicist, and educationalist ] founded ''The Committee to Investigate Miracles and Other Verifiable Superstitions'' in the ] to investigate the claims of miracles performed by gurus and godmen.


The tradition of reverence for ''guru'' continues in several denominations within modern Hinduism, but rather than being considered as a prophet, the guru is seen as a person who points the way to spirituality, oneness of being, and meaning in life.<ref>Ranade, Ramchandra Dattatraya ''Mysticism in India: The Poet-Saints of Maharashtra'', pp.392, SUNY Press, 1983. {{ISBN|0-87395-669-9}}</ref><ref>Mills, James H. and Sen, Satadru (Eds.), ''Confronting the Body: The Politics of Physicality in Colonial and Post-Colonial India'', pp.23, Anthem Press (2004), {{ISBN|1-84331-032-5}}</ref>{{refn|"Gurus are not prophets who declare the will of God and appeal to propositions found in a Scripture. Rather, they are said to be greater than God because they lead to God. Gurus have shared the essence of the Absolute and experienced the oneness of being, which endows them with divine powers and the ability to master people and things in this world."<ref name="isbn0-8133-2508-0">{{cite book |last1=Poewe |first1=Karla O. |last2=Hexham |first2=Irving |title=New religions as global cultures: making the human sacred |publisher=Westview Press |location=Boulder, Colorado |year=1997 |page=106 |isbn=0-8133-2508-0 }}</ref>}}
{{Hinduism}}


== Gurus are of two types == == In Buddhism ==
{{Buddhism|terse=1}}
{{Further|Tibetan Buddhism}}


In some forms of ], states Rita Gross, the concept of Guru is of supreme importance.<ref>Rita Gross (1993), Buddhism After Patriarchy, SUNY Press, {{ISBN|978-0791414033}}, page 253</ref> Guru is called as Garu in Pali. The Guru is the teacher, who teaches the spiritual and religious knowledge. Guru can be anyone who teach this knowledge and not generally need to be ] or ]. Guru can also be a personal teacher. Buddha is called as Lokagaru, meaning "the teacher of the world".
1) Swateh Sant Gurus: They are born Sants who come into the world with direct commissions; as for instance, Kabir Sahib and Guru Nanak.


In ] Buddhism's ] teachings, the rituals require the guidance of a guru.<ref name=berkwitz130/> The guru is considered essential and to the Buddhist devotee, the guru is the "enlightened teacher and ritual master", states Stephen Berkwitz.<ref name=berkwitz130>Stephen Berkwitz (2009), ''South Asian Buddhism: A Survey'', Routledge, {{ISBN|978-0415452496}}, pages 130-133</ref> The guru is known as the ''] guru'' (literally "diamond guru").<ref name=vajra>{{cite book |author=Strong, John S. |title=The experience of Buddhism: sources and interpretations |publisher=Wadsworth Pub. Co |location=Belmont, CA |year=1995 |page= |isbn=978-0-534-19164-1 |url=https://archive.org/details/experienceofbudd00stro/page/76 }}</ref> Initiations or ritual ] are necessary before the student is permitted to practice a particular ], in Vajrayana Buddhist sects found in Tibet and South Asia.<ref name=berkwitz130/> The tantras state that the guru is equivalent to Buddha, states Berkwitz, and is a figure to worship and whose instructions should never be violated.<ref name=berkwitz130/><ref name=johnston371>William Johnston (2013), ''Encyclopedia of Monasticism'', Routledge, {{ISBN|978-1579580902}}, page 371</ref><ref>Dzongsar Khyentse Rinpoche (2007), ''Losing the Clouds, Gaining the Sky: Buddhism and the Natural Mind'' (Editor: Doris Wolter), Simon & Schuster, {{ISBN|978-0861713592}}, pages 72-76</ref>
They start the work of spiritual knowledge and instructions right from a tender age. They need no special training from anyone, since they come from the Most High for this purpose. Such beings, when they come, simply flood the world with the light of Spirituality, and establish a line of;


{{Blockquote|
2) Gurmukh Gurus for carrying on the work long after them. But in course of time, substance comes to be sacrificed for show, and gradually Spirituality disappears altogether.
The guru is the ], the guru is the ], and the guru is the ]. The guru is the glorious ], in this life only the guru is the means . Therefore, someone wishing to attain the state of Buddhahood should please the guru.
|Guhyasanaya Sadhanamala 28|12th-century<ref name=berkwitz130/>}}


There are Four Kinds of ] (Guru) or spiritual teacher<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.rigpawiki.org/index.php?title=Lama |title=Lama |publisher=Rigpa Wiki |access-date=2012-12-26}}</ref> (Tib. lama nampa shyi) in ]:
Then comes another Master Soul to re-orient this most ancient science according to the needs of the age. In this way, "old wine" remains in circulation for souls athirst. Such Master Souls do appear from time to time in different lands and among different peoples.


# gangzak gyüpé lama — the individual teacher who is the holder of the ]
Besides Swateh Sants there are Sants who by, devotional practice and spiritual discipline under the guidance of some Master Soul acquire spiritual merit here and are granted a commission to work as a Guru.
# gyalwa ka yi lama — the teacher which is the word of the buddhas
# nangwa da yi lama — the symbolic teacher of all appearances
# rigpa dön gyi lama — the absolute teacher, which is ], the true nature of mind


In various Buddhist traditions, there are equivalent words for ''guru'', which include ''Shastri'' (teacher), ''Kalyana Mitra'' (friendly guide, Pali: ]), ''Acarya'' (master), and ''Vajra-Acarya'' (hierophant).<ref name=alexwayman>Alex Wayman (1997), Untying the Knots in Buddhism: Selected Essays, Motilal Banarsidass, {{ISBN|978-8120813212}}, pages 206, 205-219</ref> The ''guru'' is literally understood as "weighty", states Alex Wayman, and it refers to the Buddhist tendency to increase the weight of canons and scriptures with their spiritual studies.<ref name=alexwayman/> In Mahayana Buddhism, a term for Buddha is ], which refers to "medicine guru", or "a doctor who cures suffering with the medicine of his teachings".<ref>Alex Wayman (1997), ''Untying the Knots in Buddhism: Selected Essays'', Motilal Banarsidass, {{ISBN|978-8120813212}}, pages 208-209</ref><ref>Paul Williams (1989), ''Mahāyāna Buddhism: The Doctrinal Foundations'', Routledge, {{ISBN|978-0415025379}}, pages 247-249</ref>
They already have a rich spiritual background ripe for fruition, and in the present span of life simply seem to complete the process. Gurmukhs are always in the making from life to life, and acquire perfection in this life.


== Guru in Buddhism == == In Jainism ==
{{Jainism}}
{{Buddhism}}The guru's blessing is the last of the four foundations in ] ]. In this foundation, the disciple can continue in their experiential path on the way to the true nature of reality. The disciple regards the guru as the embodiment of ], or a ], and he or she shows devotion and great appreciation toward the guru as such.
''Guru'' is the spiritual ] in ], and typically a role served by ].<ref name="Jeffery D Long 2009 pages 110, 196"/><ref name=patridge252>Christopher Partridge (2013), ''Introduction to World Religions'', Augsburg Fortress, {{ISBN|978-0800699703}}, page 252</ref> The ''guru'' is one of three fundamental ''tattva'' (categories), the other two being ''dharma'' (teachings) and ''deva'' (]).<ref name=johncort/> The ''guru-tattva'' is what leads a lay person to the other two ''tattva''.<ref name="johncort">John Cort (2011), ''Jains in the World : Religious Values and Ideology in India'', Oxford University Press, {{ISBN|978-0199796649}}, page 100</ref> In some communities of the ] sect of Jainism, a traditional system of ''guru-disciple'' lineage exists.<ref>Peter Fl Gel and Peter Flügel (2006), ''Studies in Jaina History and Culture'', Routledge, {{ISBN|978-1134235520}}, pages 249-250</ref>


The ''guru'' is revered in Jainism ] with ''Guru-vandan'' or ''Guru-upashti'', where respect and offerings are made to the ''guru'', and the ''guru'' sprinkles a small amount of ''vaskep'' (a scented powder mixture of sandalwood, saffron, and camphor) on the devotee's head with a mantra or blessings.<ref>John Cort (2011), ''Jains in the World : Religious Values and Ideology in India'', Oxford University Press, {{ISBN|978-0199796649}}, pages 111-115</ref>
In the ] Buddhist tradition, the teacher is a valued and honoured mentor worthy of great respect and is a source of inspiration on the path to ]. In the ], however, the teacher is viewed as the very root of spiritual realization and the basis of the entire path. Without the teacher, it is asserted, there can be no experience or insight. The guru is to be seen as the ]. In Tibetan texts, great emphasis is placed upon praising the virtues of the guru. ] teachings include generating visualizations of the guru and making offerings praising the guru. The guru becomes known as the '']'' (literally "diamond") guru, the one who is the source of initiation into the tantric deity. The disciple is asked to enter into a series of vows and commitments which ensure the maintenance of the spiritual link , with the understanding that to break this link is a serious downfall.
== In Sikhism ==
{{Sikhi}}
{{Main|Sikh gurus|Sikhism}}


In Sikhism, seeking a ''Guru'' (Gurmukhi: ਗੁਰੂ ''gurū'') is of the utmost importance,<ref>{{Cite web |title=iGurbani - Shabad |url=https://www.igurbani.com/shabad/w7i8?verse=cj9h |access-date=2023-06-20 |website=www.igurbani.com}}</ref> ] writes in Ang (ਅੰਗ):751 (੫੧ of the ]:<blockquote>ਗਾਫਲ ਗਿਆਨ ਵਿਹੂਣਿਆ ਗੁਰ ਬਿਨੁ ਗਿਆਨੁ ਨ ਭਾਲਿ ਜੀਉ ॥
In tantric Buddhism, a guru is essential for initiation, practice and guidance along ''the path''. The importance of a guru-disciple relationship is demonstrated by ritual empowerments or initiations where the student obtains permission to practice a particular ].


O foolish mind, without seeking a Guru, loving devotion with the Almighty is not possible.</blockquote>], the third ] says knowledge will have no foundation without a Guru<ref>{{Cite web |title=iGurbani - Shabad |url=https://www.igurbani.com/shabad/domu?verse=zr2d |access-date=2023-06-20 |website=www.igurbani.com |page=650}}</ref>
The ], speaking of the importance of the guru, said: ''"Rely on the teachings to evaluate a guru: Do not have blind faith, but also no blind criticism."''


The Guru is the source of all knowledge which is Almighty. In ], ] states about who is the Guru:<ref name="dasam384">Translation 1: {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150924105148/http://www.sridasam.org/dasam?Action=Page&p=2260&english=t&id=157684 |date=2015-09-24 }}, Verses 384-385, page 22; </ref>
According to the Dalai Lama, the term 'living Buddha' is a translation of the Chinese word 'ho fu'. In Tibetan, the operative word is 'lama' which means 'guru'. A guru is someone who is not necessarily a Buddha but is heavy with knowledge. The term ''vajra'' is also used, meaning 'master'.


