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{{short description|Religious discipline of systematic defence of a position}}
'''Apologetics''' is the field of study concerned with the systematic defense of a position. Someone who engages in apologetics is called an '''apologist''' or an "apologete".
{{About|the systematic defence of a religious position|the Christian parody band|ApologetiX}}
The term comes from the ] word ''apologia'' (απολογία), meaning defense of a position against an attack. When ] entitled his spiritual autobiography '']'' in 1864, he was playing upon both connotations. Early uses of the term include ] (the defense speech of ] from his trial) and some works of early ] apologists, such as ]'s two ''Apologies'' addressed to the emperor ].
{{Redirect|Apologist|non-religious uses of ''apologetic'' and ''apologist''|Apology (disambiguation)}}
{{Rhetoric}}
'''Apologetics''' (from ] {{langx|grc|ἀπολογία|apología|speaking in defense|label=none}}) is the religious discipline of defending ]s through systematic ]ation and discourse.<ref name=":0">{{cite web |url=http://www.blueletterbible.org/lang/lexicon/lexicon.cfm?Strongs=G627 |title=ἀπολογία |work=Blue Letter Bible-Lexicon |access-date=19 September 2016}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/01618a.htm |title=Apologetics |website=The Advent |access-date=10 October 2024}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/apologetics |title=apologetics |website=] |access-date=5 October 2016}}</ref> ] (c. 120–220) who defended their beliefs against ] and recommended their ] to outsiders were called ].<ref>{{cite book |chapter=Apologists |editor1-last=Cross |editor1-first=F.&nbsp;L. |editor1-link=Frank Leslie Cross |title=The Oxford Dictionary of the Christian Church |location=New York |publisher=] |year=2005}}</ref> In 21st-century usage, ''apologetics'' is often identified with debates over ] and ].


==Etymology==
==Colloquial usage==
The term ''apologetics'' derives from the ] word {{Transliteration|grc|apologia}} ({{Lang|grc|ἀπολογία}}).<ref name=":0" /> In the Classical Greek legal system, the prosecution delivered the {{Transliteration|grc|kategoria}} ({{Lang|grc|κατηγορία}}), the accusation or charge, and the defendant replied with an ''{{Transliteration|grc|apologia}}'', the ].<ref>Henry George Liddell, Robert Scott, ''A Greek-English Lexicon'', and {{Dead link|date=February 2022 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref> The {{Transliteration|grc|apologia}} was a formal speech or explanation to reply to and rebut the charges. A famous example is ]' ] defense, as chronicled in ].
Today the term "apologist" is colloquially applied in a general manner to include groups and individuals systematically promoting causes, justifying orthodoxies, or denying certain events, even of crimes. Apologists have been characterized as being ], or "]ing" their cause, primarily through omission of negative facts (]) and exaggeration of positive ones, techniques of classical ]. When used in this context, the term often has a pejorative meaning. The neutralized substitution of "]" for "apologist" in conversation conveys much the same sense of "partisan presenter with a weighted agenda," with less rhetorical freight.


In the ] of the ], the ] employs the term ''apologia'' in his trial speech to ] and ] when he says "I make my defense" in ]:2.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.blueletterbible.org/kjv/act/26/2/s_1044002|title=Acts 26:2|date=19 September 2016|website=Blue Letter Bible}}</ref> A ] form appears in Paul's ] as he is "defending the gospel" in Philippians 1:7,<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.blueletterbible.org/kjv/phl/1/7/s_1104007|title=Phl 1:7|date=19 September 2016|website=Blue Letter Bible}}</ref> and in "giving an answer" in 1 Peter 3:15.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.blueletterbible.org/kjv/1pe/3/15/s_1154015|title=1Pe 3:15|date=19 September 2016|website=Blue Letter Bible}}</ref>
==Technical usages==
The term ''apologetics'' etymologically derives from the Classical Greek word ''apologia''. In Classical Greek legal system two key technical terms were employed: the prosecution delivered the ''kategoria'', and the defendant replied with an ''apologia''. To deliver an ''apologia'' then meant making a formal speech to reply and rebut the charges, as in the case of Socrates' defence.


Although the term ''apologetics'' has Western, primarily Christian origins and is most frequently associated with the defense of Christianity, the term is sometimes used referring to the defense of any religion in formal debate involving religion.
This Classical Greek term appears in the Koine (i.e. common) Greek of the New Testament. The ] employs the term ''apologia'' in his trial speech to ] and ] when he says "I make my defence" (] 26:2). A cognate term appears in Paul's letter to the ] as he is "defending the gospel" (1:7 & 17), and in ] 3:15 believers must be ready to give an "answer" for their faith. The word also appears in the negative in Rom. 1:20: unbelievers are αναπολόγητος (''anapologētos'') (without excuse / defence / apology) for rejecting the revelation of God in creation.


== Apologetic positions ==
The legal nuance of apologetics was reframed in a more specific sense to refer to the study of the defence of a doctrine or belief. In this context it most commonly refers to philosophical reconciliation. ] apologetics is the effort to show that the preferred faith is not irrational, that believing in it is not against human reason, and that in fact the religion contains values and promotes ways of life more in accord with human nature than other faiths or beliefs.


===Baháʼí Faith===
In the ] language, the word ''apology'' is derived from the Greek word ''apologia'', but its use has changed; its primary sense now refers to a defensive plea for forgiveness for an action that is open to blame. It is occasionally used to refer to a speech or writing that defends the author's position.
{{main article|Baháʼí apologetics}}
Many ] have been written in defence of the history or teachings of the ]. The religion's founders wrote several books presenting proofs of their religion; among them are the ]'s '']'' and ]'s '']''.<ref name="PSmith">{{cite encyclopedia |last= Smith |first= Peter |encyclopedia= A concise encyclopedia of the Bahá'í Faith |title= apologetics |year= 2000 |publisher= Oneworld Publications |location= Oxford |pages= |isbn= 1-85168-184-1 |url= https://archive.org/details/conciseencyclope0000smit/page/39 }}</ref> Later Baháʼí authors wrote prominent apologetic texts, such as ]'s ''The Brilliant Proof'' and ] et al.'s ''Making the Crooked Straight''.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://bahai-library.com/cannuyer_schaefer_desinformation|title=Making the Crooked Straight, by Udo Schaefer, Nicola Towfigh, and Ulrich Gollmer|work=bahai-library.com}}</ref>


===Buddhism===
== Intellectual and social function of religious apologetics ==
One of the earliest Buddhist apologetic texts is '']'', which deals with the Buddhist metaphysics such as ] and characteristics such as wisdom, perception, volition, feeling, consciousness and the soul. In the ] (1868-1912), encounters between Buddhists and Christians in ] as a result of increasing contact between ] may have prompted the formation of ],<ref>{{cite thesis|last=Walters |first=Michael |date=2007 |publisher=University of Pittsburgh|title=NONE BUT "WE HEATHEN": SHAKU SŌEN AT THE WORLD'S PARLIAMENT OF RELIGIONS |type=Master of Arts |url=http://d-scholarship.pitt.edu/8762/1/WaltersME_etd2007VERSION5.pdf |access-date=30 May 2022}}</ref> including the apologetic Shin Bukkyō ({{Lang|ja|新仏教}}) magazine.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Shields |first1=James Mark |title=Immanent Frames: Meiji New Buddhism, Pantheism, and the "Religious Secular" |journal=Japan Review |date=27 July 2017 |volume=30 |issue=Special Issue (2017) |page=82 |doi=10.15055/00006734 |url=https://core.ac.uk/download/pdf/198411713.pdf |access-date=30 May 2022}}</ref> In recent times, A.&nbsp;L. De Silva, an Australian convert to ], has written a book, ''Beyond Belief'', providing Buddhist apologetic responses and a critique of Christian Fundamentalist doctrine.<ref>{{Cite book|url=http://www.buddhanet.net/pdf_file/beyond-belief02.pdf|title=Beyond Belief, a Buddhist Critique of Fundamentalist Christianity|last=De Silva|first=A.&nbsp;L.|publisher=Three Gems Publications, ebook link at Buddha Dharma Education Association Incorporated, also|year=1994|isbn=978-0-6462-1211-1}}</ref> Gunapala Dharmasiri wrote an apologetic critique of the ] from a ] perspective.<ref>{{Cite book|title=A Buddhist critique of the Christian concept of God: a critique of the concept of God in contemporary Christian theology and philosophy of religion from the point of view of early Buddhism|last=Dharmasiri|first=Gunapala|publisher=Colombo: Lake House Investments|year=1974|via=WorldCat}}</ref>


