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{{short description|Hindu artisan caste}}
The '''Vishwakarma''' community are a social group of India, sometimes described as a ]. They claim themselves to be ] or of high-status in the caste hierarchy, although these claims are not generally accepted outside the community. The community comprises five subgroups{{mdash}}]s, ]s, ] smiths, ]s and ]{{mdash}} claim to be descendants of ], the builder and architect of heavenly realm, a Hindu deity.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Streefkerk|first=Hein|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=_L3edKpCmm4C&pg=PA103|title=Industrial Transition in Rural India: Artisans, Traders, and Tribals in South Gujarat|publisher=Ramdas Bhatkal, Popular prakasham Pvt Ltd|year=1985|isbn=0861320670|location=Bombay|page=103}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|last1=R.De|first1=Ridder|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=bQcVAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA161|title=The Leiden Tradition in Structural Anthropology.|last2=J.A.J|first2=Karremans|publisher=E.J Brill|year=1987|isbn=9004085173|location=Netherlands}}</ref>


== Origin myths ==
{{for|the architect of the gods|Vishwakarma}}
The '''Vishwakarma''' (or '''Viśvákarma''') caste, known within the group as the '''Vishwa Brahmins''' is an ] of priests, teachers, engineers, architects, sculptors, temple builders and artists.All marvellous and beautiful buildings including ] , ] , ] , ] , ] etc etc are the wonderful creations of this blessed community.<ref>V. Annamalai Formation And Transformation Of Power In Rural India - 1996 Page 32 "They claim themselves to be desendants of five sons of Vishwakarma and hence style themselves as Viswa Brahmins.29 They have a caste association called Vishwakarma association. In the study area they are referred generally as 'Asaris'"- Page 72 "Like a few other castes, Hindu Asaris also have places of family deity which determines marriage alliances. Though locally they are called Asaris they come under the category of Kammalar Caste. The Hindu Asaris belong to Vishwakarma"</ref><ref> Sociological Bulletin -1993 Volume 42 - Page 90 "The Vishwakarma Caste: Occupations The survey of all GPs of the four fieldwork blocks registered the number of Vishwakarma households and their occupations. Of the 865 Vishwakarma households in the four blocks, on an average 93 per ..."</ref>


The community claims to be descended from the god ], who is considered by Hindus to be the divine architect or engineer of the universe. He had five children — ], ], ], Shilpi and Visvajna&nbsp;— and these are believed by the Vishwakarma community to have been the forebears of their five subgroups, being respectively the ]s (clans) of blacksmiths, carpenters, bell metalworkers (metal casters), stonemasons and goldsmiths.<ref name="Varghese" /> It is not known whether these five subgroups historically practised ], which is a frequently-found feature of the Indian caste system.<ref name="Ramaswamy">{{cite journal |title=Vishwakarma Craftsmen in Early Medieval Peninsular India |first=Vijaya |last=Ramaswamy |journal=Journal of the Economic and Social History of the Orient |volume=47 |issue=4 |year=2004 |pages=548–582 |jstor=25165073 |doi=10.1163/1568520042467154 |issn=0022-4995}} {{subscription required}}</ref>
It includes five sub-castes: ]s, ]s, ]s, ]s and ] or ]. They identify themselves with the ''pancha jana'' ("five peoples") of the legendary ]: ], ], ], ], and ]<ref name="ghurye">{{cite book|last=Ghurye|first=Govind Sadashiv |title=Caste and class in India |year=1950|edition= Edition: 2 |pages=53}}</ref>) and worship various forms of ].<ref>Nārāyaṇaśastri Kṣirasāgara. "Three". विश्वब्रह्मकुलोत्साह;Vishwabrahmakulotsah (in Marāṭhī). p. 37.</ref> <ref>Macdonell, Arthur Anthony; Arthur Berriedale Keith. Vedic index of names and subjects. Volume 2. pp. 203, 204.</ref> <ref>Derrett, John Duncan Martin. Essays in Classical and Modern Hindu Law: Dharmaśāstra and related ideas. pp. 45, 46.</ref> The caste is associated with the placing of the holy sacrificial fire in the ].<ref>Satish Saberwal Mobile Men: Limits to Social Change in Urban Punjab 1990 - Page 110 "22 This was perhaps one of the few caste mobility movements which took a more or less parallel course throughout the ... one of the Vishvakarma castes, to perform Brahminical ceremonies, or (ii) the relative caste status of "Viswa Brahmin," "</ref>Vishwa Brahmin, Vishwakarma, Tarkhan


The ]s of the Vishwakarma community were first consolidated in the early 18th century, during the ]. These myths were compiled in the ''Vishwakarma Puranam'', whose original manuscript is undated but was most probably created in the mid-17th or 18th century.{{sfn|Vijaya Ramaswamy|2008|p=277}} According to a popular myth recorded in the ''Vishwakarma Puranam'', the five children of the god Vishwakarma served the gods as artisans, and possessed the ability to create things by simply visualising them. They had conserved their '']'' by being celibates, and lived in a fort on the coast of Ilangapuri (]).{{sfn|Vijaya Ramaswamy|2008|pp=287-288}} The fort was made of ], and the enemy weapons thrown at it were stuck to its walls, rendering it invincible. Their chief enemy was Karunakaran, a vassal of the ] emperor. In order to defeat the Vishwakarmas, Karunakaran planted many beautiful women (Brahmin women according to some versions of the legend) in the fort. These women married the Vishwakarmas, thus destroying their spiritual power, and learned the secret that a certain type of poisonous grass could be used to burn up the fort. Using this secret, the enemy blew up the fort, and the Vishwakarmas were scattered in various areas, where they were forced to work as artisans and craftsmen for mortal humans.{{sfn|Vijaya Ramaswamy|2008|p=288}}


==Origin== == History ==
While many sources refer to the five subgroups of the Vishwakarma as artisans, historian Vijaya Ramaswamy<ref>{{cite web |title=Vijaya Ramaswamy {{!}} Jawaharlal Nehru University - Academia.edu |url=https://jnu.academia.edu/VijayaRamaswamy |website=jnu.academia.edu |access-date=14 October 2020}}</ref> believes that the Vishwakarma of the medieval period should be distinguished as craftsmen, arguing that "...&nbsp;while every craftsman was an artisan, every artisan was not a craftsman". Ramaswamy notes that the socio-economic and geographic stability of a medieval village-based maker of ]s differed considerably from that of the various people who banded together as Vishwakarma and lived a relatively itinerant lifestyle that was dependent on the "temple economy" that waxed and waned as dynasties such as the ] were formed and disintegrated. The latter group, who did work in proximity to each other while constructing and embellishing temples, had opportunities for socio-economic advancement but also bore the risks of withdrawal of patronage and changes in religious focus.<ref name="Ramaswamy" />


