Misplaced Pages

Latest revision as of 05:18, 30 December 2024

Emmett Till
Till in a photograph taken by his mother on Christmas Day, 1954
Born	Emmett Louis Till (1941-07-25)July 25, 1941 Chicago, Illinois, U.S.
Died	August 28, 1955(1955-08-28) (aged 14) Drew, Mississippi, U.S.
Cause of death	Lynching (bullet wound and mutilation)
Resting place	Burr Oak Cemetery, Alsip, Illinois
Education	James McCosh Elementary School
Parents	Mamie Till-Mobley Louis Till
Awards	Congressional Gold Medal (posthumous, 2022)

Emmett Louis Till (July 25, 1941 – August 28, 1955) was a 14-year-old African American youth who was abducted and lynched in Mississippi in 1955 after being accused of offending a white woman, Carolyn Bryant, in her family's grocery store. The brutality of his murder and the acquittal of his killers drew attention to the long history of violent persecution of African Americans in the United States. Till posthumously became an icon of the civil rights movement.

Till was born and raised in Chicago, Illinois. During summer vacation in August 1955, he was visiting relatives near Money, Mississippi, in the Mississippi Delta region. Till spoke to 21-year-old Carolyn Bryant, the white, married proprietor of a local grocery store. Although what happened at the store is a matter of dispute, Till was accused of flirting with, touching, or whistling at Bryant. Till's interaction with Bryant, perhaps unwittingly, violated the unwritten code of behavior for a black male interacting with a white female in the Jim Crow-era South. Several nights after the encounter, Bryant's husband Roy and his half-brother J. W. Milam, who were armed, went to Till's great-uncle's house and abducted Till, age 14. They beat and mutilated him before shooting him in the head and sinking his body in the Tallahatchie River. Three days later, Till's mutilated and bloated body was discovered and retrieved from the river.

Till's body was returned to Chicago, where his mother insisted on a public funeral service with an open casket, which was held at Roberts Temple Church of God in Christ. It was later said that "The open-coffin funeral held by Mamie Till Bradley exposed the world to more than her son Emmett Till's bloated, mutilated body. Her decision focused attention on not only American racism and the barbarism of lynching but also the limitations and vulnerabilities of American democracy." Tens of thousands attended his funeral or viewed his open casket, and images of Till's mutilated body were published in black-oriented magazines and newspapers, rallying popular black support and white sympathy across the United States. Intense scrutiny was brought to bear on the lack of black civil rights in Mississippi, with newspapers around the U.S. critical of the state. Although local newspapers and law enforcement officials initially decried the violence against Till and called for justice, they responded to national criticism by defending Mississippians, giving support to the killers.

In September 1955, an all-white jury found Bryant and Milam not guilty of Till's murder. Protected against double jeopardy, the two men publicly admitted in a 1956 interview with Look magazine that they had tortured and murdered Till, selling the story of how they did it for $4,000 (equivalent to $45,000 in 2023). Till's murder was seen as a catalyst for the next phase of the civil rights movement. In December 1955, the Montgomery bus boycott began in Alabama and lasted more than a year, resulting eventually in a U.S. Supreme Court ruling that segregated buses were unconstitutional. According to historians, events surrounding Till's life and death continue to resonate.

An Emmett Till Memorial Commission was established in the early 21st century. The county courthouse in Sumner was restored and includes the Emmett Till Interpretive Center. 51 sites in the Mississippi Delta are memorialized as associated with Till. The Emmett Till Antilynching Act, an American law which makes lynching a federal hate crime, was signed into law on March 29, 2022, by President Joe Biden.

Early childhood

Emmett Till was born to Mamie and Louis Till on July 25, 1941, in Chicago. Emmett's mother, Mamie, was born in the small Delta town of Webb, Mississippi. The Delta region encompasses the large, multi-county area of northwestern Mississippi in the watershed of the Yazoo and Mississippi rivers. When Carthan was two years old, her family moved to Argo, Illinois, near Chicago, as part of the Great Migration of rural black families out of the South to the North to escape violence, lack of opportunity and unequal treatment under the law. Argo received so many Southern migrants that it was named "Little Mississippi"; Carthan's mother's home was often used by other recent migrants as a way station while they were trying to find jobs and housing.

Mississippi was the poorest state in the U.S. in the 1950s, and the Delta counties were some of the poorest in Mississippi. Mamie Carthan was born in Tallahatchie County, where the average income per white household in 1949 was $690 (equivalent to $8,800 in 2023). For black families, the figure was $462 (equivalent to $5,900 in 2023). In the rural areas, economic opportunities for blacks were almost nonexistent. They were mostly sharecroppers who lived on land owned by whites. Blacks had essentially been disenfranchised and excluded from voting and the political system since 1890 when the white-dominated legislature passed a new constitution that raised barriers to voter registration. Whites had also passed ordinances establishing racial segregation and Jim Crow laws.

Mamie largely raised Emmett with her mother; she and Louis Till separated in 1942 after Mamie discovered that he had been unfaithful. Louis later assaulted Mamie, choking her to unconsciousness, to which she responded by throwing scalding water at him. For violating court orders to stay away from Mamie, Louis Till was forced by a judge in 1943 to choose between jail or enlisting in the U.S. Army. In 1945, a few weeks before his son's fourth birthday, Louis Till was court-martialed and executed in Italy for the murder of an Italian woman and the rape of two others.

At the age of six, Emmett contracted polio, which left him with a persistent stutter. Mamie and Emmett moved to Detroit, where she met and married "Pink" Bradley in 1951. Emmett preferred living in Chicago, so he returned there to live with his grandmother; his mother and stepfather rejoined him later that year. After the marriage dissolved in 1952, "Pink" Bradley returned alone to Detroit.

Mamie Till-Bradley and Emmett lived together in a busy neighborhood in Chicago's South Side near distant relatives. She began working as a civilian clerk for the U.S. Air Force for a better salary. She recalled that Till was industrious enough to help with chores at home, although he sometimes got distracted. Till's mother remembered that he did not know his own limitations at times. Following the couple's separation, Bradley visited Mamie and began threatening her. At 11 years old, Till, with a butcher knife in hand, told Bradley he would kill him if the man did not leave. Till was typically happy, however. He and his cousins and friends pulled pranks on each other (Till once took advantage of an extended car ride when his friend fell asleep and placed the friend's underwear on his head), and they also spent their free time in pickup baseball games. Till was a smart dresser, and was often the center of attention among his peers.

Plans to visit relatives in Mississippi

In 1955, Mamie Till-Bradley's uncle, 64-year-old Mose Wright, visited her and Emmett in Chicago during the summer and told him stories about living in the Mississippi Delta. Emmett wanted to see for himself. Wright planned to accompany Till with a cousin, Wheeler Parker; another cousin, Curtis Jones, would join them soon after. Wright was a sharecropper and part-time minister who was often called "Preacher". He lived in Money, Mississippi, a small town in the Delta that consisted of three stores, a school, a post office, a cotton gin, and a few hundred residents, 8 miles (13 km) north of Greenwood. Before Till departed for the Delta, his mother cautioned him that Chicago and Mississippi were two different worlds, and he should know how to behave in front of white people in the South. Till assured her that he understood.

Statistics on lynchings began to be collected in 1882. Since that time, more than 500 African Americans have been killed by extrajudicial violence in Mississippi alone, and more than 3,000 across the South. Most of the incidents took place between 1876 and 1930; though far less common by the mid-1950s, these racially motivated murders still occurred. Throughout the South, interracial relationships were prohibited as a means to maintain white supremacy. Even the suggestion of sexual contact between black men and white women could carry severe penalties for black men. A resurgence of the enforcement of such Jim Crow laws was evident following World War II, when African-American veterans started pressing for equal rights in the South.

Racial tensions increased after the United States Supreme Court's 1954 decision in Brown v. Board of Education to end segregation in public education, which it ruled unconstitutional. Many segregationists believed the ruling would lead to interracial dating and marriage. Whites strongly resisted the court's ruling; one Virginia county closed all its public schools to prevent integration. Other jurisdictions simply ignored the ruling. In other ways, whites used stronger measures to keep blacks politically disenfranchised, which they had been since the turn of the century. Segregation in the South was used to constrain blacks forcefully from any semblance of social equality.

A week before Till arrived in Mississippi, a black activist named Lamar Smith was shot and killed in front of the county courthouse in Brookhaven for political organizing. Three white suspects were arrested, but they were soon released.

Encounter between Till and Carolyn Bryant

Till arrived at the home of Mose and Elizabeth Wright in Money, Mississippi, on August 21, 1955. On the evening of August 24, Till and several young relatives and neighbors were driven by his cousin Maurice Wright to Bryant's Grocery and Meat Market to buy candy. Till's companions were children of sharecroppers and had been picking cotton all day. The market mostly served the local sharecropper population and was owned by a white couple, 24-year-old Roy Bryant and his 21-year-old wife Carolyn.

The facts of what took place in the store are still disputed. Journalist William Bradford Huie reported that Till showed the youths outside the store a photograph of a white girl in his wallet, and bragged that she was his girlfriend. Till's cousin Curtis Jones said the photograph was of an integrated class at the school Till attended in Chicago. According to Huie and Jones, one or more of the local boys then dared Till to speak to Bryant. However, in his 2009 book, Till's cousin Simeon Wright, who was present, disputed the accounts of Huie and Jones. According to Wright, Till did not have a photo of a white girl, and nobody dared him to flirt with Bryant. Speaking in 2015, Wright said: "We didn't dare him to go to the store—the white folk said that. They said that he had pictures of his white girlfriend. There were no pictures. They never talked to me. They never interviewed me." The FBI report completed in 2006 notes: " Jones recanted his 1955 statements prior to his death and apologized to Mamie Till-Mobley".

According to both Simeon Wright and Wheeler Parker, Till wolf-whistled at Bryant. Wright said, "I think wanted to get a laugh out of us or something," adding, "He was always joking around, and it was hard to tell when he was serious." Wright stated that following the whistle, he became immediately alarmed. "Well, it scared us half to death," Wright recalled. "You know, we were almost in shock. We couldn't get out of there fast enough, because we had never heard of anything like that before. A black boy whistling at a white woman? In Mississippi? No." Wright stated "The Ku Klux Klan and night riders were part of our daily lives". Following his disappearance, a newspaper account stated that Till sometimes whistled to alleviate his stuttering. His speech was sometimes unclear; Mamie said he had particular difficulty with pronouncing "b" sounds, and he may have whistled to overcome problems asking for bubble gum. She said that, to help with his articulation, Mamie taught Till how to whistle softly to himself before pronouncing his words.

During the murder trial, Bryant testified that Till grabbed her hand while she was stocking candy and said, "How about a date, baby?" Bryant said that after she freed herself from his grasp, Till followed her to the cash register, grabbed her waist and said, "What's the matter baby, can't you take it?" Bryant said she freed herself, and Till said, "You needn't be afraid of me, baby", used "one 'unprintable' word" and said "I've been with white women before." Bryant also alleged that one of Till's companions came into the store, grabbed him by the arm, and ordered him to leave. According to historian Timothy Tyson, Bryant admitted to him in a 2008 interview that her testimony during the trial that Till had made verbal and physical advances was false. Bryant had testified Till grabbed her waist and uttered obscenities but later told Tyson, "that part's not true." As for the rest of what happened, the 72-year-old stated she could not remember. Bryant is quoted by Tyson as saying, "Nothing that boy did could ever justify what happened to him." However, the tape recordings that Tyson made of the interviews with Bryant do not contain Bryant saying this. In addition, Bryant's daughter-in-law, who was present during Tyson's interviews, says that Bryant never said it.

Decades later, Simeon Wright also challenged the account given by Carolyn Bryant at the trial. Wright claims he entered the store "less than a minute" after Till was left inside alone with Bryant, and he saw no inappropriate behavior and heard "no lecherous conversation." Wright said Till "paid for his items and we left the store together." In their 2006 investigation of the cold case, the FBI noted that a second anonymous source, who was confirmed to have been in the store at the same time as Till and his cousin, supported Wright's account.

Author Devery Anderson writes that in an interview with the defense's attorneys, Bryant told a version of the initial encounter that included Till grabbing her hand and asking her for a date, but not Till approaching her and grabbing her waist, mentioning past relationships with white women, or having to be dragged unwillingly out of the store by another boy. Anderson further notes that many remarks prior to Till's kidnapping made by those involved indicate that it was his remarks to Bryant that angered his killers, rather than any alleged physical harassment. For instance, Mose Wright (a witness to the kidnapping) said that the kidnappers mentioned only "talk" at the store, and Sheriff George Smith only spoke of the arrested killers accusing Till of "ugly remarks." Anderson suggests that this evidence taken together implies that the more extreme details of Bryant's story were invented after the fact as part of the defense's legal strategy.

After Wright and Till left the store, Bryant went outside to retrieve a pistol from underneath the seat of a car. Till and his companions saw her do this and left immediately. It was acknowledged that Till whistled while Bryant was going to her car. However, one witness, Roosevelt Crawford, maintained that Till's whistle was directed not at Bryant, but at the checkers game that was taking place outside the store.

Carolyn's husband, Roy Bryant, was on an extended trip hauling shrimp to Texas and did not return home until August 27. Historian Timothy Tyson said an investigation by civil rights activists concluded Carolyn Bryant did not initially tell her husband Roy Bryant about the encounter with Till, and that Roy was told by a person who frequented their store. Roy was reportedly angry at his wife for not telling him. Carolyn Bryant told the FBI she did not tell her husband because she feared he would assault Till.