===Christianity===
Apologetics serves an intellectual function within religious communities by providing arguments that support the doctrinal and ethical tenets of the religion. These arguments strengthen the believer's faith and support the propagation of the religion by offering arguments intended to persuade the uncommitted.
{{Main article|Christian apologetics}}
], a diagram frequently used by ] apologists to explain the ]]]


Christian apologetics combines ], ],<ref>{{cite web | url=http://www.iep.utm.edu/theo-nat/ | title=Natural Theology | publisher=Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy | access-date=10 March 2015 | author=Brent, James}}</ref> and ] in an attempt to present a rational basis for the Christian faith, to defend the faith against objections and misrepresentation, and to show that the Christian doctrine is the only world-view that is faultless and consistent with all fundamental knowledge and questions.
Skeptics engaged in debate with apologists tend to expect apologetics to consist of powerful arguments intended to persuade skeptics. The effectiveness of these arguments can occasionally fail to meet skeptical anticipation, largely because the arguments are not always directed to skeptics, but have the stated purpose of reaffirming the beliefs of current believers. These arguments aim for a much lower burden, not trying to do more than make the religious belief plausible or cast doubt on skeptical arguments.


Christian apologetics has taken many forms over the centuries. In the ], Christians were severely persecuted, and many charges were brought against them. Examples in the Bible include the Apostle Paul's address to the Athenians in the ] (). J. David Cassel<ref>J. David Cassel. "Defending the Cannibals: How Christians responded to the sometimes strange accusations of their critics." {{cite web|url=http://www.ctlibrary.com/ch/1998/issue57/57h012.html |title=Defending the Cannibals |access-date=2012-09-08 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110821133320/http://www.ctlibrary.com/ch/1998/issue57/57h012.html |archive-date=2011-08-21 }}</ref> gives several examples: ] wrote that ] fabricated charges that Christians started the ].<ref>Tacitus, Annals XV.44</ref> Other charges included ] (due to a literal interpretation of the ]) and ] (due to early Christians' practice of addressing each other as "brother" and "sister"). ], ], ], and others often defended Christianity against charges that were brought to justify persecution.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.christianity.com/church/church-history/timeline/1-300/why-early-christians-were-despised-11629610.html|title=Why Early Christians Were Despised|website=Christianity Today (Church history timeline).|access-date=21 September 2016}}</ref>
This faith-affirming aspect is often downplayed or even overlooked, but it can be very important, particularly in psychological and sociological terms. For some, the mere fact that even superficially reasonable arguments exist in support of their beliefs suffices to prevent them from making any effort at all to question whether they should continue to believe. For others, the ready-made arguments allow simplified defense of beliefs, sometimes to the detriment of intellectual debate. In the case of so-called ], more far-fetched arguments may replace traditional logic. This is consistent with the observations of sociologists of religion, such as ] and ], who found that boundary maintenance of belief occurs when one religious tradition encounters another. In this view, engaging in apologetics is less about converting others than boosting their own faith.


Later apologists have focused on providing reasons to accept various aspects of Christian belief. Christian apologists of many traditions, in common with Jews, Muslims, and some others, argue for the existence of a unique and personal God. ] is one important aspect of such arguments, and ]'s arguments have been highly influential in this area. Many prominent Christian apologists are scholarly philosophers or theologians, frequently with additional doctoral work in ], ], ], and other fields. Others take a more popular or pastoral approach. Some prominent modern apologists are ], ], ], ], ], ], ], ], ], ], ], ], ], ], ], ], ], ], ], ], ], ], ], ], ], ], RC Kunst, ], and ].<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.catholiceducation.org/articles/apologetics/ap0088.html/|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120718093548/http://www.catholiceducation.org/articles/apologetics/ap0088.html/|url-status=dead|title=Catholic Education Resource Center: ''The Scott Hahn Conversion Story''|archive-date=July 18, 2012}}</ref>
== Varieties of Christian apologetics ==


Apologists in the ] include ],<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.wordonfire.org/about/fr-robert-barron/|title=Fr. Robert Barron |access-date=2015-02-09|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150208104703/http://www.wordonfire.org/about/fr-robert-barron/|archive-date=2015-02-08|url-status=dead |website=wordonfire.org}}</ref> ],<ref>{{cite book|title=The Everlasting Man|last=Chesterton|first=G K|publisher=Wilder Publications|year=2008|isbn=978-1604592467|location=Radford|page=180}}</ref> ], Trent Horn, ], ], Kenneth Hensley,<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://catholicapologeticsacademy.com/faculty/kenneth-hensley/|title=Kenneth Hensley}}</ref> ], ], and ].
There are a variety of Christian apologetic styles and schools of thought. In the ] or Classical apologetics tradition philosophical arguments for God's existence are emphasized before turning to the specific case for Christian revelation claims. In the ] tradition empirical arguments about the life, miracles, death and resurrection of Christ are presented as probabilistic proofs. The ] tradition argues that belief in God must be presupposed, and from that vantage point non-theistic assumptions are proven to be fallacious.


] (1801–1890) was an English convert to ], later made a ], and ] in 2010. In early life he was a major figure in the ] to bring the ] back to its Catholic roots. Eventually his studies in history persuaded him to become a Roman Catholic. When John Henry Newman entitled his spiritual autobiography '']'', in 1864, he was playing upon both this connotation, and the more commonly understood meaning of an expression of contrition or regret.
===Early Church===
In the first centuries AD a number of Christian writers undertook the task of proving that Christianity was beneficial for the ] and for humanity as a whole. Also they wrote to defend their faith against attacks made by other people or to properly explain their faith. ] and ], writing in the early second century, were two of the first Christians to write apologetics treatises. Other second-century apologetics writings of note included the ''First Apology'' and ''Second Apology'' of ] and the '']'' , a response to the accusation that Christians were a danger to Rome, further more: Athenagoras, Tatian, Theophilos of Antioch, Tertullian and Minucius Felix.


Christian apologists employ a variety of philosophical and formal approaches, including ], ], and ]s.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.bethinking.org/apologetics/an-introduction-to-christian-apologetics?Strongs=G627|title=An Introduction to Christian Apologetics|last=Coulter|first=Paul|date=2011-05-10|website=Bethinking|access-date=21 September 2016}}</ref> The Christian presuppositionalist approach to apologetics uses the ].<ref>Apologetics: A Justification of Christian Belief. John Frame-Joseph Torres - P&R Publishing - 2015 p. 67f</ref>
About a century after ] conversion to Christianity, the ] began falling to invaders from northern Europe. Some Christian writers sought to explain the decline of Roman culture and power by systematically downplaying the achievements of classical antiquity while emphasizing the persecution of Christians and the positive role of Christianity in society. ] wrote the first book advancing this perspective (''History Against the Pagans''), though the far more learned and influential work of this type was ''The City of God'' by ] (426).