{{verse translation|lang=pa|italicsoff=y
The guru plays a very special role in ] (] Buddhism) as ''the way'' itself. The guru is perceived as the "state of enlightenment". The guru is not an individual who initiates a person, but the person's own Buddha-nature reflected in the personality of the guru. In return, the disciple is expected to shows great devotion to his or her guru, who he or she regards as one who possesses the qualities of a ].
|ਜਵਨ ਕਾਲ ਜੋਗੀ ਸ਼ਿਵ ਕੀਯੋ ॥ ਬੇਦ ਰਾਜ ਬ੍ਰਹਮਾ ਜੂ ਥੀਯੋ ॥
ਜਵਨ ਕਾਲ ਸਭ ਲੋਕ ਸਵਾਰਾ ॥ ਨਮਸ਼ਕਾਰ ਹੈ ਤਾਹਿ ਹਮਾਰਾ ॥੩੮੪॥
ਜਵਨ ਕਾਲ ਸਭ ਜਗਤ ਬਨਾਯੋ॥ ਦੇਵ ਦੈਤ ਜੱਛਨ ਉਪਜਾਯੋ ॥
ਆਦਿ ਅੰਤਿ ਏਕੈ ਅਵਤਾਰਾ॥ ਸੋਈ ਗੁਰੂ ਸਮਝਿਯਹੁ ਹਮਾਰਾ ॥੩੮੫॥
|The ], who created Shiva, the Yogi; who created Brahma, the Master of the Vedas;
The Temporal Lord who fashioned the entire world; I salute the same Lord.
The Temporal Lord, who created the whole world; who created angels, demons and yakshas;
He is the only one form the beginning to the end; '''I consider Him only my Guru'''.
|attr1=], 384-385|italicsoff2=y}}


The Sikh gurus were fundamental to the Sikh religion, however the concept in Sikhism differs from other usages. The ] word ] derives from the ] word '']'', or disciple and is all about the relationship between the teacher and a student.<ref>Geoffrey Parrinder (1971), ''World Religions: From Ancient History to the Present'', Hamlyn Publishing, page 254, {{ISBN|978-0-87196-129-7}}</ref> The concept of Guru in Sikhism stands on two pillars i.e. ] (ਮੀਰੀ-ਪੀਰੀ). 'Piri' means spiritual authority and 'Miri' means temporal authority.<ref>{{cite book | title=Fundamentalisms and the State: Remaking Polities, Economies, and Militance | url=https://archive.org/details/fundamentalismss00mart | url-access=registration | publisher=University of Chicago Press |author1=E. Marty, Martin |author2=Appleby R. Scott | date=1996 | pages= | isbn=978-0226508849}}</ref> Traditionally, the concept of Guru is considered central in Sikhism, and its main scripture is prefixed as a ''Guru'', called ], the words therein called '']''.<ref name=singhakaur>HS Singha & Satwant Kaur, ''Sikhism, A Complete Introduction'', Hemkunt Press, {{ISBN|81-7010-245-6}}, pages 21-29, 54-55</ref>
See also
* ] (Padmasambhava)
* ]
* ]


==In Western culture==
== Guru in Sikhism ==
As an alternative to established religions in the West, some people in Europe and the US looked to spiritual guides and gurus from India and other countries. Gurus from many denominations traveled to Western Europe and the US and established followings.
The title Guru is extremely fundamental to the religion of the ]. Indeed, the Sikhs have carried the meaning of the word to an even greater level of abstraction, while retaining the original usage, and apply it to an understanding of imparted knowledge through any medium.


In particular during the 1960s and 1970s many gurus acquired groups of young followers in Western Europe and the US. According to the American sociologist ] this was partially due to the repeal of the ] in 1965 which permitted Asian gurus entrance to the US.<ref name="bromley1989">], Ph.D. & ], Ph.D., ''Public Reaction against New Religious Movements'' article that appeared in ''Cults and new religious movements: a report of the Committee on Psychiatry and Religion of the American Psychiatric Association'', edited by Marc Galanter, M.D., (1989) {{ISBN|0-89042-212-5}}</ref> According to the Dutch Indologist Albertina Nugteren, the repeal was only one of several factors and a minor one compared with the two most important causes for the surge of all things 'Eastern': the post-war cross-cultural mobility and the general dissatisfaction with established Western values.<ref name="nugteren1997">] Dr. (Associate professor in the phenomenology and history of Indian religions at the faculty of theology at the ]) "Tantric Influences in Western Esotericism", article that appeared at a 1997 ] conference and that was published in the book ''New Religions in a Postmodern World'' edited by ] and Reender Kranenborg RENNER Studies in New religions ] press, (2003) {{ISBN|87-7288-748-6}}</ref>
] comes from the word Sikh, which means a strong and able Guru disciple. The core beliefs of Sikhism are of belief in one God and in the teachings of the ], enshrined in ], the Sikh holy book.


In the ], the term is sometimes used in a derogatory way to refer to individuals who have allegedly exploited their followers' naiveté, particularly in certain ] or groups in the fields of ], ]s, ], and ].<ref name="Forsthoefel and Humes">{{cite journal |last1=Gressett |first1=Michael J. |title=Gurus in America |editor1-last=Forsthoefel |editor1-first=Thomas A. |editor2-last=Humes |editor2-first=Cynthia Ann |location=Albany |publisher=State University of New York Press |year=2006 |journal=The Journal of Asian Studies |date=November 2006 |volume=65 |issue=4 |pages=842–844 |doi=10.1017/S0021911806001872}}</ref>
], the first guru of Sikhism, was opposed to the caste system prevalent in his time in India and he accepted Hindus, Muslims and people from other religions as disciples. His followers referred to him as the Guru (teacher). Before his death he designated a new Guru to be his successor and to lead the Sikh community. This procedure was continued, and the tenth and last Guru, ] (AD 1666–1708) initiated the Sikh ceremony in AD 1699.


According to the professor in ] ] at the ] and Kranenborg (1974), one of the reasons why in the 1970s young people including ]s turned to gurus was because they found that drugs had opened for them the existence of the transcendental or because they wanted to get ''high'' without drugs.<ref name="kranenborg1974">Kranenborg, Reender (Dutch language) ''Zelfverwerkelijking: oosterse religies binnen een westerse subkultuur'' (En: ]: eastern religions in a Western Sub-culture'', published by Kampen Kok (1974)''</ref><ref name="kent2001">] Dr. ''From slogans to mantras: social protest and ] in the late ] era'' ] press {{ISBN|0-8156-2923-0}} (2001)</ref> According to Kent, another reason why this happened so often in the US then, was because some anti-] ] and political activists became worn out or disillusioned of the possibilities to change society through political means, and as an alternative turned to religious means.<ref name="kent2001" /> One example of such group was the ] movement (ISKCON) founded by ] in 1966, many of whose followers voluntarily accepted the demanding lifestyle of ] on a full-time basis, in stark contrast to much of the popular culture of the time.{{refn|"Devotees don't have such an easy time. They who choose to live in the temples – now a very small minority -chant the ] mantra 1,728 time a day. Those living in an ashram – far fewer than in the 1970s – have to get up at 4am for worship. All members have to give up meat, fish and eggs; alcohol, tobacco, drugs, tea and coffee; gambling, sports, games and novels; and sex except for procreation with marriage It's a demanding lifestyle. Outsiders may wonder why people join."<ref>Barrett, D. V. The New Believers - A survey of sects, cults and alternative religions 2001 UK, Cassell & Co. {{ISBN|0-304-35592-5}} entry ] page 287,288</ref>|group=Note}}
For Sikhs, the Gurus were not in the Christian sense “Sons of God”. Sikhism says we are all the children of God and by deduction, God is our mother/father.


Some gurus and the groups they lead attract opposition from the ].<ref>{{Cite web|title=Anti-Cult Movement {{!}} Encyclopedia.com|url=https://www.encyclopedia.com/religion/legal-and-political-magazines/anti-cult-movement|access-date=2020-09-08|website=www.encyclopedia.com}}</ref> According to Kranenborg (1984), ] fits the Hindu definition and characteristics of a guru.<ref name="kranenborg1984">Kranenborg, Reender (Dutch language) Een nieuw licht op de kerk? Bijdragen van nieuwe religieuze bewegingen voor de kerk van vandaag (En: A new perspective on the church? Contributions of new religious movements for today's church), the Hague Boekencentrum (1984) {{ISBN|90-239-0809-0}} pp 93-99</ref>
Guru Nanak in speaking about God, says:
:''There is but One God, His name is Truth, He is the Creator, He fears none, he is without hate, He never dies, He is beyond the cycle of births and death, He is self illuminated, He is realized by the kindness of the True Guru. He was True in the beginning, He was True when the ages commenced and has ever been True, He is also True now. ''


Environmental activists are sometimes called "gurus" or "prophets" for embodying a moral or spiritual authority and gathering followers. Examples of environmental gurus are ], ], ], ], and ]. Abidin et al. wrote that environmental gurus "merge the boundaries" between spiritual and scientific authority.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Abidin|first1=Crystal|last2=Brockington|first2=Dan|last3=Goodman|first3=Michael K.|last4=Mostafanezhad|first4=Mary|last5=Richey|first5=Lisa Ann|date=2020-10-17|title=The Tropes of Celebrity Environmentalism|journal=Annual Review of Environment and Resources|language=en|volume=45|issue=1|pages=387–410|doi=10.1146/annurev-environ-012320-081703|doi-access=free|issn=1543-5938|url=https://ddd.uab.cat/pub/poncom/2020/3139ef098559/The_Tropes_of_Celebrity.pdf}}</ref>
On the importance of ''guru'', Nanak says: ''Let no man in the world live in delusion. Without a Guru none can cross over to the other shore. ''


=== Viewpoints ===
; The Gurus of Sikhism
Gurus and the ] have been criticized and assessed by secular scholars, ], ], ], and religious philosophers.
{{List_of_Sikh_Gurus}}


], groomed to be a world spiritual teacher by the leadership of the ] in the early part of the 20th century, publicly renounced this role in 1929 while also denouncing the concept of gurus, spiritual leaders, and teachers, advocating instead the unmediated and direct investigation of ].<ref>Jiddu, Krishnamurti (September 1929). . ''International Star Bulletin'' '''2''' (2) : 28-34. (]: Star Publishing Trust). {{OCLC|34693176}}. J.Krishnamurti Online. Retrieved 2010-08-24.</ref>
In addition to ], the ] was made the eleventh perpetual guru of ]s. Together they make up the Eleven Gurus of Sikhism


], , sometimes characterized as a spiritual ], denied both the value of gurus and the existence of any related worthwhile teaching.<ref>Uppaluri Gopala (U. G.) Krishnamurti (2002) (Revised ed.) ]: Dinesh Vaghela Cemetile]. '']''. Arms, Rodney ed. Sentient Publications. ]. p. 2. {{ISBN|0-9710786-1-0}}. Wikisource. Retrieved 2010-08-28.</ref>
{{Sikhism}}


Dr. ] proposes a checklist consisting of seven points to assess gurus in his book, ''Exposing Cults: When the Skeptical Mind Confronts the Mystical''. One of his points is that spiritual teachers should have high standards of moral conduct and that followers of gurus should interpret the behavior of a spiritual teacher by following ] and by using ], and, should not naively use mystical explanations unnecessarily to explain immoral behavior. Another point Lane makes is that the bigger the claim a guru makes, such as the claim to be God, the bigger the chance is that the guru is unreliable. Dr. Lane's fifth point is that self-proclaimed gurus are likely to be more unreliable than gurus with a legitimate lineage.<ref name="lane1984">{{cite book |author-link=David C. Lane |last=Lane |first=David C. |chapter-url=http://geocities.com/eckcult/cultexpose/crucible.html |chapter=Chapter 12: The Spiritual Crucible |title=Exposing Cults: When the Skeptical Mind Confronts the Mystical |year=1994 |publisher=Garland Pub. |isbn=978-0815312758|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20091027111139/http://geocities.com/eckcult/cultexpose/crucible.html |archive-date=2009-10-27 }}</ref>
==Types of gurus==
According to the ] there can be eleven kinds of gurus and according to ] there are ten types. According to his function gurus are categorized as
*]
*]
*]
*]
*]