== Position in society ==
According to traditional belief, Vishwakarma are descended from five sons of lord Vishwakarma: Manu, Maya, Twashtha, Silpi, and Vishwajnya.
In ], ] and ] they come under ].<ref>{{Cite web|title=CENTRAL LIST OF OBCs FOR THE STATE OF ANDHRA PRADESH|url=https://bcmbcmw.tn.gov.in/bclist.htm}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|title=Central Government list of OBC - Telangana|url=http://www.ncbc.nic.in/user_panel/GazetteResolution.aspx?Value=mPICjsL1aLvZW9%2FwXcIbxcNal%2FTghxZUuV7adcx5Bs1cEGdzKqq0GufcXEZAUTq0}}</ref><ref></ref>
The community is spread widely throughout India and played a vital role in the village economy. Their socioeconomic status varied from a very high level to the low level in different parts of India, as they earned high wages in towns because of their factory employment and low wages in villages. About Vishwabrahmins, Ananda K. Coomaraswamy says "the Kammalar (i.e. Panchal) were known as Vishwa or Dev Brahmana. They spread gradually towards the south and then reached Ceylon, Burma & Java. The Vishwabrahmins claim to have been the spiritual guides and priests and their position in the society survives in the saying the 'Vishwabrahmana is guru to the world'".
They also perform priestly rites in connection with consecration of images. They both claim and possess various special privileges, which they always upheld with much vigour, He also mentions "throughout the rest of ceremony all priest officers had been performed by the craftsman themselves acting as Brahman priest".
Dr. Krishna Rao says, "The most highly organized & efficient of the industrial classes was Virpanchal comprising Goldsmiths, coiner blacksmiths, carpenters and masons. In the finest period of Indian art, particularly between eighth and ninth century, they claimed and enjoyed a social status in the community, equal to Brahmans. The art of engraving & sculpture had attained a high stage of development. It was exclusively cultivated by Panchals who wore sacred thread & considered themselves as Vishwakarma Brahmans. The craftsman being deeply versed in national epic literature always figured in the history of India as missionaries of civilization, culture & religion. The intellectual influence being creative & not merely assimilative was at least as great as that of the priest and the author".
Panchal are known as the missionaries of civilization, culture and religion because they spread the Hindu religion to the whole world through their art, which included stone and ceramics, musical instruments, religious statuary, and metal-work. Ernest B. Havell says, “The northern quarter of (Patliputra) was assigned to Brahmans and certain of the higher craftsman such as the armorers, ironsmiths and workers in precious stones. The association of skilled craftsmen with the Brahman and the Kshatriya castes is additional evidence that craftsmanship did not hold an inferior status in Indo Aryan society." The stapathi or master builder is described in the Shilpa Shastra as officiating at religious ceremonies which preceded the laying out of the Indo Aryan town or village and some of the metal workers and carpenters of the south of India still retains as their caste indication the name Acharya which denotes a teacher of religion.
The Vedic lineage made them to create their own priesthood within their community. They wear five layer sacred thread while engage in creative works (yajna) and at time of marriage and funeral. However because of Chathurvarnya in the medieval period, their social status which was previously equal to that of the Brahmins had gone down. Brahmin political manoeuvrings diminished the social status of the Vishwakarma, though they fought against this Brahmin superiority.


In ], the Vishwakarmas have claimed a higher social status for many years, and believe that the trades which they traditionally follow are superior to the work of a manual labourer because they require artistic and scientific skills as well as those of the hand. According to George Varghese, their claim to high status is "one of the mainstays of Vishwakarma identity" in what is otherwise a fragmented, incoherent community that has often suffered from internal differences of opinion.<ref name="Varghese">{{cite journal |journal=Economic and Political Weekly |volume=38 |issue=45 |date=8–14 November 2003 |pages=4794–4802 |first=George |last=Varghese K. |title=Globalisation Traumas and New Social Imaginary: Visvakarma Community of Kerala |jstor=4414253}}</ref> Their claim has been voiced by Edava Somanathan, a member of the community and its only historian in the written word. Somanathan's works, according to Varghese, "...&nbsp;are written from a pro-community perspective. Therefore, there are a lot of exaggerations and ] tirades in Kerala". Somanathan argues that the artisanal groups were a part of the ], pre-dating the arrival of Brahmins and their caste-based division of society. He claims implausible achievements are evidenced in both the arts and sciences during that egalitarian pre-Brahmin era, including the construction of aeroplanes.<ref name="Varghese" />{{fcn|date=July 2023}}
==Rishis and gotras==


This claim to Brahmin status is not generally accepted outside the community, despite their assumption of some high-caste traits, such as wearing the ], and the Brahminisation of their rituals. For example, the sociologist ], who developed the concept of ], juxtaposed the success of the ] caste in achieving advancement within ] society by such means with the failure of the Vishwakarma to achieve the same. Their position as a ] has not aided their ambition.<ref>{{cite book |title=The Modern Anthropology of India: Ethnography, Themes and Theory |first=Aya |last=Ikegame |chapter=Karnataka: Caste, dominance and social change in the 'Indian village' |editor1-first=Peter |editor1-last=Berger |editor2-first=Frank |editor2-last=Heidemann |publisher=Routledge |year=2013 |page=128 |isbn=9781134061112 |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=sBgLb8XIGR8C&pg=PA128}}</ref> They have been included in the list of ]es in some states of India.<ref></ref>
] created five prajapathies — from his five faces such as sadyojatham, vamadevam, akhoram, isanam, oordham . They are Manu, Maya, Twosta, Silpy, Viswajna and their respective Rishis (gotras) are,
*Sanaga Brahma Rishi
*Sanaathana Brahma Rishi
*Abhuvanasa Brahma Rishi
*Prathnasa Brahma Rishi
*Suparnasa Brahma Rishi