] was an early ] apologist. He was born, lived, and died in ]. He is sometimes known as the "Father of the ]". He introduced the term '']'' ({{Langx|la|trinitas}}) to the Christian vocabulary<ref>''A History of Christian Thought'', ], Touchstone Books, 1972. {{ISBN|0-671-21426-8}} (p. 43)</ref> and probably{{Citation needed|date=January 2009}} the formula "three Persons, one Substance" as the Latin "tres ]e, ]" (from the ] "treis ], ]"), and the terms ''Vetus Testamentum'' (]) and ''Novum Testamentum'' (]).
Several of the early Christian apologists developed arguments from fulfilled prophecy and gospel miracles as proofs of Christ's divinity. ] of Caesarea in his ''Demonstration of the Gospel'' attempted to prove the truth of Christianity by fulfilled prophecies from the Old Testament, and by rebutting arguments that the apostles had made up the story of Christ's resurrection.


====Latter-day Saints====
===Medieval to post-Reformation era===
{{further|Mormon studies#Apologetics}}
In Medieval Europe ] composed the ''Monologion'' and ''Proslogion'' in which he developed the ] for God's existence. He believed that faith was necessary as a precursor to philosophical argument and expressed his position as "I do not seek to understand that I may believe, but I believe that I may understand: for this I also believe, that unless I believe I will not understand."
There are Latter-day Saint apologists who focus on the defense of ], including early church leaders, such as ], ], ], and ], and modern figures, such as ], ], ], ], ], and Jeff Lindsay.


Several well known apologetic organizations of the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints, such as the ] (a group of scholars at ]) and ] (an independent, not-for-profit group run by Latter Day Saints), have been formed to defend the doctrines and history of the ] in general and the ] in particular.
], the ] ] of ], composed ''On God and The True Religion''. Abu Qurra represents a group of Christian Arabic apologists who argued their case under early Islamic rule.


=== Deism ===
A highly influential ] apologist was ] who presented five arguments for God's existence in the '']''. His approach, which adapted ] thought, is known as ], and has dominated both ] and ] approaches.
] is a form of ] in which God created the universe and established rationally comprehensible moral and natural laws but no longer intervenes in human affairs. Deism is a ] where belief in God is based on application of reason and evidence observed in the designs and laws found in nature. The World Order of Deists maintains a web site presenting deist apologetics that demonstrate the existence of God based on evidence and reason, absent divine revelation.


===Hinduism===
The first Protestant textbook of apologetics was written by the ] legal scholar ], ''On The Truth of the Christian Religion''. This work, which was released in 1632 and translated into many languages, remained in print in English until the late ], defended the historicity of the gospels, and also addressed arguments to Jews and Muslims.
Hindu apologetics began developing during the British colonial period. A number of Indian intellectuals had become critical of the British tendency to devalue the Hindu religious tradition. As a result, these Indian intellectuals, as well as a handful of British ], were galvanized to examine the roots of the religion as well as to study its vast arcana and corpus in an analytical fashion. This endeavor drove the deciphering and preservation of ]. Many translations of Hindu texts were produced which made them accessible to a broader reading audience.


In the early 18th century, Christian missionary ] engaged in dialogues with several ]-speaking ] Hindu priests, and recorded arguments of these Hindu apologists. These records include German-language reports submitted to the Lutheran headquarters in ], and 99 letters written by the Hindu priests to him (later translated into German under the title ''Malabarische Korrespondenz'' from 1718 onwards).{{sfn|Richard F. Young|1981|pp=22-23}}
===Modern era===
Since the seventeenth century the controversies over ], ], ], and theories of ], ], ] and ], have each in turn spurred both Catholic and Protestant apologists to reply. Changing modes in apologetics, whether or not they are currently fashionable, are important markers in the ]. Among the notable apologists of the early modern era are ], ], ], ], and ].


During 1830–1831, missionary ] engaged in debates with Hindu apologists in ].{{sfn|Richard F. Young|1981|p=25}} In 1830, his protege Ram Chandra, a Hindu convert to Christianity, debated with several Hindu ] apologists in public. Hindu ] ] summarized his arguments from his 1831 debate with Wilson in a Marathi-language work titled ''Shri-Hindu-dharma-sthapana''.{{sfn|Richard F. Young|1981|p=26}} Narayana Rao, another Hindu apologist, wrote '']'' in response to Wilson.{{sfn|Richard F. Young|1981|p=28}}
The ] ], the ] ], the ] ], and the ] ] were among the most prolific Christian apologists in the ]. Among the most widely read Christian apologists writing in ] have been ] and ]. Another modern apologist is ], author of ''The Lotus and the Cross: Jesus Talks with Buddha'' which argues for Christian truth over world religions and other modern movements. Other prominent Christian apologists include:


In the mid-19th century, several Hindu apologist works were written in response to ]'s '']''. These include '']'' (1839) by ] of ], '']'' (1840) by Harachandra Tarkapanchanan of ], '']'' (1844-1845) by ] of ],{{sfn|Richard F. Young|1981|p=15}} and a critique (published later in 1861 as part of ''Dharmādharma-parīkṣā-patra'') by an unknown ] writer.{{sfn|Richard F. Young|1981|p=177}}
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A range of Indian philosophers, including ] and ], have written rational explanations regarding the values of the Hindu religious tradition. More modern proponents such as the ] have also tried to correlate recent developments from ] and ] research with Hindu concepts. The late Reverend ] has given a plethora of discourses regarding the symbolism and rational basis for many principles in the ]. In his book ''The Cradle of Civilization'', David Frawley, an American who has embraced the Vedic tradition, has characterized the ancient texts of the Hindu heritage as being like "pyramids of the spirit".
== Apologetics in non-Christian religions ==


===Islam===
As the world's religions have encountered one another, apologists from within their respective faiths have emerged.
{{See also|Kalam}}
'''Ilm al-Kalām'', literally "science of discourse",<ref name="Wolfson">Winter, Tim J. "Introduction." Introduction. The Cambridge Companion to Classical Islamic Theology. Cambridge: Cambridge UP, 2008. 4–5. Print.</ref> usually foreshortened to ''kalam'' and sometimes called ''Islamic scholastic theology'', is an Islamic undertaking born out of the need to establish and defend the tenets of Islamic faith against skeptics and detractors.<ref>Madeleine Pelner Cosman, Linda Gale Jones, Handbook to Life in the Medieval World, p 391. {{ISBN|1438109075}}</ref> A scholar of ''kalam'' is referred to as a ''mutakallim'' (plural ''mutakallimūn'') as distinguished from philosophers, jurists, and scientists.<ref>Clinton Bennett, The Bloomsbury Companion to Islamic Studies, p 119. {{ISBN|1441127887}}.</ref>


===Judaism===
One of the earliest Buddhist apologetic texts is ], which deals with ethical and intellectual problems. In the British colonial era, Buddhists in Ceylon (now Sri Lanka) wrote tracts that challenged and rejected Christianity. In the mid-nineteenth century, encounters between Buddhists and Christians in Japan prompted the formation of a Buddhist Propagation Society. In recent times A. L. De Silva, an Australian convert to Buddhism, has written a text designed to refute the arguments of Christian evangelists. At a sophisticated academic level, Gunapala Dharmasiri has challenged the Christian concept of God from a Theravadan Buddhist perspective.
{{See also|Jewish polemics and apologetics in the Middle Ages}}
Jewish apologetic literature can be traced back as far as ], though some discern it in the works of ] (3rd century BCE) traces of the style of "questions" and "solutions" typical of the genre. Aristobulus was a Jewish philosopher of ] and the author of an apologetic work addressed to ]. ]'s ] is a wide-ranging defense of ] against many charges laid against Judaism at that time, as too are some of the works of ].<ref>John Granger Cook (2000) ''The Interpretation of the New Testament in Greco-Roman paganism'' p.4., Mohr Siebeck Verlag, Tuebingen, Germany</ref><ref>{{cite encyclopedia|url=http://www.jewishencyclopedia.com/articles/1651-apologists|title=APOLOGISTS|encyclopedia=Jewish Encyclopedia|year=1906}}</ref>