Highlighting what he sees as the difficulty in understanding the guru from ] in Western society, ] ] writes in the chapter ''Understanding the Guru'' in his book ''The Deeper Dimension of Yoga: Theory and practice'': "The traditional role of the guru, or spiritual teacher, is not widely understood in the West, even by those professing to practice Yoga or some other Eastern tradition entailing discipleship. Spiritual teachers, by their very nature, swim against the stream of conventional values and pursuits. They are not interested in acquiring and accumulating material wealth or in competing in the marketplace, or in pleasing egos. They are not even about morality. Typically, their message is of a radical nature, asking that we live consciously, inspect our motives, transcend our egoic passions, overcome our intellectual blindness, live peacefully with our fellow humans, and, finally, realize the deepest core of human nature, the Spirit. For those wishing to devote their time and energy to the pursuit of conventional life, this kind of message is revolutionary, subversive, and profoundly disturbing".<ref name="feuerstein2003">] Dr. ''The Deeper Dimension of Yoga: Theory and Practice'', Shambhala Publications, released on (2003) {{ISBN|1-57062-928-5}}</ref> In his ''Encyclopedic Dictionary of Yoga'' (1990), Dr. Feuerstein writes that the importation of ''yoga'' to the West has raised questions as to the appropriateness of spiritual discipleship and the legitimacy of spiritual authority.<ref name="feuerstein1990" />
] traditions usually categorize gurus as:


A British professor of psychiatry, ], states in his book, ''Feet of Clay: A Study of Gurus'', that he confines the word guru (translated by him as "revered teacher") to persons who have "special knowledge" who tell, referring to their special knowledge, how other people should lead their lives. He argues that gurus share common character traits (e.g. being loners) and that some suffer from a mild form of ]. He argues that gurus who are authoritarian, ], ], or who interfere in the private lives of their followers are the ones who are more likely to be unreliable and dangerous. Storr also refers to ] to recognize false gurus. He contends that some so-called gurus claim special spiritual insights based on personal revelation, offering new ways of spiritual development and paths to salvation. Storr's criticism of gurus includes the possible risk that a guru may exploit his or her followers due to the authority that he or she may have over them, though Storr does acknowledge the existence of morally superior teachers who refrain from doing so. He holds the view that the idiosyncratic belief systems that some gurus promote were developed during a period of ] to make sense of their own minds and perceptions, and that these belief systems persist after the psychosis has gone. Storr notes that gurus generalize their experience to all people. Some of them believe that all humanity should accept their vision, while others teach that when the end of the world comes, only their followers will be saved, and the rest of the people will remain unredeemed. According to him, this ″apparently arrogant assumption″ is closely related and other characteristics of various gurus. Storr applies the term "guru" to figures as diverse as ], ], ], ], ], ], ], ] and ].<ref name="storr1996">{{Cite book |last=Storr |first=Anthony |title=Feet of Clay; Saints, Sinners, and Madmen: A Study of Gurus |publisher=Free Press |location=New York |year=1996 |isbn=0-684-82818-9 |url-access=registration |url=https://archive.org/details/feetofclaysaints00stor }}</ref>
* ] guru (any person who first shows one the path)
* ] guru
* ] guru
* ] guru (who initiates one into sannyasa order)
* ] guru (God in the heart as ])


], a ] and a practicing Buddhist, writes in ''The Noble Imperfection'' that while the teacher/disciple relationship can be an invaluable and fruitful experience, the process of relating to spiritual teachers also has its hazards. He writes that these potential hazards are the result of ''naiveté'' amongst Westerners as to the nature of the guru/devotee relationship, as well as a consequence of a lack of understanding on the part of Eastern teachers as to the nature of Western psychology. Preece introduces the notion of ] to explain the manner in which the guru/disciple relationship develops from a more Western psychological perspective. He writes: "In its simplest sense transference occurs when unconsciously a person endows another with an attribute that actually is projected from within themselves." In developing this concept, Preece writes that, when we transfer an inner quality onto another person, we may be giving that person a power over us as a consequence of the projection, carrying the potential for great insight and inspiration, but also the potential for great danger: "In giving this power over to someone else they have a certain hold and influence over us it is hard to resist, while we become enthralled or spellbound by the power of the archetype".<ref name="ref_preece">Preece, Rob, "The teacher-student relationship" in ''The Noble Imperfection: The challenge of individuation in Buddhist life'', Mudras Publications</ref>
In his book about neo-Hindu movements in the Netherlands, Kranenborg distinguishes four types of gurus in India: {{ref|Kraneborg2002}}
#the ''spiritual advisor'' for higher ] Hindus who also performs traditional rituals and who is not connected to a temple (thus not a priest);
#the ''enlightened master'' who derives his authority from his experience, such as achieving ]. This type appears in ]s and in ] and asks for unquestioning obedience , and can have Western followers. Westerners can even become one, as have , for example ], and ].
#the '']'', a guru who considers himself to be an incarnation of God, God-like, or an instrument of God, or who is considered as such by others, for example ] and gurus from the ] lineage;
#A "guru" in the form of a book i.e. the ] in the ] religion.


The psychiatrist ] performed a long-term observation of a small ], called ''The Family'' (not to be confused with ]), founded by an American guru called ''Baba'' or ''Jeff'' in ] in 1972, who showed increasingly ] behavior. Deutsch observed that this man's mostly ]ish followers interpreted the guru's pathological mood swings as expressions of different Hindu deities and interpreted his behavior as ''holy madness'', and his cruel deeds as punishments that they had earned. After the guru dissolved the cult in 1976, his mental condition was confirmed by Jeff's retrospective accounts to an author.<ref name="deutsch1975">Deutsch, Alexander ] ''Observations on a sidewalk ashram'' Archive Gen. Psychiatry 32 (1975) 2, 166-175</ref><ref name="deutsch1980">Deutsch, Alexander M.D. ''Tenacity of Attachment to a cult leader: a psychiatric perspective'' American Journal of Psychiatry 137 (1980) 12, 1569-1573.</ref>
==Succession and lineage (parampara)==
{{main|Parampara}}
The word parampara (Sanskrit परमपरा) denotes a long succession of teachers and disciples in traditional ]n culture. The ''Hinduism dictionary'' defines parampara is "the line of spiritual gurus in authentic succession of initiation; the chain of mystical power and authorized continuity, passed from guru to guru." In ], the word literally means: ''Uninterrupted series of succession''.


] (1933–2002), a professor of the ] at the ], wrote, in a book commissioned by the Netherlands-based ], about followers of gurus and the potential dangers that exist when personal contact between the guru and the disciple is absent, such as an increased chance of idealization of the guru by the student (myth making and deification), and an increase of the chance of false ]. He further argues that the deification of a guru is a traditional element of Eastern spirituality but, when detached from the Eastern cultural element and copied by Westerners, the distinction between the person who is the guru and that which he symbolizes is often lost, resulting in the relationship between the guru and disciple degenerating into a boundless, uncritical ].{{refn|"Wat ] hier signaleert, is het gevaar dat de goeroe een instantie van absolute overgave en totale overdracht wordt. De leerling krijgt de gelegenheid om zijn grootheidsfantasieën op de goeroe te projecteren, zonder dat de goeroe daartegen als kritische instantie kan optreden. Het lijkt er zelfs vaak eerder op dat de goeroe in woord, beeld en geschrift juist geneigd is deze onkritische houding te stimuleren. Dit geldt zeker ook voor goeroe Maharaji, maar het heeft zich -gewild en ongewild ook voorgedaan bij Anandamurti en Maharishi Mahesh Yogi. De vergoddelijking van de goeroe is 'een traditioneel element in de Oosterse spiritualiteit, maar, losgemaakt, uit dit cultuurmilieu en overgenomen door Westerse mensen, gaat het onderscheid vaak verloren tussen de persoon van de goeroe en dat wat hij symboliseert en verwordt tot een kritiekloze persoonlijkheidsverheerlijking' (Van der Lans 1981b, 108)"<ref name="lans1981"> (Dutch language) {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20050114094319/http://www.ksgv.nl/2-18.html |date=2005-01-14 }}, written upon request for the {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20050208164006/http://www.ksgv.nl/KSGV_English.html |date=2005-02-08 }} published by Ambo, Baarn, 1981 {{ISBN|90-263-0521-4}}</ref><ref>] Dr. (Dutch language) Between stigma and charisma: new religious movements and mental health Erasmus university Rotterdam, Faculty of Medicine, Ph.D. thesis, {{ISBN|90-6001-746-3}} (Deventer, Van Loghum Slaterus, 1982) Chapter V, page 142</ref>|group=Note}}
Parampara is also known as ''Guru (teacher) Shishya (disciple) parampara'' or guru parampara, where the ''knowledge'' (in any field) is passed down (undiluted) through the succeeding generations. It is the traditional method of the residential form of education wherein the Shishya remains with his Guru as a family member and gets the education as a true learner. The domains may include ], artistic ('']'' कला such as ] or ]) or ].
The teachings of the Vedas received through guru parampara are known as ].


In their 1993 book, '']'', authors Diana Alstad and Joel Kramer reject the ] because of what they see as its structural defects. These defects include the authoritarian control of the guru over the disciple, which is in their view increased by the guru's encouragement of ] to him. Alstad and Kramer assert that gurus are likely to be ] because, in order to attract and maintain followers, gurus must present themselves as purer than and superior to ordinary people and other gurus.<ref name="kramer1993">Kramer, Joel, and Diana Alstad ''The guru papers: masks of authoritarian power'' (1993) {{ISBN|1-883319-00-5}}</ref>
], a professor of sociology, and ] an ex-member and critic of ], argued in 1997 that based on his research of the ] movement that only few gurus have a flawless well-documented lineage and that there is quite often conflict between different disciples claiming to be the only legitimate successor of their guru.


According to the journalist Sacha Kester, in a 2003 article in the Dutch newspaper '']'', finding a guru is a precarious matter, pointing to the many holy men in India and the case of ] whom Kester considers a swindler. In this article he also quotes the book ''Karma Cola'' describing that in this book a German economist tells author ], "It is my opinion that quality control has to be introduced for gurus. Many of my friends have become crazy in India". She describes a comment by Suranya Chakraverti who said that some Westerners do not believe in spirituality and ridicule a true guru. Other westerners, Chakraverti said, on the other hand believe in spirituality but tend to put faith in a guru who is a swindler.<ref>Kester, Sacha "Ticket naar Nirvana"/"Ticket to Nirvana", article in the Dutch Newspaper ] 7 January 2003</ref>
See also ], ].


== See also ==
==Guru in a Western culture context==
{{Portal | religion | Hinduism | }}
As an alternative to established religions, some people in Europe and the USA who were not of ]n extraction have looked up to spiritual guides and gurus from India, seeking them to provide them answers to the meaning of life, and to achieve a more direct experience free from intellectualism and philosophy. Gurus from many denominations traveled to Western Europe and the USA and established followings. One of the first to do so was ] who addressed the ] assembled in ] in ].
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* Others
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== Bibliography ==
In particular during the ]s and ]s many gurus acquired groups of young followers in Western Europe and the USA. According to the American sociologist ] this was partially due to the repeal of the ] in ] which permitted Asian gurus entrance to the USA. {{ref|Bromley1989}} According to the Dutch Indologist Albertina Nugteren, the repeal was only one of several factors and a minor one compared with the two most important causes for the surge of all things 'Eastern': the post-war cross-cultural mobility and the general dissatisfaction with established Western values. {{ref|Nugteren1997}} In contrast to the situation in India, these foreign gurus were unusual, new and alien for European and American societies and led sometimes to ]. One example was ] founded by ] in ] that made demands on their followers that some considered strong.