==List of castes==
Vishwakarma ] are divided into five ]s (or clans); each ]'s name is mentioned in the '']''(4.3.3). <ref name=Rangasami>{{cite book |last=Kashyap|first=Rangasami Laksminarayana |authorlink=Rangasami L. Kashyap |year=2003 |title=Kr̥ṣṇayajurvedīya Taittirīya-saṃhitā |accessdate=July 30, 2012 |isbn=8179940055}}</ref>
The following castes are considered to be members of the Vishwakarma community :
In later puranas he is sometimes identified with vedic Tvastr. Silpi Vishwakarma is the designer of all the flying chariots of the gods, and all their weapons and divine attributes. Vishwakarma/Tvostar is also credited with creating the missiles used in the mythological era, including the Vajra, the sacred weapon of Lord Indra, from the bones of sage Dadhichi. He is regarded as the supreme worker, the very essence of excellence and quality in craftsmanship.
In Mahabharata and Harivamsa, Viswakarma is the son of Vasu Prabhasa and Yoga-siddha. The Mahabharata describes him as "The Lord of the Arts, Executor of a thousand Handicrafts, the Carpenter of the Gods, the most eminent of Artisans, the Fashioner of all ornaments ... and a great architect God..." In paintings he wears a crown and a large amount of gold jewelry and holds a water-pot, a book, a noose, and craftsman's tools in his hands.
In some other Puranas he is the father of Barhishmatî and Samjna. The Ramayana represents him as having built the island-city of Lanka for the Shiva, and as having generated the ape Nala, who made Rama's bridge from the continent to the island.


* ]<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=bfAMAQAAMAAJ&dq=lohar+vishwakarma&pg=PA1520 |title=Communities, Segments, Synonyms, Surnames and Titles |page=1519 |year=1996 |publisher=Anthropological Survey of India|isbn=978-0-19-563357-3 }}</ref>
==Subdivisions==
The caste consists of five sub-castes: carpenters, blacksmiths, masons, brass smiths, and goldsmiths.<ref name="Ramaswamy2007">{{cite book|last=Ramaswamy|first=Vijaya|title=Historical dictionary of the Tamils|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=H4q0DHGMcjEC&pg=PA107|accessdate=16 January 2012|year=2007|publisher=Scarecrow Press|isbn=978-0-8108-5379-9|pages=107–108}}</ref> * ]<ref name=agg>{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=COcwoYRCYhcC&dq=Suthar+sutar+vishwakarma&pg=PA160 |title=Educational and Social Uplift of Backward Classes |page=160 |author=SP Aggrawal, JC Aggrawal |publisher=Concept Publishing Company |year=1991 |isbn=978-81-7022-339-9}}</ref>
* ]<ref name=pasw>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=GulBDMgxcU0C&dq=Khati+vishwakarma&pg=PA218 |page=218 |title=Encyclopaedia of Dalits in India: Emancipation and empowerment |publisher=Kalpaz Publications |editor=Sanjay Paswan, Jaideva Paramanshi|year=2002|isbn=978-81-7835-269-5 }}</ref>
==Panchal Movement to Reclaim Brahminical Right==
* ]<ref name=pasw/>
* ]<ref name=pasw/>


== Synonyms ==
"Panchals have the Brahmanic sanskars, or sacraments, and perform their ceremonies according to the Vedic Ritual. Frequent attempts were made in the days preceding British rule to deny them the rights to these Brahmanic privileges; but when the decision of pandits, or religious advisers when referred to, was in their favor." - James Hastings
Though the Panchals, also known as VishwaBrahmins, held great importance in olden times, some Brahmins refused to accept Panchals as being Brahmins. This refusal led to a feud between the two groups. During Peshwa Brahminical rule, the Panchals suffered much. The Panchals were not even allowed to tie the dhoti - a cloth worn between legs and around the waist - a mark of Brahminical rank.
The Peshwas belonged to the Chitpavan Brahmin caste and were actually late migrants to India, having arrived from the Middle East and Central Asia. The Peshwas competed with the Panchals, who saw themselves as being the original Brahmins and first builders of the Aryan Vedic civilization.
Nelson Hindu Law, Page 139-140 states - "The refusal of many castes in ancient times to accept the Brahmins as their pastors and masters would seem to have bred a hereditary feud between castes. The origin and history of the feud at present are wholly unknown but it seem to me to be not improbable that the feud sprang from rivalries and contentions between the supporters and adherents of Brahmins on one hand and those of the goldsmiths and other artificers on the other hand. In south of India the goldsmith’s appear to have strenuously resisted the aggressive supremacy of Brahmans and have, for ages, claimed for themselves the right to be priests and spiritual guides styling themselves as Acharyas (religious teacher) by wearing the sacred thread.
Meharban, a British collector, in his book ‘Bombay Gazetteer’ states in Solapur Vol XX page 125: "Panchals are composed of five classes: goldsmiths, bronzesmiths, blacksmiths, carpenters and masons. They consider themselves equals, if not superior, to the local Brahmins. Their family priests, who are members of their own community, are held in high respect. They gird their boys with the sacred thread at the age of seven to nine years. A feast called the Brahmins' feast or Brahma Bhojan is held where kith and kin and members of the caste are invited."


==Distribution== === Tamil Nadu ===
The Tamil Vishwakarmas are locally known as ], although they prefer to be known as Vishwakarma. They are divided into the ''Kannar'' (brass-workers), ''Kollar'' (blacksmiths), ''Tattar'' (goldsmiths), ''Tatchar'' or ''Suthar''/''Sutar''<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=EjORKo7maRUC&dq=Suthar+carpenter&pg=PA135 |editor=AM Shah |publisher=Taylor&Francis |page=135 |title=The Structure of Indian Society |year=2012|isbn=978-1-136-19770-3 }}</ref> (carpenters) and ''Kartatchar'' (sculptor), Vishwa Brahim.<ref name="Ramaswamy2007">{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=H4q0DHGMcjEC&pg=PA107|title=Historical dictionary of the Tamils|last=Ramaswamy|first=Vijaya|publisher=Scarecrow Press|year=2007|isbn=978-0-8108-5379-9|pages=107–108|access-date=16 January 2012}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|title=List of Backward Classes approved by Government of Tamil Nadu|url=https://bcmbcmw.tn.gov.in/bclist.htm|website=}}</ref>