Lynching

Lynching of Emmett Till
Location of Drew within Sunflower County, Mississippi
Location	Drew, Mississippi, U.S.
Date	August 28, 1955 (1955-08-28)
Target	Emmett Louis Till
Attack type	Lynching kidnapping hate crime torture murder child murder shooting mutilation racial terrorism
Victim	Emmett Louis Till
Perpetrators	Roy Bryant and J. W. Milam
Motive	Retaliation for allegedly offending a white woman, anti-black racism
Accused	Carolyn Bryant
Verdict	Roy Bryant and Milam: Not guilty
Charges	Roy Bryant and Milam: Murder

When Roy Bryant was informed of what had happened, he aggressively questioned several young black men who entered the store. That evening, Bryant, with a black man named J. W. Washington, approached a black teenager walking along a road. Bryant ordered Washington to seize the boy, put him in the back of a pickup truck, and took him to be identified by a companion of Carolyn's who had witnessed the episode with Till. Friends or parents vouched for the boy in Bryant's store, and Carolyn's companion denied that the boy Bryant and Washington seized was the one who had accosted her. Somehow, Bryant learned that the boy in the incident was from Chicago and was staying with Mose Wright. Several witnesses overheard Bryant and his 36-year-old half-brother, John William "J. W." Milam, discussing taking Till from his house.

In the early morning hours of August 28, 1955, sometime between 2:00 and 3:30 a.m., Bryant and Milam drove to Mose Wright's house. Armed with a pistol and a flashlight, he asked Wright if he had three boys in the house from Chicago. Till was sharing a bed with another cousin and there were a total of eight people in the cabin. Milam asked Wright to take them to "the nigger who did the talking." Till's great-aunt offered the men money, but Milam refused as he rushed Emmett to put on his clothes. Mose Wright informed the men that Till was from up north and did not know any better. Milam reportedly then asked, "How old are you, preacher?" to which Wright responded, "64." Milam threatened that if Wright told anybody, he would not live to see 65. The men marched Till out to the truck. Wright said he heard them ask someone in the car if this was the boy, and heard someone say "yes." When asked if the voice was that of a man or a woman Wright said that "it seemed like it was a lighter voice than a man's." In a 1956 interview with Look magazine, in which they confessed to the killing, Bryant and Milam said they would have brought Till by the store in order to have Carolyn identify him, but stated they did not do so because they said Till admitted to being the one who had talked to her.

Milam and Bryant tied up Till in the back of a green pickup truck and drove toward Money, Mississippi. According to some witnesses, they took Till back to Bryant's Groceries and recruited two black men. The men then drove to a barn in Drew, pistol-whipping Till on the way and reportedly knocked him unconscious. Willie Reed, who was 18 years old at the time, saw the truck passing by and later recalled seeing two white men in the front seat, and "two black males" in the back. Some have speculated that the two black men worked for Milam and were forced to help with the beating, although they later denied being present.

Willie Reed said that while walking home, he heard the beating and crying from the barn. Reed told a neighbor and they both walked back up the road to a water well near the barn, where they were approached by Milam. Milam asked if they heard anything. Reed responded, "No." Others passed by the shed and heard yelling. A local neighbor also spotted "Too Tight" (Leroy Collins) at the back of the barn washing blood off the truck and noticed Till's boot. Milam explained he had killed a deer and that the boot belonged to him.

Some have claimed that Till was shot and tossed over the Black Bayou Bridge in Glendora, Mississippi, near the Tallahatchie River. The group drove back to Roy Bryant's home in Money, where they reportedly burned Till's clothes.

Well, what else could we do? He was hopeless. I'm no bully; I never hurt a nigger in my life. I like niggers—in their place—I know how to work 'em. But I just decided it was time a few people got put on notice. As long as I live and can do anything about it, niggers are gonna stay in their place. Niggers ain't gonna vote where I live. If they did, they'd control the government. They ain't gonna go to school with my kids. And when a nigger gets close to mentioning sex with a white woman, he's tired o' livin'. I'm likely to kill him. Me and my folks fought for this country, and we got some rights. I stood there in that shed and listened to that nigger throw that poison at me, and I just made up my mind. 'Chicago boy,' I said, 'I'm tired of 'em sending your kind down here to stir up trouble. Goddam you, I'm going to make an example of you—just so everybody can know how me and my folks stand.'

In an interview with William Bradford Huie that was published in Look magazine in 1956, Bryant and Milam said that they intended to beat Till and throw him off an embankment into the river to frighten him. They told Huie that while they were beating Till, he called them bastards, declared he was as good as they and said that he had sexual encounters with white women. They put Till in the back of their truck, and drove to a cotton gin to take a 70-pound (32 kg) fan—the only time they admitted to being worried, thinking that by this time in early daylight they would be spotted and accused of stealing—and drove for several miles along the river looking for a place to dispose of Till. They shot him by the river and weighted his body with the fan.

Mose Wright stayed on his front porch for 20 minutes waiting for Till to return. He did not go back to bed. Wright and another man went into Money, got gasoline, and drove around unsuccessfully trying to find Till. They had returned home by 8:00 a.m. After hearing from Wright that he would not call the police because he feared for his life, Curtis Jones placed a call to the Leflore County sheriff, and another to his mother in Chicago. Distraught, she called Emmett's mother Mamie Till-Bradley. Wright and his wife Elizabeth drove to Sumner, where Elizabeth's brother contacted the sheriff.

Bryant and Milam were questioned by Leflore County sheriff George Smith. They admitted they had taken the boy from his great-uncle's yard, but claimed they had released him the same night in front of Bryant's store. Bryant and Milam were arrested for kidnapping. Word got out that Till was missing, and soon Medgar Evers, Mississippi state field secretary for the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP), and Amzie Moore, head of the NAACP's Bolivar County chapter, became involved. They disguised themselves as cotton pickers and went into the cotton fields in search of any information that might help find Till.

Three days after his abduction and murder, Till's swollen and disfigured body was found by two boys who were fishing in the Tallahatchie River. His head was very badly mutilated: he had been shot above the right ear, an eye was dislodged from the socket, there was evidence that he had been beaten on the back and the hips, and his body weighted by a fan blade fastened around his neck with barbed wire. Till was nude, but wearing a silver ring with the initials "L. T." and "May 25, 1943" carved in it. His face was unrecognizable due to trauma and having been submerged in water. Mose Wright was called to the river to identify Till. The silver ring that Till was wearing was removed, returned to Wright, and passed on to the district attorney as evidence.

Funeral and reaction

Although lynchings and racially motivated murders had occurred throughout the South for decades, the circumstances surrounding Till's murder and the timing acted as a catalyst to attract national attention to the case of a 14-year-old boy who had allegedly been killed for breaching a social caste system. Till's murder aroused feelings about segregation, law enforcement, relations between the North and South, the social status quo in Mississippi, the activities of the NAACP and the White Citizens' Councils, and the Cold War, all of which were played out in a drama staged in newspapers all over the U.S. and abroad.

After Till went missing, a three-paragraph story was printed in The Greenwood Commonwealth and quickly picked up by other Mississippi newspapers. They reported on his death when the body was found. The next day, when a picture of him his mother had taken the previous Christmas showing them smiling together appeared in the Jackson Daily News and Vicksburg Evening Post, editorials and letters to the editor were printed expressing shame at the people who had caused Till's death. One read, "Now is the time for every citizen who loves the state of Mississippi to 'Stand up and be counted' before hoodlum white trash brings us to destruction." The letter said that Negroes were not the downfall of Mississippi society, but whites like those in White Citizens' Councils that condoned violence.

Till's body was clothed, packed in lime, placed into a pine coffin, and prepared for burial. It may have been embalmed while in Mississippi. Mamie Till-Bradley demanded that the body be sent to Chicago; she later said that she worked to halt an immediate burial in Mississippi and called several local and state authorities in Illinois and Mississippi to make sure that her son was returned to Chicago. A doctor did not examine Till post-mortem.

Mississippi's governor, Hugh L. White, deplored the murder, asserting that local authorities should pursue a "vigorous prosecution." He sent a telegram to the national offices of the NAACP, promising a full investigation and assuring them "Mississippi does not condone such conduct." Delta residents, both black and white, also distanced themselves from Till's murder, finding the circumstances abhorrent. Local newspaper editorials denounced the murderers without question. Leflore County Deputy Sheriff John Cothran stated, "The white people around here feel pretty mad about the way that poor little boy was treated, and they won't stand for this."

However, discourse about Till's murder soon became more complex. Robert B. Patterson, executive secretary of the segregationist White Citizens' Council, used Till's death to claim that racial segregation policies were to provide for blacks' safety and that their efforts were being neutralized by the NAACP. In response, NAACP executive secretary Roy Wilkins characterized the incident as a lynching and said that Mississippi was trying to maintain white supremacy through murder. He said, "there is in the entire state no restraining influence of decency, not in the state capital, among the daily newspapers, the clergy, nor any segment of the so-called better citizens." Mamie Till-Bradley told a reporter that she would seek legal aid to help law enforcement find her son's killers and that the State of Mississippi should share the financial responsibility. She was misquoted; it was reported as "Mississippi is going to pay for this."

The A. A. Rayner Funeral Home in Chicago received Till's body. Upon arrival, Bradley insisted on viewing it to make a positive identification, later stating that the stench from it was noticeable two blocks away. She decided to have an open-casket funeral, saying: "There was just no way I could describe what was in that box. No way. And I just wanted the world to see." Tens of thousands of people lined the street outside the mortuary to view Till's body, and days later thousands more attended his funeral at Roberts Temple Church of God in Christ.

Photographs of Till's mutilated corpse circulated around the country, notably appearing in Jet magazine and The Chicago Defender, both black publications, generating intense public reaction. According to The Nation and Newsweek, Chicago's black community was "aroused as it has not been over any similar act in recent history". Time later selected one of the Jet photographs showing Mamie Till over the mutilated body of her dead son, as one of the 100 "most influential images of all time": "For almost a century, African Americans were lynched with regularity and impunity. Now, thanks to a mother's determination to expose the barbarousness of the crime, the public could no longer pretend to ignore what they couldn't see." On September 6, Till was buried at Burr Oak Cemetery in Alsip, Illinois.

News about Emmett Till spread to both coasts. Chicago Mayor Richard J. Daley and Illinois Governor William Stratton also became involved, urging Mississippi Governor White to see that justice was done. The tone in Mississippi newspapers changed dramatically. They falsely reported riots in the funeral home in Chicago. Bryant and Milam appeared in photos smiling and wearing military uniforms, and Carolyn Bryant's beauty and virtue were extolled. Rumors of an invasion of outraged blacks and northern whites were printed throughout the state, and were taken seriously by the Leflore County Sheriff. T. R. M. Howard, a local businessman, surgeon, and civil rights proponent and one of the wealthiest black people in the state, warned of a "second civil war" if "slaughtering of Negroes" were allowed.

Following Roy Wilkins' comments, white opinion began to shift. According to historian Stephen J. Whitfield, a specific brand of xenophobia in the South was particularly strong in Mississippi. Whites were urged to reject the influence of Northern opinion and agitation. This independent attitude was profound enough in Tallahatchie County that it earned the nickname "The Freestate of Tallahatchie", according to a former sheriff, "because people here do what they damn well please", making the county often difficult to govern.

Tallahatchie County Sheriff Clarence Strider, who initially positively identified Till's body and stated that the case against Milam and Bryant was "pretty good", on September 3 announced his doubts that the body pulled from the Tallahatchie River was that of Till. He speculated that the boy was probably still alive. Strider suggested that the recovered body had been planted by the NAACP: a corpse stolen by T. R. M. Howard, who colluded to place Till's ring on it. Strider changed his account after comments were published in the press denigrating the people of Mississippi, later saying: "The last thing I wanted to do was to defend those peckerwoods. But I just had no choice about it."

Bryant and Milam were indicted for murder. The state's prosecuting attorney, Hamilton Caldwell, was not confident that he could get a conviction in a case of white violence against a black male accused of insulting a white woman. A local black paper was surprised at the indictment and praised the decision, as did The New York Times. The high-profile comments published in Northern newspapers and by the NAACP were of concern to the prosecuting attorney, Gerald Chatham; he worried that his office would not be able to secure a guilty verdict, despite the compelling evidence. Having limited funds, Bryant and Milam initially had difficulty finding attorneys to represent them, but five attorneys at a Sumner law firm offered their services pro bono. Their supporters placed collection jars in stores and other public places in the Delta, eventually gathering $10,000 for the defense (about $114,500 in 2023).

Trial

The trial was held in the county courthouse in Sumner, the western seat of Tallahatchie County, because Till's body was found in this area. Sumner had one boarding house; the small town was besieged by reporters from all over the country. David Halberstam called the trial "the first great media event of the civil rights movement". A reporter who had covered the trials of Bruno Hauptmann and Machine Gun Kelly remarked that this was the most publicity for any trial he had ever seen. No hotels were open to black visitors. Mamie Till-Bradley arrived to testify, and the trial also attracted black congressman Charles Diggs from Michigan. Bradley, Diggs, and several black reporters stayed at T. R. M. Howard's home in Mound Bayou. Located on a large lot and surrounded by Howard's armed guards, it resembled a compound.

The day before the start of the trial, a young black man named Frank Young arrived to tell Howard he knew of two witnesses to the crime. Levi "Too Tight" Collins and Henry Lee Loggins were black employees of Leslie Milam, J. W.'s brother, in whose shed Till was beaten. Collins and Loggins were spotted with J. W. Milam, Bryant, and Till. The prosecution team was unaware of Collins and Loggins. Sheriff Strider, however, booked them into the Charleston, Mississippi, jail to keep them from testifying.