In response to modern Christian missionaries, and congregations that "are designed to appear Jewish, but are actually fundamentalist Christian churches, which use traditional Jewish symbols to lure the most vulnerable of our Jewish people into their ranks",<ref name=Schoon2006p125>Simon Schoon, "Noachides and Converts to Judaism", in ], ], Arie L. Molendijk. ''Cultures of Conversions'', Peeters Publishers, 2006, {{ISBN|978-90-429-1753-8}}, .</ref> ] is the largest counter-missionary organization in existence, today. ], founded by Rabbi Yosef Mizrachi, and Outreach Judaism, founded by Rabbi ], are other prominent international organizations that respond "directly to the issues raised by missionaries and cults, by exploring Judaism in contradistinction to fundamentalist Christianity."<ref>, Outreach Judaism website. Accessed January 9, 2011.</ref><ref>], "The Modern Anti-Cult Movement in Historical Perspective", in Jeffrey Kaplan, Heléne Lööw. ''The Cultic Milieu: Oppositional Subcultures in an Age of Globalization'', ], 2002, {{ISBN|978-0-7591-0204-0}}, p. 285, note 4.</ref>
Apologists for Islam have defended the Qur'an using rationalist and empiricist arguments, and using cosmological arguments to "prove" God's existence. Muslim apologists have also challenged both Jewish and Christian beliefs. The late South African, ], was a prolific popular writer who debated Christian evangelists by arguing over discrepancies in the Bible, and claiming the ] is the only authentic record of Jesus' life.


===Pantheism===
Famously among student associations, apologists for Islam use both semantic and historical rationale to both challenge and deny conflict with Christian beliefs. For example, Jesus Christ is vehemently denied as the son of God, yet is persistently claimed to be as highly regarded, if not the most highly honored, of all Islamic prophets.
Some pantheists have formed organizations such as the World Pantheist Movement and the ] to promote and defend the belief in ].<ref name=Credo>{{cite web|title=The Pantheist Credo|url=http://www.pantheism.net/manifest.htm|publisher=World Pantheist Movement}}</ref>


===Native Americans===
Hindu apologetics designed to counter Christian missions developed in the British colonial era. Richard Fox Young has collated examples of these early apologetic tracts.
In a famous speech called "Red Jacket on Religion for the White Man and the Red" in 1805, ] chief ] gave an apologetic for ] religion.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.bartleby.com/268/8/3.html#txt1|title=Red Jacket on the Religion of the White Man and the Red by Red Jacket. America: I. (1761-1837). Vol. VIII. Bryan, William Jennings, ed. 1906. The World's Famous Orations|work=bartleby.com|date=10 October 2022 }}</ref>


== In literature ==
In a famous speech in ], ] chief ] was an apologist for ] religion, as opposed to Christianity.
Plato's ''Apology'' may be read as both a religious and literary apology; however, more specifically literary examples may be found in the ]s and ]s, which proceed many ] plays, novels, and poems. Eighteenth century authors such as ], ], and ], to name but a few, prefaced the majority of their poetic work with such apologies. In addition to the desire to defend their work, the apologetic preface often suggests the author's attempt to humble his- or herself before the audience.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia|url=https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/30105/apology|title=Apology|publisher=Encyclopædia Britannica|encyclopedia=Britannica Academic Edition|access-date=14 July 2011}}</ref>


== See also == ==See also==
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==References==
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== External links == === Bibliography ===
{{refbegin}}
* An apologetics site dedicated to the defense of the Christian worldview
* {{cite book |author=Richard Fox Young |title=Resistant Hinduism: Sanskrit Sources on Anti-Christian Apologetics in Early Nineteenth-century India |year=1981 |publisher=De Nobili Research Library |isbn=9783900271091 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=O4gcAAAAMAAJ |ref={{harvid|Richard F. Young|1981}} }}
*The User-edited Christian Apologetics Site
{{refend}}
* Christian Apologetics Articles


==External links==
* The largest compilation of apologetics audio/video files.
*{{Commons category-inline}}
*
* The largest Catholic Apologetics organization in North America.
* A brand new Catholic Apologetics Wiki
* An apologetics organization defending a young-earth form of creationism.
* A huge amount of public domain Christian works.
* Gives the Gospel of Christianity and answers questions about God, truth, reason, and faith.
* A huge database of apologetics and countercult research resources.
* A large number of downloadable apologetics courses.
* The writings of theologian Vincent Cheung.
* A colourful site with a large amount of audio and text from many different Christian apologists available for free download. Material is sorted into Introductory, Intermediate and Advanced for ease of use.
* An encyclopedic site on Archeology for apologetics.
* A large Catholic blog with several articles and links to help defend and explain the Catholic faith.
* by A. L. de Silva.
*, a Christian apologetics and theology ministry
* , a Christian website collecting arguments primarily about biblical apologetics.
*
* .
* (]).
* An apologetics organization defending an old-earth form of creationism.
*
* Several illustrated ebooks on Christian Apologetics.
*
* Vast amount of apologetics resources.
*
*
* A research & educational ministry for effective apologetic witness in the marketplace of ideas.
*
* aims to be a comprehensive catalogue of online resources explicitly related to the theology, philosophy, and apologetics of Cornelius Van Til.
* Mainly the work of apologist, Gannon Murphy, Ph.D., in the classical vein.


{{Authority control}}
== Bibliography ==


]
'''1. Reference Works in Christian Apologetics'''
]

]
Bush, L. Russ. 1983. ''Classical Readings in Christian Apologetics AD. 100-1800''.Zondervan, Grand Rapids, Michigan.

Geisler, Norman L. 1999. ''Baker Encyclopedia of Christian Apologetics''. Baker Books, Grand Rapids, Michigan.

'''2. Popular Christian Apologists'''

Geisler, Norman L., and Ronald M. Brooks. 1990. ''When Skeptics Ask: A Handbook of Christian Evidences''. Victor Books, Wheaton, Illinois.

Lewis, C. S. 1955. ''Mere Christianity''. Fontana, Glasgow.

Lewis, C. S. 1960 (1947). ''Miracles: A Preliminary Study''. Fontana, Glasgow.

Lewis, C. S. 1957 (1940). ''The Problem of Pain''. Fontana, Glasgow.

Little, Paul E. 1968. ''Know Why You Believe''. InterVarsity Press, Downers Grove.

McDowell, Josh. 1979. ''Evidence That Demands A Verdict''. Revised Edition. Here's Life Publishers, San Bernadino, California.

McDowell, Josh. 1981. ''The Resurrection Factor''. Here's Life Publishers, San Bernadino, California.

McDowell, Josh., and Don Stewart. 1980. ''Answers to Tough Questions Skeptics Ask About the Christian Faith''. Here's Life Publishers, San Bernadino, California.

Montgomery, John Warwick. 2002. ''History, Law and Christianity''. Canadian Institute for Law, Theology & Public Policy, Edmonton, Alberta.

Montgomery, John Warwick. 2003. ''Tractatus Logico-Theologicus''. Verlag für Kultur und Wissenschaft/Culture and Science Publishers.

Schaeffer, Francis A. 1982. ''The Complete Works of Francis Schaeffer''. 5 Volumes. Crossway Books, Westchester, Illinois.