===Kerala=== === Karnataka ===
The Vishwakarma caste of south ] is composed of several sub-castes: Kulachar, Uttaradi (goldsmiths), Matachar (founders), Muulekammaras, and Chikkamanes. Sub-castes do intermarry, and have a hierarchy among themselves.<ref name="gold">{{cite book |editor1-first=A. W. |editor1-last=van den Hoek |editor2-first=D. H. A. |editor2-last=Kolff |editor3-first=M. S. |editor3-last=Oort |title=Ritual, State, and History in South Asia: Essays in Honour of J. C. Heesterman |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=EtwtSZwyWpgC&pg=PA433 |pages=442–455 |publisher=BRILL |first=Jan |last=Brouwer |chapter=The Latecomers: A case study of caste and sub-caste of goldsmiths in Karnataka, South India|year=1992 |isbn=9004094679 }}</ref>{{vs|date=June 2013}}
Vishwakarmas of Kerala are also known as Achary, Kammalar, or Viswa Brahmanar. They exist in Tamil in two communities: one Tamil (primarily in Travancore), one Malayali. They are classified into five sub-castes:
Thachan/Marayasari/Tachu-āshāri (carpenters)
Shilpi/Kallassari/Kalla-āshari (masons, sculptors, potters)
Moosari/Mooshary (bronzesmiths)
Kollān/Karuvan (blacksmiths)
Thattan/Tattān (goldsmiths)
A legendary carpenter of the Kerala Vishwakarma, Perunthachan, figures prominently in Kerala folklore.
In ], the Vishwakarma community is also known as Acharyar, Achary, Kammalar, or Viswa Brahmanar.<ref name="ker">{{Cite book|last=Thurston|first=Edgar|coauthors=K. Rangachari|title=Castes and tribes of Southern India, |volume=Volume 3|pages=126–129}}</ref> They exist in Tamil in two communities: one Tamil (primarily in ]), one Malayali.<ref name="Iyer1968">{{cite book|last=Iyer|first=L. A. Krishna|title=Social history of Kerala|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=UU5DAAAAYAAJ|accessdate=16 January 2012|year=1968|publisher=Book Centre|page=6|quote=The Kammalars are divided into two classes, the Tamil Kammalar and the Malayali Kammalar.}}</ref>


===Tamil Nadu and Sree Lanka=== === Andhra Pradesh & Telangana ===
In Andhra they are known as Viswa brahmin or Viswakarma (Ausula or Kamsali, Kammari, Kanchari, Vadla or Vadra or ] and Silpi)<ref>{{Cite web|title=CENTRAL LIST OF OBCs FOR THE STATE OF ANDHRA PRADESH|url=https://bcmbcmw.tn.gov.in/bclist.htm}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|title=Central Government list of OBC - Telangana|url=http://www.ncbc.nic.in/user_panel/GazetteResolution.aspx?Value=mPICjsL1aLvZW9%2FwXcIbxcNal%2FTghxZUuV7adcx5Bs1cEGdzKqq0GufcXEZAUTq0}}</ref>


==See also==
Vishvabrahmins or Kamaalar or Aachari or Aasaari in Tamil Nadu form several occupational subdivisions.
* ]
Assari, Swarna Shilpis (goldsmiths) (surnames Pathar, Assari, Arkachari/Arkachary,in some areas in Tamil Nadu, Srilanka, especially around Thanjavur, Kumbakonam in India and Mattakalapu (Batticalo), Nachimarkovil (Jaffna) in Sri Lanka.
* ]
Kamsya Shilpis (silver and bronze smiths)
* ]
Ayo Shilpis (ironsmiths)
* ]
Daru Shilpis (carpenters)
* ]
Rathi Shilpis (stonemasons)
* ] (Vishwakarma Jayanti)
A number of prominent temples in Tamil Nadu were built by this community. Vishwabrahmins of Tamil Nadu engaged in Veda Adyayaana has shown their Vedic cognizance on numerous occasions. The Vishwakarma Peetham at Arunachalam, Thiruvannamalai dates back to 1500 years, and jagadguru sri. Adishivalinga acharya guruswamigal is the jagatguru for this peetham.
* ]
In ], Tamil achari or asari are known as 'Tamil Kammalars' They were goldsmith, and landlords.<ref name="Ramaswamy2007"/>.
* ]


===Karnataka=== == References ==
{{reflist}}
The Vishwakarma caste of south ], who is composed of several sub-castes.<ref name="gold">{{Cite book|last=Heesterman|first=J. C.|coauthors=A. W. van den Hoek, D. H. A. Kolff|others=M. S. Oort|title=Ritual, state, and history in South Asia: essays in honour of J.C. Heesterman |url=http://books.google.com/books?id=EtwtSZwyWpgC&printsec=frontcover&dq=Ritual,+state,+and+history+in+South+Asia:+essays+in+honour+of+J.C.+Heesterman&hl=en&sa=X&ei=vOW_UZ3SFKrE4AOQmYDgDQ&ved=0CC8Q6AEwAA|pages=442–455|chapter=Goldsmiths of Karnataka}}</ref>
* Kulachars/ aachar
*Shiv achars/acharya
*Uttaradi goldsmiths
*Matachar founders
*Muddekammaras
*Doddamanes<ref name="gold" />
*Chikkamanes


=== Bibliography ===
Most of these sub-castes do not intermarry and have a hierarchy among themselves.<ref name="gold" /> All the above sub caste is varied according to various regions of Karnataka. All the sub-castes worships the goddess ], they are very similar to ]s in their ritual practices but few of them are non-vegetarians.<ref name="gold" />.As some other Brahmin community eat Fish addressing it as "Jala Pushpam" (Flower from water).A small Sub-Caste in Koadgu called as Airi are also Vishwakarmas who came from Malabar region. Earlier they were goldsmiths, carpenters, blacksmiths and sculptors. They are non-vegetarians who follow customs and traditions of Kodagu.
The very ancient (14th century) and famous Sri Kali Temple situated at Shirasangi in Belgaum distirct maintained by the Viswakarma Brahmin community.
The Sankruthi Sahiti Prathishtana is a prominent organization from Karnataka working to bring the Vishwabrahmins back to a Vedic life style. G. Gnanananda, is running this organization and started Brahmshri shilpa gurukulam affiliated with Bangalore University at Chikballapur.