* Amanda Lucia (2022), . ''Religion Compass''.
According to the professor in ] ] at the ] and Kranenborg (1974), one of the reasons why in ]s young people including ]s turned to gurus was because they found that drugs had opened for them the existence of the transcendental or because they wanted to get ''high'' without drugs. {{ref|Kranenborg1974}} {{ref|Kent2001}} According to Kent, another reason why this happened so often in the USA then, was because some anti-] protesters and political activist became worn out or disillusioned of the possibilities to change society through political means ,and as an alternative turned to religious means. {{ref|Kent2001}}


==Notes==
See also ], ], ]
{{Reflist|group=Note}}


== References ==
===Gurus in the West===
{{Reflist|30em}}
Gurus who established a discipleship or who are/were spiritual leaders of notable organizations in Western countries include:


== Further reading ==
*] a '']'' (Tibetan Buddhist religious teacher)
{{Refbegin}}
*]
* {{cite journal |last=Barth |first=F. |date=1990 |title=The Guru and the Conjurer: Transactions in Knowledge and the Shaping of Culture in Southeast Asia and Melanesia |journal=Man |volume=25 |number=4 |pages=640–653 |doi=10.2307/2803658 |jstor=2803658 |ref=none}}
* ], the founder of the , which preaches ''Raganuga Bhakti'', a form of selfless devotion and loving service to ] and ]
* {{cite book |first=Mick |last=Brown |title=The Spiritual Tourist |publisher=Bloomsbury Publishing |year=1998 |isbn=1-58234-034-X |ref=none}}
*] groomed to be a world spiritual teacher by the ] but publicly renounced this role in ]
* {{cite book |first1=Jacob |last1=Copeman |first2=Aya |last2=Ikegame |year=2012 |title=The Guru in South Asia: New Interdisciplinary Perspectives |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-0-415-51019-6 |ref=none}}
*] now lives in the Netherlands
* {{cite book |editor1-last=Forsthoefel |editor1-first=Thomas |editor1-link=Thomas Forsthoefel |editor2-last=Humes |editor2-first=Cynthia Ann |editor2-link=Cynthia Ann Humes |title=Gurus in America |place=Albany, New York |publisher=SUNY Press |year=2005 |isbn=978-0-7914-6573-8 |ref=none}}
*] who travelled to the west numerous times in the 1930's and 1950's and had many western followers
* {{cite book |last=Hara |first=M. |year=1979 |chapter=Hindu Concepts of Teacher Sanskrit Guru and Ācārya |editor1-last=Nagatomi |editor1-first=M. |display-editors=etal |title=Sanskrit and Indian Studies |series=Studies of Classical India |volume=2 |pages=93–118 |publisher=Springer |place=Dordrecht |doi=10.1007/978-94-009-8941-2_6 |isbn=978-94-009-8943-6 |ref=none}}
*]
* {{cite book |first=André |last=Padoux |year=2013 |chapter=The Tantric Guru |title=Tantra in Practice |editor-first=David Gordon |editor-last=White |publisher=Motilal Banarsidass |isbn=978-81-208-1778-4 |ref=none}}
*] settled in the USA and wrote the book ]
* {{cite book |first=Karen |last=Pechelis |year=2004 |title=The Graceful Guru: Hindu Female Gurus in India and the United States |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-514537-3 |ref=none}}
*] who founded ] in ], an organization based on the ] ] of Hinduism
* {{cite book |first=André |last=van der Braak |year=2003 |title=Enlightenment Blues: My Years with an American Guru |publisher=Monkfish Book Publishing |isbn=0-9726357-1-8 |ref=none}}
*], the president of World Vaishnava Association.
* {{cite journal |first=Alex |last=Wayman |year=1987 |title=The Guru in Buddhism |journal=Studia Missionalia |volume=36 |publisher=Universita Gregoriana Roma |pages=195–214 |ref=none}}
*Srila ] Maharaja, Acarya of Pure Bhakti, an organization based on the ] ] of Hinduism
{{Refend}}
*]; physician of ] and ]n ] who became a devoted disciple of ] and founder-] of ].
*], known as Guru Maharaj Ji until the 1980s. '' Note: Maharaji dropped the title "guru" from his name in 1980.''
*] settled temporarily in the USA
*] never went to Europe or the USA but acquired a substantial number of followers there
*] founder of Isha Foundation and the Isha Yoga Centre has a strong volunteer force in India, US and Lebanon
*]
*] has a temporary ] in ], California and many followers outside of India as well.
*Ruchira ] Born in the US founded the new Tradition of ], based on Guru Devotee Relationship
*Muhammad Raheem ] was a revered Sufi saint from the island of Sri Lanka who shared his knowledge and experience with people of every race and religion and from all parts of the world.
According to Kranenborg (1984), ] fits the Hindu definition and characteristics of a guru. {{ref|Kranenborg1984}}

===Assessment and criticism===
*Dr. ] proposes a checklist consisting of seven points to assess gurus in his book, ''Exposing Cults: When the Skeptical Mind Confronts the Mystical''. {{ref|Lane1984}} One of his points is that spiritual teachers should have high standards of moral conduct and that followers of gurus should interpret the behavior of a spiritual teacher by following ] and by using ], and, should not naively use mystical explanations unnecessarily to explain immoral behavior. Another point Lane makes is that the bigger the claim a guru makes, such as the claim to be God, the bigger the chance is that the guru is unreliable. Dr. Lane's fifth point is that self-proclaimed gurus are likely to be more unreliable than gurus with a legitimate lineage.
*Highlighting what he sees as the difficulty in understanding the guru from ] in Western society, Dr. ], a well-known German-American ], writes in the article '''' from his book ''The Deeper Dimension of Yoga: Theory and practice'':"The traditional role of the guru, or spiritual teacher, is not widely understood in the West, even by those professing to practice Yoga or some other Eastern tradition entailing discipleship. Spiritual teachers, by their very nature, swim against the stream of conventional values and pursuits. They are not interested in acquiring and accumulating material wealth or in competing in the marketplace, or in pleasing egos. They are not even about morality. Typically, their message is of a radical nature, asking that we live consciously, inspect our motives, transcend our egoic passions, overcome our intellectual blindness, live peacefully with our fellow humans, and, finally, realize the deepest core of human nature, the Spirit. For those wishing to devote their time and energy to the pursuit of conventional life, this kind of message is revolutionary, subversive, and profoundly disturbing." {{ref|Feuerstein2003}}. In his ''Encyclopedic Dictionary of Yoga'' (1990), Dr. Feuerstein writes that the importation of ''yoga'' to the West has raised questions as to the appropriateness of spiritual discipleship and the legitimacy of spiritual authority. {{ref|Feuerstein1990}}

*A British professor of psychiatry, ], states in his book, ''Feet of Clay: A Study of Gurus'', that he confines the word guru (translated by him as "revered teacher") to persons who have "special knowledge" who tell, referring to their special knowledge, how other people should lead their lives. He argues that gurus share common character traits (e.g. being loners) and that some suffer from a mild form of ]. He argues that gurus who are authoritarian, ], ], or who interfere in the private lives of their followers are the ones who are more likely to be unreliable and dangerous. Storr also refers to ] to recognize false gurus. He contends that some so-called gurus claim special spiritual insights based on personal revelation, offering new ways of spiritual development and paths to salvation. Storr's criticism of gurus includes the possible risk that a guru may exploit his or her followers due to the authority that he or she may have over them, though Storr does acknowledge the existence of morally superior teachers who refrain from doing so. He holds the view that the idiosyncratic belief systems that some gurus promote were developed during a period of ] to make sense of their own minds and perceptions, and that these belief systems persist after the psychosis has gone. Storr applies the term "guru" to figures as diverse as ], ], ], ], ], ], ], ] and ]. {{ref|Storr1996}} The Belgian Indologist ] criticized Storr's book for its avoidance of the term ] instead of guru for several people. Elst asserts that this is possibly due to Storr's pro-Western, pro-Christian cultural bias.

*], a ] and a practicing Buddhist, writes in ''The Noble Imperfection'' that while the teacher/disciple relationship can be an invaluable and fruitful experience, the process of relating to spiritual teachers also has its hazards. He writes that these potential hazards are the result of ''naiveté'' amongst Westerners as to the nature of the guru/devotee relationship, as well as a consequence of a lack of understanding on the part of Eastern teachers as to the nature of Western psychology. Preece introduces the notion of ] to explain the manner in which the guru/disciple relationship develops from a more Western psychological perspective. He writes: "''In its simplest sense transference occurs when unconsciously a person endows another with an attribute that actually is projected from within themselves.''" In developing this concept, Preece writes that, when we transfer an inner quality onto another person, we may be giving that person a power over us as a consequence of the projection, carrying the potential for great insight and inspiration, but also the potential for great danger: "In giving this power over to someone else they have a certain hold and influence over us it is hard to resist, while we become enthralled or spellbound by the power of the ]".{{ref|ref_preece}}

* Some gurus have been perceived by the media and by ] to be abusing their status and to be either ]s, ], businessmen pretending to be saints, ] leaders, or a combination of these. See also: ]. According to a professor of ] at ] in ], ], the word guru has acquired very negative connotations in France. {{ref|Palmer2004}}

* The psychiatrist ] performed a long-term observation of a small ], called ''The Family'' (not to be confused with ]), founded by an American guru called ''Baba'' or ''Jeff'' in ] in ] ,who showed increasingly ] behavior. Deutsch observed that this man's mostly ]ish followers interpreted the guru's pathological mood swings as expressions of different Hindu deities and interpreted his behavior as ''holy madness'', and his cruel deeds as punishments that they had earned. After the guru dissolved the cult in ], his mental condition was confirmed by Jeff's retrospective accounts to an author. {{ref|Deutsch1975}} {{ref|Deutsch1980}}Deutsch also visited the ''ashram'' of the guru Sathya Sai Baba in India and there noted that a group of young followers interpreted disconfirming events as ''tests of faith'', engineered by the guru or as the guru's divine play, just as ]'s ]s. {{ref|Deutsch1989}}

*] (1933-2002), a professor of the ] at the ], wrote, in a book commissioned by the Netherlands based , about followers of gurus and the potential dangers that exist when personal contact between the guru and the disciple is absent, such as an increased chance of idealization of the guru by the student (myth making and deification), and an increase of the chance of false ]. He further argues that the deification of a guru is a traditional element of Eastern spirituality, but, when detached from the Eastern cultural element and copied by Westerners, the distinction between the person who is the guru and that which he symbolizes can be lost, resulting in the relationship between the guru and disciple degenerating into a boundless, uncritical ]. {{ref|Lans1996}}

*In their ] book, ''The Guru Papers'', authors ] and ] reject the ] because of what they see as its structural defects. These defects include the authoritarian control of the guru over the disciple, which is in their view increased by the guru's encouragement of ] to him. Alstadt and Kramer assert that gurus are likely to be ] because, in order to attract and maintain followers, gurus must present themselves as purer than and superior to ordinary people and other gurus. {{ref|Kramer1993}}

===Notable scandals and controversies===
Some notable scandals and controversies regarding gurus or the groups that they founded are:
* The lifestyle of ] with his 93 ]s at his disposal (though as a gift from his followers), a ] attack at ], ] by some of his followers, and his unusual teachings that contradicted both traditional morality and Hindu norms, the group therapy sessions with little restraints, and the liberal sexual freedom that he promoted.

* The ] by ] founded by the guru ] in Japan

* Accusations of ] and false ]s performed by ] that resulted in a front page article in the magazine ], questions in the ] and ], critical TV documentaries produced by the ] and ] that were aired in the United Kingdom, Canada, on ], in Denmark and in Australia.