The trial was held in September 1955 and lasted for five days; attendees remembered that the weather was very hot. The courtroom was filled to capacity with 280 spectators; black attendees sat in segregated sections. Press from major national newspapers attended, including black publications; black reporters were required to sit in the segregated black section and away from the white press, farther from the jury. Sheriff Strider welcomed black spectators coming back from lunch with a cheerful, "Hello, Niggers!" Some visitors from the North found the court to be run with surprising informality. Jury members were allowed to drink beer on duty, and many white male spectators wore handguns.

The defense sought to cast doubt on the identity of the body pulled from the river. They said it could not be positively identified, and they questioned whether Till was dead at all. The defense also asserted that although Bryant and Milam had taken Till from his great-uncle's house, they had released him that night. The defense attorneys attempted to prove that Mose Wright—who was addressed as "Uncle Mose" by the prosecution and "Mose" by the defense—could not identify Bryant and Milam as the men who took Till from his cabin. They noted that only Milam's flashlight had been in use that night, and no other lights in the house were turned on. Milam and Bryant had identified themselves to Wright the evening they took Till; Wright said he had only seen Milam clearly. Wright's testimony was considered remarkably courageous. It may have been the first time in the South that a black man had testified to the guilt of a white man in court—and lived.

Journalist James Hicks, who worked for the black news wire service, the National Negro Publishers Association (later renamed the National Newspaper Publishers Association), was present in the courtroom; he was especially impressed that Wright stood to identify Milam, pointing to him and saying "There he is", calling it a historic moment and one filled with "electricity". A writer for the New York Post noted that following his identification, Wright sat "with a lurch which told better than anything else the cost in strength to him of the thing he had done". A reporter who covered the trial for the New Orleans Times-Picayune said it was "the most dramatic thing I saw in my career".

Mamie Till-Bradley testified that she had instructed her son to watch his manners in Mississippi and that should a situation ever come to his being asked to get on his knees to ask forgiveness of a white person, he should do it without a thought. The defense questioned her identification of her son in the casket in Chicago and a $400 life insurance policy she had taken out on him (equivalent to $4,500 in 2023).

While the trial progressed, Leflore County Sheriff George Smith, Howard, and several reporters, both black and white, attempted to locate Collins and Loggins. They could not, but found three witnesses who had seen Collins and Loggins with Milam and Bryant on Leslie Milam's property. Two of them testified that they heard someone being beaten, blows, and cries. One testified so quietly the judge ordered him several times to speak louder; he said he heard the victim call out: "Mama, Lord have mercy. Lord have mercy." Sheriff Strider testified for the defense of his theory that Till was alive and that the body retrieved from the river was white. A doctor from Greenwood stated on the stand that the body was too decomposed to identify, and therefore had been in the water too long for it to be Till.

Carolyn Bryant was allowed to testify in court, but because Judge Curtis Swango ruled in favor of the prosecution's objection that her testimony was irrelevant to Till's abduction and murder, the jury was not present. In the event that the defendants were convicted, the defense wanted her testimony on record to aid in a possible appeal.

In the concluding statements, one prosecuting attorney said that what Till did was wrong, but that his action warranted a spanking, not murder. Gerald Chatham passionately called for justice and mocked the sheriff and doctor's statements that alluded to a conspiracy. Mamie Bradley indicated she was very impressed with his summation. The defense stated that the prosecution's theory of the events the night Till was murdered was improbable, and said the jury's "forefathers would turn over in their graves" if they convicted Bryant and Milam. Only three outcomes were possible in Mississippi for capital murder: life imprisonment, the death penalty, or acquittal. On September 23 the all-white, all-male jury (both women and blacks had been banned) acquitted both Milam and Bryant after a 67-minute deliberation; one juror said, "If we hadn't stopped to drink pop, it wouldn't have taken that long."

In post-trial analyses, the blame for the outcome varied. Mamie Till-Bradley was criticized for not crying enough on the stand. The jury was noted to have been picked almost exclusively from the hill country section of Tallahatchie County, which, due to its poorer economic make-up, found whites and blacks competing for land and other agrarian opportunities. Unlike the population living closer to the river (and thus closer to Bryant and Milam in Leflore County), who possessed a noblesse oblige outlook toward blacks, according to historian Stephen Whitaker, those in the eastern part of the county were virulent in their racism. The prosecution was criticized for dismissing any potential juror who knew Milam or Bryant personally, for fear that such a juror would vote to acquit. Afterward, Whitaker noted that this had been a mistake, as those who knew the defendants usually disliked them. One juror voted twice to convict, but on the third discussion, voted with the rest of the jury to acquit. In later interviews, the jurors acknowledged that they knew Bryant and Milam were guilty, but simply did not believe that life imprisonment or the death penalty were fit punishment for whites who had killed a black man. However, two jurors said as late as 2005 that they believed the defense's case. They also said that the prosecution had not proved that Till had died, nor that it was his body that was removed from the river.

In November 1955, a grand jury declined to indict Bryant and Milam for kidnapping, despite their own admissions of having taken Till. Mose Wright and a young man named Willie Reed, who testified to seeing Milam enter the shed from which screams and blows were heard, both testified in front of the grand jury. After the trial, T. R. M. Howard paid the costs of relocating to Chicago for Wright, Reed, and another black witness who testified against Milam and Bryant, in order to protect the three witnesses from reprisals for having testified. Reed, who later changed his name to Willie Louis to avoid being found, continued to live in the Chicago area until his death on July 18, 2013. He avoided publicity and even kept his history secret from his wife until she was told by a relative. Reed began to speak publicly about the case in the PBS documentary The Murder of Emmett Till, which was broadcast in 2003.

Media discourse

Newspapers in major international cities as well as religious and socialist publications reported outrage about the verdict and strong criticism of American society, while Southern newspapers, particularly in Mississippi, wrote that the court system had done its job. Till's story continued to make the news for weeks following the trial, sparking debate in newspapers, among the NAACP and various high-profile segregationists about justice for blacks and the propriety of Jim Crow society.

In October 1955, the Jackson Daily News reported facts about Till's father that had been suppressed by the U.S. military. While serving in Italy, Louis Till was court-martialed for the rape of two women and the killing of a third. He was found guilty and executed by hanging by the Army near Pisa in July 1945. Mamie Till-Bradley and her family knew none of this, having been told only that Louis had been killed for "willful misconduct." Mississippi senators James Eastland and John C. Stennis probed Army records and revealed Louis Till's crimes. Although Emmett Till's murder trial was over, news about his father was carried on the front pages of Mississippi newspapers for weeks in October and November 1955. This renewed debate about Emmett Till's actions and Carolyn Bryant's integrity. Stephen Whitfield writes that the lack of attention paid to identifying or finding Till is "strange" compared to the amount of published discourse about his father. According to historians Davis Houck and Matthew Grindy, "Louis Till became a most important rhetorical pawn in the high-stakes game of north versus south, black versus white, NAACP versus White Citizens' Councils." In 2016, reviewing the facts of the rapes and murder for which Louis Till had been executed, John Edgar Wideman posited that, given the timing of the publicity about Emmett's father, although the defendants had already confessed to taking Emmett from his uncle's house, the post-murder trial grand jury refused to even indict them for kidnapping. Wideman also suggested that the conviction and punishment of Louis Till may have been racially motivated, referring to his trial as a "kangaroo court-martial."

If the facts as stated in the Look magazine account of the Till affair are correct, this remains: two adults, armed, in the dark, kidnap a fourteen-year-old boy and take him away to frighten him. Instead of which, the fourteen-year-old boy not only refuses to be frightened, but unarmed, alone, in the dark, so frightens the two armed adults that they must destroy him ... What are we Mississippians afraid of?

Protected against double jeopardy, Bryant and Milam struck a deal with Look magazine in 1956 to tell their story to journalist William Bradford Huie for between $3,600 and $4,000. The interview took place in the law firm of the attorneys who had defended Bryant and Milam. Huie did not ask the questions; Bryant and Milam's own attorneys did. Neither attorney had heard their clients' accounts of the murder before. According to Huie, the older Milam was more articulate and sure of himself than the younger Bryant. Milam admitted to shooting Till and neither of them believed they were guilty or that they had done anything wrong.

Reaction to Huie's interview with Bryant and Milam was explosive. Their brazen admission that they had murdered Till caused prominent civil rights leaders to push the federal government harder to investigate the case. Till's murder contributed to congressional passage of the Civil Rights Act of 1957: it authorized the U.S. Department of Justice to intervene in local law enforcement issues when individual civil rights were being compromised. Huie's interview, in which Milam and Bryant said they had acted alone, overshadowed inconsistencies in earlier versions of the stories. As a consequence, details about others who had possibly been involved in Till's abduction and murder, or the subsequent cover-up, were forgotten, according to historians David and Linda Beito.

Later events

Till's murder increased fears in the local black community that they would be subjected to violence and the law would not protect them. According to Deloris Melton Gresham, whose father was killed a few months after Till, "At that time, they used to say that 'it's open season on n*****s.' Kill'em and get away with it."

After Bryant and Milam admitted to Huie that they had killed Till, the support base of the two men eroded in Mississippi. Many of their former friends and supporters, including those who had contributed to their defense funds, cut them off. Blacks boycotted their shops, which went bankrupt and closed, and banks refused to grant them loans to plant crops. After struggling to secure a loan and find someone who would rent to him, Milam managed to secure 217 acres (88 ha) and a $4,000 loan to plant cotton, but blacks refused to work for him. Milam was forced to pay whites higher wages.

Eventually, Milam and Bryant relocated to Texas, but their infamy followed them; they continued to generate animosity from locals. In 1961, while in Texas, when Bryant recognized the license plate of a Tallahatchie County resident, he called out a greeting and identified himself. The resident, upon hearing the name, drove away without speaking to Bryant. After several years, they returned to Mississippi.

Milam found work as a heavy equipment operator, but ill health forced him into retirement. Over the years, Milam was tried for offenses including assault and battery, writing bad checks, and using a stolen credit card. He died of spinal cancer on December 31, 1980, at the age of 61.

Bryant worked as a welder while in Texas, until increasing blindness forced him to give up this employment. At some point, he and Carolyn divorced; he remarried in 1980. Bryant opened a store in Ruleville, Mississippi. He was convicted in 1984 and 1988 of food stamp fraud. In a 1985 interview, Bryant denied killing Till despite having admitted to it in 1956, but said: "if Emmett Till hadn't got out of line, it probably wouldn't have happened to him." Fearing economic boycotts and retaliation, Bryant lived a private life and refused to be photographed or reveal the exact location of his store, explaining: "this new generation is different and I don't want to worry about a bullet some dark night". He died of cancer on September 1, 1994, at the age of 63.

Mamie Till married Gene Mobley, became a teacher, and changed her surname to Till-Mobley. She continued to educate people about her son's murder. In 1992, Till-Mobley had the opportunity to listen while Bryant was interviewed about his involvement in Till's murder. With Bryant unaware that Till-Mobley was listening, he asserted that Till had ruined his life, expressed no remorse, and said: "Emmett Till is dead. I don't know why he can't just stay dead."

In 1996, documentary filmmaker Keith Beauchamp, who was greatly moved by Till's open-casket photograph, started background research for a feature film he planned to make about Till's murder. He asserted that as many as 14 people may have been involved, including Carolyn Bryant Donham (who by this point had remarried). Mose Wright heard someone with "a lighter voice" affirm that Till was the one in his front yard immediately before Bryant and Milam drove away with the boy. Beauchamp spent the next nine years producing The Untold Story of Emmett Louis Till, released in 2003.

That same year, PBS aired an installment of American Experience titled The Murder of Emmett Till. In 2005, CBS journalist Ed Bradley aired a 60 Minutes report investigating the Till murder, part of which showed him tracking down Carolyn Bryant at her home in Greenville, Mississippi.

A 1991 book written by Stephen J. Whitfield, another by Christopher Metress in 2002, and Mamie Till-Mobley's memoirs the next year all posed questions as to who was involved in the murder and cover-up. Federal authorities in the 21st century worked to resolve the questions about the identity of the body pulled from the Tallahatchie River.

In 2004, the U.S. Department of Justice (DOJ) announced that it was reopening the case to determine whether anyone other than Milam and Bryant was involved. David T. Beito, a professor at the University of Alabama, states that Till's murder "has this mythic quality like the Kennedy assassination". The DOJ had undertaken to investigate numerous cold cases dating to the civil rights movement, in the hope of finding new evidence in other murders as well.

Till's body was exhumed, and the Cook County coroner conducted an autopsy in 2005. Using DNA from Till's relatives, dental comparisons to images taken of Till, and anthropological analysis, the exhumed body was positively identified as that of Till. It had extensive cranial damage, a broken left femur, and two broken wrists. Metallic fragments found in the skull were consistent with bullets being fired from a .45 caliber gun.

In February 2007, a Leflore County grand jury, composed primarily of black jurors and empaneled by Joyce Chiles, a black prosecutor, found no credible basis for Beauchamp's claim that 14 people took part in Till's abduction and murder. Beauchamp was angry with the finding. David Beito and Juan Williams, who worked on the reading materials for the Eyes on the Prize documentary, were critical of Beauchamp for trying to revise history and taking attention away from other cold cases. The grand jury failed to find sufficient cause for charges against Carolyn Bryant Donham. Neither the FBI nor the grand jury found any credible evidence that Henry Lee Loggins, identified by Beauchamp as a suspect who could be charged, had any role in the crime. Other than Loggins, Beauchamp refused to name any of the people he alleged were involved.