{{ref begin}}
===Andhra Pradesh===
* {{cite book |author=Vijaya Ramaswamy |chapter=Traditional Crafts, Technology, and Society in Pre-Colonial Peninsular India |editor=Rajat Datta |title=Rethinking a Millennium: Perspectives on Indian History from the Eighth to the Eighteenth Century |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=2H4PGhFB9ScC&pg=PA277 |year=2008 |publisher=Aakar Books |isbn=978-81-89833-36-7 }}
In Andhra Pradesh, Vishwakarmas are called Vishwabrahmins or Vishwakarma Brahmins. The Vishwakarmas, apart from the five traditional occupations, are also engaged in veda adhyanam. Many eminent Vishwakarma purohits have been felicitated by Government of Andhra Pradesh in honor of their excellence in the veda adhyayana. One of the oldest vedic schools of Andhra Pradesh, Yalavarti Anjaneya Shastri Veda Pathashala, in Tenali, founded in 1893, belongs to Vishwabrahmins and has produced thousands of vedic purohits and another vedic school, Patnala sanyasi rao Veda Pathashala, at Brahmam gari matham, Kadapa, has produced hundreds of vedic purohits by providing free food and accommodation.
{{ref end}}
Vishwabrahmins craftsmanship can be seen in the temples like Kalahasthi, Tirupathi, Srisailam, Lepakshi, Amaravathi, Warangal 1000 pillars temple, Alampur, Arasavilli, Bhadrachalam and Ramappa temple.
At Brahmam gari matham in Kadapa District, AP Sri Patnala Sanyasi Rao Garu constructed Navaratna Mandapam.Large numbers of Vishwabrahmin members are found in this state.{{cn|date=June 2013}}

===Madhya pradesh===
Vishwakarma Brahmins have a large presence in Madhya Pradesh. When the British founded the defense industry during the World War, lakhs of Vishwakarma Brahmins took employment in these factories. There is a legend that during the 1857 Indian uprising, the English noticed that the Rani of Jhansi was provided with arms and ammunition by the Vishwakarmas, who had achieved excellence in this field. Therefore when the arms and ammunition factory and the gun carriage factory was started by the English at Jubbalpore, the Vishwakarms were the first to get employment in these factories.

===Gujarat===
Main article: ]
Some of the profession practiced by ] and related last names are given below:
Carpentry: Gurjar Sutar (aka Suthar). The common last names in use are Panchal, Suthar, Mistry, Wadia, Pitroda, Sanghadia, Gajjar, Soni, Prajapati, Vaishya, Pancholi
Gold Smith : Soni
Stone-smith: known as Kadia
Blacksmith: known as Luhar with last names Panchal, Luhar, Sheth.
Sompuras: Related with construction of temples, wood and stone carving,
Panchals catered to the needs of chariots, horse carriages, furniture, home construction and agricultural equipment. The entrepreneurial Panchals developed designs and manufactured various parts, assemblies and sub-assemblies for cotton textile mills. They have been engaged in production of bobbins, shuttles, lattices, weaving looms and ancillary items of equipment for dyeing and bleaching, weaving looms, drilling rigs, water pumps, lathe machine, drilling machines and hand tools. With industrialization, Panchals adopted technical professions such as draughtsman, design engineer, architects, and shop floor and construction supervisors.

===Maharashtra===
Vishwakarmas are widely spread in Maharashtra as Lohar, Kasar, Sutar, Tambat, and Patharwat (stone-smiths).

===Goa and Konkan===
In the state of Goa and Konkan, Vishvakarmas are known as Charis who call themselves Vishwakarma Manu Maya Brahmins. Other artisan castes do not claim Vishvakarma status. Many artisans were converted and few immigrated during the Portuguese rule. Many who settled in Karnataka were temple builders and are called Gudigars. Others of the Shtapathis were converted and are now sometimes called Thavvayi in Konkani, which is a corrupted form of Sanskrit Sthapati.

===Rajasthan===
In Rajasthan, the Vishwakarmas are also known as Jangids and Suthar.

===Bengal===
Vishwakarmas in the state of Bengal have the last name of Kar or Karmakar.

===Uttar Pradesh, Delhi, Haryana and Bihar===
Vishwakarmas in the states of Uttar Pradesh, Delhi, ,] and Bihar have the surname of Vishwakarma, Panchal, Sharma, Mistry, Dhiman, Jangid, Taak, Kaushik, Lohar etc title. Panchal (ironsmith) and Mistry (house-builder) also known as Badhi or Badhai (carpenter).

===Orissa===
In the state of Orissa, Vishwakarma Brahmins have the following surnames: Moharana (this title used by all Viswakarmas), Mohapatra (only Mayas - Kastakars), Ojha (only Manu -Lauhakars)e.g. cricketer Pragyan Ojha, Sutar (only Maya -Kastakars), Sahu (Maya -Kastakars & Viswajna -Swarnkars), Parida (Maya -Kastakar and Manu -Lauhakars), Choudhry (Only Maya -Kastakars), Karamkar (Maya and Viswanja), Das (Maya -Kastakars), Bindhani/Achary (Maya -Kastakars), Badhei (Maya -Kastakars), Mistry (Maya -Kastakars & Manu -Lauhakars), Mishra (Maya-Kastakars), Subudhi (Maya -Kastakars) and Martha (Maya -Kastakars), Mishra, Senapati, Behera.