==See also==
* ]
* ]
* ]
* ]
* ]
* ]
* ]
* ]

{{wikiquote}}

==References==
<div class="references-small">
#{{note|Tirha}}] ''A Taste of Trascendence'', (2002) p.161, Mandala Press. ISBN 1886069719
#:"Guru: a spiritual master; one who is heavy with knowledge of the Absolute and who removes nescience withe the light of the divine."
#{{note|Lipner}}Lipner, Julius J.,''Their Religious Beliefs and Practices'' p.192, Routledge (UK), ISBN 0415051819
#{{note|Cornille}} Cornille, C. ''The Guru in Indian Catholicism'' (1991) p.207. Peeters Publishers ISBN 9068313096
#{{note|Hopkins}} Hopkins, Jeffrey ''Reflections on Reality'' (2002) p.72. University of California Press. ISBN 0520211200
#{{note|Varene}} Varene, Jean. ''Yoga and the Hindu Tradition'' (1977). p.226. University of Chicago Press. ISBN 0226851168
#{{note|Dict}} Grimes, John. ''A Concise Dictionary of Indian Philosophy: Sanskrit Terms Defined in English'' (1996). p.133. SUNY Press. ISBN 0791430677
#:"The etymological derivation of the word guru is in this verse from Guru Gita: 'The root ''gu'' stands for darkness; ''ru'' for its removal. The removal of the darkness of ignorance in the heart is indicated by the word guru'" (Note: Guru Gita is a spiritual text in the Markandeya Purana, in the form of a dialog between Siva and Parvati on the nature of the guru and the guru/disciple relantionship.)
#{{note|Dict2}} Ibid.
#:"Guru: remover of darkness, bestower of light'"
#{{note|krs}} ] '' The Aweakening of Intelligence'' (1987) p.139. HarperCollins. ISBN 0060648341
#{{note|Murray}} Murray, Thomas R. ''Moral Development Theories-Secular and Religious: A Comparative Study'' (1997). p.231. Greenwwod Press
#: the term is a combination of the two words ''gu''(darkness) and ''ru'' (light), so together they mean ''divine light that dispells all darkness''"
#:"guru is the light that disperses the darkness of ignorance"
#{{note|Kraneborg2002}} Kranenborg, Reender (Dutch language) ''Neohindoeïstische bewegingen in Nederland : een encyclopedisch overzicht'' (En: ''Neo-Hindu movements in the Netherlands'', published by Kampen Kok cop. (2002) ISBN 9043504939
#{{note|WESR}} Riffard, Pierre A. in ''Western Esotericism and the Science of Religion'' Faivre A. & Hanegraaff W. (Eds.) Peeters Publishers( 1988), ISBN 9-04290-630-8
#{{note|gurugita}}''Gurugita'' v. 46
#:''gukāram ca gunatitam rukāram rupavarjitam gunatitasvarupam ca yo dadyātsa guruh smrtah''
*{{note|Bromley1989}} ], Ph.D. & ], Ph.D., ''Public Reaction against New Religious Movements'' article that appeared in ''Cults and new religious movements: a report of the Committee on Psychiatry and Religion of the American Psychiatric Association'', edited by Marc Galanter, M.D., (1989) ISBN 0-89042-212-5
*{{note|Deutsch1975}} Deutsch, Alexander ] ''Observations on a sidewalk ashram'' Archive Gen. Psychiatry 32 (1975) 2, 166-175
*{{note|Deutsch1980}} Deutsch, Alexander M.D. ''Tenacity of Attachment to a cult leader: a psychiatric perspective'' American Journal of Psychiatry 137 (1980) 12, 1569-1573.
*{{note|Deutsch1989}} Deutsch, Alexander M.D. ''Psychological perspectives on cult leadership'', an article that appeared in the book edited by Marc Galanter M.D. (1989) ''Cults and new religious movements: a report of the committee on psychiatry and religion of the ]'' ISBN 0-89042-212-5
*{{note|Feuerstein1990}}] Dr. ''Encyclopedic dictionary of yoga'' Published by Paragon House 1st ed edition (1990) ISBN 155778244X
*{{note|Feuerstein2003}} ] Dr. ''The Deeper Dimension of Yoga: Theory and Practice'', Shambhala Publications, released on (2003) ISBN 1570629285
*{{note|Kent2001}} ] Dr. ''From slogans to mantras: social protest and ] in the late ] era'' ] press ISBN 0-8156-2923-0 (2001)
*{{note|Kramer1993}} Kramer, Joel, and Diana Alstad ''The guru papers: masks of authoritarian power'' (1993) ISBN 1-883319-00-5
*{{note|Kranenborg1974}} Kranenborg, Reender (Dutch language) ''Zelfverwerkelijking: oosterse religies binnen een westerse subkultuur'' (En: ]: eastern religions in a Western Sub-culture'', published by Kampen Kok (1974)
*{{note|Kranenborg1984}} Kranenborg, Reender (Dutch language) Een nieuw licht op de kerk? Bijdragen van nieuwe religieuze bewegingen voor de kerk van vandaag (En: A new perspective on the church? Contributions of new religious movements for today's church), the Hague Boekencentrum (1984) ISBN 9023908090
*{{note|Lane1984}} ], (1984)
*{{note|Lans1981}} (Dutch language) , written upon request for the published by Ambo, Baarn, ] ISBN 9026305214
*{{note|Nugteren1997}} ] Dr. (Associate professor in the phenomenology and history of Indian religions at the faculty of theology at the ])''Tantric Influences in Western Esotericism'', article that appeared at a 1997 ] conference and that was published in the book ''New Religions in a Postmodern World'' edited by Mikael Rothstein and Reender Kranenborg RENNER Studies in New religions ] press, (2003) ISBN 8772887486
*{{note|Palmer2004}} Palmer, Susan, article in the book ''NRMs in the 21st Century: legal, political, and social challenges in global perspective'' edited by Phillip Charles Lucas and Thomas Robbins, (2004) ISBN 0145965772
*{{note|Storr1996}} Storr, Anthony Dr. ''Feet of clay: a study of gurus'' 1996 ISBN 0684834952
*{{note|Sathyasaibaba_undated1}} Sathya Sai Baba ''Sandeha Nivarini: Clearance of Spiritual Doubts'' published by Sri Sathya Sai Books and Publications Trust (undated) ISBN 81-7208-010-7
*{{note|ref_preece}} Preece, Rob, "The teacher-student relationship" in ''The Noble Imperfection: The challenge of individuation in Buddhist life'', Mudras Publications
*{{note|Vivekananda1937}} ] ''Karma-yoga and Bhakti-yoga'' (1937)
</div>

==Bibliography==
*Arjun Dev, ''Guru, Guru Granth Sahib'', Amritsar-1604 AD., Rag Bhairo
*Aurobindo, Sri, ''The Foundation of Indian Culture'', Pondicherry, 1959
*Brown, Mick ''The Spiritual Tourist'' Bloomsbury publishing, 1998 ISBN 1-58234-034-X
* - 2003 ISBN 1-8770590-50-1
*Gupta, Dr. Hari Ram. ''A Life-Sketch of Guru Nanak in Guru Nanak, His Life, Time and Teachings'', Edited by Gurmukh Nihal Singh, New Delhi, 1981
*Gurdev Singh, Justice, ''Perspectives on the Sikh Tradition''. Patiala-1986
*Holtje, D. (1995). ''''. Temecula, CA: MasterPath, Inc. ISBN 1885949006
*Isliwari Prasad, Dr. ''The Mughal Empire'', Allahabad-1974
*Jain, Nirmal Kumar, ''Sikh Religion and Philosophy''. New Delhi- 1979
*Kapur Singh, ''Parasarprasna or The Baisakhi of Guru Gobind Singh'' (An Exposition of Sikhism), Jalandhar-1959
*] Dr. ''Begone Godmen'' published by Shri Aswin J. Shah Jaico Publishing House, Bombay - 1976
*Majumdar, Dr R.C., ''The History and Culture of the Indian People'', Vol. VI, Bombay-1960
*Mcleod W.H. (ed.). ''The B40 Janam Sakhi'', Guru Nank Dev University, Amritsar, 1980
*] ''Karma Cola: Marketing the Mystic East'' Simon and Schuster, New York, NY, first published in 1979 ISBN 0679754334
*], ''The Master as I Saw Him'', Kolkata: Udbodhan Office, 1993.
*Olsen, G. (1999). ''MasterPath: The Divine Science of Light and Sound'', (Vol. 1). Temecula, CA: MasterPath, Inc. ISBN 1885949014
*Padoux, André ''The Tantric Guru, in: Tantra in Practice'', Ed by David Gordon White, MLBD, New Delhi
*Singh, K. (1999). ''''. Blaine, WA: Ruhani Satsang Books. ISBN 0942735943
*Singh, Jaideva, (Ed.), ''Ïiva Sútras, The Yoga of Supreme Identity'', MLBD, Delhi, 1979
*Swami Tejasananda, ''A Short Life of Vivekananda'', Kolkata: Advaita Ashram Publication, 1999.


==External links== ==External links==
{{Wiktionary|lang=en|गुरु}}
===Buddhism===
{{Wiktionary}}
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{{Wikiquote}}
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{{Commons category|Gurus}}
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===Hinduism===
*, M Warrier (2003), ''International Journal of Hindu Studies'', Volume 7, Issue 1–3, pages 31–54
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*, MK Raina (2002), Journal: '']''
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*{{Dead link|date=October 2022 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}, P. Nachimuthu (2006), Management and Labor Studies
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*, Sandra Bell (2002), Durham University
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*, Raymond Williams (1986), ''Journal of Pastoral Care Counseling''
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* {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160407094912/http://www.manushi-india.org/pdfs_issues/PDF%20files%2031/2.%20The%20tradition%20of%20female%20gurus.pdf |date=2016-04-07 }}, Catherine Clémentin-Ojha (1985)
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*, J Mlecko (1982), ] journal
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===Other sites===
* by Dr. Georg Feuerstein, author of ''The Yoga Tradition: Its History, Literature, Philosophy and Practice.'' (2000)
* by Johannes Aagaard of the Denmark based ''Dialog Center'', an organization belonging to the ]
* 3-minute video by ] showing in the following order Maharaji, ], Muktananda, ], ], Maharishi Mahesh Yogi, Sathya Sai Baba, and ]
*, an excerpt from ]'s book ''In Defense of the Guru Principle''.
* from Rediff on the net India, March 30 2001 (VNN) — article by Francois Gautier

===Critical sites===
* Excerpts on assessing the authenticity of a guru from a book by Dr. ], Garland Publishing, Inc. (1994)
* Ratings of hundreds of gurus by Sarlo. Sarlo is a follower of the guru Osho/Rajneesh/Bhagwan and also has a corresponding ] group.
* Checklist of 25 points
* article by John Horgan, requires sign-up
* practical tips for charlatans and con men by Phil Milstein. Satirical website.
* by John Wren-Lewis
* webpage of the ] about gurus and godmen
* head of the ]
* long essay in 8 parts by the critical former follower ]

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Latest revision as of 22:18, 22 December 2024

Spiritual teacher and guide For other uses, see Guru (disambiguation).
The traditional guru–disciple relationship. Watercolour, Punjab Hills, India, 1740.

Guru (/ˈɡuːruː/ Sanskrit: गुरु; IAST: gurū) is a Sanskrit term for a "mentor, guide, expert, or master" of certain knowledge or field. In pan-Indian traditions, a guru is more than a teacher: traditionally, the guru is a reverential figure to the disciple (or shisya in Sanskrit, literally seeker ) or student, with the guru serving as a "counselor, who helps mold values, shares experiential knowledge as much as literal knowledge, an exemplar in life, an inspirational source and who helps in the spiritual evolution of a student". Whatever language it is written in, Judith Simmer-Brown says that a tantric spiritual text is often codified in an obscure twilight language so that it cannot be understood by anyone without the verbal explanation of a qualified teacher, the guru. A guru is also one's spiritual guide, who helps one to discover the same potentialities that the guru has already realized.

The oldest references to the concept of guru are found in the earliest Vedic texts of Hinduism. The guru, and gurukula – a school run by guru, were an established tradition in India by the 1st millennium BCE, and these helped compose and transmit the various Vedas, the Upanishads, texts of various schools of Hindu philosophy, and post-Vedic Shastras ranging from spiritual knowledge to various arts so also specific science and technology. By about mid 1st millennium CE, archaeological and epigraphical evidence suggest numerous larger institutions of gurus existed in India, some near Hindu temples, where guru-shishya tradition helped preserve, create and transmit various fields of knowledge. These gurus led broad ranges of studies including Hindu scriptures, Buddhist texts, grammar, philosophy, martial arts, music and painting.

The tradition of the guru is also found in Jainism, referring to a spiritual preceptor, a role typically served by a Jain ascetic. In Sikhism, the guru tradition has played a key role since its founding in the 15th century, its founder is referred to as Guru Nanak, and its scripture as Guru Granth Sahib. The guru concept has thrived in Vajrayāna Buddhism, where the tantric guru is considered a figure to worship and whose instructions should never be violated.

Definition and etymology

The word guru (Sanskrit: गुरु), a noun, connotes "teacher" in Sanskrit, but in ancient Indian traditions it has contextual meanings with significance beyond what teacher means in English. The guru is more than someone who teaches a specific type of knowledge, and included in the term's scope is someone who is also a "counselor, a sort of parent of mind (Citta) and Self (Atman), who helps mold values (Yamas and Niyamas) and experiential knowledge as much as specific knowledge, an exemplar in life, an inspirational source and who reveals the meaning of life." The word has the same meaning in other languages derived from or borrowing words from Sanskrit, such as Hindi, Marathi, Punjabi, Tamil, Telugu, Kannada, Malayalam, Odia, Bengali, Gujarati and Nepali. The Malayalam term Acharyan or Asan is derived from the Sanskrit word Acharya.

As a noun the word means the imparter of knowledge (jñāna; also Pali: ñāna). As an adjective, it means 'heavy,' or 'weighty,' in the sense of "heavy with knowledge," heavy with spiritual wisdom, "heavy with spiritual weight," "heavy with the good qualities of scriptures and realization," or "heavy with a wealth of knowledge." The word has its roots in the Sanskrit gri (to invoke, or to praise), and may have a connection to the word gur, meaning 'to raise, lift up, or to make an effort'.

Sanskrit guru is cognate with Latin gravis 'heavy; grave, weighty, serious' and Greek βαρύς barus 'heavy'. All three derive from the Proto-Indo-European root *gʷerə-, specifically from the zero-grade form *gʷr̥ə-.

Darkness and light

गुशब्दस्त्वन्धकारः स्यात्‌ रुशब्दस्तन्निरोधकः ।
अन्धकारनिरोधित्वात्‌ गुरुरित्यभिधीयते ॥ १६॥
The syllable gu means darkness, the syllable ru, he who dispels them,
Because of the power to dispel darkness, the guru is thus named.

— Advayataraka Upanishad, Verse 16

A popular etymological theory considers the term "guru" to be based on the syllables gu (गु) and ru (रु), which it claims stands for darkness and "light that dispels it", respectively. The guru is seen as the one who "dispels the darkness of ignorance."

Reender Kranenborg disagrees, stating that darkness and light have nothing to do with the word guru. He describes this as a folk etymology.

Joel Mlecko states, "Gu means ignorance, and Ru means dispeller," with guru meaning the one who "dispels ignorance, all kinds of ignorance", ranging from spiritual to skills such as dancing, music, sports and others. Karen Pechilis states that, in the popular parlance, the "dispeller of darkness, one who points the way" definition for guru is common in the Indian tradition.

In Western Esotericism and the Science of Religion, Pierre Riffard makes a distinction between "occult" and "scientific" etymologies, citing as an example of the former the etymology of 'guru' in which the derivation is presented as gu ("darkness") and ru ('to push away'); the latter he exemplifies by "guru" with the meaning of 'heavy.'

In Hinduism

Further information: list of Hindu gurus
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The Guru is an ancient and central figure in the traditions of Hinduism. Ultimate liberation or moksha and inner perfection is considered achievable in Hinduism with the help of a guru. The Guru can also serve as a teacher of skills, a counselor, one who helps in the realization of one's Self (Atma), who instills values and experiential knowledge, an exemplar, an inspiration and one who helps guide a student's (śiṣya) spiritual development. At a social and religious level, the Guru helps continue the religion and Hindu way of life. Guru thus has a historic, reverential and an important role in the Hindu culture.

Scriptures

The word Guru is mentioned in the earliest layer of Vedic texts. The hymn 4.5.6 of Rigveda describes the guru as, "the source and inspirer of the knowledge of the Self, the essence of reality," for one who seeks.

In chapter 4.4 within the Chandogya Upanishad, a guru is described as one whom one attains knowledge that matters, the insights that lead to Self-knowledge. Verse 1.2.8 of the Katha Upanisad declares the guru "as indispensable to the acquisition of knowledge." In chapter 3 of Taittiriya Upanishad, human knowledge is described as that which connects the teacher and the student through the medium of exposition, just like a child is the connecting link between the father and the mother through the medium of procreation. In the Taittiriya Upanishad, the guru then urges a student to "struggle, discover and experience the Truth, which is the source, stay and end of the universe."

The ancient tradition of reverence for the guru in Hindu scriptures is apparent in 6.23 of the Shvetashvatara Upanishad, which equates the need of reverence and devotion for guru to be the same as for god,

यस्य देवे परा भक्तिः यथा देवे तथा गुरौ ।
तस्यैते कथिता ह्यर्थाः प्रकाशन्ते महात्मनः ॥ २३ ॥
He who has highest Bhakti (love, devotion) of Deva (god),
just like his Deva, so for his Guru,
To him who is high-minded,
these teachings will be illuminating.

— Shvetashvatara Upanishad 6.23

The Bhagavad Gita also exemplifies the importance of a guru within Hinduism. Arjuna when faced with the realization of having to wage war with his kin is paralyzed with grief and remorse. Overwhelmed he lays down his weapons and refuses to fight. Despite his intellectual prowess and skill in warfare he finds himself lacking in Dharmic (moral) clarity. At this moment he turns to Krishna for guidance and in essence seeks Krishna as his guru. This interaction exemplifies the importance within the Hindu tradition for a disciple to seek guidance from an experienced spiritual guru. Additionally, other references to the role of a guru in the Bhagavad Gita include verse 4.34 - those who know their subject well are eager for good students, and the student can learn from such a guru through reverence, service, effort and the process of inquiry.

Capabilities, role and methods for helping a student

Adi Shankara with Disciples, by Raja Ravi Varma (1904)

The 8th century Hindu text Upadesasahasri of the Advaita Vedanta philosopher Adi Shankara discusses the role of the guru in assessing and guiding students. In Chapter 1, he states that teacher is the pilot as the student walks in the journey of knowledge, he is the raft as the student rows. The text describes the need, role and characteristics of a teacher, as follows,

When the teacher finds from signs that knowledge has not been grasped or has been wrongly grasped by the student, he should remove the causes of non-comprehension in the student. This includes the student's past and present knowledge, want of previous knowledge of what constitutes subjects of discrimination and rules of reasoning, behavior such as unrestrained conduct and speech, courting popularity, vanity of his parentage, ethical flaws that are means contrary to those causes. The teacher must enjoin means in the student that are enjoined by the Śruti and Smrti, such as avoidance of anger, Yamas consisting of Ahimsa and others, also the rules of conduct that are not inconsistent with knowledge. He should also thoroughly impress upon the student qualities like humility, which are the means to knowledge.

— Adi Shankara, Upadesha Sahasri 1.4-1.5

The teacher is one who is endowed with the power of furnishing arguments pro and con, of understanding questions , and remembers them. The teacher possesses tranquility, self-control, compassion and a desire to help others, who is versed in the Śruti texts (Vedas, Upanishads), and unattached to pleasures here and hereafter, knows the subject and is established in that knowledge. He is never a transgressor of the rules of conduct, devoid of weaknesses such as ostentation, pride, deceit, cunning, jugglery, jealousy, falsehood, egotism and attachment. The teacher's sole aim is to help others and a desire to impart the knowledge.

— Adi Shankara, Upadesha Sahasri 1.6

Adi Shankara presents a series of examples wherein he asserts that the best way to guide a student is not to give immediate answers, but posit dialogue-driven questions that enable the student to discover and understand the answer.

Reverence and Guru-Bhakti

Reverence for the guru is a fundamental principle in Hinduism, as illustrated in the Guru Gita by the following shloka

गुरु ब्रह्मा गुरु विष्णु गुरु देवो महेश्वरः।

गुरु साक्षात् परम ब्रह्म तस्मै श्री गुरुवे नमः।

Transliteration: Guru Brahma, Guru Vishnu, Guru Devo Maheshwara, Guru Sakshat Parabrahma, Tasmai Shri Gurave Namah.

Meaning: This shloka praises the Guru, identifying them as the creator (Brahma), the preserver (Vishnu), and the destroyer (Shiva), ultimately recognizing the Guru as the supreme reality.

— Guru Gita Shloka 22

Other notable examples of devotion to the guru within Hinduism include the religious festival of Guru Purnima.

Gurukula and the guru-shishya tradition

Guru teaching students in a gurukul
Main articles: Brahmacharya, Guru-shishya tradition, Parampara, and Gurukula

Traditionally, the Guru would live a simple married life, and accept shishya (student, Sanskrit: शिष्य) where he lived. A person would begin a life of study in the Gurukula (the household of the Guru). The process of acceptance included proffering firewood and sometimes a gift to the guru, signifying that the student wants to live with, work and help the guru in maintaining the gurukul, and as an expression of a desire for education in return over several years. At the Gurukul, the working student would study the basic traditional vedic sciences and various practical skills-oriented shastras along with the religious texts contained within the Vedas and Upanishads. The education stage of a youth with a guru was referred to as Brahmacharya, and in some parts of India this followed the Upanayana or Vidyarambha rites of passage.

The gurukul would be a hut in a forest, or it was, in some cases, a monastery, called a matha or ashram or sampradaya in different parts of India. Each ashram had a lineage of gurus, who would study and focus on certain schools of Hindu philosophy or trade, also known as the guru-shishya parampara (teacher-student tradition). This guru-driven tradition included arts such as sculpture, poetry and music.

Inscriptions from 4th century CE suggest the existence of gurukuls around Hindu temples, called Ghatikas or Mathas, where the Vedas were studied. In south India, 9th century Vedic schools attached to Hindu temples were called Calai or Salai, and these provided free boarding and lodging to students and scholars. Archaeological and epigraphical evidence suggests that ancient and medieval era gurukuls near Hindu temples offered wide range of studies, ranging from Hindu scriptures to Buddhist texts, grammar, philosophy, martial arts, music and painting.

The guru-shishya parampara, occurs where knowledge is passed down through succeeding generations. It is the traditional, residential form of education, where the Shishya remains and learns with his Guru as a family member.

Gender and caste

The Hindu texts offer a conflicting view of whether access to guru and education was limited to men and to certain varna (castes). The Vedas and the Upanishads never mention any restrictions based either on gender or varna. The Yajurveda and Atharvaveda texts state that knowledge is for everyone, and offer examples of women and people from all segments of society who are guru and participated in vedic studies. The Upanishads assert that one's birth does not determine one's eligibility for spiritual knowledge, only one's effort and sincerity matters.

The early Dharma-sutras and Dharma-sastras, such as Paraskara Grhyasutra, Gautama Smriti and Yajnavalkya smriti, state all four varnas are eligible to all fields of knowledge while verses of Manusmriti state that Vedic study is available only to men of three varnas, unavailable to Shudra and women. Kramrisch, Scharfe, and Mookerji state that the guru tradition and availability of education extended to all segments of ancient and medieval society. Lise McKean states the guru concept has been prevalent over the range of class and caste backgrounds, and the disciples a guru attracts come from both genders and a range of classes and castes. During the bhakti movement of Hinduism, which started in about mid 1st millennium CE, the gurus included women and members of all varna.

Attributes

The Advayataraka Upanishad states that the true teacher is a master in the field of knowledge, well-versed in the Vedas, is free from envy, knows yoga, lives a simple life that of a yogi, has realized the knowledge of the Atman (Self). Some scriptures and gurus have warned against false teachers, and have recommended that the spiritual seeker test the guru before accepting him. Swami Vivekananda said that there are many incompetent gurus, and that a true guru should understand the spirit of the scriptures, have a pure character and be free from sin, and should be selfless, without desire for money and fame.