Historical markers

For 50 years nobody talked about Emmett Till. I think we just have to be resilient and know there are folks out there that don't want to know this history or who want to erase the history. We are just going to be resilient in continuing to put them back up and be truthful in making make sure that Emmett didn't die in vain.

The first highway marker remembering Emmett Till, erected in 2006, was defaced with "KKK", and then completely covered with black paint.

In 2007, eight markers were erected at sites associated with Till's lynching. The marker at the "River Spot" where Till's body was found was torn down in 2008, presumably thrown in the river. A replacement sign received more than 100 bullet holes over the next few years. Another replacement was installed in June 2018, and in July it was vandalized by bullets. Three University of Mississippi students were suspended from their fraternity after posing in front of the bullet-riddled marker, with guns, and uploading the photo to Instagram. As stated by reporter Jerry Mitchell, "It is not clear whether the fraternity students shot the sign or are simply posing before it." In 2019, a fourth sign was erected. It is made of steel, weighs 500 pounds (230 kg), is over 1 inch (2.5 cm) thick, and is said by its manufacturer to be indestructible.

Claim that Carolyn Bryant recanted her testimony

In 2017, historian and author Timothy Tyson released details of a 2008 interview with Carolyn Bryant, during which, he alleged, she had disclosed that Bryant had fabricated parts of her testimony at the trial. According to Tyson's account of the interview, Bryant retracted her testimony that Till had grabbed her around her waist and uttered obscenities, saying "that part's not true". The jury did not hear Bryant's testimony at the trial as the judge had ruled it inadmissible, but the court spectators heard. The defense wanted Bryant's testimony as evidence for a possible appeal in case of a conviction. In the 2007 interview, the 72-year-old Bryant said she could not remember the rest of the events that occurred between her and Till in the grocery store. Tyson also reported her as saying: "nothing that boy did could ever justify what happened to him." Tyson said that Roy Bryant had been abusive toward Carolyn, and "it was clear she was frightened of her husband." Tyson believed Bryant embellished her testimony under coercive circumstances. Bryant described Milam as "domineering and brutal and not a kind man". An editorial in The New York Times said, regarding Bryant's admission that portions of her testimony were false: "This admission is a reminder of how black lives were sacrificed to white lies in places like Mississippi. It also raises anew the question of why no one was brought to justice in the most notorious racially motivated murder of the 20th century, despite an extensive investigation by the F.B.I."

The New York Times quoted Wheeler Parker, a cousin of Till's, who said: "I was hoping that one day she would admit it, so it matters to me that she did, and it gives me some satisfaction. It's important to people understanding how the word of a white person against a black person was law, and a lot of black people lost their lives because of it. It really speaks to history, it shows what black people went through in those days."

However, the 'recanting' claim made by Tyson was not on his tape-recording of the interview. "It is true that that part is not on tape because I was setting up the tape recorder" Tyson said. The support Tyson provided to back up his claim, was a handwritten note that he said had been made at the time.

In a report to Congress in March 2018, the U.S. Department of Justice stated that it was reopening the investigation into Till's death due to new information. In December 2021, the DOJ announced that it had closed its investigation in the case.

Discovery of unserved arrest warrant

In June 2022, an unserved arrest warrant for Carolyn Bryant (now known as Carolyn Bryant Donham), dated August 29, 1955, and signed by the Leflore County Clerk, was discovered in a courthouse basement by members of the Emmett Till Legacy Foundation. Following the discovery, Till's family called for Donham's arrest. However, the district attorney declined to charge Donham, and said that there was no new evidence to reopen the case.

In August 2022, a grand jury concluded there was insufficient evidence to indict Donham.

In December 2022, Bowling Green, Kentucky, canceled its annual Christmas parade scheduled for December 3, 2022, due to threats of violence against groups who planned to protest outside Donham's home, an apartment at Shive Lane, Bowling Green. The protests took place peacefully.

Carolyn Bryant Donham memoir

In 2022, I Am More Than a Wolf Whistle, the 99-page memoir of Carolyn Bryant Donham, was copied and given to NewsOne by an anonymous source. The text had been given to the University of North Carolina to privately hold until 2036.

The memoir had been prepared by Donham's daughter-in-law Marsha Bryant, who had shared the material with Timothy Tyson, with the understanding that Tyson would edit the memoir. However, Tyson said there had been no such agreement, and placed the memoir at the Southern Historical Collection at the University of North Carolina-Chapel Hill library archives, with access restricted for 20 years or until Donham's death.

Donham died on April 25, 2023, at the age of 88.

Influence on civil rights

Till's case became emblematic of the injustices suffered by blacks in the South. Myrlie Evers, the widow of Medgar Evers, said years later that the case "struck a spark of indignation that ... touched off a world-wide clamor and cast the glare of a world spotlight on Mississippi's racism."

Mamie Till toured the country in one of the NAACP's most successful fundraising campaigns ever. Journalist Louis Lomax acknowledges Till's death to be the start of what he terms the "Negro revolt", and scholar Clenora Hudson-Weems characterizes Till as a "sacrificial lamb" for civil rights. NAACP operative Amzie Moore considers Till the start of the Civil Rights Movement, at the very least in Mississippi.

The 1987 Emmy award-winning documentary series Eyes on the Prize, begins with the murder of Emmett Till. Accompanying written materials for the series, Eyes on the Prize and Voices of Freedom (for the second time period), exhaustively explore the major figures and events of the Civil Rights Movement. Stephen Whitaker states that, as a result of the attention Till's death and the trial received,

Mississippi became in the eyes of the nation the epitome of racism and the citadel of white supremacy. From this time on, the slightest racial incident anywhere in the state was spotlighted and magnified. To the Negro race throughout the South and to some extent in other parts of the country, this verdict indicated an end to the system of noblesse oblige. The faith in the white power structure waned rapidly. Negro faith in legalism declined, and the revolt officially began on December 1, 1955, with the Montgomery, Alabama, bus boycott.

I thought of Emmett Till and I just couldn't go back.

In Montgomery a few months after the murder, Rosa Parks attended a rally for Till, led by Martin Luther King Jr. Soon after, she refused to give up her seat on a segregated bus to a white passenger. The incident sparked a year-long well-organized grassroots boycott of the public bus system. The boycott was designed to force the city to change its segregation policies. Parks later said when she did not get up and move to the rear of the bus, "I thought of Emmett Till and I just couldn't go back."

According to author Clayborne Carson, Till's death and the widespread coverage of the students integrating Little Rock Central High School in 1957 were especially profound for younger blacks: "It was out of this festering discontent and an awareness of earlier isolated protests that the sit-ins of the 1960s were born."After seeing pictures of Till's mutilated body, in Louisville, Kentucky, young Cassius Clay (later famed boxer Muhammad Ali) and a friend took out their frustration by vandalizing a local railyard, causing a locomotive engine to derail.

In 1963, Sunflower County resident and sharecropper Fannie Lou Hamer was jailed and beaten for attempting to register to vote. The next year, she led a massive voter registration drive in the Delta region, and volunteers worked on Freedom Summer throughout the state. Before 1954, 265 black people were registered to vote in three Delta counties, where they were a majority of the population. At this time, blacks made up 41% of the total state population. The summer Emmett Till was killed, the number of registered voters in those three counties dropped to 90. By the end of 1955, 14 Mississippi counties had no registered black voters. The Mississippi Freedom Summer of 1964 registered 63,000 black voters in a simplified process administered by the project; they formed their own political party because they were closed out of the Democratic Regulars in Mississippi.

Legacy and honors

• A statue was unveiled in Denver in 1976 (and has since been moved to Pueblo, Colorado) featuring Till with Martin Luther King Jr.
• In 1984, a section of 71st Street in Chicago was named Emmett Till Road and in 2005, the 71st street bridge was named in his honor.
• In 1989, Till was included among the 40 names of people who had died in the Civil Rights Movement; they are listed as martyrs on the granite sculpture of the Civil Rights Memorial in Montgomery, Alabama.
• A demonstration for Till was held in 2000 in Selma, Alabama, on the 35th anniversary of the march over the Edmund Pettus Bridge. His mother Mamie Till-Mobley attended and later wrote in her memoirs: "I realized that Emmett had achieved the significant impact in death that he had been denied in life. Even so, I had never wanted Emmett to be a martyr. I only wanted him to be a good son. Although I realized all the great things that had been accomplished largely because of the sacrifices made by so many people, I found myself wishing that somehow we could have done it another way."
• In 2005, James McCosh Elementary School in Chicago, where Till had been a student, was renamed the Emmett Louis Till Math And Science Academy.
• In 2006, the Emmett Till Memorial Highway was dedicated between Greenwood and Tutwiler, Mississippi; this was the route his body was taken to the train station, to be returned to his mother for burial in Chicago. It intersects with the H. C. "Clarence" Strider Memorial Highway.
• In 2006, the Emmett Till Memorial Commission was established by the Tallahatchie Board of Supervisors
• In 2007, the Emmett Till Memorial Commission issued a formal apology to Till's family at an event attended by 400 people. It reads:

We the citizens of Tallahatchie County recognize that the Emmett Till case was a terrible miscarriage of justice. We state candidly and with deep regret the failure to effectively pursue justice. We wish to say to the family of Emmett Till that we are profoundly sorry for what was done in this community to your loved one.

• The same year, Georgia congressman John Lewis sponsored a bill to provide a plan for investigating and prosecuting unsolved (cold case) Civil Rights-era murders. The Emmett Till Unsolved Civil Rights Crime Act was signed into law in 2008.
• In 2008, a memorial plaque that was erected in Tallahatchie County, next to the Tallahatchie River at Graball Landing where Till's body was retrieved, was stolen and never recovered. The plaque was a "frequent target for racist vandalism". The location is in a remote area and down a gravel road, meaning that vandals had to go out of the way to get to it. Its replacement was soon also shot up, as was the replacement sign after that. In October 2019, a new bulletproof sign costing over $10,000, and weighing over 500 pounds (230 kg) was installed. In November 2019, a group of white supremacists was caught making a propaganda video in front of the sign raising new concerns that more vandalism was being planned. The group was carrying a white flag with a black St. Andrews cross, a flag commonly used by a racist Neo-Confederate group called the League of the South. The group quickly scattered when they set off alarms designed to protect the sign.
• The Tallahatchie County Courthouse in Sumner, site of the 1955 trial of Till's killers, was restored and re-opened in 2012. The Emmett Till Interpretive Center opened across the street and is also serving as a community center.
• The Emmett Till Memorial Project is an associated website and smartphone app to commemorate Till's death and his life. It identifies 51 sites in the Mississippi Delta associated with him. On August 29, 2015, the Center held a 60th-anniversary event.
• In 2015, Florida State University Libraries created the Emmett Till archives.
• In 2020, the National Trust for Historic Preservation named Roberts Temple Church of God in Christ, the site of Till's funeral, as one of America's most endangered historic places.
• In 2022, the U.S. Senate voted to award Till and his mother, Mamie Till-Mobley, the Congressional Gold Medal, forwarding the measure for concurrent action in the U.S. House of Representatives. The House passed the measure on December 21, 2022.
• In March 2022, Congress passed the Emmett Till Antilynching Act.
• In October 2022, a bronze statue commemorating Till was unveiled in Greenwood, Mississippi's Rail Spike Park, partially funded by the State of Mississippi.
• On July 25, 2023 (Till's 82nd birthday), President Biden signed a proclamation establishing the Emmett Till and Mamie Till-Mobley National Monument which honors Till and his mother. The monument will be managed by the National Park Service, and will preserve three areas related to Emmett Till's life and death: Graball Landing in Mississippi, Roberts Temple Church of God in Christ in Chicago, and the Tallahatchie County Second District Courthouse in Mississippi.

Casket

The story of Emmett Till is one of the most important of the last half of the 20th century. And an important element was the casket ... It is an object that allows us to tell the story, to feel the pain and understand loss. I want people to feel like I did. I want people to feel the complexity of emotions.

During a renewed investigation of the crime in 2005, the Department of Justice exhumed Till's remains to conduct an autopsy and DNA analysis which confirmed the identification of his body. As required by state reburial law, Till was reinterred in a new casket later that year. In 2009, his original glass-topped casket was found, rusting in a dilapidated storage shed at the cemetery. The casket was discolored and the interior fabric torn. It bore evidence that animals had been living in it, although its glass top was still intact. The Smithsonian's National Museum of African American History and Culture in Washington, D.C. acquired the casket a month later.

Representation in culture

Langston Hughes dedicated an untitled poem (eventually to be known as "Mississippi—1955") to Till in his October 1, 1955, column in The Chicago Defender. It was reprinted across the country and continued to be republished with various changes from different writers. William Faulkner, a prominent white Mississippi native who often focused on racial issues, wrote two essays on Till: one before the trial in which he pleaded for American unity and one after, a piece titled "On Fear" that was published in Harper's in 1956. In it he questioned why the tenets of segregation were based on irrational reasoning.

Till's murder was the focus of a 1957 television episode for the U.S. Steel Hour titled "Noon on Doomsday" written by Rod Serling. He was fascinated by how quickly Mississippi whites supported Bryant and Milam. Although the script was rewritten to avoid mention of Till, and did not say that the murder victim was black, White Citizens' Councils vowed to boycott U.S. Steel. The eventual episode bore little resemblance to the Till case.

Writer James Baldwin loosely based his 1964 drama Blues for Mister Charlie on the Till case. He later divulged that Till's murder had been bothering him for several years.