===North India ===
In Rajasthan, Uttar Pradesh, Madhya Pradesh, and Gujarat, the Vishwakarmas are also known as Vishwbrahmin.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Singh|first=Kumar Suresh|coauthors=B. K. Lavanta|others=Dipak Kumar Samanta, Sushil Kumar Mandal, N. N. Vyas,|title=Rajasthan, |publisher= Anthropological Survey of India|volume=Volume 2 |pages=201}}</ref>

==Diet==
Vishwakarmas in North and South India are strict vegetarians and practice complete abstinence from liquor and follow a strict ] diet.<ref name="Mukherjee1978">{{cite book|author=Meera Mukherjee|title=Metalcraftsmen of India|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=QxkEAAAAMAAJ|accessdate=18 June 2013|year=1978|publisher=Anthropological Survey of India, Government of India|pages=60, 62, 124}}</ref><ref name="ManoharShah1996">{{cite book|author1=Aashi Manohar|author2=Shampa Shah|title=Tribal arts and crafts of Madhya Pradesh|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=poDWAAAAMAAJ|accessdate=18 June 2013|year=1996|publisher=Mapin Publishing|isbn=978-0-944142-71-4|page=29}}</ref>

==Notables==
*] - engineer of Devas.
*] - engineer of Asuras, father of Mandodari.
*] - a Siddha who made the Muruga idol in Pazhani.
*] -(Guru of great Marathi saint Namadev).
*]-(Two brother saint from Maharashtra).
*]-(Great saint from Maharashtra who believed to live for 1400 years).
*]-(Famous saint from Maharashtra, India).
*]-(AP, India. He is considered as Indian Nostradamous).
*]-(Ap.India.It is believed that from the past 100 years he is still in tapasya in Nallamala Hills, India).
*].
*]( From Andhra Pradesh).
*]-( She is grand daughter of Veera Brahmam garu).
*]-( He is From Andhra pradesh).
*] - ( He is from Andhra pradesh).
*]- (Great saint from AP).
*].
*].
*].
*].
*].
*].
*] - saint-poet who was an ardent devotee of Venkateswara, and wrote many songs about him.
*] - As per Shankar Vijaya, Shankara sang ''I am a decendent of Twashter, ... I am a Brahmin of the Vishwakarma Caste''.<ref>{{cite book
| authors = Andhra Historical Research Society, Rajahmundry, Madras, Andhra Historical Research Society
| title = Journal of the Andhra Historical Society, Volumes 14-17\
| publisher = Andhra Historical Research Society., 1953
| url = http://books.google.com/books?id=gVNdhHtG134C&q=Journal+of+the+Andhra+Historical+Society,+Volumes+14-17&dq=Journal+of+the+Andhra+Historical+Society,+Volumes+14-17&hl=en&sa=X&ei=8-a_UcnIFJHB4AOApoDgDw&ved=0CDUQ6AEwAA
| page=161}} </ref>
*] - He is one of the Ashtadiggajas of Sree Krishnadevaraya dynasty. He has authored one of te great books of Telugu language NIRANKUSHOPAKHYANAM.
*].
*] - Legendary writer Currently in USA.
*] - (The fourth pillar of Buddhism - Harsha belonged to the Vaishya caste. In Bengal, Vishwakarmas are classified as Vaishya and have the surname Kar.)
*] - A well known Bengali writer and novelist and winner of the Sahitya Akademi Award in 1975.
*] - A legendary sculptor credited with building many fine temples for the Kalyani Chalukyas and Hoysalas, including the famous sculptures at Belur and Halebidu.
*] - (Vishwakarma Brahmins have Maharana as their last name in Orissa State. Bisu Maharana Is the prathana Shilpacharya of the world heritage temple KONARK).
*] - (Any one from telangana area of Andhra pradesh would have heard Ramappa. The Siva temple sculpted in 12th century is called as Ramappa temple).
*] - (Famous artist who has created the statue of Swami Vivekananda at Kanya Kumari).
*] - (A great living sage who is translating The Pranava Veda and has built the Thiruvalluvar Statue of kanyakumari).
*] - ( He is a living legend in AP author of MAYA VAASTHU book).
*] - ( He is a well renowned vaasthu sidd

===Books on history of Vishwabrahmins===
*Roberts, A.E. (1909). Visvakarma and his descendants. Calcutta: All-India Vishvakarma Brahman Mahasabha.
*Dr. Gnanananda, G. (Ed.) (1981). Sri Visvakarmayaya bhushanam (Kannada) original by K.P. Dixit (1878). KGF: *Jnana Bhandara.Kashyapa Shilpa Shastram,Brahmeeya Chitra Karma Shastram.
*Sharma, A.S. (1989). Visvakarma Smaj ka sankshipt itihas (Short history of Vishvakarma Society). New Delhi: Visvakarma Institute of Research and Education.
*Chinmayacharya, K. (2002), Devudu Manavudu, East Godavari.: Ramesh Kumar, K.
*Shilpashastra (शिल्पशास्त्र In Marathi). It was written on Shake 1165 that is more than 700 years back & was published by B.S. Sutar (Igatpuri, Nasik 1906).
*Vaddepati Niranjana Shastry. Vishwakarma Brahmana Vamshagamamu. Lang.: Telugu.
*Swarna Subramanya Kavi. Vishwabrahmanulaku Prathama Satkara Arhatha. Lang.: Telugu.
*Phanidapu Prabhakara Sharma. Vishwabrahmana Gothra Gayathri. Lang.: Telugu.
*Bharatiya Viswakarmajar:Edava Somanathan:Analytical study of the Indus Valley Civilisation
*Vishwabramma Puranam: V.Kathiresan Achari: The history of Vishwabrahmins: Lang: Tamil
*V. N. Gajandran chennai Viswabrama vamsham,gothram,puranam lang Tamil
*"Pancha Manushya Moola Varga Njanam" Compiled in Malayalam by 'A.K.V.Suvarnakar' (A.K.Velayudhan),Kannankulangara, Thrissur 680007, Kerala

===References===
{{reflist}}


== Further reading ==
*{{cite book |first=Jan |last=Brouwer |chapter=The Visvakarma Worldview |title=Prakriti: The Integral Vision |volume=1 (Primal Elements: The Oral Tradition) |editor-first=Baidyanath |editor-last=Saraswati |year=1995 |publisher=Indira Gandhi National Centre for the Arts |location=New Delhi |isbn=81-246-0037-6 |url=http://ignca.nic.in/ps_01011.htm}}
*{{cite book |first=Jan |last=Brouwer |chapter=The Story of the Magnetic Fort |title=The Leiden Tradition in Structural Anthropology: Essays in Honour of P.E. de Josselin de Jong |editor1-first=Rob |editor1-last=de Ridder |editor2-first=Jan A. J. |editor2-last=Karremans |publisher=Brill |location=Leiden |year=1987 |isbn=9789004085176 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=bQcVAAAAIAAJ}}
*{{cite book |first=Jan |last=Brouwer |title=The Makers of the World: Caste, Craft and Mind of South Indian Artisans |url=https://archive.org/details/makersofworld00brou |url-access=registration |location=Delhi |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=1995|isbn=978-0-19-563091-6 }}
*{{cite book|first=John Duncan Martin |last=Derrett |title=Essays in Classical and Modern Hindu Law: Dharmaśāstra and related ideas |url=https://archive.org/details/essaysinclassica0001derr |url-access=registration |year=1976 |publisher=Brill |isbn=978-90-04-04475-3 |pages=–46}}
*{{cite book |first=Vijaya |last=Ramaswamy |chapter=Traditional Crafts, Technology, and Society in Pre-colonial Peninsular India |editor-first=Rajat |editor-last=Datta |title=Rethinking a Millennium: Perspectives on Indian History from the Eighth to the Eighteenth Century : Essays for Harbans Mukhia |publisher=Aakar Books |location=Delhi |year=2008 |isbn=9788189833367 |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=2H4PGhFB9ScC&pg=PA275}}