Strobel, Lee. 1998. ''The Case for Christ: A Journalist's Personal Investigation of the Evidence for Jesus''. Zondervan, Grand Rapids, Michigan.

'''3. Introductory Textbooks on Christian Apologetics'''

]., J. P. Moreland & William Lane Craig (eds). 2004. ''To Everyone An Answer: A Case for the Christian Worldview: essays in Honor of Norman L. Geisler''. InterVarsity Press, Downers Grove.

Craig, William Lane. 1994. ''Reasonable Faith: Christian Truth and Apologetics''. Crossway Books, Wheaton, Illinois.

Dembski, William A., and Jay Wesley Richards (eds). 2001. ''Unapologetic Apologetics: Meeting the Challenges of Theological Studies''. InterVarsity Press, Downers Grove, Illinois.

Frame, John M. 1994. ''Apologetics to the Glory of God: An Introduction''. Presbyterian & Reformed Publishing, Phillipsburg, New Jersey.

Kreeft, Peter., and Ronald K. Tacelli.1994. ''Handbook of Christian Apologetics''. InterVarsity Press, Downers Grove, Illinois.

McGrath, Alister. 1992. ''Bridge-Building: Effective Christian Apologetics''. InterVarsity Press, Leicester, UK.

Montgomery, John Warwick (ed). 1991. ''Evidence for Faith: Deciding the God Question''. Probe, Dallas.

Moreland, J. P. 1987. ''Scaling the Secular City: A Defense of Christianity''. Baker Book House, Grand Rapids, Michigan.

Philip, Johnson C.,et al, 2004 ''Complete Christian Apologetics: An Introductory Textbook'' (Malayalam). Wise Men Publication, Kochi, India.

'''4. Historical Surveys of Christian Apologetics'''

Kommentar zu frühchristlichen Apologeten (KfA), 12 Vols., ed. by Norbert Brox, Kurt Niederwimmer, Horacio E. Lona, Ferdinand R. Prostmeier, Jörg Ulrich. Verlag Herder, Freiburg u.a. 2001ff.

Barnard, L. W. 1978. "Early Christian Art as Apologetic." ''Journal of Religious History'' 10 (1): 20-31.

Chadwick, Henry. 1965. "Justin Martyr's Defence of Christianity." ''Bulletin of the John Rylands University Library'' 47: 275-297.

Clark, M. L. 1974. ''Paley: Evidences for the Man''. University of Toronto Press, Toronto, Ontario.

Craig, William Lane.1985. ''The Historical Argument for the Resurrection of Jesus During The Deist Controversy''. Texts & Studies in Religion Volume 23. Edwin Mellen Press, Lewiston, New York & Queenston, Ontario.

Dahan, Gilbert. 1998. ''The Christian Polemic against the Jews in the Middle Ages''. Translated by Jody Gladding. University of Notre Dame Press, Notre Dame, Indiana.

Dulles, Avery. 1999. ''A History of Apologetics''. Wipf & Stock, Eugene, Oregon.

Edwards, Mark., Martin Goodman & Simon Price (eds). 1999. ''Apologetics in the Roman Empire: Pagans, Jews, and Christians''. Oxford University Press, Oxford & New York.

Lona, Horacio E. 2001. "An Diognet" Übersetzt und erklärt. Series: Kommentar zu frühchristlichen Apologeten (KfA, Vol. 8), ed. by N. Brox, K. Niederwimmer, H. E. Lona, F. R. Prostmeier, J. Ulrich. Verlag Herder, Freiburg u.a. 2001 (ISBN 3-451-27679-8).

Lona, Horacio E. 2005. "Die »Wahre Lehre« des Kelsos." Übersetzt und erklärt. Series: Kommentar zu frühchristlichen Apologeten (KfA, Suppl.-Vol. 1), ed. by N. Brox, K. Niederwimmer, H. E. Lona, F. R. Prostmeier, J. Ulrich. Verlag Herder, Freiburg u.a. 2005 (ISBN 3-451-28599-1).

Murphy, Gannon. 2005. "Voices of Reason in Christian History: The Great Apologists-Their Lives and Legacies". Christian Publications, Inc. Camp Hill, PA. (ISBN 0-88965-233-3).

Phillips, Walter. 1977. "The Defence of Christian Belief in Australia 1875-1914: The Responses to Evolution and Higher Criticism." ''Journal of Religious History'', 9 (4):402-423.

Reid, J. K. S. 1970. ''Christian Apologetics''. William B. Eerdmans, Grand Rapids, Michigan.

Rurak, James. 1980. "Butler's ''Analogy'': A Still Interesting Synthesis of Reason and Revelation." ''Anglican Theological Review'' 52: 365-381.

Samir, S. Khalil (ed). 1994. ''Christian Arabic Apologetics During the Abbasid Period''. Studies in the History of Religions. Brill Academic, Leiden, The Netherlands.

Sell, Alan P. F. 1987. ''Defending and Declaring the Faith: Some Scottish Examples 1860-1920''. Paternoster Press, Exeter, UK/Helmers & Howard, Colorado Springs.

Sims, John A. 1995. ''Missionaries to the Skeptics: Christian Apologists for the Twentieth Century. C. S. Lewis, E. J. Carnell and Reinhold Niebuhr''. Mercer University Press, Macon, Georgia.

'''5. Discussion of Methodology in Christian Apologetics'''

Bahnsen, Greg. 1998. ''Van Til's Apologetic: Readings and Analysis''. Presbyterian & Reformed Publishing, Phillipsburg, New Jersey.

Boa, Kenneth D., and Robert M. Bowman. 2001. ''Faith Has Its Reasons: An Integrative Approach to Defending Christianity''. NAV Press, Colorado Springs, Colorado.

Clark, David K. 1993. ''Dialogical Apologetics: A Person-Centered Approach to Christian Defense''. Baker Book House, Grand Rapids, Michigan.

Cowan, Steven B. (ed). 2000. ''Five Views on Apologetics''. Counterpoint Series. Zondervan, Grand Rapids, Michigan.

Geehan, E. R. (ed). 1971. ''Jerusalem and Athens: Critical Discussions on the Philosophy and Apologetics of Cornelius Van Til''. Presbyterian & Reformed Publishing, Nutley, New Jersey.

Griffiths, Paul J. 1991. ''An Apology for Apologetics: A Study in the Logic of Interreligious Dialogue''. Faith Meets Faith Series. Orbis Books, Maryknoll, New York.

Hanna, Mark M. 1981. ''Crucial Questions in Apologetics''. Baker Book House, Grand Rapids, Michigan.

Johnson, John. 2003. "A Case for 'Reformed Evidentialism'." ''Churchman'' 117 (1): 7-32.

Lewis, Gordon R. 1976. ''Testing Christianity's Truth Claims''. Moody Press, Chicago.

Mayers, Ronald B. 1984. ''Both/And: A Balanced Apologetic''. Moody Press, Chicago.

Montgomery, John Warwick. 1978. ''Faith Founded on Fact: Essays in Evidentialist Apologetics''. Thomas Nelson, Nashville & New York.

Morris, Thomas V. 1987. ''Francis Schaeffer's Apologetics: A Critique''. Baker Book House, Grand Rapids, Michigan.

Netland, Harold. 1988. "Toward Contextualized Apologetics." ''Missiology: An International Review'' 16 (3): 289-303.

Ramm, Bernard. 1962. ''Varieties of Christian Apologetics: An Introduction to the Christian Philosophy of Religion''. Baker Book House, Grand Rapids, Michigan.

Sproul, R. C., John Gerstner, and Arthur Lindsley. 1984. ''Classical Apologetics: A Rational Defense of the Christian Faith and a Critique of Presuppositional Apologetics''. Zondervan, Grand Rapids, Michigan.

'''6. Christian Apologetics and Post-Modernity'''

Carson, D. A. 1996. ''The Gagging of God: Christianity Confronts Pluralism''. Zondervan, Grand Rapids, Michigan.

Johnson, Philip. 1998. "Apologetics and Myths: Signs of Salvation in Postmodernity." ''Lutheran Theological Journal'' 32 (2): 62-72.

Middleton, J. Richard., and Brian J. Walsh. 1995. ''Truth Is Stranger Than It Used To Be: Biblical Faith in a Postmodern Age''. InterVarsity Press, Downers Grove, Illinois.

Phillips, Timothy R., and Dennis L. Okholm (eds). 1995. ''Christian Apologetics in the Postmodern World''. InterVarsity Press, Downers Grove, Illinois.

Sire, James W. 1994. ''Why Should Anyone Believe Anything At All?'' InterVarsity Press, Downers Grove, Illinois.

Stackhouse, John G. 2002. ''Humble Apologetics: Defending the Faith Today''. Oxford University Press, New York.

Wilkinson, David. 2002. "The Art of Apologetics in the Twenty-First Century." ''Anvil'' 19 (1): 5-17.

'''7. Historical Apologetics for Christ's Resurrection'''

Craig, William Lane. 1989. ''Assessing the New Testament Evidence for the Historicity of the Resurrection of Jesus''. Studies in the Bible and Early Christianity, Volume 16. Edwin Mellen Press, Lewiston, New York/Queenston, Ontario/Lampeter, Wales.

Habermas, Gary R. 1980. ''The Resurrection of Jesus: An Apologetic''. Baker Book House, Grand Rapids, Michigan.

Miethe, Terry L. (ed).1987. ''Did Jesus Rise From The Dead?: The Resurrection Debate''. (Gary Habermas and Antony Flew). Harper & Row, San Francisco.

'''8. Legal Apologetics'''

Clifford, Ross. 1996. ''Leading Lawyers' Case for the Resurrection''. Canadian Institute for Law, Theology & Public Policy, Edmonton, Alberta.

Clifford, Ross. 2004. ''John Warwick Montgomery's Legal Apologetic: An Apologetic For All Seasons''. Verlag für Kultur und Wissenschaft/Culture and Science Publishers, Bonn.

Ewen, Pamela Binnings. 1999. ''Faith on Trial: An Attorney Analyzes the Evidence for the Death and Resurrection of Jesus''. Broadman & Holman, Nashville, Tennessee.

Johnson, Philip. 2002. "Juridical Apologists 1600-2000 AD: A Bio-Bibliographical Survey." ''Global Journal of Classical Theology''3/1.

Parton, Craig A. 2003. ''The Defense Never Rests: A Lawyer's Quest for the Gospel''. Concordia Publishing House, St. Louis, Missouri.

'''9. Philosophical Apologetics'''

Beckwith, Francis J. 1989. ''David Hume's Argument Against Miracles: A Critical Analysis''. University Press of America. Lanham, Maryland & London.

Brown, Colin. 1984. ''Miracles and the Critical Mind''. William B. Eerdmans, Grand Rapids, Michigan/Paternoster Press, Exeter, UK.

Clark, Kelly James. 1990. ''Return To Reason: A Critique of Enlightenment Evidentialism and a Defense of Reason and Belief in God''. William B. Eerdmans, Grand Rapids, Michigan.

Craig, William Lane. 1979. ''The Kalām Cosmological Argument''. MacMillan, London.

Craig, William Lane., and Quentin Smith. 1993. ''Theism, Atheism, and Big Bang Cosmology''. Clarendon Press, Oxford.

Geivitt, R. Douglas., and Gary R. Habermas (eds). 1997. ''In Defence of Miracles: A Comprehensive Case for God's Action in History''. Apollos, Leicester, UK/InterVarsity Press, Downers Grove, Illinois.

Miethe, Terry L., and Antony Flew. 1991. ''Does God Exist? A Believer and an Atheist Debate''. Harper, San Francisco.

Morris, Thomas V. 1986. ''The Logic of God Incarnate''. Cornell University Press, Ithaca, New York & London.

Plantinga, Alvin. 1990 (1967). ''God and Other Minds: A Study of the Rational Justification of Belief in God''. Cornell University Press, Ithaca, New York & London.

Plantinga, Alvin C. 1977 (1974). ''God, Freedom, and Evil''. William B. Eerdmans, Grand Rapids, Michigan.

Plantinga, Alvin., and Nicholas Wolterstorff (eds). 1983. ''Faith and Rationality: Reason and Belief in God''. University of Notre Dame Press, Notre Dame & London.

Swinburne, Richard. 1996. ''Is There A God?'' Oxford University Press, Oxford & New York.

Wolterstorff, Nicholas. 1995. ''Divine Discourse: Philosophical Reflections on the Claim that God Speaks''. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK.

'''10. Scientific Apologetics'''

Barclay, Oliver R. (ed). 1985. ''Creation and Evolution''. When Christians Disagree Series. InterVarsity Press, Leicester, UK.

Behe, Michael. 1996. ''Darwin's Black Box''. Touchstone, New York.

Beilby, James (ed). 2001. ''Naturalism Defeated? Essays on Plantinga's Evolutionary Argument Against Naturalism''. Cornell University Press, Ithaca, New York & London.

Dembski, William A. 1999. ''Intelligent Design: The Bridge Between Science and Theology''. InterVarsity Press, Downers Grove, Illinois.

Hummel, Charles E. 1986. ''The Galileo Connection: Resolving Conflicts between Science and the Bible''. InterVarsity Press, Downers Grove, Illinois.

Johnson, Phillip E. 1991. ''Darwin on Trial''. InterVarsity Press, Downers Grove, Illinois.

Johnson, Phillip E. 1995. ''Reason in the Balance: The Case Against Naturalism in Science, Law & Education''. InterVarsity Press, Downers Grove, Illinois.

Larson, Edward J. 1989. ''Trial and Error: The American Controversy Over Creation and Evolution''. Oxford University Press, New York.

Moore, James R. 1979. ''The Post-Darwinian Controversies: A Study of the Protestant Struggle to come to terms with Darwin in Great Britain and America 1870-1900''. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge.

Newman, Robert C., and Herman J. Eckelmann. 1981. ''Genesis One and the Origin of the Earth''. Baker Book House, Grand Rapids, Michigan.

Polkinghorne, John. 1986. ''One World: The Interaction of Science and Theology''. S.P.C.K., London.

Ratzsch, Del. 1996. ''The Battle of the Beginnings''. InterVarsity Press, Downers Grove.

Ross, Hugh. 1993. ''The Creator and The Cosmos: How the Greatest Scientific Discoveries of the Century Reveal God''. NAV Press, Colorado Springs, Colorado.

Van de Fliert, J. R. 1968. "Fundamentalism and Fundamentals of Geology." ''International Reformed Bulletin'' 32/33: 5-27.

Wilder-Smith, A. E. 1970. ''The Creation of Life: A Cybernetic Approach to Evolution''. Master Books, San Diego, California.

Youngblood, Ronald F. (ed). 1990. ''The Genesis Debate: Persistent Questions about Creation and the Flood''. Baker Book House, Grand Rapids, Michigan.

'''11. Christian Apologetics to New Spiritualities and New Religious Movements'''

Abanes, Richard. 1997. ''Defending the Faith: A Beginner's Guide to Cults and New Religions''. Baker Books, Grand Rapids, Michigan.

Geisler, Norman L., and David K. Clark. 1990. ''Apologetics in the New Age: A Christian Critique of Pantheism''. Baker Book House, Grand Rapids, Michigan.

Hexham, Irving., Stephen Rost & John W. Morehead (eds). 2004. ''Encountering New Religious Movements: A Holistic Evangelical Approach''. Kregel Publications, Grand Rapids, Michigan.

Johnson, Philip. 2002. "Apologetics, Mission, and New Religious Movements: A Holistic Approach." ''Sacred Tribes: Journal of Christian Missions to New Religious Movements'' 1 (1).

Johnson, Philip., and Simeon Payne. 2004. "Evangelical Countercult Apologists versus Astrology: An Unresolved Conundrum." ''Australian Religion Studies Review'' 17 (2): 73-97.

Martin, Walter Ralston. 2003. ''The Kingdom of the Cults''. Revised Edition, edited by Ravi Zacharias. Bethany House, Bloomington.

Mosser, Carl., and Paul Owen. 1998. "Mormon Scholarship, Apologetics and Evangelical Neglect: Losing the Battle and Not Knowing It?" ''Trinity Journal'' (New Series) 19: 179-205.

Pement, Eric N. (ed). 1992. ''Contend for the Faith: Collected Papers of the Rockford Conference on Discernment and Evangelism''. Evangelical Ministries to new Religions, Chicago.

Saliba, John A. 1999. ''Christian Responses to the New Age Movement: A Critical Assessment''. Geoffrey Chapman, London.

Sire, James W. 1988. ''The Universe Next Door: A Guide Book to World Views''. Revised Edition. InterVarsity Press, Leicester, UK.

'''12. Buddhist Approaches to Apologetics'''

Dharmasiri, Gunapala. 1988. ''A Buddhist Critique of the Christian Concept of God''. Golden Leaves Publishing, Antioch, California.

De Silva, A. L. 1994. ''Beyond Belief: A Buddhist Critique of Fundamentalist Christianity''. Three Gem Publications, Camperdown, Sydney, Australia.

Thelle, Notto R. 1987. ''Buddhism and Christianity in Japan: From Conflict to Dialogue, 1854-1899''. University of Hawaii Press, Honolulu.

Young, Richard Fox., and G.P.V. Somaratna. 1996. ''Vain Debates. The Buddhist-Christian Controversies of Nineteenth-Century Ceylon''. Publications of the De Nobili Research Library, Vienna, Austria.

'''13. Hindu Approaches to Apologetics'''

Young, Richard Fox. 1981. ''Resistant Hinduism: Sanskrit Sources on Anti-Christian Apologetics in Early Nineteenth Century India''. Publications of the De Nobili Research Library, Vienna, Austria.

'''14. Islamic Approaches to Apologetics'''

], 1993. ''The Bible, The Qur'an and Science: The Holy Scriptures examined in the Light of Modern Knowledge''. Taj Publications, Delhi, India.

Leirvik, Oddbjørn. 2001. "History as a Literary Weapon: The Gospel of Barnabas in Muslim-Christian Polemics." ''Studia Theologica'' 54: 4-26.

Watt, William Montgomery. 1991. ''Muslim-Christian Encounters: Perceptions and Misperceptions''. Routledge, London & New York.

Westerlund, David. 2003. "Ahmed Deedat's Theology of Religion: Apologetics Through Polemics." ''Journal of Religion in Africa'' 33 (3):263-278.

'''15. Neo-Pagan Approaches to Apologetics'''

DiZerega, Gus. 2001. ''Pagans and Christians: The Personal Spiritual Experience''. Llewellyn Publications, St. Paul, Minnesota.

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Latest revision as of 09:42, 2 January 2025

Religious discipline of systematic defence of a position This article is about the systematic defence of a religious position. For the Christian parody band, see ApologetiX. "Apologist" redirects here. For non-religious uses of apologetic and apologist, see Apology (disambiguation).
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Apologetics (from Greek ἀπολογία, apología, 'speaking in defense') is the religious discipline of defending religious doctrines through systematic argumentation and discourse. Early Christian writers (c. 120–220) who defended their beliefs against critics and recommended their faith to outsiders were called Christian apologists. In 21st-century usage, apologetics is often identified with debates over religion and theology.

Etymology

The term apologetics derives from the Ancient Greek word apologia (ἀπολογία). In the Classical Greek legal system, the prosecution delivered the kategoria (κατηγορία), the accusation or charge, and the defendant replied with an apologia, the defence. The apologia was a formal speech or explanation to reply to and rebut the charges. A famous example is Socrates' Apologia defense, as chronicled in Plato's Apology.

In the Koine Greek of the New Testament, the Apostle Paul employs the term apologia in his trial speech to Festus and Agrippa when he says "I make my defense" in Acts 26:2. A cognate form appears in Paul's Letter to the Philippians as he is "defending the gospel" in Philippians 1:7, and in "giving an answer" in 1 Peter 3:15.

Although the term apologetics has Western, primarily Christian origins and is most frequently associated with the defense of Christianity, the term is sometimes used referring to the defense of any religion in formal debate involving religion.

Apologetic positions

Baháʼí Faith

Main article: Baháʼí apologetics

Many apologetic books have been written in defence of the history or teachings of the Baháʼí Faith. The religion's founders wrote several books presenting proofs of their religion; among them are the Báb's Seven Proofs and Bahá'u'lláh's Kitáb-i-Íqán. Later Baháʼí authors wrote prominent apologetic texts, such as Mírzá Abu'l-Fadl's The Brilliant Proof and Udo Schaefer et al.'s Making the Crooked Straight.

Buddhism

One of the earliest Buddhist apologetic texts is The Questions of King Milinda, which deals with the Buddhist metaphysics such as the "no-self" nature of the individual and characteristics such as wisdom, perception, volition, feeling, consciousness and the soul. In the Meiji Era (1868-1912), encounters between Buddhists and Christians in Japan as a result of increasing contact between Japan and other nations may have prompted the formation of Japanese New Buddhism, including the apologetic Shin Bukkyō (新仏教) magazine. In recent times, A. L. De Silva, an Australian convert to Buddhism, has written a book, Beyond Belief, providing Buddhist apologetic responses and a critique of Christian Fundamentalist doctrine. Gunapala Dharmasiri wrote an apologetic critique of the Christian concept of God from a Theravadin Buddhist perspective.

Christianity

Main article: Christian apologetics
The Shield of the Trinity, a diagram frequently used by Christian apologists to explain the Trinity

Christian apologetics combines Christian theology, natural theology, and philosophy in an attempt to present a rational basis for the Christian faith, to defend the faith against objections and misrepresentation, and to show that the Christian doctrine is the only world-view that is faultless and consistent with all fundamental knowledge and questions.

Christian apologetics has taken many forms over the centuries. In the Roman Empire, Christians were severely persecuted, and many charges were brought against them. Examples in the Bible include the Apostle Paul's address to the Athenians in the Areopagus (Acts 17: 22-34). J. David Cassel gives several examples: Tacitus wrote that Nero fabricated charges that Christians started the burning of Rome. Other charges included cannibalism (due to a literal interpretation of the Eucharist) and incest (due to early Christians' practice of addressing each other as "brother" and "sister"). Paul the Apostle, Justin Martyr, Irenaeus, and others often defended Christianity against charges that were brought to justify persecution.

Later apologists have focused on providing reasons to accept various aspects of Christian belief. Christian apologists of many traditions, in common with Jews, Muslims, and some others, argue for the existence of a unique and personal God. Theodicy is one important aspect of such arguments, and Alvin Plantinga's arguments have been highly influential in this area. Many prominent Christian apologists are scholarly philosophers or theologians, frequently with additional doctoral work in physics, cosmology, comparative religions, and other fields. Others take a more popular or pastoral approach. Some prominent modern apologists are Douglas Groothuis, Frederick Copleston, John Lennox, Walter R. Martin, Dinesh D'Souza, Douglas Wilson, Cornelius Van Til, Gordon Clark, Francis Schaeffer, Greg Bahnsen, Edward John Carnell, James White, R. C. Sproul, Hank Hanegraaff, Alister McGrath, Lee Strobel, Josh McDowell, Peter Kreeft, G. K. Chesterton, William Lane Craig, J. P. Moreland, Hugh Ross, David Bentley Hart, Gary Habermas, Norman Geisler, Scott Hahn, RC Kunst, Trent Horn, and Jimmy Akin.

Apologists in the Catholic Church include Bishop Robert Barron, G. K. Chesterton, Dr. Scott Hahn, Trent Horn, Jimmy Akin, Patrick Madrid, Kenneth Hensley, Karl Keating, Ronald Knox, and Peter Kreeft.

John Henry Newman (1801–1890) was an English convert to Roman Catholicism, later made a cardinal, and beatified in 2010. In early life he was a major figure in the Oxford Movement to bring the Church of England back to its Catholic roots. Eventually his studies in history persuaded him to become a Roman Catholic. When John Henry Newman entitled his spiritual autobiography Apologia Pro Vita Sua, in 1864, he was playing upon both this connotation, and the more commonly understood meaning of an expression of contrition or regret.

Christian apologists employ a variety of philosophical and formal approaches, including ontological, cosmological, and teleological arguments. The Christian presuppositionalist approach to apologetics uses the transcendental argument for the existence of God.

Tertullian was an early Christian apologist. He was born, lived, and died in Carthage. He is sometimes known as the "Father of the Latin Church". He introduced the term Trinity (Latin: trinitas) to the Christian vocabulary and probably the formula "three Persons, one Substance" as the Latin "tres Personae, una Substantia" (from the Koine Greek "treis Hypostaseis, Homoousios"), and the terms Vetus Testamentum (Old Testament) and Novum Testamentum (New Testament).

Latter-day Saints

Further information: Mormon studies § Apologetics

There are Latter-day Saint apologists who focus on the defense of Mormonism, including early church leaders, such as Parley P. Pratt, John Taylor, B. H. Roberts, and James E. Talmage, and modern figures, such as Hugh Nibley, Daniel C. Peterson, John L. Sorenson, John Gee, Orson Scott Card, and Jeff Lindsay.

Several well known apologetic organizations of the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints, such as the Foundation for Ancient Research and Mormon Studies (a group of scholars at Brigham Young University) and FairMormon (an independent, not-for-profit group run by Latter Day Saints), have been formed to defend the doctrines and history of the Latter Day Saint movement in general and the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints in particular.

Deism

Deism is a form of theism in which God created the universe and established rationally comprehensible moral and natural laws but no longer intervenes in human affairs. Deism is a natural religion where belief in God is based on application of reason and evidence observed in the designs and laws found in nature. The World Order of Deists maintains a web site presenting deist apologetics that demonstrate the existence of God based on evidence and reason, absent divine revelation.

Hinduism

Hindu apologetics began developing during the British colonial period. A number of Indian intellectuals had become critical of the British tendency to devalue the Hindu religious tradition. As a result, these Indian intellectuals, as well as a handful of British Indologists, were galvanized to examine the roots of the religion as well as to study its vast arcana and corpus in an analytical fashion. This endeavor drove the deciphering and preservation of Sanskrit. Many translations of Hindu texts were produced which made them accessible to a broader reading audience.

In the early 18th century, Christian missionary Bartholomäus Ziegenbalg engaged in dialogues with several Tamil-speaking Malabarian Hindu priests, and recorded arguments of these Hindu apologists. These records include German-language reports submitted to the Lutheran headquarters in Halle, and 99 letters written by the Hindu priests to him (later translated into German under the title Malabarische Korrespondenz from 1718 onwards).

During 1830–1831, missionary John Wilson engaged in debates with Hindu apologists in Bombay. In 1830, his protege Ram Chandra, a Hindu convert to Christianity, debated with several Hindu Brahmin apologists in public. Hindu pandit Morobhatt Dandekar summarized his arguments from his 1831 debate with Wilson in a Marathi-language work titled Shri-Hindu-dharma-sthapana. Narayana Rao, another Hindu apologist, wrote Svadesha-dharma-abhimani in response to Wilson.

In the mid-19th century, several Hindu apologist works were written in response to John Muir's Mataparīkṣā. These include Mata-parīkṣā-śikṣā (1839) by Somanatha of Central India, Mataparīkṣottara (1840) by Harachandra Tarkapanchanan of Calcutta, Śāstra-tattva-vinirṇaya (1844-1845) by Nilakantha Gore of Benares, and a critique (published later in 1861 as part of Dharmādharma-parīkṣā-patra) by an unknown Vaishnava writer.

A range of Indian philosophers, including Swami Vivekananda and Aurobindo Ghose, have written rational explanations regarding the values of the Hindu religious tradition. More modern proponents such as the Maharishi Mahesh Yogi have also tried to correlate recent developments from quantum physics and consciousness research with Hindu concepts. The late Reverend Pandurang Shastri Athavale has given a plethora of discourses regarding the symbolism and rational basis for many principles in the Vedic tradition. In his book The Cradle of Civilization, David Frawley, an American who has embraced the Vedic tradition, has characterized the ancient texts of the Hindu heritage as being like "pyramids of the spirit".

Islam

See also: Kalam

'Ilm al-Kalām, literally "science of discourse", usually foreshortened to kalam and sometimes called Islamic scholastic theology, is an Islamic undertaking born out of the need to establish and defend the tenets of Islamic faith against skeptics and detractors. A scholar of kalam is referred to as a mutakallim (plural mutakallimūn) as distinguished from philosophers, jurists, and scientists.

Judaism

See also: Jewish polemics and apologetics in the Middle Ages

Jewish apologetic literature can be traced back as far as Aristobulus of Paneas, though some discern it in the works of Demetrius the chronographer (3rd century BCE) traces of the style of "questions" and "solutions" typical of the genre. Aristobulus was a Jewish philosopher of Alexandria and the author of an apologetic work addressed to Ptolemy VI Philometor. Josephus's Contra Apion is a wide-ranging defense of Judaism against many charges laid against Judaism at that time, as too are some of the works of Philo of Alexandria.

In response to modern Christian missionaries, and congregations that "are designed to appear Jewish, but are actually fundamentalist Christian churches, which use traditional Jewish symbols to lure the most vulnerable of our Jewish people into their ranks", Jews for Judaism is the largest counter-missionary organization in existence, today. Kiruv Organization (Mizrachi), founded by Rabbi Yosef Mizrachi, and Outreach Judaism, founded by Rabbi Tovia Singer, are other prominent international organizations that respond "directly to the issues raised by missionaries and cults, by exploring Judaism in contradistinction to fundamentalist Christianity."

Pantheism

Some pantheists have formed organizations such as the World Pantheist Movement and the Universal Pantheist Society to promote and defend the belief in pantheism.

Native Americans

In a famous speech called "Red Jacket on Religion for the White Man and the Red" in 1805, Seneca chief Red Jacket gave an apologetic for Native American religion.

In literature

Plato's Apology may be read as both a religious and literary apology; however, more specifically literary examples may be found in the prefaces and dedications, which proceed many Early Modern plays, novels, and poems. Eighteenth century authors such as Colley Cibber, Frances Burney, and William Congreve, to name but a few, prefaced the majority of their poetic work with such apologies. In addition to the desire to defend their work, the apologetic preface often suggests the author's attempt to humble his- or herself before the audience.

See also

References

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  31. Richard F. Young 1981, p. 177.
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  38. About Us, Outreach Judaism website. Accessed January 9, 2011.
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Bibliography

External links

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