Anne Moody mentioned the Till case in her autobiography, Coming of Age in Mississippi, in which she states she first learned to hate during the fall of 1955. Audre Lorde's poem "Afterimages" (1981) focuses on the perspective of a black woman thinking of Carolyn Bryant 24 years after the murder and trial. Bebe Moore Campbell's 1992 novel Your Blues Ain't Like Mine centers on the events of Till's death. Toni Morrison mentions Till's death in the novel Song of Solomon (1977) and later wrote the play Dreaming Emmett (1986), which follows Till's life and the aftermath of his death. The play is a feminist look at the roles of men and women in black society, which she was inspired to write while considering "time through the eyes of one person who could come back to life and seek vengeance". Emmylou Harris includes a song called "My Name is Emmett Till" on her 2011 album, Hard Bargain. According to scholar Christopher Metress, Till is often reconfigured in literature as a specter that haunts the white people of Mississippi, causing them to question their involvement in evil, or silence about injustice. The 2021 novel The Trees by Percival Everett uses this theme. The 2002 book Mississippi Trials, 1955 is a fictionalized account of Till's death. The 2015 song by Janelle Monáe, "Hell You Talmbout", invokes the names of African-American people—including Emmett Till—who died as a result of encounters with law enforcement or racial violence. In 2016 artist Dana Schutz painted Open Casket, a work based on photographs of Till in his coffin as well as on an account by Till's mother of seeing him after his death.

Documentaries

• The Murder and the Movement: The Story of the Murder of Emmett Till (1985) by Rich Samuel and produced by Anna Vasser (originally aired on WMAQ-TV in Chicago)
• The Murder of Emmett Till which aired during Season 15 of the TV series American Experience: website links to program transcript and additional materials for the PBS film
• The Untold Story of Emmett Louis Till (2005) by Keith Beauchamp
• Eyes on the Prize: Transcript of 2006 PBS documentary

Works inspired by Till

This section includes creative works inspired by Till. For non-fiction books on Till, see Bibliography, below.

Songs

• "The Death of Emmett Till" (1955), written by A. C. Bilbrew, recorded by The Ramparts with Scatman Crothers.
• "The Ballad of Emmett Till" (1956), recorded by Red River Dave (David McEnery), in the TNT label's True Story Series.
• "The Death of Emmett Till" (1962), also known as "The Ballad of Emmett Till", by Bob Dylan.
• "Too Many Martyrs" (1964), by Phil Ochs, mentions and eulogizes Till.
• "My Name is Emmett Till" (2013), from Hard Bargain, the twenty-sixth studio album by Emmylou Harris.
• "Emmett's Ghost" (2021), written and recorded by American blues singer Eric Bibb.

On screen

• August 28: A Day in the Life of a People (2016), an anthology film depicting six significant events in African-American history which happened on the same date, August 28. The Smithsonian National Museum of African American History and Culture commissioned Ava DuVernay to create the film which debuted at the museum's opening on September 24, 2016. Events depicted include (among others) Till's lynching.
• My Nephew Emmett (2017), a short film which dramatizes Till's uncle Mose Wright waiting for Till's killers. The film was nominated for the Oscar for best live action short, 2018.
• Lovecraft Country (2020), a science-fiction television series by HBO which features a fictionalized version of Till, portrayed by Rhyan Hill, as a recurring character who appears in 2 episodes. The episode "Jig-A-Bobo" recreates Till's funeral in Chicago.
• Women of the Movement (2022), a television series which dramatizes Till's life and his mother's activism after his murder.
• Till (2022), a film based on the life of Emmett's mother Mamie Till-Bradley, featuring her life as educator and later activist after his murder.

Other

• "Emmett Till" (1991), a poem by James Emanuel.
• Wolf Whistle (1993), a book by Lewis Nordan.
• Mississippi Trial, 1955 (2003), a juvenile fiction novel by Chris Crowe.
• The State of Mississippi and the Face of Emmett Till (2005), a dramatic play by David Barr.
• A Wreath for Emmett Till (2005), a poem by Marilyn Nelson.
• The Sacred Place (2007), a novel by Daniel Black
• Musical: The Ballad of Emmett Till (2008) by Ifa Bayeza
• Anne and Emmett (2009), a dramatic play by Janet Langhart. An imaginary conversation between Till and Anne Frank, both killed as young teenagers because of racial persecution, the play features recorded narration by Morgan Freeman.
• Gathering of Waters (2012), a fiction novel by Bernice L. McFadden which depicts Till as a spirit which returns to the town of Money to reunite with his first love.
• Emmett Till: How She Sent Him and How She Got Him Back (2012), a painting by Lisa Whittington which is on display at the Mississippi Civil Rights Museum.
• Open Casket (2016), a painting by Dana Schutz which sparked protests and controversy when it was unveiled.
• Ghost Boys (2018), a juvenile novel by Jewell Parker Rhodes which follows the murder of a young black boy and who returns as a ghost, with Till also being another ghost who appears.
• The Trees (2021) by Percival Everett, a novel set predominantly in the small town of Money, Mississippi, follows a series of modern-day murders that seem to follow identical patterns and have links to the families of the murderers of Emmett Till.

Gallery

• Emmett Till Historic Intrepid Center housed in the old cotton gin of Glendora, Mississippi.
• Glendora Gin history sign. Here Milam and Bryant got the fan they used to weigh down Till's body, to sink it in the Tallahatchie River.
• Sign identifying the site of Milam's house, near Glendora Gin.
• Clinton Melton was the victim of a racially motivated killing a few months after Till. Despite eyewitness testimony, his killer, a friend of Milam's, was acquitted by an all-white jury at the same courthouse.
• The reconstructed Ben Roy Service Station that stood next to the grocery store where Till encountered Bryant in Money, Mississippi, 2019
• Bryant's Grocery (2018). By 2018, the store was described as "not much left" and given owner's demands, no preservation occurred.

See also

• 1920 Duluth lynchings
• Louis Allen
• Joe Pullen
• Scottsboro Boys
• George Stinney
• Ossian Sweet
• Isaac Woodard

Notes

1. At the time of Emmett's murder in 1955, Emmett's mother was often referred to as Mamie Till Bradley, using her second husband's surname. In 1957, she married Gene Mobley and then became known as Mamie Till Mobley.
2. Accounts are unclear; Till had just completed the seventh grade at the all-black McCosh Elementary School in Chicago. In 2018, a Chicago woman reported that she had been one of a small number of white students in Till's class. According to Mamie Till Mobley, Till had purchased a wallet which included a stock photo of actress Hedy Lamarr.
3. Simeon Wright, Mamie Till Mobley, Wheeler Parker, and historian Devery Anderson (2015) stated that Jones exaggerated his role as an eyewitness: he was in the Wright home the night Till was abducted, but had not yet arrived in Mississippi at the time of the store incident.
4. During trial, Carolyn Bryant's testimony was taken outside the presence of the jury and ruled inadmissible. ("Emmett Till: US reopens investigation into killing, citing new information". The Guardian. Associated Press. Event occurs at July 12, 2018.)
5. Notes later obtained from the defense give a different story, with Bryant earlier claiming she was "insulted" but not mentioning him touching her. (Mitchell, Jerry (September 4, 2017). "Emmett Till eyewitness dies; saw 1955 abduction of his cousin". Chicago Sun-Times. USA Today. Retrieved July 13, 2018.)
6. Unserved arrest warrant, not formally charged
7. Bryant and Milam admitted to the murder in an interview after their acquittal.
8. Some recollections of this part of the story relate that news of the incident traveled in both black and white communities very quickly. Others say that Carolyn Bryant refused to tell her husband about it. According to some accounts, Till's eldest cousin Maurice Wright, perhaps put off by Till's bragging and smart clothes, told Roy Bryant at his store about Till's interaction with Bryant's wife.
9. Several major inconsistencies between what Bryant and Milam told interviewer William Bradford Huie and what they had told others were noted by the FBI in 2006. The pair of men told Huie they were sober, yet reported years later that they had been drinking. In the interview, they said they had driven what would have been 164 miles (264 km) looking for a place to dispose of Till's body, to the cotton gin to obtain the fan, and back again, which the FBI noted would have been impossible in the time available before they were seen to have returned. Several witnesses recalled that they saw Bryant, Milam, and two or more black men with Till's beaten body in the back of the pickup truck in Glendora, yet they did not tell Huie they were in Glendora. (FBI, , pp. 86–96.)
10. Many years later, there were allegations that Till had been castrated. (Mitchell, 2007) John Cothran, the deputy sheriff who was at the scene where Till was removed from the river testified, however, that apart from the decomposition typical of a body being submerged in water, his genitals had been intact. (FBI : Appendix Court transcript, p. 176.) Mamie Till-Mobley also confirmed this in her memoirs. (Till-Bradley and Benson, p. 135.)
11. When Jet publisher John H. Johnson died in 2005, people who remembered his career considered his decision to publish Till's open-casket photograph his greatest moment. Michigan congressman Charles Diggs recalled that for the emotion the image stimulated, it was "probably one of the greatest media products in the last 40 or 50 years". (Dewan, 2005)
12. Following the trial, Strider told a television reporter that should anyone who had sent him hate mail arrive in Mississippi, "the same thing's gonna happen to them that happened to Emmett Till".
13. The trial transcript says "There he is", although witnesses recall variations of "Dar he", "Thar he", or "Thar's the one". Wright's family protested that Mose Wright was made to sound illiterate by newspaper accounts and insisted he said "There he is." (Mitchell, 2007)
14. Note: Blacks were generally excluded from juries because they were disenfranchised; jurors were drawn only from registered voters.
15. A month after Huie's article appeared in Look, T. R. M. Howard worked with Olive Arnold Adams of The New York Age to publish a version of the events that agreed more with the testimony at the trial and what Howard had been told by Frank Young. It appeared as a booklet titled Time Bomb: Mississippi Exposed and the Full Story of Emmett Till. Howard also acted as a source for an as-yet-unidentified reporter using the pseudonym Amos Dixon in the California Eagle. Dixon wrote a series of articles implicating three black men, and Leslie Milam, whom he reported had participated in Till's murder in some way. Time Bomb and Dixon's articles had no lasting effect in the shaping of public opinion. Huie's article in the far more widely circulated Look became the most commonly accepted version of events.

References

1. Thompson, Wright (July 22, 2021). "His name was Emmett Till". The Atlantic. Retrieved July 24, 2021.
2. Brown, DeNeen L. (July 12, 2018). "Emmett Till's mother opened his casket and sparked the civil rights movement". The Washington Post. Retrieved February 26, 2020.
3. ^ Pérez-Peña, Richard (January 27, 2017). "Woman Linked to 1955 Emmett Till Murder Tells Historian Her Claims Were False". The New York Times. Retrieved February 17, 2017.
4. ^ Brandon, Elissaveta M. "Eleven historic places in America that desperately need saving". Smithsonian. Retrieved October 20, 2020.
5. White, Deborah Gray; Bay, Mia; Martin, Waldo E. Jr. (2013). Freedom on My Mind: A History of African Americans, with Documents. Boston: Bedford/St. Martin's. p. 637. ISBN 978-0-312-64884-8.
6. "Getting Away with Murder". American Experience. PBS. Retrieved April 9, 2022.
7. McDaniel, Eric; Moore, Elena (March 29, 2022). "Lynching is now a federal hate crime after a century of blocked efforts". NPR. Retrieved March 29, 2022.
8. Whitfield 1991, p. 15.
9. ^ Beito & Beito 2009, p. 126.
10. Whitaker (1963), p. 19.
11. Till-Mobley & Benson 2003, pp. 41–42.
12. Till-Mobley & Benson 2003, p. 17.
13. ^ Houck and Grindy, pp. 134–135.
14. Till-Mobley & Benson 2003, pp. 36–38.
15. Till-Mobley & Benson 2003, pp. 56–58.
16. Vivanco, Leonor (November 13, 2017). "Group pushes landmark status for Emmett Till's Woodlawn home, nearby school". Chicago Tribune. Retrieved January 30, 2018.
17. Till-Mobley & Benson 2003, pp. 59–60.
18. Younge, Gary (June 5, 2005). "Justice at last?". The Guardian.
19. Till-Mobley & Benson 2003, pp. 70–87.
20. Federal Bureau of Investigation 2006, p. 6.
21. Hampton 1990, p. 2.
22. Till-Mobley & Benson 2003, pp. 98–101.
23. Whitfield 1991, p. 5.
24. Whitaker, High Steven. "A Case Study in Southern Justice: The Emmett Till Case". Florida State University. Retrieved July 3, 2022. PDF p.26, 39, 56
25. Whitaker (1963), pp. 2–10.
26. Whitaker (1963), pp. 61–82.
27. Federal Bureau of Investigation 2006, p. 18.
28. ^ Hampton 1990, p. 3.
29. ^ Huie, William Bradford (January 1956). "The Shocking Story of Approved Killing in Mississippi". Look. Archived from the original on April 22, 2020.
30. Whitfield 1991, p. 17.
31. Mitchell, Jerry (August 28, 2018). "Emmett Till mystery: Who is the white girl in his photo?". Mississippi Clarion-Ledger.
32. Till-Mobley & Benson 2003.
33. ^ Benson, Christopher (December 18, 2009). "Eyewitness Account: Emmett Till's cousin Simeon Wright seeks to set the record straight". Chicago. Retrieved July 13, 2018.
34. Kim, Michelle (April 27, 2015). "Emmett Till's cousin gives eyewitness account of relative's death, says little has changed". The Daily Northwestern. Retrieved June 25, 2017.
35. ^ Federal Bureau of Investigation 2006, p. 44.
36. ^ Wright, Simeon (2010). Simeon's Story: An Eyewitness Account of the Kidnapping of Emmett Till. Chicago: Lawrence Hill Books. ISBN 978-1-55652-783-8.
37. Jones, Chris (September 9, 1999). "Emmett Till Isn't Just a Symbol of the Civil Rights Movement". Chicago Tribune. Archived from the original on December 13, 2022.
38. Parker, Wheeler; Benson, Chris (2023). A Few Days Full of Trouble: revelations on the journey to justice for my cousin and best friend, Emmett Till. New York: One World. ISBN 9780593134269.
39. "Kin Tell How Murdered Boy Was Abducted". Chicago Tribune. September 3, 1955. p. 11 – via Newspapers.com.
40. Timeline: The Murder of Emmett Till, PBS, accessed January 27, 2014.
41. Wright, pp. 50–51.
42. Metress, p. 20.
43. Whitfield 1991, p. 18.
44. ^ Jones, Chris (May 4, 2008). "'Ballad of Emmett Till' comes to stage at a momentous time". Chicago Tribune. Retrieved June 21, 2017. Emmett, she said, had a speech impediment. She'd taught him to whistle softly to himself before pronouncing his words, in order to help with his articulation. He'd been ordering bubble gum in the store. Till-Mobley was convinced he'd merely been trying to do so with clarity.
45. Hales, Dianne (2011). Of War and Men: World War II in the Lives of Fathers and Their Families. University of Chicago Press. p. 170. ISBN 978-0-226-47002-3. Retrieved June 21, 2017. Some claimed that Till had made 'indecent advances' and wolf-whistled at a white woman, Carolyn Bryant, whose family owned the store. Emmett Till's mother, Mamie Till-Mobley, however, rejected this assertion, saying that her son sometimes whistled when he got stuck pronouncing a word (she gave, as an example, bubblegum.)
46. ^ Federal Bureau of Investigation 2006, p. 40.
47. ^ Whitaker, Stephen (Summer 2005). "A Case Study in Southern Justice: The Murder and Trial of Emmett Till", (PDF) Rhetoric & Public Affairs 8 (2), pp. 189–224.
48. Blakemore, Erin (February 3, 2017). "What the Director of the African American History Museum Says About the New Emmett Till Revelations". smithsonianmag.com. Retrieved February 6, 2017.
49. "Emmett Till accuser admits to giving false testimony at murder trial: book". Chicago Tribune. Associated Press. Retrieved February 6, 2017.
50. ^ Tyson, Timothy B. (2017). The Blood of Emmett Till. New York: Simon & Schuster. p. 221. ISBN 978-1-4767-1486-8. Carolyn Bryant Donham, interview with the author, Raleigh, NC, September 8, 2008.
51. Phillips, Kristine (July 12, 2018). "New details in book about Emmett Till's death prompted officials to reopen investigation". The Washington Post. Retrieved July 13, 2018.
52. Weller, Shelia (January 26, 2017). "How Author Timothy Tyson Found the Woman at the Center of the Emmett Till Case". Vanity Fair. Retrieved July 13, 2018.
53. Carroll, Rory (January 27, 2017). "Woman at center of Emmett Till case tells author she fabricated testimony". The Guardian. Retrieved July 13, 2018.
54. ^ Mitchell, Jerry (August 21, 2018). "Bombshell quote missing from Emmett Till tape. So did Carolyn Bryant Donham really recant?". Mississippi Clarion Ledger.
55. Mitchell, Jerry (December 10, 2021). "Carolyn Bryant lied about Emmett Till. Did author Tim Tyson lie, too?". Mississippi Center for Investigative Reporting.
56. ^ Linder, Douglas (2012). "The Emmett Till Murder Trial: An Account". University of Missouri-Kansas City. Retrieved January 28, 2014.
57. ^ Anderson, Devery (August 29, 2018). "'She lied. He died.' Not so fast, says Emmett Till expert". Retrieved September 19, 2020.
58. Anderson (2015)
59. Federal Bureau of Investigation 2006, p. 46.
60. Full Interview with Timothy Tyson, Author of The Blood of Emmett Till. Matter of Fact TV. February 11, 2017. Event occurs at 8:40. Retrieved July 13, 2018.
61. Mitchell, Jerry (February 6, 2017). "Could lies about Emmett Till lead to prosecution?". Clarion Ledger. Retrieved July 13, 2018.
62. "The Lesson of Emmett Till Has Been Ignored for Decades". Rolling Stone. July 13, 2018.
63. "Emmett Till's family calls for justice after finding an unserved arrest warrant in his case". CNN. June 30, 2022.
64. Shostak, David A. (1974). "Crosby Smith: Forgotten Witness to a Mississippi Nightmare". Negro History Bulletin. 38 (1): 320–325. ISSN 0028-2529. JSTOR 44175622.
65. Curry, George E. (August 1995). "Killed for Whistling at a White Woman". Emerge. pp. 24–32 – via FSU Digital Library.
66. Whitfield 1991, p. 19.
67. Federal Bureau of Investigation 2006, pp. 47–49.
68. Till-Mobley & Benson 2003, p. 107.
69. Federal Bureau of Investigation 2006, pp. 51–56.
70. Nix, Naomi (July 24, 2013). "Willie Louis dies at 76; witness to 1955 murder of Emmett Till". Los Angeles Times. Retrieved February 6, 2017.
71. Barry, Ellen (May 18, 2004). "Counting on Time to Break a Silence". Los Angeles Times. Archived from the original on September 3, 2015.
72. Barry, Ellen (August 19, 2005). "Son thinks dad needs to clear conscience in Till case". Chicago Tribune. Retrieved February 6, 2017.
73. "Black Bayou Bridge, Glendora – Emmett Till Memory Project". tillmemoryproject.com. Archived from the original on February 3, 2017. Retrieved February 6, 2017.
74. Federal Bureau of Investigation 2006, pp. 55–57.
75. Hampton 1990, p. 4.
76. Whitfield 1991, p. 21.
77. Federal Bureau of Investigation 2006, p. 68.
78. ^ Hampton 1990, p. 6.
79. Federal Bureau of Investigation 2006, pp. 69–79.
80. Houck and Grindy, p. 6.
81. Houck and Grindy, pp. 19–21.
82. Hampton 1990, p. 5.
83. Federal Bureau of Investigation 2006, pp. 80–81.
84. Beito & Beito 2009, p. 118.
85. Whitfield 1991, pp. 23–26.
86. Metress, pp. 16–20.
87. Houck and Grindy, pp. 22–24.
88. Till-Mobley & Benson 2003, p. 132.
89. Whitfield 1991, p. 23.
90. "100 Photos: Emmett Till". Time. Archived from the original on November 19, 2016. Retrieved June 25, 2017.
91. Nodjimbadem, Katie (September 2, 2015). "Emmett Till's Open Casket Funeral Reignited the Civil Rights Movement". Smithsonian. Retrieved July 14, 2018.
92. Houck and Grindy, p. 29.
93. Houck and Grindy, pp. 31–37.
94. ^ Whitfield 1991, pp. 28–30.
95. Whitaker (1963), pp. 21–22.
96. Beito & Beito 2009, p. 119.
97. Whitfield 1991, p. 44.
98. Whitfield 1991, p. 34.
99. ^ Dewan, Shaila (August 28, 2005). "How Photos Became Icon of Civil Rights Movement". The New York Times. Retrieved October 5, 2010.
100. Beito & Beito 2009, pp. 121–122.
101. Whitfield 1991, p. 38.
102. Beito & Beito 2009, p. 122.
103. Hampton 1990, pp. 10–11.
104. Whitfield 1991, p. image spread p. 6.
105. Till-Mobley & Benson 2003, p. image spread p. 12.
106. Although "uncle" was a demeaning form of address for any older black man, Wright was in fact Till's great uncle.
107. "Brave Testimony". WBGH American Experience. PBS. Retrieved November 8, 2021.
108. Hampton 1990, p. 11.
109. Whitfield 1991, p. 39.
110. ^ Mitchell, Jerry (February 19, 2007). "Re-examining Emmett Till case could help separate fact, fiction". USA Today. Retrieved October 1, 2010. (Originally published in the Jackson Clarion-Ledger.)
111. ^ Beito & Beito 2009, pp. 124–126.
112. Whitfield 1991, p. 40.
113. Houck, Davis (August 29, 2018). "Unique defense helped Emmett Till's killers get away with murder". The Clarion-Ledger. Retrieved October 1, 2022.
114. ^ Weller, Sheila (January 26, 2017). "How Author Timothy Tyson Found the Woman at the Center of the Emmett Till Case". Vanity Fair.
115. ^ Beito & Beito 2009, p. 127.
116. "Timeline: The Murder of Emmett Till". American Experience. PBS. Retrieved November 8, 2021.
117. Whitfield 1991, pp. 41–42.
118. ^ Rubin, Richard (July 21, 2005). "The Ghosts of Emmett Till". The New York Times Magazine. Retrieved October 3, 2010.
119. Beito & Beito 2009, p. 128.
120. Whitfield 1991, pp. 48–49.
121. Fox, Margalit. "Willie Louis, Who Named the Killers of Emmett Till at Their Trial, Dies at 76". The New York Times. Retrieved July 24, 2013.
122. Whitfield 1991, pp. 46–47.
123. Whitfield 1991, p. 117.
124. McGowan, Amanda (November 16, 2016). "The Brutal Murder Of Emmett Till Has Been Burned Into History. But What About The Fate Of His Father?". News-WGBH. Retrieved July 14, 2018.
125. ^ Buckley, Gail Lumet (December 14, 2016). "The Eerie Tragedy of Emmett Till's Father, Told by John Edgar Wideman". The New York Times. Archived from the original on October 15, 2022.
126. Wideman, John Edgar. Writing to Save a Life. p. 21.
127. Wideman, John (October 19, 2016). "A Black and White Case". Esquire. Retrieved June 6, 2017.
128. Wideman, John Edgar. Writing to Save a Life. p. 163.
129. ^ Whitfield 1991, p. 68.
130. Whitfield 1991, p. 52.
131. ^ Beito & Beito 2009, pp. 150–151.
132. ^ "Clinton Melton: A Man Who Was Killed In Mississippi Just 3 Months After Emmett Till". NPR. August 27, 2020. Retrieved August 28, 2020.
133. Hampton 1990, pp. 13–14.
134. ^ Anderson, Devery (February 27, 2014). "Widow of Emmett Till killer dies quietly, notoriously". USA Today.
135. Whitaker, 2005
136. Atiks, Joe (August 25, 1985). "Emmett Till: More Than A Murder". The Clarion-Ledger. Retrieved July 16, 2013 – via "US Slave" blog.
137. Federal Bureau of Investigation 2006, pp. 24–26.
138. Till-Mobley & Benson 2003, p. 261.
139. Bradley, Ed (2005). "60 Minutes Story on Emmett Till Targets Carolyn Bryant". George Mason University's History News Network. Archived from the original on January 2, 2013. Retrieved December 22, 2012.
140. Segall, Rebecca; Holmberg, David (February 3, 2003). "Who Killed Emmett Till?". The Nation. Vol. 276, no. 4. pp. 37–40. Archived from the original on February 21, 2017. Retrieved January 4, 2020.
141. U.S. Department of Justice (May 10, 2004). "Justice Department to Investigate 1955 Emmett Till Murder". Press release. Retrieved October 5, 2010.
142. Federal Bureau of Investigation 2006, pp. 99–109.
143. Breed, Allen (March 3, 2007). "End of Till case draws mixed response". The Boston Globe. Associated Press. Retrieved October 6, 2010.
144. "Emmett Till: new memorial to murdered teen is bulletproof". The Guardian. Retrieved November 1, 2019.
145. Haag, Matthew (August 6, 2018). "Emmett Till Sign Is Hit With Bullets Again, 35 Days After Being Replaced". The New York Times.
146. Preuss, Andreas (October 22, 2016). "Emmett Till memorial sign scarred by bullet holes". CNN. Retrieved October 23, 2016.
147. ^ Mitchell, Jerry (July 25, 2019). "University of Mississippi Students Face Possible Civil Rights Investigation After Posing With Guns in Front of Emmett Till Memorial". ProPublica. Retrieved July 25, 2019.
148. Ortiz, Aimee (October 20, 2019). "Emmett Till Memorial Has a New Sign. This Time, It's Bulletproof". The New York Times.
149. Full Interview with Timothy Tyson, Author of The Blood of Emmett Till. Matter of Fact TV. February 11, 2017. Event occurs at 3:10. Retrieved July 14, 2018.
150. ^ "Historian Recalls Moment Emmett Till's Accuser Admitted She Lied". CBS News. January 31, 2017.
151. Mitchell, Jerry (July 12, 2018). "Emmett Till case reinvestigated, but what does that really mean?". Clarion Ledger. Retrieved July 14, 2018.
152. The Editorial Board (February 6, 2017). "Black Lives, White Lies and Emmett Till". The New York Times. ISSN 0362-4331. Retrieved February 7, 2017.
153. Pérez-Peña, Richard (January 29, 2017). "Woman Linked to Emmett Till Murder Tells Historian Her Claims Were False". The New York Times. Archived from the original on February 9, 2023. Retrieved February 27, 2022.
154. "Emmett Till: US reopens investigation into killing, citing new information". The Guardian. Associated Press. Event occurs at July 12, 2018.
155. Reeves, Jay (July 12, 2018). "Government probing "new information" in Emmett Till slaying". Associated Press. Archived from the original on July 12, 2018. Retrieved July 12, 2018.
156. Laura, Jarrett (December 6, 2021). "Justice Department closes investigation into Emmett Till killing". CNN. Retrieved December 6, 2021.
157. "Federal Officials Close Cold Case Re-Investigation of Murder of Emmett Till". U.S. Department of Justice (Press release). December 6, 2021. Retrieved December 6, 2021.
158. Sidner, Sara; Burnside, Tina; Andone, Dakin (July 1, 2022). "Emmett Till's family calls for justice after finding an unserved arrest warrant in his case". CNN.
159. Timothy Bella; DeNeen L. Brown (June 30, 2022). "Emmett Till's family calls for woman's arrest after finding 1955 warrant". The Washington Post. Washington, D.C. ISSN 0190-8286. OCLC 1330888409.
160. "Emmett Till's family wants woman arrested after warrant unearthed 67 years later". NBC News. June 30, 2022.
161. "Mississippi AG: No prosecution plan in Emmett Till lynching". AP News. July 15, 2022. Retrieved July 17, 2022.
162. "Black Mississippi Leaders Must Demand Justice for the Murder of Emmett till". July 11, 2022.
163. Franklin, Jonathan (July 9, 2022). "Emmett Till's family urges for woman's arrest after discovery of a warrant found". NPR. Retrieved July 17, 2022.
164. Rojas, Rick (August 9, 2022). "Mississippi Grand Jury Declines to Indict Woman in Emmett till Murder Case". The New York Times.
165. "Christmas parade canceled due to threats against protesters calling for justice for Emmett Till". ABC News. December 3, 2022. Retrieved December 5, 2022.
166. Patton, Stacey. "EXCLUSIVE: Carolyn Bryant Donham's Unpublished Memoir Surfaces: 'I Always Felt Like a Victim'". Newsone.
167. Gallagher, Dianne; Smart, Sara (April 27, 2023). "Woman whose accusation led to the lynching of Emmett Till has died at 88, coroner says". CNN. Retrieved April 27, 2023.
168. Langer, Emily (April 27, 2023). "Carolyn Bryant, elusive accuser in the lynching of Emmett Till, dies at 88". Washington Post. ISSN 0190-8286. Retrieved April 27, 2023.
169. Carson et al. 1991, pp. 39–40.
170. ^ Whitfield 1991, p. 60.
171. Till-Mobley & Benson 2003, pp. 191–196.
172. Beito & Beito 2009, p. 130.
173. "Who, what, why: Who was Emmett Till?". BBC News. July 23, 2013. Retrieved June 26, 2017.
174. Houck and Grindy, p. x.
175. Carson et al. 1991, p. 107.
176. Hampton 1990, p. 321.
177. Gorn, pp. 76–77.
178. Whitfield 1991, p. 62.
179. Carson et al. 1991, pp. 177–178.
180. Francisco, Jamie (August 29, 2005). "Need to heal marks brutal anniversary". Chicago Tribune. Retrieved January 30, 2018.
181. "Civil Rights Memorial". Southern Poverty Law Center. Retrieved October 12, 2010.
182. "The 40 Who Fell in the Turbulence Of the U.S. Battles for Civil Rights". The New York Times. AP. November 4, 1989. ISSN 0362-4331. Retrieved May 2, 2021.
183. Till-Mobley & Benson 2003, pp. 259–260, 268.
184. Lynch, La Risa R. (March 1, 2006). "South Side School Named for Emmett Till". Chicago Citizen. Archived from the original on May 18, 2013.
185. Houck and Grindy, p. 4.
186. ^ "Emmett Till Interpretive Center". emmett-till.org.
187. "Resolution Presented to Emmett Till's Family". Emmett Till Memorial Committee -Tallahatchie County. October 2, 2007. Archived from the original on July 29, 2012. Retrieved October 6, 2010.
188. H.R. 923: Emmett Till Unsolved Civil Rights Crime Act of 2007, govtrack.us (2007–2008). Retrieved on September 8, 2009.
189. ^ Epstein, Kayla (October 19, 2019). "This Emmett Till memorial was vandalized again. And again. And again. Now, it's bulletproof". The Washington Post. Archived from the original on October 21, 2019. Retrieved October 20, 2019.
190. ^ Levenson, Eric (October 19, 2019). "Emmett Till memorial sign in Mississippi is now protected by bulletproof glass". CNN. Nicole Chavez, Martin Savidge and Devon M. Sayers. Retrieved October 20, 2019.
191. Ortiz, Aimee (October 20, 2019). "Emmett Till Memorial Has a New Sign. This Time, It's Bulletproof". The New York Times. Retrieved November 3, 2019.
192. Pitton, Ashton (November 2, 2019). "White Supremacists Caught at Emmett Till Memorial Making Propaganda Film". Jackson Free Press. Retrieved November 3, 2019.
193. Madani, Doha (November 3, 2019). "White nationalists caught trying to record video in front of Emmett Till memorial". NBC News. Retrieved November 3, 2019.
194. Miller, Maya (August 26, 2015). "Till Interpretive Center Seeks to Rewrite Civil Rights Narrative". Jackson Free Press.
195. Chavez, Nicole; Savidge, Martin; Sayers, Devon M. (July 27, 2019). "The Emmett Till memorial where the frat students posed is gone. A bulletproof sign will replace it soon". CNN. Retrieved July 28, 2019.
196. Weeks, Linton (August 24, 2015). "The Creation Of An Emmett Till Archive". NPR.org. Retrieved October 2, 2017.
197. "LibGuides: Emmett Till Archives: Home". guides.lib.fsu.edu. Retrieved July 15, 2018.
198. Goddard, Jacqui (January 13, 2022). "US honours Emmett Till and his mother". The Times. ISSN 0140-0460. Retrieved January 13, 2022.
199. Rush, Bobby L. (March 26, 2021). "All Info – H.R.2252 – 117th Congress (2021–2022): Emmett Till and Mamie Till-Mobley Congressional Gold Medal Act of 2021". Congress.gov. Retrieved January 13, 2022.
200. Heyward, Giulia (December 24, 2022). "Emmett Till and his mother honored with the Congressional Gold Medal". NPR. Retrieved December 31, 2022.
201. Alvarado, Briana (October 22, 2022). "Mississippi city of Greenwood unveils Emmett Till memorial statue". ABC News.
202. "A statue of Emmett Till is unveiled in Mississippi". NPR. October 22, 2022.
203. "A Proclamation on Establishment of the Emmett Till and Mamie Till-Mobley National Monument". The White House. July 25, 2023. Retrieved July 25, 2023.
204. Miller, Maya (July 25, 2023). "Biden to designate a national monument honoring Emmett Till and his mother". NPR. Retrieved July 25, 2023.
205. Sprunt, Barbara; Kim, Juliana (July 25, 2023). "Biden designates a national monument honoring Emmett Till and his mother". NPR. Retrieved July 25, 2023.
206. ^ Trescott, Jacqueline (August 27, 2009). "Emmett Till's Casket Donated to the Smithsonian". The Washington Post. Retrieved October 6, 2010.
207. James, Frank (July 10, 2009). "Emmett Till's Casket Discarded By Chicago-Area Grave Workers". NPR. Retrieved February 5, 2022.
208. "Authorities discover original casket of Emmett Till". CNN. July 10, 2009. Archived from the original on September 13, 2009.
209. Metress, Christopher (2003). "Langston Hughes's "Mississippi-1955": A Note on Revisions and an Appeal for Reconsideration". African American Review. 37 (1): 139–148. doi:10.2307/1512366. JSTOR 1512366. S2CID 159160763.
210. Whitfield 1991, pp. 83–84.
211. ^ Metress, Christopher (2003). ""No Justice, No Peace": The Figure of Emmett till in African American Literature". MELUS. 28 (1): 87–103. doi:10.2307/3595247. JSTOR 3595247.
212. Carson et al. 1991, pp. 41–43.
213. Wheeler, Leigh Ann (October 5, 2018). "'Coming of Age in Mississippi' still speaks to nation's racial discord, 50 years later". The Conversation. Retrieved September 22, 2023.
214. Morrison, Toni. Song of Solomon. pp. 80–82.
215. Whitfield 1991, pp. 119–120.
216. Wachtel, Eleanor (February 25, 2022). "Percival Everett's The Trees imagines a world where the horrors of lynching are avenged". CBC News. CBC. Retrieved April 20, 2024.
217. Bell, Carol V. (September 22, 2021). "Percival Everett's "The Trees" Review". NPR. National Public Radio. Retrieved April 20, 2024.
218. Smith, Roberta (March 27, 2017). "Should Art That Infuriates Be Removed?". The New York Times. ISSN 0362-4331. Retrieved March 28, 2017.
219. Samuels, Rich. "'The Murder and the Movement': The Emmett Tilll Story".
220. "The Murder of Emmett Till | American Experience | PBS". www.pbs.org.
221. Documentary website (October 15, 2019)
222. "Awakenings (1954–1956)" (PDF). PBS.org. Archived (PDF) from the original on October 21, 2019. Retrieved September 28, 2021.
223. "Ballad of Emmett Till Released by Record Firm". The Carolina Times. December 31, 1955. p. 1. Retrieved April 19, 2019 – via North Carolina Newspapers.
224. "Red River Dave – The Ballad Of Emmitt Till" – via www.45cat.com.
225. Watson, Bruce (June 10, 2010). Freedom Summer: The Savage Season of 1964 That Made Mississippi Burn and Made America a Democracy. Penguin. ISBN 9781101190180 – via Google Books.
226. Owen, Matt (July 23, 2021). "Eric Bibb pays tribute to Emmett Till in stripped-back new single, Emmett's Ghost". Guitar World. Retrieved July 23, 2021.
227. Davis, Rachaell (September 22, 2016). "Why Is August 28 So Special To Black People? Ava DuVernay Reveals All In New NMAAHC Film". Essence.
228. Taylor, Ella (February 12, 2018). "Reviewed: This Year's 5 Oscar-Nominated Live-Action Short Films". NPR. Retrieved February 12, 2018.
229. Specter, Emma (August 31, 2020). "Lovecraft Country's Latest Episode Featured a Brief, Heartbreaking Reference to Emmett Till". Vogue. Retrieved October 12, 2020.
230. Iannucci, Rebecca (October 21, 2021). "Women of the Movement: ABC Sets Premiere for Emmett Till Miniseries". TVLine. Retrieved October 22, 2021.
231. D'Alessandro, Anthony (July 23, 2021). "Danielle Deadwyler & Whoopi Goldberg Join Chinonye Chukwu's Orion Film Till". Deadline Hollywood. Archived from the original on July 26, 2021. Retrieved August 9, 2021.
232. "Wolf Whistle". Publishers Weekly. Retrieved September 7, 2020.
233. "Mississippi Trial, 1955 by Chris Crowe". PenguinRandomhouse.com.
234. "The Sacred Place by Daniel Black". Archived from the original on February 2, 2018 – via www.kirkusreviews.com.
235. Oxman, Steven (May 6, 2008). "The Ballad of Emmett Till". Variety. Retrieved February 2, 2018.
236. Courtland Milloy (June 14, 2009). "Courtland Milloy on the Debut of 'Anne and Emmett'". The Washington Post. Retrieved July 28, 2011. (subscription required)
237. Furchtgott-Roth, Diana. "Education policies fail brilliant young multi-instrumentalist". San Francisco Examiner. Archived from the original on June 5, 2012. Retrieved July 28, 2011.
238. Gathering of Waters – via www.akashicbooks.com.
239. Jayawardane, M. Neelika. "Abstracting the savaged body of Emmett Till". www.aljazeera.com. Retrieved June 3, 2019.
240. GHOST BOYS | Kirkus Reviews.
241. "Welcome to The Emmett Till Historic Intrepid Center (E.T.H.I.C. Museum)". Emmett Till Historic Intrepid Center. Retrieved August 30, 2019.
242. "Gas Station Will Be Restored In Memory Of Emmett Till". WOL News. August 1, 2011. Retrieved August 30, 2019.
243. Mitchell, Jerry (August 29, 2018). "'They just want history to die:' Owners demand $4 million for crumbling Emmett Till store". The Clarion Ledger. Retrieved August 30, 2019.

Bibliography

• Anderson, Devery S. (2015). Emmett Till: The Murder That Shocked the World and Propelled the Civil Rights Movement. Jackson, MS: University Press of Mississippi. ISBN 978-1-4968-0285-9. OCLC 904801152.
• Beito, David; Beito, Linda (2009). Black Maverick: T. R. M. Howard's Fight for Civil Rights and Economic Power. University of Illinois Press. ISBN 9780252034206. OCLC 244246562.
• Carson, Clayborne; Garrow, David; Gill, Gerald; Harding, Vincent; Hine, Darlene Clark, eds. (1991). Eyes on the Prize: Civil Rights Reader Documents, Speeches, and Firsthand Accounts from the Black Freedom Struggle 1954–1990. New York: Viking. ISBN 978-0-670-84217-9. OCLC 23767205.
• Federal Bureau of Investigation (February 9, 2006). Prosecutive Report of Investigation Concerning (Emmett Till) (Report). Retrieved January 4, 2024.
• Gorn, Elliott (1998). Muhammad Ali, The People's Champ. Urbana: University of Illinois Press. ISBN 978-0-252-06721-1. OCLC 32014469.
• Hampton, Henry (1990). Voices of Freedom: An Oral History of the Civil Rights Movement from the 1950s through the 1980s. New York: Bantam Books. ISBN 978-0-553-05734-8. OCLC 20628084.
• Houck, Davis; Grindy, Matthew (2008). Emmett Till and the Mississippi Press. University Press of Mississippi. ISBN 9781604733044. OCLC 317329290.
• Kolin, Philip C. (Summer 2008). "The Legacy of Emmett Till". Southern Quarterly. 45 (4): 6–8.
• Metress, Christopher (2002). The Lynching of Emmett Till: A Documentary Narrative. Charlottesville: University of Virginia Press. ISBN 978-0-8139-2122-8. OCLC 49225218.
• Till-Mobley, Mamie; Benson, Chris (2003). Death of Innocence: The Story of the Hate Crime That Changed America. New York: Random House. ISBN 1-4000-6117-2. OCLC 52208468.
• Tyson, Timothy B. (2017). The Blood of Emmett Till. New York: Simon & Schuster. ISBN 978-1-4767-1484-4. OCLC 949922865.
• Whitaker, Hugh Stephen (1963). A Case Study in Southern Justice: The Emmett Till Case (MA). Tallahassee, Florida: Florida State University. Retrieved October 15, 2019.
• Whitfield, Stephen (1991). A Death in the Delta: The story of Emmett Till. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press. ISBN 978-0-8018-4326-6. OCLC 23941005.
• Whitten, Ellen (2005). "Revisiting the Murder of Emmett Till". William Winter Institute for Racial Reconciliation. Archived from the original on October 21, 2019. Retrieved October 15, 2019.
• Wright, Simeon; Boyd, Herb (2010). Simeon's Story: An Eyewitness Account of the Kidnapping of Emmett Till. Chicago: Lawrence Hill Books. ISBN 978-1-55652-783-8. OCLC 558536178.

Further reading

• Anderson, Devery S. (July 2008). "A Wallet, a White Woman, and a Whistle: Fact and Fiction in Emmett Till's Encounter in Money, Mississippi". The Southern Quarterly (PDF).
• Burch, Audra D. S.; Shastri, Veda; Chaffee, Tim (February 20, 2019). "Emmett Till's Murder, and How America Remembers Its Darkest Moments". The New York Times.
• Houck, Davis W. (Summer 2005). "Killing Emmett". Rhetoric & Public Affairs. 8 (2): 225–262. doi:10.1353/rap.2005.0078. S2CID 201795757 – via Project MUSE.
• Huie, William Bradford (January 1957). "What's Happened to the Emmett Till Killers?". Look. Archived from the original on May 16, 2017. Retrieved February 25, 2019.
• Shastri, Veda; Burch, Audra D. S.; Chaffee, Tim; Fineman, Nicole (February 21, 2019). "Remembering Emmett Till: The Legacy of a Lynching". The New York Times.
• Shastri, Veda (February 22, 2019). "A Grocery, a Barn, a Bridge: Returning to the Scenes of a Hate Crime". The New York Times.
• The original 1955 Jet magazine with Emmett Till's murder story pp. 6–9, and Emmett Till's Legacy 50 Years Later" in Jet, 2005.
• NPR pieces on the Emmett Till murder
• Booknotes interview with Christopher Benson on Death of Innocence: The Story of the Hate Crime That Changed America, April 25, 2004.
• Testimony of Carolyn Bryant at trial of Roy Bryant and J. W. Milam

External links

• Emmett Till Archives Florida State University
• Documents regarding the Emmett Till Case Dwight D. Eisenhower Presidential Library
• Video interview with Mamie Till-Mobley Emmett Till's mother
• "Emmett Till Murder", Civil Rights Digital Library.
• Treading the Tightrope of Jim Crow: Emmett Till. The Rebellious Life of Mrs. Rosa Parks.
• 2006 FBI investigation and transcript of 1955 trial (464 pages)
• Emmett Till Interpretative Center
• Emmett Till Historic Intrepid Center
• Mamie Till Mobley Memorial Foundation
• Emmett Till Memory Project

v t e Civil rights movement (1954–1968)
Events (timeline)	Prior to 1954 Journey of Reconciliation Executive Order 9981 Murders of Harry and Harriette Moore Sweatt v. Painter (1950) McLaurin v. Oklahoma State Regents (1950) Baton Rouge bus boycott 1954–1959 Brown v. Board of Education Bolling v. Sharpe Briggs v. Elliott Davis v. Prince Edward County Gebhart v. Belton Sarah Keys v. Carolina Coach Company Emmett Till Montgomery bus boycott Browder v. Gayle Tallahassee bus boycott Mansfield school desegregation 1957 Prayer Pilgrimage for Freedom "Give Us the Ballot" Royal Ice Cream sit-in Little Rock Nine Cooper v. Aaron Civil Rights Act of 1957 Ministers' Manifesto Katz Drug Store sit-in Kissing Case Biloxi wade-ins 1960–1963 New Year's Day March Sit-in movement Greensboro sit-ins Nashville sit-ins Sibley Commission Atlanta sit-ins Savannah Protest Movement Greenville Eight Civil Rights Act of 1960 Ax Handle Saturday Gomillion v. Lightfoot Boynton v. Virginia University of Georgia desegregation riot Rock Hill sit-ins Robert F. Kennedy's Law Day Address Freedom Rides Anniston bombing Birmingham attack Garner v. Louisiana Albany Movement Cambridge movement University of Chicago sit-ins "Second Emancipation Proclamation" Meredith enrollment, Ole Miss riot Atlanta's Berlin Wall "Segregation now, segregation forever" Stand in the Schoolhouse Door 1963 Birmingham campaign Letter from Birmingham Jail Children's Crusade Birmingham riot 16th Street Baptist Church bombing John F. Kennedy's speech to the nation on Civil Rights Detroit Walk to Freedom March on Washington "I Have a Dream" Big Six St. Augustine movement 1964–1968 Twenty-fourth Amendment Chester school protests Bloody Tuesday 1964 Monson Motor Lodge protests Freedom Summer workers' murders Civil Rights Act of 1964 Heart of Atlanta Motel, Inc. v. United States Katzenbach v. McClung 1964–1965 Scripto strike 1965 Selma to Montgomery marches "How Long, Not Long" Voting Rights Act of 1965 Harper v. Virginia Board of Elections March Against Fear White House Conference on Civil Rights Chicago Freedom Movement/Chicago open housing movement Loving v. Virginia Memphis sanitation strike King assassination funeral riots Civil Rights Act of 1968 Poor People's Campaign Green v. County School Board of New Kent County Jones v. Alfred H. Mayer Co. 1968 Olympics Black Power salute
Activist groups	Alabama Christian Movement for Human Rights American Friends Service Committee Atlanta Negro Voters League Atlanta Student Movement Black Panther Party Brotherhood of Sleeping Car Porters Congress of Racial Equality (CORE) Committee for Freedom Now Committee on Appeal for Human Rights An Appeal for Human Rights Council for United Civil Rights Leadership Council of Federated Organizations Dallas County Voters League Deacons for Defense and Justice Georgia Council on Human Relations Highlander Folk School Leadership Conference on Civil and Human Rights Lowndes County Freedom Organization Mississippi Freedom Democratic Party Montgomery Improvement Association NAACP Youth Council Nashville Student Movement Nation of Islam Northern Student Movement National Council of Negro Women National Urban League Operation Breadbasket Regional Council of Negro Leadership Southern Christian Leadership Conference (SCLC) Southern Regional Council Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee (SNCC) The Freedom Singers United Auto Workers (UAW) Wednesdays in Mississippi Women's Political Council
Activists	Ralph Abernathy Victoria Gray Adams Zev Aelony Mathew Ahmann Muhammad Ali William G. Anderson Gwendolyn Armstrong Arnold Aronson Ella Baker James Baldwin Marion Barry Daisy Bates Harry Belafonte James Bevel Claude Black Gloria Blackwell Randolph Blackwell Unita Blackwell Ezell Blair Jr. Joanne Bland Julian Bond Joseph E. Boone William Holmes Borders Amelia Boynton Bruce Boynton Raylawni Branch Stanley Branche Ruby Bridges Aurelia Browder H. Rap Brown Ralph Bunche John H. Calhoun Guy Carawan Stokely Carmichael Johnnie Carr James Chaney J. L. Chestnut Shirley Chisholm Colia Lafayette Clark Ramsey Clark Septima Clark Xernona Clayton Eldridge Cleaver Kathleen Cleaver Josephine Dobbs Clement Charles E. Cobb Jr. Annie Lee Cooper Dorothy Cotton Claudette Colvin Vernon Dahmer Jonathan Daniels Abraham Lincoln Davis Angela Davis Joseph DeLaine Dave Dennis Annie Bell Robinson Devine John Wesley Dobbs Patricia Stephens Due Joseph Ellwanger Charles Evers Medgar Evers Myrlie Evers-Williams Chuck Fager James Farmer Walter Fauntroy James Forman Marie Foster Golden Frinks Andrew Goodman Robert Graetz Fred Gray Jack Greenberg Dick Gregory Lawrence Guyot Prathia Hall Fannie Lou Hamer Fred Hampton William E. Harbour Vincent Harding Dorothy Height Audrey Faye Hendricks Lola Hendricks Aaron Henry Oliver Hill Donald L. Hollowell James Hood Myles Horton Zilphia Horton T. R. M. Howard Ruby Hurley Cecil Ivory Jesse Jackson Jimmie Lee Jackson Richie Jean Jackson T. J. Jemison Esau Jenkins Barbara Rose Johns Vernon Johns Frank Minis Johnson Clarence Jones J. Charles Jones Matthew Jones Vernon Jordan Tom Kahn Clyde Kennard A. D. King C.B. King Coretta Scott King Martin Luther King Jr. Martin Luther King Sr. Bernard Lafayette James Lawson Bernard Lee Sanford R. Leigh Jim Letherer Stanley Levison John Lewis Viola Liuzzo Z. Alexander Looby Joseph Lowery Clara Luper Danny Lyon Malcolm X Mae Mallory Vivian Malone Bob Mants Thurgood Marshall Benjamin Mays Franklin McCain Charles McDew Ralph McGill Floyd McKissick Joseph McNeil James Meredith William Ming Jack Minnis Amzie Moore Cecil B. Moore Douglas E. Moore Harriette Moore Harry T. Moore Queen Mother Moore William Lewis Moore Irene Morgan Bob Moses William Moyer Elijah Muhammad Diane Nash Charles Neblett Huey P. Newton Edgar Nixon Jack O'Dell James Orange Rosa Parks James Peck Charles Person Homer Plessy Adam Clayton Powell Jr. Fay Bellamy Powell Rodney N. Powell Al Raby Lincoln Ragsdale A. Philip Randolph George Raymond George Raymond Jr. Bernice Johnson Reagon Cordell Reagon James Reeb Frederick D. Reese Walter Reuther Gloria Richardson David Richmond Bernice Robinson Jo Ann Robinson Angela Russell Bayard Rustin Bernie Sanders Michael Schwerner Bobby Seale Pete Seeger Cleveland Sellers Charles Sherrod Alexander D. Shimkin Fred Shuttlesworth Modjeska Monteith Simkins Glenn E. Smiley A. Maceo Smith Kelly Miller Smith Mary Louise Smith Maxine Smith Ruby Doris Smith-Robinson Charles Kenzie Steele Hank Thomas Dorothy Tillman A. P. Tureaud Hartman Turnbow Albert Turner C. T. Vivian A. T. Walden Wyatt Tee Walker Hollis Watkins Walter Francis White Roy Wilkins Hosea Williams Kale Williams Robert F. Williams Q. V. Williamson Andrew Young Whitney Young Sammy Younge Jr. Bob Zellner James Zwerg
By region	Omaha, Nebraska South Carolina
Movement songs	"Ain't Gonna Let Nobody Turn Me 'Round" "If You Miss Me at the Back of the Bus" "Kumbaya" "Keep Your Eyes on the Prize" "Oh, Freedom" "This Little Light of Mine" "We Shall Not Be Moved" "We Shall Overcome" "Woke Up This Morning (With My Mind Stayed On Freedom)"
Influences	Nonviolence Padayatra Sermon on the Mount Mahatma Gandhi Ahimsa Satyagraha The Kingdom of God Is Within You Frederick Douglass W. E. B. Du Bois Mary McLeod Bethune
Related	Jim Crow laws Lynching in the United States Plessy v. Ferguson Separate but equal Buchanan v. Warley Hocutt v. Wilson Sweatt v. Painter Hernandez v. Texas Loving v. Virginia African-American women in the movement Jews in the civil rights movement Fifth Circuit Four 16th Street Baptist Church Kelly Ingram Park A.G. Gaston Motel Bethel Baptist Church Brown Chapel Dexter Avenue Baptist Church Holt Street Baptist Church Edmund Pettus Bridge March on Washington Movement African-American churches attacked List of lynching victims in the United States Freedom Schools Freedom songs Spring Mobilization Committee to End the War in Vietnam "Beyond Vietnam: A Time to Break Silence" Voter Education Project 1960s counterculture African American founding fathers of the United States Eyes on the Prize
Legacy	In popular culture Birmingham Civil Rights Institute Birmingham Civil Rights National Monument Civil Rights Memorial Civil Rights Movement Archive Emmett Till and Mamie Till-Mobley National Monument Medgar and Myrlie Evers Home National Monument Freedom Rides Museum Freedom Riders National Monument King Center for Nonviolent Social Change Martin Luther King Jr. Day Martin Luther King Jr. Memorial other King memorials Mississippi Civil Rights Museum National Civil Rights Museum National Voting Rights Museum St. Augustine Foot Soldiers Monument Olympic Black Power Statue
Noted historians	Taylor Branch Clayborne Carson John Dittmer Michael Eric Dyson Chuck Fager Adam Fairclough David Garrow David Halberstam Vincent Harding Steven F. Lawson Doug McAdam Diane McWhorter Charles M. Payne Thomas E. Ricks Timothy Tyson Akinyele Umoja Movement photographers
Civil rights movement portal