]
^ Russell, R.V. and Lai, R.B.H., The tribes and castes of the Central Provinces of India, Asian Educational Services, 1995, ISBN 81-206-0833-X
]
^ a b Ananda K. Coomaraswamy, Indian Craftsman, Probsthain & co., 1909
]
^ Krishna, Rao M.V., Govardhana, Rao M., Jeevanna, Rao K., Glimpses of Karnataka, Reception Committee, 65th Session, Indian National Congress, 1960
^ Ernest B. Havell, The history of Aryan rule in India, from the earliest times to the death of Akbar, K.M.N. Publishers; (distributors: Atma Ram, Delhi), 1972, ASIN: B0006C8DA6
^ Hastings, James. Encyclopedia of Religion and Ethics. Part 18. pp. 559.
^ Encyclopedia of Religion and Ethics, Part 18 By James Hastings. ISBN 0766136957, 9780766136953, Google Books preview link
^ Thurston, Edgar; K. Rangachari. Castes and tribes of Southern India,. Volume 3. pp. 126–129.
^ http://books.google.com/books?id=UU5DAAAAYAAJ&q=tamil+kammalar&dq=tamil+kammalar&hl=en&ei=qpWETp6WFan50gG6w_XDDw&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=1&ved=0CC0Q6AEwAA The Kammalars are divided into two classes, the Tamil Kammalar and the Malayali Kammalar.
^ http://books.google.com/books?id=H4q0DHGMcjEC&pg=PA107&dq=kammalar+five&hl=en&ei=XZaEToTuEMbk0QGyvuHPDw&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=2&ved=0CDEQ6AEwAQ#v=onepage&q=kammalar%20five&f=false
^ http://books.google.com/books?id=5_qAAAAAMAAJ&q=Perunthachan+kerala&dq=Perunthachan+kerala&hl=en&ei=NZWETsSNH-nL0QGnlfXcDw&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=1&ved=0CDEQ6AEwAA
^ a b c d Heesterman, J. C.; A. W. van den Hoek, D. H. A. Kolff. "Goldsmiths of Karnataka". Ritual, state, and history in South Asia: essays in honour of J.C. Heesterman. M. S. Oort. pp. 442–455.
^ http://books.google.com/books?id=hRZK3mG5hgoC&pg=PA155&dq=nepal+lohar&hl=en&ei=zZuETqWvEcXn0QH5gpXZDw&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=6&ved=0CEsQ6AEwBQ#v=onepage&q=nepal%20lohar&f=false
^ Sinai Dhume, Anant Ramkrishna (1986). The cultural history of Goa from 10000 B.C.-1352 A.D.. Ramesh Anant S. Dhume, 1986. p. 37.
^ Singh, Kumar Suresh; B. K. Lavanta. Rajasthan,. Volume 2. Dipak Kumar Samanta, Sushil Kumar Mandal, N. N. Vyas,. Anthropological Survey of India. pp. 201.
The Tribes & Caste of Bombay, Enthoven
Shree Scanda Puran (Sayadri Khandha)-Ed. Dr. Jarson D. Kunha, Marathi version Ed. By Gajanan shastri Gaytonde. Published by Shree Katyani Publication, Mumbai.
Gomantak Prakrity & sanskriti -B. D. Satoskar. Shubhada Publication

Latest revision as of 21:12, 7 December 2024

Hindu artisan caste

The Vishwakarma community are a social group of India, sometimes described as a caste. They claim themselves to be Brahmin or of high-status in the caste hierarchy, although these claims are not generally accepted outside the community. The community comprises five subgroups—carpenters, blacksmiths, bronze smiths, goldsmiths and stonemasons— claim to be descendants of Vishvakarma, the builder and architect of heavenly realm, a Hindu deity.

Origin myths

The community claims to be descended from the god Vishvakarma, who is considered by Hindus to be the divine architect or engineer of the universe. He had five children — Manu, Maya, Tvastar, Shilpi and Visvajna — and these are believed by the Vishwakarma community to have been the forebears of their five subgroups, being respectively the gotras (clans) of blacksmiths, carpenters, bell metalworkers (metal casters), stonemasons and goldsmiths. It is not known whether these five subgroups historically practised endogamy, which is a frequently-found feature of the Indian caste system.

The origin myths of the Vishwakarma community were first consolidated in the early 18th century, during the British colonial rule. These myths were compiled in the Vishwakarma Puranam, whose original manuscript is undated but was most probably created in the mid-17th or 18th century. According to a popular myth recorded in the Vishwakarma Puranam, the five children of the god Vishwakarma served the gods as artisans, and possessed the ability to create things by simply visualising them. They had conserved their veerya by being celibates, and lived in a fort on the coast of Ilangapuri (Sri Lanka). The fort was made of lodestone, and the enemy weapons thrown at it were stuck to its walls, rendering it invincible. Their chief enemy was Karunakaran, a vassal of the Chola emperor. In order to defeat the Vishwakarmas, Karunakaran planted many beautiful women (Brahmin women according to some versions of the legend) in the fort. These women married the Vishwakarmas, thus destroying their spiritual power, and learned the secret that a certain type of poisonous grass could be used to burn up the fort. Using this secret, the enemy blew up the fort, and the Vishwakarmas were scattered in various areas, where they were forced to work as artisans and craftsmen for mortal humans.