According to the Indologist Georg Feuerstein, in some traditions of Hinduism, when one reaches the state of Self-knowledge, one's own Self becomes the guru. In Tantra, states Feuerstein, the guru is the "ferry who leads one across the ocean of existence." A true guru guides and counsels a student's spiritual development because, states Yoga-Bija, endless logic and grammar leads to confusion, and not contentment. However, various Hindu texts caution prudence and diligence in finding the right guru, and avoiding the wrong ones. For example, in Kula-Arnava text states the following guidance:

Gurus are as numerous as lamps in every house. But, O-Goddess, difficult to find is a guru who lights up everything like a sun.
Gurus who are proficient in the Vedas, textbooks and so on are numerous. But, O Goddess, difficult to find is a guru who is proficient in the supreme Truth.
Gurus who rob their disciples of their wealth are numerous. But, O Goddess, difficult to find is a guru who removes the disciples' suffering.
Numerous here on earth are those who are intent on social class, stage of life and family. But he who is devoid of all concerns is a guru difficult to find.
An intelligent man should choose a guru by whom supreme Bliss is attained, and only such a guru and none other.

— Kula-Arnava, 13.104 - 13.110, Translated by Georg Feuerstein

A true guru is, asserts Kula-Arnava, one who lives the simple virtuous life he preaches, is stable and firm in his knowledge, master yogi with the knowledge of Self (Atma Gyaan) and Brahman (ultimate reality). The guru is one who initiates, transmits, guides, illuminates, debates and corrects a student in the journey of knowledge and of self-realization. The attribute of the successful guru is to help make the disciple into another guru, one who transcends him, and becomes a guru unto himself, driven by inner spirituality and principles.

In modern Hinduism

Further information: Contemporary Hindu movements and Modern yoga gurus

In modern neo-Hinduism, Kranenborg states guru may refer to entirely different concepts, such as a spiritual advisor, or someone who performs traditional rituals outside a temple, or an enlightened master in the field of tantra or yoga or eastern arts who derives his authority from his experience, or a reference by a group of devotees of a sect to someone considered a god-like Avatar by the sect.

The tradition of reverence for guru continues in several denominations within modern Hinduism, but rather than being considered as a prophet, the guru is seen as a person who points the way to spirituality, oneness of being, and meaning in life.

In Buddhism

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In some forms of Buddhism, states Rita Gross, the concept of Guru is of supreme importance. Guru is called as Garu in Pali. The Guru is the teacher, who teaches the spiritual and religious knowledge. Guru can be anyone who teach this knowledge and not generally need to be Acariya or Upajjhaya. Guru can also be a personal teacher. Buddha is called as Lokagaru, meaning "the teacher of the world".

In Vajrayana Buddhism's Tantric teachings, the rituals require the guidance of a guru. The guru is considered essential and to the Buddhist devotee, the guru is the "enlightened teacher and ritual master", states Stephen Berkwitz. The guru is known as the vajra guru (literally "diamond guru"). Initiations or ritual empowerments are necessary before the student is permitted to practice a particular tantra, in Vajrayana Buddhist sects found in Tibet and South Asia. The tantras state that the guru is equivalent to Buddha, states Berkwitz, and is a figure to worship and whose instructions should never be violated.

The guru is the Buddha, the guru is the Dhamma, and the guru is the Sangha. The guru is the glorious Vajradhara, in this life only the guru is the means . Therefore, someone wishing to attain the state of Buddhahood should please the guru.

— Guhyasanaya Sadhanamala 28, 12th-century

There are Four Kinds of Lama (Guru) or spiritual teacher (Tib. lama nampa shyi) in Tibetan Buddhism:

  1. gangzak gyüpé lama — the individual teacher who is the holder of the lineage
  2. gyalwa ka yi lama — the teacher which is the word of the buddhas
  3. nangwa da yi lama — the symbolic teacher of all appearances
  4. rigpa dön gyi lama — the absolute teacher, which is rigpa, the true nature of mind

In various Buddhist traditions, there are equivalent words for guru, which include Shastri (teacher), Kalyana Mitra (friendly guide, Pali: Kalyāṇa-mittatā), Acarya (master), and Vajra-Acarya (hierophant). The guru is literally understood as "weighty", states Alex Wayman, and it refers to the Buddhist tendency to increase the weight of canons and scriptures with their spiritual studies. In Mahayana Buddhism, a term for Buddha is Bhaisajya guru, which refers to "medicine guru", or "a doctor who cures suffering with the medicine of his teachings".

In Jainism

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Guru is the spiritual preceptor in Jainism, and typically a role served by Jain ascetics. The guru is one of three fundamental tattva (categories), the other two being dharma (teachings) and deva (divinity). The guru-tattva is what leads a lay person to the other two tattva. In some communities of the Śvētāmbara sect of Jainism, a traditional system of guru-disciple lineage exists.

The guru is revered in Jainism ritually with Guru-vandan or Guru-upashti, where respect and offerings are made to the guru, and the guru sprinkles a small amount of vaskep (a scented powder mixture of sandalwood, saffron, and camphor) on the devotee's head with a mantra or blessings.

In Sikhism

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In Sikhism, seeking a Guru (Gurmukhi: ਗੁਰੂ gurū) is of the utmost importance, Guru Nanak writes in Ang (ਅੰਗ):751 (੫੧ of the Guru Granth Sahib:

ਗਾਫਲ ਗਿਆਨ ਵਿਹੂਣਿਆ ਗੁਰ ਬਿਨੁ ਗਿਆਨੁ ਨ ਭਾਲਿ ਜੀਉ ॥ O foolish mind, without seeking a Guru, loving devotion with the Almighty is not possible.

Guru Amar Das, the third Sikh Guru says knowledge will have no foundation without a Guru

The Guru is the source of all knowledge which is Almighty. In Chaupai Sahib, Guru Gobind Singh states about who is the Guru:

ਜਵਨ ਕਾਲ ਜੋਗੀ ਸ਼ਿਵ ਕੀਯੋ ॥ ਬੇਦ ਰਾਜ ਬ੍ਰਹਮਾ ਜੂ ਥੀਯੋ ॥
ਜਵਨ ਕਾਲ ਸਭ ਲੋਕ ਸਵਾਰਾ ॥ ਨਮਸ਼ਕਾਰ ਹੈ ਤਾਹਿ ਹਮਾਰਾ ॥੩੮੪॥
ਜਵਨ ਕਾਲ ਸਭ ਜਗਤ ਬਨਾਯੋ॥ ਦੇਵ ਦੈਤ ਜੱਛਨ ਉਪਜਾਯੋ ॥
ਆਦਿ ਅੰਤਿ ਏਕੈ ਅਵਤਾਰਾ॥ ਸੋਈ ਗੁਰੂ ਸਮਝਿਯਹੁ ਹਮਾਰਾ ॥੩੮੫॥

The Temporal Lord, who created Shiva, the Yogi; who created Brahma, the Master of the Vedas;
The Temporal Lord who fashioned the entire world; I salute the same Lord.
The Temporal Lord, who created the whole world; who created angels, demons and yakshas;
He is the only one form the beginning to the end; I consider Him only my Guru.

—Dasam Granth, 384-385

The Sikh gurus were fundamental to the Sikh religion, however the concept in Sikhism differs from other usages. The Punjabi word Sikh derives from the Sanskrit word shishya, or disciple and is all about the relationship between the teacher and a student. The concept of Guru in Sikhism stands on two pillars i.e. Miri-Piri (ਮੀਰੀ-ਪੀਰੀ). 'Piri' means spiritual authority and 'Miri' means temporal authority. Traditionally, the concept of Guru is considered central in Sikhism, and its main scripture is prefixed as a Guru, called Guru Granth Sahib, the words therein called Gurbani.

In Western culture

As an alternative to established religions in the West, some people in Europe and the US looked to spiritual guides and gurus from India and other countries. Gurus from many denominations traveled to Western Europe and the US and established followings.

In particular during the 1960s and 1970s many gurus acquired groups of young followers in Western Europe and the US. According to the American sociologist David G. Bromley this was partially due to the repeal of the Chinese Exclusion Act in 1965 which permitted Asian gurus entrance to the US. According to the Dutch Indologist Albertina Nugteren, the repeal was only one of several factors and a minor one compared with the two most important causes for the surge of all things 'Eastern': the post-war cross-cultural mobility and the general dissatisfaction with established Western values.

In the Western world, the term is sometimes used in a derogatory way to refer to individuals who have allegedly exploited their followers' naiveté, particularly in certain cults or groups in the fields of hippie, new religious movements, self-help, and tantra.

According to the professor in sociology Stephen A. Kent at the University of Alberta and Kranenborg (1974), one of the reasons why in the 1970s young people including hippies turned to gurus was because they found that drugs had opened for them the existence of the transcendental or because they wanted to get high without drugs. According to Kent, another reason why this happened so often in the US then, was because some anti-Vietnam War protesters and political activists became worn out or disillusioned of the possibilities to change society through political means, and as an alternative turned to religious means. One example of such group was the Hare Krishna movement (ISKCON) founded by A.C. Bhaktivedanta Swami Prabhupada in 1966, many of whose followers voluntarily accepted the demanding lifestyle of bhakti yoga on a full-time basis, in stark contrast to much of the popular culture of the time.

Some gurus and the groups they lead attract opposition from the Anti-Cult Movement. According to Kranenborg (1984), Jesus Christ fits the Hindu definition and characteristics of a guru.

Environmental activists are sometimes called "gurus" or "prophets" for embodying a moral or spiritual authority and gathering followers. Examples of environmental gurus are John Muir, Henry David Thoreau, Aldo Leopold, George Perkins Marsh, and David Attenborough. Abidin et al. wrote that environmental gurus "merge the boundaries" between spiritual and scientific authority.

Viewpoints

Gurus and the Guru-shishya tradition have been criticized and assessed by secular scholars, theologians, anti-cultists, skeptics, and religious philosophers.

Jiddu Krishnamurti, groomed to be a world spiritual teacher by the leadership of the Theosophical Society in the early part of the 20th century, publicly renounced this role in 1929 while also denouncing the concept of gurus, spiritual leaders, and teachers, advocating instead the unmediated and direct investigation of reality.

U. G. Krishnamurti, , sometimes characterized as a spiritual anarchist, denied both the value of gurus and the existence of any related worthwhile teaching.

Dr. David C. Lane proposes a checklist consisting of seven points to assess gurus in his book, Exposing Cults: When the Skeptical Mind Confronts the Mystical. One of his points is that spiritual teachers should have high standards of moral conduct and that followers of gurus should interpret the behavior of a spiritual teacher by following Ockham's razor and by using common sense, and, should not naively use mystical explanations unnecessarily to explain immoral behavior. Another point Lane makes is that the bigger the claim a guru makes, such as the claim to be God, the bigger the chance is that the guru is unreliable. Dr. Lane's fifth point is that self-proclaimed gurus are likely to be more unreliable than gurus with a legitimate lineage.

Highlighting what he sees as the difficulty in understanding the guru from Eastern tradition in Western society, Indologist Georg Feuerstein writes in the chapter Understanding the Guru in his book The Deeper Dimension of Yoga: Theory and practice: "The traditional role of the guru, or spiritual teacher, is not widely understood in the West, even by those professing to practice Yoga or some other Eastern tradition entailing discipleship. Spiritual teachers, by their very nature, swim against the stream of conventional values and pursuits. They are not interested in acquiring and accumulating material wealth or in competing in the marketplace, or in pleasing egos. They are not even about morality. Typically, their message is of a radical nature, asking that we live consciously, inspect our motives, transcend our egoic passions, overcome our intellectual blindness, live peacefully with our fellow humans, and, finally, realize the deepest core of human nature, the Spirit. For those wishing to devote their time and energy to the pursuit of conventional life, this kind of message is revolutionary, subversive, and profoundly disturbing". In his Encyclopedic Dictionary of Yoga (1990), Dr. Feuerstein writes that the importation of yoga to the West has raised questions as to the appropriateness of spiritual discipleship and the legitimacy of spiritual authority.

A British professor of psychiatry, Anthony Storr, states in his book, Feet of Clay: A Study of Gurus, that he confines the word guru (translated by him as "revered teacher") to persons who have "special knowledge" who tell, referring to their special knowledge, how other people should lead their lives. He argues that gurus share common character traits (e.g. being loners) and that some suffer from a mild form of schizophrenia. He argues that gurus who are authoritarian, paranoid, eloquent, or who interfere in the private lives of their followers are the ones who are more likely to be unreliable and dangerous. Storr also refers to Eileen Barker's checklist to recognize false gurus. He contends that some so-called gurus claim special spiritual insights based on personal revelation, offering new ways of spiritual development and paths to salvation. Storr's criticism of gurus includes the possible risk that a guru may exploit his or her followers due to the authority that he or she may have over them, though Storr does acknowledge the existence of morally superior teachers who refrain from doing so. He holds the view that the idiosyncratic belief systems that some gurus promote were developed during a period of psychosis to make sense of their own minds and perceptions, and that these belief systems persist after the psychosis has gone. Storr notes that gurus generalize their experience to all people. Some of them believe that all humanity should accept their vision, while others teach that when the end of the world comes, only their followers will be saved, and the rest of the people will remain unredeemed. According to him, this ″apparently arrogant assumption″ is closely related and other characteristics of various gurus. Storr applies the term "guru" to figures as diverse as Jesus, Muhammad, Buddha, Gurdjieff, Rudolf Steiner, Carl Jung, Sigmund Freud, Jim Jones and David Koresh.

Rob Preece, a psychotherapist and a practicing Buddhist, writes in The Noble Imperfection that while the teacher/disciple relationship can be an invaluable and fruitful experience, the process of relating to spiritual teachers also has its hazards. He writes that these potential hazards are the result of naiveté amongst Westerners as to the nature of the guru/devotee relationship, as well as a consequence of a lack of understanding on the part of Eastern teachers as to the nature of Western psychology. Preece introduces the notion of transference to explain the manner in which the guru/disciple relationship develops from a more Western psychological perspective. He writes: "In its simplest sense transference occurs when unconsciously a person endows another with an attribute that actually is projected from within themselves." In developing this concept, Preece writes that, when we transfer an inner quality onto another person, we may be giving that person a power over us as a consequence of the projection, carrying the potential for great insight and inspiration, but also the potential for great danger: "In giving this power over to someone else they have a certain hold and influence over us it is hard to resist, while we become enthralled or spellbound by the power of the archetype".

The psychiatrist Alexander Deutsch performed a long-term observation of a small cult, called The Family (not to be confused with Family International), founded by an American guru called Baba or Jeff in New York in 1972, who showed increasingly schizophrenic behavior. Deutsch observed that this man's mostly Jewish followers interpreted the guru's pathological mood swings as expressions of different Hindu deities and interpreted his behavior as holy madness, and his cruel deeds as punishments that they had earned. After the guru dissolved the cult in 1976, his mental condition was confirmed by Jeff's retrospective accounts to an author.

Jan van der Lans (1933–2002), a professor of the psychology of religion at the Catholic University of Nijmegen, wrote, in a book commissioned by the Netherlands-based Catholic Study Center for Mental Health, about followers of gurus and the potential dangers that exist when personal contact between the guru and the disciple is absent, such as an increased chance of idealization of the guru by the student (myth making and deification), and an increase of the chance of false mysticism. He further argues that the deification of a guru is a traditional element of Eastern spirituality but, when detached from the Eastern cultural element and copied by Westerners, the distinction between the person who is the guru and that which he symbolizes is often lost, resulting in the relationship between the guru and disciple degenerating into a boundless, uncritical personality cult.

In their 1993 book, The Guru Papers, authors Diana Alstad and Joel Kramer reject the guru-disciple tradition because of what they see as its structural defects. These defects include the authoritarian control of the guru over the disciple, which is in their view increased by the guru's encouragement of surrender to him. Alstad and Kramer assert that gurus are likely to be hypocrites because, in order to attract and maintain followers, gurus must present themselves as purer than and superior to ordinary people and other gurus.

According to the journalist Sacha Kester, in a 2003 article in the Dutch newspaper De Volkskrant, finding a guru is a precarious matter, pointing to the many holy men in India and the case of Sathya Sai Baba whom Kester considers a swindler. In this article he also quotes the book Karma Cola describing that in this book a German economist tells author Gita Mehta, "It is my opinion that quality control has to be introduced for gurus. Many of my friends have become crazy in India". She describes a comment by Suranya Chakraverti who said that some Westerners do not believe in spirituality and ridicule a true guru. Other westerners, Chakraverti said, on the other hand believe in spirituality but tend to put faith in a guru who is a swindler.

See also

Bibliography

Notes

  1. "Guru: a spiritual master; one who is heavy with knowledge of the Absolute and who removes nescience with the light of the divine."
  2. " the term is a combination of the two words gu(darkness) and ru (light), so together they mean 'divine light that dispels all darkness.'" "Guru is the light that disperses the darkness of ignorance."
  3. "The etymological derivation of the word guru is in this verse from Guru Gita: 'The root gu stands for darkness; ru for its removal. The removal of the darkness of ignorance in the heart is indicated by the word "guru'" (Note: Guru Gita is a spiritual text in the Markandeya Purana, in the form of a dialog between Siva and Parvati on the nature of the guru and the guru/disciple relationship.) the meanings of gu and ru can also be traced to the Panini-sutras gu samvarane and ru himsane, indicating concealment and its annulment."
  4. "Guru: remover of darkness, bestower of light'"
  5. Dutch original: "a. De goeroe als geestelijk raadsman Als we naar het verschijnsel goeroe in India kijken, kunnen we constateren dat er op zijn minst vier vormen van goeroeschap te onderscheiden zijn. De eerste vorm is die van de 'geestelijk raadsman'. Voordat we dit verder uitwerken eerst iets over de etymologie. Het woord goeroe komt uit het Sanskriet, wordt geschreven als 'guru' en betekent 'zwaar zijn', 'gewichtig zijn', vooral in figuurlijk opzicht. Zo krijgt het begrip 'guru' de betekenis van 'groot', 'geweldig' of 'belangrijk', en iets verdergaand krijgt het aspecten van 'eerbiedwaardig' en 'vererenswaardig'. Al vrij snel word dit toegepast op de 'geestelijk leraar'. In allerlei populaire literatuur, ook in India zelf, wordt het woord 'guru' uiteengelegd in 'gu' en 'ru', als omschrijvingen voor licht en duister; de goeroe is dan degene die zijn leerling uit het materiële duister overbrengt naar het geestelijk licht. Misschien doe een goeroe dat ook inderdaad, maar het heeft niets met de betekenis van het woord te maken, het is volksetymologie."
    English translation "a. The guru as spiritual adviser: If we look at the phenomenon of gurus in India then we can see that there are at least four forms of guruship that can be distinguished. The first form is that of the "spiritual adviser." Before we will elaborate on this, first something about the etymology. The word guru comes from Sanskrit, is written as 'guru' and connotes philosophically 'being heavy' or 'being weighty'. In that way, the concept of guru gets the meaning of 'big', 'great', or 'important' and somewhat further it also gets aspects of 'respectable' and 'honorable'. Soon it is applied to the 'spiritual adviser'. In various popular literature, in India herself too, the word 'guru' is explained in the parts 'gu' and 'ru', as descriptions for light and darkness: the guru is then the person who bring the student from the material darkness into the spiritual light. A guru may indeed do that, but it has nothing to do with the meaning of the word, it is folk etymology."
  6. Patrick Olivelle notes the modern doubts about the reliability of Manusmriti manuscripts. He writes, "Manusmriti was the first Indian legal text introduced to the western world through the translation of Sir William Jones in 1794. (...) This was based on the Calcutta manuscript with the commentary of Kulluka. It was Kulluka's version that has been assumed to be the original and translated repeatedly from Jone (1794) and Doniger (1991). The belief in the authenticity of Kulluka's text was openly articulated by Burnell. This is far from the truth. Indeed, one of the great surprises of my editorial work has been to discover how few of the over 50 manuscripts that I collated actually follow the vulgate in key readings."
    Sinha writes, in case of Manusmriti, that "certain verses discouraged, but others allowed women to read Vedic scriptures."
  7. "Devotees don't have such an easy time. They who choose to live in the temples – now a very small minority -chant the Hare Krishna mantra 1,728 time a day. Those living in an ashram – far fewer than in the 1970s – have to get up at 4am for worship. All members have to give up meat, fish and eggs; alcohol, tobacco, drugs, tea and coffee; gambling, sports, games and novels; and sex except for procreation with marriage It's a demanding lifestyle. Outsiders may wonder why people join."
  8. "Wat Van der Lans hier signaleert, is het gevaar dat de goeroe een instantie van absolute overgave en totale overdracht wordt. De leerling krijgt de gelegenheid om zijn grootheidsfantasieën op de goeroe te projecteren, zonder dat de goeroe daartegen als kritische instantie kan optreden. Het lijkt er zelfs vaak eerder op dat de goeroe in woord, beeld en geschrift juist geneigd is deze onkritische houding te stimuleren. Dit geldt zeker ook voor goeroe Maharaji, maar het heeft zich -gewild en ongewild ook voorgedaan bij Anandamurti en Maharishi Mahesh Yogi. De vergoddelijking van de goeroe is 'een traditioneel element in de Oosterse spiritualiteit, maar, losgemaakt, uit dit cultuurmilieu en overgenomen door Westerse mensen, gaat het onderscheid vaak verloren tussen de persoon van de goeroe en dat wat hij symboliseert en verwordt tot een kritiekloze persoonlijkheidsverheerlijking' (Van der Lans 1981b, 108)"

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Further reading

  • Barth, F. (1990). "The Guru and the Conjurer: Transactions in Knowledge and the Shaping of Culture in Southeast Asia and Melanesia". Man. 25 (4): 640–653. doi:10.2307/2803658. JSTOR 2803658.
  • Brown, Mick (1998). The Spiritual Tourist. Bloomsbury Publishing. ISBN 1-58234-034-X.
  • Copeman, Jacob; Ikegame, Aya (2012). The Guru in South Asia: New Interdisciplinary Perspectives. Routledge. ISBN 978-0-415-51019-6.
  • Forsthoefel, Thomas; Humes, Cynthia Ann, eds. (2005). Gurus in America. Albany, New York: SUNY Press. ISBN 978-0-7914-6573-8.
  • Hara, M. (1979). "Hindu Concepts of Teacher Sanskrit Guru and Ācārya". In Nagatomi, M.; et al. (eds.). Sanskrit and Indian Studies. Studies of Classical India. Vol. 2. Dordrecht: Springer. pp. 93–118. doi:10.1007/978-94-009-8941-2_6. ISBN 978-94-009-8943-6.
  • Padoux, André (2013). "The Tantric Guru". In White, David Gordon (ed.). Tantra in Practice. Motilal Banarsidass. ISBN 978-81-208-1778-4.
  • Pechelis, Karen (2004). The Graceful Guru: Hindu Female Gurus in India and the United States. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-514537-3.
  • van der Braak, André (2003). Enlightenment Blues: My Years with an American Guru. Monkfish Book Publishing. ISBN 0-9726357-1-8.
  • Wayman, Alex (1987). "The Guru in Buddhism". Studia Missionalia. 36. Universita Gregoriana Roma: 195–214.

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