History

While many sources refer to the five subgroups of the Vishwakarma as artisans, historian Vijaya Ramaswamy believes that the Vishwakarma of the medieval period should be distinguished as craftsmen, arguing that "... while every craftsman was an artisan, every artisan was not a craftsman". Ramaswamy notes that the socio-economic and geographic stability of a medieval village-based maker of ploughs differed considerably from that of the various people who banded together as Vishwakarma and lived a relatively itinerant lifestyle that was dependent on the "temple economy" that waxed and waned as dynasties such as the Vijayanagar Empire were formed and disintegrated. The latter group, who did work in proximity to each other while constructing and embellishing temples, had opportunities for socio-economic advancement but also bore the risks of withdrawal of patronage and changes in religious focus.

Position in society

In Andhra Pradesh, Telangana and Uttar Pradesh they come under Other Backward Class.

In Kerala, the Vishwakarmas have claimed a higher social status for many years, and believe that the trades which they traditionally follow are superior to the work of a manual labourer because they require artistic and scientific skills as well as those of the hand. According to George Varghese, their claim to high status is "one of the mainstays of Vishwakarma identity" in what is otherwise a fragmented, incoherent community that has often suffered from internal differences of opinion. Their claim has been voiced by Edava Somanathan, a member of the community and its only historian in the written word. Somanathan's works, according to Varghese, "... are written from a pro-community perspective. Therefore, there are a lot of exaggerations and anti-brahmin tirades in Kerala". Somanathan argues that the artisanal groups were a part of the Indus Valley civilisation, pre-dating the arrival of Brahmins and their caste-based division of society. He claims implausible achievements are evidenced in both the arts and sciences during that egalitarian pre-Brahmin era, including the construction of aeroplanes.

This claim to Brahmin status is not generally accepted outside the community, despite their assumption of some high-caste traits, such as wearing the sacred thread, and the Brahminisation of their rituals. For example, the sociologist M. N. Srinivas, who developed the concept of sanskritisation, juxtaposed the success of the Lingayat caste in achieving advancement within Karnataka society by such means with the failure of the Vishwakarma to achieve the same. Their position as a left-hand caste has not aided their ambition. They have been included in the list of Other Backward Classes in some states of India.

List of castes

The following castes are considered to be members of the Vishwakarma community :

Synonyms

Tamil Nadu

The Tamil Vishwakarmas are locally known as Kammalar, although they prefer to be known as Vishwakarma. They are divided into the Kannar (brass-workers), Kollar (blacksmiths), Tattar (goldsmiths), Tatchar or Suthar/Sutar (carpenters) and Kartatchar (sculptor), Vishwa Brahim.

Karnataka

The Vishwakarma caste of south Karnataka is composed of several sub-castes: Kulachar, Uttaradi (goldsmiths), Matachar (founders), Muulekammaras, and Chikkamanes. Sub-castes do intermarry, and have a hierarchy among themselves.

Andhra Pradesh & Telangana

In Andhra they are known as Viswa brahmin or Viswakarma (Ausula or Kamsali, Kammari, Kanchari, Vadla or Vadra or Vadrangi and Silpi)

See also

References

  1. Streefkerk, Hein (1985). Industrial Transition in Rural India: Artisans, Traders, and Tribals in South Gujarat. Bombay: Ramdas Bhatkal, Popular prakasham Pvt Ltd. p. 103. ISBN 0861320670.
  2. R.De, Ridder; J.A.J, Karremans (1987). The Leiden Tradition in Structural Anthropology. Netherlands: E.J Brill. ISBN 9004085173.
  3. ^ Varghese K., George (8–14 November 2003). "Globalisation Traumas and New Social Imaginary: Visvakarma Community of Kerala". Economic and Political Weekly. 38 (45): 4794–4802. JSTOR 4414253.
  4. ^ Ramaswamy, Vijaya (2004). "Vishwakarma Craftsmen in Early Medieval Peninsular India". Journal of the Economic and Social History of the Orient. 47 (4): 548–582. doi:10.1163/1568520042467154. ISSN 0022-4995. JSTOR 25165073. (subscription required)
  5. Vijaya Ramaswamy 2008, p. 277.
  6. Vijaya Ramaswamy 2008, pp. 287–288.
  7. Vijaya Ramaswamy 2008, p. 288.
  8. "Vijaya Ramaswamy | Jawaharlal Nehru University - Academia.edu". jnu.academia.edu. Retrieved 14 October 2020.
  9. "CENTRAL LIST OF OBCs FOR THE STATE OF ANDHRA PRADESH".
  10. "Central Government list of OBC - Telangana".
  11. Reconfiguring OBC politics in UP - Deccan Herald
  12. Ikegame, Aya (2013). "Karnataka: Caste, dominance and social change in the 'Indian village'". In Berger, Peter; Heidemann, Frank (eds.). The Modern Anthropology of India: Ethnography, Themes and Theory. Routledge. p. 128. ISBN 9781134061112.
  13. Central List of OBCs
  14. Communities, Segments, Synonyms, Surnames and Titles. Anthropological Survey of India. 1996. p. 1519. ISBN 978-0-19-563357-3.
  15. SP Aggrawal, JC Aggrawal (1991). Educational and Social Uplift of Backward Classes. Concept Publishing Company. p. 160. ISBN 978-81-7022-339-9.
  16. ^ Sanjay Paswan, Jaideva Paramanshi, ed. (2002). Encyclopaedia of Dalits in India: Emancipation and empowerment. Kalpaz Publications. p. 218. ISBN 978-81-7835-269-5.
  17. AM Shah, ed. (2012). The Structure of Indian Society. Taylor&Francis. p. 135. ISBN 978-1-136-19770-3.
  18. Ramaswamy, Vijaya (2007). Historical dictionary of the Tamils. Scarecrow Press. pp. 107–108. ISBN 978-0-8108-5379-9. Retrieved 16 January 2012.
  19. "List of Backward Classes approved by Government of Tamil Nadu".
  20. Brouwer, Jan (1992). "The Latecomers: A case study of caste and sub-caste of goldsmiths in Karnataka, South India". In van den Hoek, A. W.; Kolff, D. H. A.; Oort, M. S. (eds.). Ritual, State, and History in South Asia: Essays in Honour of J. C. Heesterman. BRILL. pp. 442–455. ISBN 9004094679.
  21. "CENTRAL LIST OF OBCs FOR THE STATE OF ANDHRA PRADESH".
  22. "Central Government list of OBC - Telangana".

Bibliography

Further reading

Categories: