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'''Laeti''' {{IPAc-en|ˈ|l|ɛ|t|aɪ}}, the plural form of '''laetus''' {{IPAc-en|ˈ|l|iː|t|ə|s}} also '''leti''', '''liti'''{{fact|date=September 2013}}, was a term used in the late ] to denote communities of ''barbari'' ("]", literally "babblers" - of outlandish tongues - i.e. foreigners, people from outside the Empire) permitted to, and granted land to, settle on imperial territory on condition that they provide recruits for the Roman military.<ref>Goldsworthy (2000) 215</ref> The term ''laetus'' (which means "happy" in Latin) is of uncertain origin, but most likely derives from a ] word meaning "serf" or "half-free colonist".<ref>Walde & Hofmann (1965) Bd. 1. A - L. 4. Aufl.</ref> Other authorities suggest the term was of Latin, Celtic or even Iranian origin.<ref>Neue Pauly-Wissowa ''Laeti''</ref> {{Lang|la|'''Laeti'''}} ({{IPAc-en|ˈ|l|ɛ|t|aɪ}}), the plural form of {{Lang|la|'''laetus'''}} ({{IPAc-en|ˈ|l|iː|t|ə|s}}), was a term used in the late ] to denote communities of {{Lang|la|barbari}} ("]"), i.e. foreigners, or people from outside the Empire, permitted to settle on, and granted land in, imperial territory on condition that they provide recruits for the Roman military.<ref>Goldsworthy (2000) 215</ref> The term {{Lang|la|laetus}} is of uncertain origin. It means "lucky" or "happy" in ], but may derive from a non-Latin word. It may derive from a ] ] meaning "serf" or "half-free colonist".<ref>Walde & Hofmann (1965) Bd. 1. A - L. 4. Aufl.</ref> Other authorities suggest the term was of Celtic or Iranian origin.<ref>Neue Pauly-Wissowa ''Laeti''</ref>


==Origin== ==Origin==
''Laeti'' may have been groups of migrants drawn from the tribes that lived beyond the Empire's borders. These had been in constant contact and intermittent warfare with the Empire since its northern borders were stabilized in the reign of ] in the early 1st century. In the West, these tribes were primarily ], living beyond the ]. There is no mention in the sources of ''laeti'' in the Eastern section of the Empire.<ref name="Jones 1964 620">Jones (1964) 620</ref> Literary sources mention ''laeti'' only from the late 3rd and 4th centuries. The ''{{Lang|la|laeti}}'' may have been groups of migrants drawn from the tribes that lived beyond the Empire's borders. These had been in constant contact and intermittent warfare with the Empire since its northern borders were stabilized in the reign of ] in the early 1st century. In the West, these tribes were primarily ], living beyond the ]. There is no mention in the sources of ''{{Lang|la|laeti}}'' in the Eastern section of the Empire.<ref name="Jones 1964 620">Jones (1964) 620</ref> Literary sources mention ''{{Lang|la|laeti}}'' only from the late 3rd and 4th centuries.

⚫ Although the literary sources mention ''{{Lang|la|laeti}}'' only from the 4th century onwards, it is likely that their antecedents existed from as early as the 2nd century: the 3rd-century historian ] reports that emperor ] (ruled 161–180) granted land in the border regions of ], ], ] and ], and even in Italy itself, to groups of ], ] and ] tribespeople captured during the ] (although Marcus Aurelius later expelled those settled in the peninsula after one group mutinied and briefly seized ], the base of the ]).<ref>Dio Cassius LXXI.11</ref> These settlers may have been the original ''{{Lang|la|laeti}}''. Indeed, there is evidence that the practice of settling communities of ''{{Lang|la|barbari}}'' inside the Empire stretches as far back as the founder-emperor ] himself (ruled 42 BC – 14 AD): during his time, a number of subgroups of German tribes from the eastern bank of the Rhine were transferred, at their own request, to the Roman-controlled western bank, e.g. the ], a subgroup of the ] tribe, and the ].<ref name="Tacitus Germ. XXVIII">Tacitus ''Germ.'' XXVIII</ref> In 69, the emperor ] is reported to have settled communities of ] from North Africa in the province of ] (modern Andalusia, Spain).<ref>Tacitus ''Hist.'' I.78</ref> Given the attestation of several auxiliary regiments with the names of these tribes in the 1st and 2nd centuries, it is likely that their admission to the empire was conditional on some kind of military obligations (Tacitus states that the Ubii were given the task of guarding the West bank of the Rhine) i.e. that they were ''{{Lang|la|laeti}}'' in all but name.<ref name="Tacitus Germ. XXVIII"/>


The name ''{{Lang|la|Laeti}}'' may have become more widely used after ] managed the support of the Danubian Legions for ] and eventually took 15 thousand Danubians to the ]s in Rome.
⚫ Although the literary sources mention ''laeti'' only from the 4th century onwards, it is likely that their antecedents existed from as early as the 2nd century: the 3rd century historian ] reports that emperor ] (ruled 161–180) granted land in the border regions of ], ], ] and ], and even in Italy itself, to groups of ], ] and ] tribespeople captured during the ] (although Marcus Aurelius later expelled those settled in the peninsula after one group mutinied and briefly seized ], the base of the ]).<ref>Dio Cassius LXXI.11</ref> These settlers may have been the original ''laeti''. Indeed, there is evidence that the practice of settling communities of ''barbari'' inside the Empire stretches as far back as the founder-emperor ] himself (ruled 42 BC - 14 AD): during his time, a number of subgroups of German tribes from the eastern bank of the Rhine were transferred, at their own request, to the Roman-controlled western bank, e.g. the ], a subgroup of the ] tribe, and the ].<ref name="Tacitus Germ. XXVIII">Tacitus ''Germ.'' XXVIII</ref> In 69, the emperor ] is reported to have settled communities of ] from North Africa in the province of ] (modern Andalusia, Spain).<ref>Tacitus ''Hist.'' I.78</ref> Given the attestation of several auxiliary regiments with the names of these tribes in the 1st and 2nd centuries, it is likely that their admission to the empire was conditional on some kind of military obligations (Tacitus states that the Ubii were given the task of guarding the West bank of the Rhine) i.e. that they were ''laeti'' in all but name.<ref name="Tacitus Germ. XXVIII"/>
The ] lasted for 42 years, during which Danubians served as ]s.


==Organisation== ==Organisation==


The precise constitutions which regulated ''laeti'' settlements are obscure.<ref name="Jones 1964 620"/> It is possible that their constitutions were standard, or alternatively that the terms varied with each individual settlement.<ref name="Elton 1996 130">Elton (1996) 130</ref> There is also doubt about whether the terms governing ''laeti'' were distinct from those applying to ''gentiles'' or ''dediticii'' (surrendering barbarians) or ''tributarii'' (peoples obliged to pay tribute).<ref name="Elton 1996 130"/> It is possible that these names were used interchangeably. On the other hand, they may refer to juridically distinct types of community, with distinct sets of obligations and privileges for each type. Most likely, the terms ''laeti'' and ''gentiles'' were interchangeable, as they are listed in the same section of the ''Notitia'', and referred to voluntary settlements.<ref name="Jones 1964 620"/> The precise constitutions which regulated ''{{Lang|la|laeti}}'' settlements are obscure.<ref name="Jones 1964 620"/> It is possible that their constitutions were standard, or alternatively that the terms varied with each individual settlement.<ref name="Elton 1996 130">Elton (1996) 130</ref> There is also doubt about whether the terms governing ''{{Lang|la|laeti}}'' were distinct from those applying to {{Lang|la|gentiles}} ("natives") or {{Lang|la|dediticii}} ("surrendered barbarians") or {{Lang|la|tributarii}} (peoples obliged to pay tribute).<ref name="Elton 1996 130"/> It is possible that these names were used interchangeably, or at least overlapped considerably. On the other hand, they may refer to juridically distinct types of community, with distinct sets of obligations and privileges for each type. Most likely, the terms ''{{Lang|la|laeti}}'' and ''{{Lang|la|gentiles}}'' were interchangeable, as they are listed in the same section of the {{Lang|la|]}}, and both referred to voluntary settlements.<ref name="Jones 1964 620"/> In addition, the {{Lang|la|Notitia}} often places the two terms together, e.g. the {{Lang|la|praefectus laetorum gentilium Svevorum}} at Bayeux and the {{Lang|la|praefectus laetorum gentilium}} at Reims.<ref>Notitia Occidens XLII</ref>


Reproductively self-sufficient groups of ''laeti'' (i.e. including women and children) would be granted land (''terrae laeticae'') to settle in the empire by the imperial government.<ref name="Jones 1964 620"/>. They appear to form distinct military ], which probably were outside the normal ], since the settlements were under the control of a Roman ''praefectus laetorum'' (or ''praefectus gentilium''), who would be responsible for either individual communities, e.g. the ''praefectus gentilium Sarmatarum Novariae'' ("prefect of the Sarmatian community at ]", N. Italy); or all communities of a particular tribe in a particular region, e.g. the ''praefectus gentilium Sarmatarum Calabriae at Apuliae'' ("prefect of Sarmatians in ] and ]", regions in southern Italy). The ''praefectus'' was clearly a military officer, as he in turn reported to the '']'' (commander of the imperial escort army) in Italy.<ref name="Notitia Occ. XLII">Notitia ''Occ.'' XLII</ref> This officer was, in the late 4th/early 5th centuries, the effective supreme commander of the Western Roman army. Reproductively self-sufficient groups of ''{{Lang|la|laeti}}'' (i.e. including women and children) would be granted land ({{Lang|la|terrae laeticae}}) to settle in the empire by the imperial government.<ref name="Jones 1964 620"/> They appear to have formed distinct military ], which probably were outside the normal ], since the settlements were under the control of a Roman {{Lang|la|praefectus laetorum}} (or {{Lang|la|praefectus gentilium}}), who were probably military officers, as they reported to the {{Lang|la|]}} (commander of the imperial escort army) in Italy.<ref name="Notitia Occ. XLII">Notitia ''Occ.'' XLII</ref> This officer was, in the late 4th/early 5th centuries, the effective supreme commander of the Western Roman army.


In return for their privileges of admission to the empire and land grants, the ''laeti'' settlers were under an obligation to supply recruits to the ], presumably in greater proportions than ordinary communities were liable to under the regular ] of the late empire. The treaty granting a ''laeti'' community land might specify a once-and-for-all contribution of recruits.<ref name="Jones 1964 620"/> Or a fixed number of recruits required each year.<ref name="Goldsworthy 2005 208">Goldsworthy (2005) 208</ref> Most likely, this would have been a specified proportion of all ''laeti'' males reaching military age (16 years). The proportion required is unknown, and may have varied. A possible parallel is the treaty with Rome of the ] tribe of ] in the 1st century. It has been calculated that in the ] era, as many as half all Batavi males reaching military age were enlisted in the Roman ].<ref>Birley (2002) 43</ref> In return for their privileges of admission to the empire and land grants, the ''{{Lang|la|laeti}}'' settlers were under an obligation to supply recruits to the ], presumably in greater proportions than ordinary communities were liable to under the regular ] of the late empire. The treaty granting a ''{{Lang|la|laeti}}'' community land might specify a once-and-for-all contribution of recruits.<ref name="Jones 1964 620"/> Or a fixed number of recruits required each year.<ref name="Goldsworthy 2005 208">Goldsworthy (2005) 208</ref> A possible parallel is the treaty with Rome of the ] tribe of ] in the 1st century. It has been calculated that in the ] era, as many as half of all Batavi males reaching military age were enlisted in the Roman ].<ref>Birley (2002) 43</ref>


⚫ There is considerable dispute about whether recruits from ''{{Lang|la|laeti}}'' settlements formed their own distinct military units or were simply part of the general pool of army recruits.<ref>Elton (1996) 130-2</ref> The traditional view of scholars is that the ''praefecti laetorum'' or ''gentilium'' mentioned in the ''{{Lang|la|Notitia}}'' were each in command of a regiment composed of the ''{{Lang|la|laeti}}'' ascribed to them. Some regiments of ''{{Lang|la|laeti}}'' certainly existed. The {{Lang|la|praesentales}} armies in both East and West contained {{Lang|la|]}} (elite cavalry units) of ''{{Lang|la|gentiles}}''.<ref>Notitia ''Occ.'' IX & ''Oriens'' XI</ref> There is also a mention of a regular regiment called ''{{Lang|la|Laeti}}'' in the clash between emperors ] and ] in 361; and a regiment called {{Lang|la|Felices Laetorum}} in 6th century Italy.<ref name="Elton 1996 131"/> The units {{Lang|la|ala I Sarmatarum}} and {{Lang|la|numerus Hnaufridi}} attested in 3rd century Britain may have been formed of ''{{Lang|la|laeti}}''.<ref>, from ''roman-britain.co.uk''</ref>
Also like the Batavi, who were granted the privilege in return for their disproportionate contributions to the military,<ref>Tacitus ''Germ.'' XXIX</ref> it is likely that ''laeti'' settlers enjoyed exemption from ''tributum'' (direct taxation on land and heads). A decree of 409 providing for the settlement of some ] tribespeople stipulates that they must pay taxes and be exempt from military service for 20 years. But this settlement was specifically aimed at increasing agricultural production, and the decree specifically provides that the settlers be known by the title ''coloni'' ("peasants") and no other. The decree probably implies that the requirement to pay taxes and exemption from military service were exceptional.<ref name="Elton 1996 130"/>


There is considerable dispute about whether ''laeti'' settlements formed their own separate units or were simply part of the general pool of army recruits.<ref>Elton (1996) 130-2</ref> The traditional view is that the ''praefecti laetorum'' or ''gentilium'' mentioned in the ''Notitia'' each were in command of a regiment composed of the ''laeti'' ascribed to them, on the basis that they reported to the ''magister militum praesentalis''. But Elton and Goldsworthy argue that ''laeti'' were normally drafted into existing military units, and only rarely formed their own.<ref name="Elton 1996 131">Elton (1996) 131</ref><ref>Goldsworthy (2003) 208</ref> The main support for this view is a decree of 400 AD in the '']'' which authorises a ''magister militum praesentalis'' to enlist Alamanni and Sarmatian ''laeti'', together with other groups such as the sons of veterans. This probably implies that ''laeti'' were seen as part of the general pool of recruits.<ref name="Elton 1996 131"/> In this case the ''praefecti laetorum/gentilium'' would have had administrative duties only, especially ensuring the full military levy each year. But Elton and Goldsworthy argue that ''{{Lang|la|laeti}}'' were normally drafted into existing military units, and only rarely formed their own.<ref name="Elton 1996 131">Elton (1996) 131</ref><ref>Goldsworthy (2003) 208</ref> The main support for this view is a decree of 400 AD in the '']'' which authorises a {{Lang|la|magister militum praesentalis}} to enlist Alamanni and Sarmatian ''{{Lang|la|laeti}}'', together with other groups such as the sons of veterans. This probably implies that ''{{Lang|la|laeti}}'' were seen as part of the general pool of recruits.<ref name="Elton 1996 131"/> In this case, the {{Lang|la|praefecti laetorum/gentilium}} may have been purely administrative roles, especially charged with ensuring the full military levy from their cantons each year.

⚫ Some regiments of ''laeti'' certainly existed. The ''praesentales'' armies in both East and West contained '']'' (elite cavalry units) of ''gentiles'', most likely formed of ''laeti''.<ref>Notitia ''Occ.'' IX & ''Oriens'' XI</ref> There is also a mention of a regular regiment called ''Laeti'' in the clash between emperors ] and ] in 361; and a regiment called ''Felices Laetorum'' in 6th century Italy.<ref name="Elton 1996 131"/> The units ''ala I Sarmatarum'' and ''numerus Hnaufridi'' attested in 3rd century Britain may have been formed of ''laeti''.<ref>, from ''roman-britain.org''</ref>


==''Notitia Dignitatum''== ==''Notitia Dignitatum''==
⚫ {{main|Notitia Dignitatum}}
⚫ Much of our information on ''{{Lang|la|laeti}}'' is contained in the ''{{Lang|la|]}}'', a document drawn up at the turn of the 4th/5th centuries. The document is a list of official posts in the Roman Empire, both civil and military. It must be treated with caution, as many sections are missing or contain gaps, so the {{Lang|la|Notitia}} does not account for all posts and commands in existence at the time of compilation. Furthermore, the lists for the two halves of the Empire are separated by as much as 30 years, corresponding to ca. 395 for the ] and ca. 425 for the ].<ref>Mattingly (2006) 238</ref> Therefore, not all posts mentioned were in existence at the same time, and not all posts that ''were'' in existence are shown.


⚫ The surviving {{Lang|la|Notitia}} only mentions ''{{Lang|la|laeti}}'' settlements in Italy and ] – and even the two lists of ''{{Lang|la|laeti}}'' prefects extant<ref name="Notitia Occ. XLII"/> are incomplete. But the ''{{Lang|la|Notitia}}'' suggests that ''{{Lang|la|laeti}}'' settlements may have existed in the Danubian provinces also.<ref name="Notitia Occ. XXXIV and XXXV">Notitia ''Occ.'' XXXIV and XXXV</ref> Furthermore, the lists probably contain errors. The list of {{Lang|la|praefecti laetorum}} in Gaul contains prefects for the ], ] and ]: but these tribes had been inside the empire since its inception under ]. Thus, their classification as ''{{Lang|la|laeti}}'' is problematic; most likely the text is corrupt. However, it has been suggested that these names may relate to Roman people displaced from their home areas.<ref name="Jones 1964 620"/>
Much of our information on ''laeti'' is contained in the '']'', a document drawn up at the turn of the 4th to 5th century. The document is a list of official posts in the Roman Empire, both civil and military. It must be treated with caution, as many sections are missing or contain gaps, so the ''Notitia'' does not account for all posts and commands in existence at the time of compilation. Furthermore, the lists for the two halves of the Empire are separated by as much as 30 years, corresponding to c. 395 for the ] and c. 425 for the ],<ref>Mattingly (2006) 238</ref> and may include deployments from as early as 379. Therefore not all posts mentioned were in existence at the same time, and not all posts that ''were'' in existence are shown.


⚫ === List of known ''{{Lang|la|laeti}}'' settlements ===
The surviving ''Notitia'' mentions ''laeti'' settlements only in ] - and even the two lists of ''laeti'' prefects extant<ref name="Notitia Occ. XLII">Notitia ''Occ.'' XLII</ref> are incomplete. But the ''Notitia'' suggests that ''laeti'' settlements may have existed in the Danubian provinces also.<ref name="Notitia Occ. XXXIV and XXXV">Notitia ''Occ.'' XXXIV and XXXV</ref> The list of ''praefecti laetorum'' in Gaul contains prefects for the ], ] and ].
⚫ Title XLII of the Western part contains two lists of ''{{Lang|la|laeti}}'' prefects, one for the ''{{Lang|la|praefecti laetorum}}'' in Gaul, and one for the {{Lang|la|praefecti gentilium Sarmatarum}} (prefects of Sarmatian {{Lang|la|gentiles}}, i.e. "natives") in Italy and Gaul, all under the command of the {{Lang|la|magister peditum praesentalis}}, the commander of the imperial escort army in Italy (despite his title, which means "master of infantry", this officer commanded cavalry as well as infantry units).<ref>Goldsworthy (2005) 204</ref>


⚫ ==== {{Lang|la|Praefecti laetorum}} in Gaul ====
⚫ ==''Notitia Dignitatum''==


⚫ * {{Lang|la|]}} and {{Lang|la|]}} at {{Lang|la|Baiocas}} (], Normandy) and {{Lang|la|Constantia}} (], Normandy)
⚫ Much of our information on ''laeti'' is contained in the '']'', a document drawn up at the turn of the 4th/5th centuries. The document is a list of official posts in the Roman Empire, both civil and military. It must be treated with caution, as many sections are missing or contain gaps, so the ''Notitia'' does not account for all posts and commands in existence at the time of compilation. Furthermore, the lists for the two halves of the Empire are separated by as much as 30 years, corresponding to ca. 395 for the ] and ca. 425 for the ],<ref>Mattingly (2006) 238</ref> and may include deployments from as early as 379. Therefore not all posts mentioned were in existence at the same time, and not all posts that ''were'' in existence are shown.
* {{Lang|la|Suevi}} at {{Lang|la|Ceromannos}} (], Maine) and at another, unknown location
* ] at {{Lang|la|Redonas}} (], Brittany)
* {{Lang|la|Teutoniciani}} (]?) at {{Lang|la|Carnunta}} (], Maine)
⚫ * {{Lang|la|Suevi}} in {{Lang|la|Arumbernos}} (])
* {{Lang|la|]}} dispersed over {{Lang|la|]}} province
⚫ * {{Lang|la|]}} at {{Lang|la|Epuso}}, {{Lang|la|Belgica I}}
* {{Lang|la|]}} at {{Lang|la|Fanomantis}} (], Picardy)
* {{Lang|la|Batavi Nemetacenses}} at {{Lang|la|Atrabatis}} (], Picardy)
* {{Lang|la|Batavi Contraginnenses}} at {{Lang|la|Noviomagus}} (], Netherlands)
* unspecified ''{{Lang|la|gentiles}}'' at {{Lang|la|Remo}} (], Champagne) and at {{Lang|la|Silvamectum}} (], Picardy)
* {{Lang|la|]}} near {{Lang|la|Tungri}} (], Belgium)
⚫ *


⚫ ==== {{Lang|la|Praefecti gentilium Sarmatarum}} in Italy ====
⚫ The surviving ''Notitia'' only mentions ''laeti'' settlements in Italy and ] - and even the two lists of ''laeti'' prefects extant<ref name="Notitia Occ. XLII"/> are incomplete. But the ''Notitia'' suggests that ''laeti'' settlements may have existed in the Danubian provinces also.<ref name="Notitia Occ. XXXIV and XXXV">Notitia ''Occ.'' XXXIV and XXXV</ref> Furthermore, the lists clearly contain errors. The list of ''praefecti laetorum'' in Gaul contains prefects for the ], ] and [[Batavi
* {{Lang|la|Apulia et Calabria}} (] and ])
(Germanic tribe)|Batavi]]: but these tribes had been inside the empire since its inception under ]. By the time the ''Notitia'' was compiled, they had provided recruits for the ] for four centuries, and had been ]s for nearly 200 years. They could not, therefore, have been classified as ''laeti''. Most likely the text is corrupt. Medieval copyists of the ''Notitia'' probably confused the name of a geographical region (e.g. Nerviorum - the territory of the Nervii) with the name of a ''laeti'' people. However, it has been suggested that these names could relate to displaced persons from those areas.<ref name="Jones 1964 620"/>
⚫ * {{Lang|la|] et ]}} (], ] and ])

⚫ * {{Lang|la|Forum Fulviense}}
⚫ === List of known ''laeti'' settlements ===
⚫ * {{Lang|la|Opittergum}} (], Friuli)
⚫ Title XLII of the Western part contains two lists of ''laeti'' prefects, one for the ''praefecti laetorum'' in Gaul, and one for the ''praefecti gentilium Sarmatarum'' (prefects of Sarmatian ''gentiles'') in Italy and Gaul, all under the command of the ''magister peditum praesentalis''- the commander of the imperial escort army in Italy (despite his title, which means "master of infantry", this officer commanded cavalry as well as infantry units).<ref>Goldsworthy (2005) 204</ref>
⚫ * {{Lang|la|Patavium}} (], Veneto)

⚫ ==== ''praefecti laetorum'' in Gaul ====
Removing the names of the "fake ''laeti''" mentioned above, and replacing them with "unidentified tribe", the following list results:{{Fact|date=May 2008}}

⚫ * ] and ] at ] and ], ] II
* ]: ] and another, unknown location in Lugdunensis III
* ]: ], Lugdunensis III
* ]: ], Lugdunensis IV
⚫ * ]: ] (]), ] I
* ]: ], Aquitanica
* (unidentified tribe): dispersed over Belgica I
⚫ * ]: ], Belgica I
* (unidentified tribe): ], Belgica II
* (unidentified tribe): ], Belgica II
* (unidentified tribe) Contraginnenses: ], Belgica II
* unspecified ''gentiles'': ] and ], Belgica II
* ]: near the ], Germania II

⚫ * (substantial section missing)

⚫ ==== ''praefecti gentilium Sarmatarum'' in Italy ====
* ''Apulia et Calabria'' (the region today known as ], the "heel" of the Italian "boot")
⚫ * ''] et ]'' (the regions today known as ], ] and ], southern Italy)
⚫ * ''Forum Fulviense''
⚫ * ''Opittergum'' (], Friuli, NE Italy)
⚫ * ''Patavium'' (], Veneto, NE Italy)
* (placename missing) * (placename missing)
* ''Cremona'' (], Lombardia, N Italy) * {{Lang|la|Cremona}} (], Lombardy)
* '']'' (], Piemonte, NW Italy) * {{Lang|la|]}} (], Piedmont)
* ''Aquae sive Tertona'' (], Piemonte, NW Italy) * {{Lang|la|Aquae sive Tertona}} (], Piedmont)
* ''Novaria'' (], Piemonte, NW Italy) * {{Lang|la|Novaria}} (], Piedmont)
* ''Vercellae'' (], Piemonte, NW Italy) * {{Lang|la|Vercellae}} (], Piedmont)
* ''Regio Samnites'' (], Campania, southern Italy) * {{Lang|la|Regio Samnites}} (], Campania)
* ''Bononia in Aemilia'' (], Emilia-Romagna, N central Italy) * {{Lang|la|Bononia in Aemilia}} (], Emilia-Romagna)
* ''Quadratae et Eporizium'' (]?, Friuli, NE Italy) * {{Lang|la|Quadratae et Eporizium}} (] and ], Piedmont)
* ''(in Liguria) Pollentia'' (], Piemonte, NW Italy) * {{Lang|la|(in Liguria) Pollentia}} (], Piedmont)

⚫ ==== ''praefecti gentilium Sarmatarum'' in Gaul ====
⚫ * '']'' (] west central France): N.B. Taifali also mentioned here
⚫ * ''a Chora Parisios usque'' (] region)
⚫ * ''inter Remos et Ambianos Belgica II'' (] region)
⚫ * ''per tractum Rodunensem et Alaunorum'' (] area? NW France) : N.B. ''Alauni'' (]) were probably also present here
⚫ * '']'' (], NE France)
⚫ * ''Au...'' (name unintelligible)


⚫ ==== ''{{Lang|la|Praefecti gentilium Sarmatarum}}'' in Gaul ====
⚫ * (entire folio - two pages - missing)
⚫ * {{Lang|la|]}} (], Poitou): N.B. {{Lang|la|]}} also mentioned here
⚫ * {{Lang|la|a Chora Parisios usque}} (] region)
⚫ * {{Lang|la|inter Remos et Ambianos Belgica II}} (] region)
⚫ * {{Lang|la|per tractum Rodunensem et Alaunorum}} (] area?) : N.B. {{Lang|la|]}} were probably also present here
⚫ * {{Lang|la|]}} (], Champagne)
⚫ * {{Lang|la|Au...}} (name unintelligible)
⚫ *


=== Marcomanni === === Marcomanni ===
The ''Notitia'' also mentions a ''tribunus gentis Marcomannorum'' under the command of the ''dux Pannoniae et Norici'' and a ''tribunus gentis per Raetias deputatae'' (tribune of natives in the ]n provinces).<ref name="Notitia Occ. XXXIV and XXXV"/> These ] were probably ''laeti'' also and may be the descendants of tribespeople settled in the area in the 2nd century by Marcus Aurelius.Alternatively (or additionally) they may have been descended from Germans settled in Pannonia following ]'s treaty with King Attalus of the Marcomanni in @ 258/9 AD.<ref>Alfoldi: Cambridge Ancient History, Vol XII 1939)</ref> The ''{{Lang|la|Notitia}}'' also mentions a {{Lang|la|tribunus gentis Marcomannorum}} under the command of the {{Lang|la|dux Pannoniae et Norici}} and a {{Lang|la|tribunus gentis per Raetias deputatae}} (tribune of natives in the ]n provinces).<ref name="Notitia Occ. XXXIV and XXXV"/> These ] were probably ''{{Lang|la|laeti}}'' also and may be the descendants of tribespeople settled in the area in the 2nd century by Marcus Aurelius. Alternatively (or additionally), they may have been descended from Germans settled in Pannonia following ]'s treaty with King Attalus of the Marcomanni in AD 258 or 259.<ref>Alfoldi: Cambridge Ancient History, Vol XII 1939)</ref>


The ''Notitia'' thus contains 34 entries concerning ''laeti''. But some entries relate to several settlements, not just one, e.g. the Sarmatian settlements in Apulia and Calabria. Furthermore, more than two pages of entries appear to be missing. The number of settlements may thus have been in the hundreds, in the western half of the empire alone. The ''{{Lang|la|Notitia}}'' thus contains 34 entries concerning ''{{Lang|la|laeti}}''. But some entries relate to several settlements, not just one, e.g. the Sarmatian settlements in Apulia and Calabria. Furthermore, more than two pages of entries appear to be missing. The number of settlements may thus have been in the hundreds, in the western half of the empire alone.


==Impact== ==Impact==


The ''Notitia'' lists of ''laeti'' settlements, incomplete as they are, show their considerable proliferation over the fourth century. This, together with the large numbers of military units with barbarian names, gave rise to the "barbarisation" theory of the fall of the Roman empire. This view ultimately originates from ]'s ''magnum opus'', the '']''. According to this view, a critical factor in the disintegration of the western Roman empire in the 5th century was the Romans' ever-increasing reliance on barbarian recruits to man (and lead) their armies, while they themselves became soft and averse to military service. The barbarian recruits had no fundamental loyalty to Rome and repeatedly betrayed Rome's interests. This view does not distinguish between ''laeti'', ] and mercenaries. The {{Lang|la|Notitia}} lists of ''{{Lang|la|laeti}}'' settlements, incomplete as they are, show their considerable proliferation over the fourth century. This, together with the large numbers of military units with barbarian names, gave rise to the "barbarisation" theory of the fall of the Roman empire. This view ultimately originates from ]'s ''magnum opus'', the '']''. According to this view, a critical factor in the disintegration of the western Roman empire in the 5th century was the Romans' ever-increasing reliance on barbarian recruits to man (and lead) their armies, while they themselves became soft and averse to military service. The barbarian recruits had no fundamental loyalty to Rome and repeatedly betrayed Rome's interests. This view does not distinguish between ''laeti'', ] and mercenaries.


According to Goldsworthy, there is no evidence that barbarian officers or men were any less reliable than their Roman counterparts.<ref name="Goldsworthy 2005 208"/> Instead, the evidence points to the conclusion that ''laeti'' were a crucial source of first-rate recruits to late Roman army. This view has remained in history writing since the more than 200 years since Gibbon wrote his narrative. In recent times the views of Gibbon has been generally discounted. According to Goldsworthy, there is no evidence that barbarian officers or men were any less reliable than their Roman counterparts.<ref name="Goldsworthy 2005 208"/> Instead, the evidence points to the conclusion that ''{{Lang|la|laeti}}'' were a crucial source of first-rate recruits to late Roman army. Recruitment of Barbarians was not something new and had been present since the days of the ], Julius Caesar and Marc Antony recruited defeated Gallic and German horsemen which served in their campaigns. The practice was taken up by the first emperor ] with the establishment of the auxiliaries, incorporating the defeated Barbarians into the Roman army. The {{Lang|la|Laeti}}, like the auxiliaries, were set on a path of Romanization.

⚫ == See also ==
⚫ *]
⚫ *]


== Citations == == Citations ==
{{reflist|3}} {{reflist|35em}}


== References == == References ==
Line 103: Line 99:


=== Modern === === Modern ===

* Birley, Anthony (2002), ''Band of Brothers: Garrison Life at Vindolanda'' * Birley, Anthony (2002), ''Band of Brothers: Garrison Life at Vindolanda''
* Elton, Hugh (1996), ''Roman Warfare 350-425'' * Elton, Hugh (1996), ''Roman Warfare 350-425''
Line 112: Line 107:
* Neue ] * Neue ]
* Walde, A. and Hofmann, J.B. (1965), ''Lateinisches etymologisches Wörterbuch''. * Walde, A. and Hofmann, J.B. (1965), ''Lateinisches etymologisches Wörterbuch''.

⚫ == See also ==
⚫ *]
⚫ *]


] ]

Latest revision as of 22:52, 21 February 2024

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Laeti (/ˈlɛtaɪ/), the plural form of laetus (/ˈliːtəs/), was a term used in the late Roman Empire to denote communities of barbari ("barbarians"), i.e. foreigners, or people from outside the Empire, permitted to settle on, and granted land in, imperial territory on condition that they provide recruits for the Roman military. The term laetus is of uncertain origin. It means "lucky" or "happy" in Latin, but may derive from a non-Latin word. It may derive from a Germanic word meaning "serf" or "half-free colonist". Other authorities suggest the term was of Celtic or Iranian origin.

Origin

The laeti may have been groups of migrants drawn from the tribes that lived beyond the Empire's borders. These had been in constant contact and intermittent warfare with the Empire since its northern borders were stabilized in the reign of Augustus in the early 1st century. In the West, these tribes were primarily Germans, living beyond the Rhine. There is no mention in the sources of laeti in the Eastern section of the Empire. Literary sources mention laeti only from the late 3rd and 4th centuries.

Although the literary sources mention laeti only from the 4th century onwards, it is likely that their antecedents existed from as early as the 2nd century: the 3rd-century historian Dio Cassius reports that emperor Marcus Aurelius (ruled 161–180) granted land in the border regions of Germania, Pannonia, Moesia and Dacia, and even in Italy itself, to groups of Marcomanni, Quadi and Iazyges tribespeople captured during the Marcomannic Wars (although Marcus Aurelius later expelled those settled in the peninsula after one group mutinied and briefly seized Ravenna, the base of the Adriatic fleet). These settlers may have been the original laeti. Indeed, there is evidence that the practice of settling communities of barbari inside the Empire stretches as far back as the founder-emperor Augustus himself (ruled 42 BC – 14 AD): during his time, a number of subgroups of German tribes from the eastern bank of the Rhine were transferred, at their own request, to the Roman-controlled western bank, e.g. the Cugerni, a subgroup of the Sugambri tribe, and the Ubii. In 69, the emperor Otho is reported to have settled communities of Mauri from North Africa in the province of Hispania Baetica (modern Andalusia, Spain). Given the attestation of several auxiliary regiments with the names of these tribes in the 1st and 2nd centuries, it is likely that their admission to the empire was conditional on some kind of military obligations (Tacitus states that the Ubii were given the task of guarding the West bank of the Rhine) i.e. that they were laeti in all but name.

The name Laeti may have become more widely used after Quintus Aemilius Laetus managed the support of the Danubian Legions for Septimius Severus and eventually took 15 thousand Danubians to the Praetorian Guards in Rome. The Severan dynasty lasted for 42 years, during which Danubians served as Praetorian Guards.

Organisation

The precise constitutions which regulated laeti settlements are obscure. It is possible that their constitutions were standard, or alternatively that the terms varied with each individual settlement. There is also doubt about whether the terms governing laeti were distinct from those applying to gentiles ("natives") or dediticii ("surrendered barbarians") or tributarii (peoples obliged to pay tribute). It is possible that these names were used interchangeably, or at least overlapped considerably. On the other hand, they may refer to juridically distinct types of community, with distinct sets of obligations and privileges for each type. Most likely, the terms laeti and gentiles were interchangeable, as they are listed in the same section of the Notitia Dignitatum, and both referred to voluntary settlements. In addition, the Notitia often places the two terms together, e.g. the praefectus laetorum gentilium Svevorum at Bayeux and the praefectus laetorum gentilium at Reims.

Reproductively self-sufficient groups of laeti (i.e. including women and children) would be granted land (terrae laeticae) to settle in the empire by the imperial government. They appear to have formed distinct military cantons, which probably were outside the normal provincial administration, since the settlements were under the control of a Roman praefectus laetorum (or praefectus gentilium), who were probably military officers, as they reported to the magister peditum praesentalis (commander of the imperial escort army) in Italy. This officer was, in the late 4th/early 5th centuries, the effective supreme commander of the Western Roman army.

In return for their privileges of admission to the empire and land grants, the laeti settlers were under an obligation to supply recruits to the Roman army, presumably in greater proportions than ordinary communities were liable to under the regular conscription of the late empire. The treaty granting a laeti community land might specify a once-and-for-all contribution of recruits. Or a fixed number of recruits required each year. A possible parallel is the treaty with Rome of the Batavi tribe of Germania Inferior in the 1st century. It has been calculated that in the Julio-Claudian era, as many as half of all Batavi males reaching military age were enlisted in the Roman auxilia.

There is considerable dispute about whether recruits from laeti settlements formed their own distinct military units or were simply part of the general pool of army recruits. The traditional view of scholars is that the praefecti laetorum or gentilium mentioned in the Notitia were each in command of a regiment composed of the laeti ascribed to them. Some regiments of laeti certainly existed. The praesentales armies in both East and West contained scholae (elite cavalry units) of gentiles. There is also a mention of a regular regiment called Laeti in the clash between emperors Constantius II and Julian in 361; and a regiment called Felices Laetorum in 6th century Italy. The units ala I Sarmatarum and numerus Hnaufridi attested in 3rd century Britain may have been formed of laeti.

But Elton and Goldsworthy argue that laeti were normally drafted into existing military units, and only rarely formed their own. The main support for this view is a decree of 400 AD in the Codex Theodosianus which authorises a magister militum praesentalis to enlist Alamanni and Sarmatian laeti, together with other groups such as the sons of veterans. This probably implies that laeti were seen as part of the general pool of recruits. In this case, the praefecti laetorum/gentilium may have been purely administrative roles, especially charged with ensuring the full military levy from their cantons each year.

Notitia Dignitatum

Main article: Notitia Dignitatum

Much of our information on laeti is contained in the Notitia Dignitatum, a document drawn up at the turn of the 4th/5th centuries. The document is a list of official posts in the Roman Empire, both civil and military. It must be treated with caution, as many sections are missing or contain gaps, so the Notitia does not account for all posts and commands in existence at the time of compilation. Furthermore, the lists for the two halves of the Empire are separated by as much as 30 years, corresponding to ca. 395 for the Eastern section and ca. 425 for the West. Therefore, not all posts mentioned were in existence at the same time, and not all posts that were in existence are shown.

The surviving Notitia only mentions laeti settlements in Italy and Gaul – and even the two lists of laeti prefects extant are incomplete. But the Notitia suggests that laeti settlements may have existed in the Danubian provinces also. Furthermore, the lists probably contain errors. The list of praefecti laetorum in Gaul contains prefects for the Lingones, Nervii and Batavi: but these tribes had been inside the empire since its inception under Augustus. Thus, their classification as laeti is problematic; most likely the text is corrupt. However, it has been suggested that these names may relate to Roman people displaced from their home areas.

List of known laeti settlements

Title XLII of the Western part contains two lists of laeti prefects, one for the praefecti laetorum in Gaul, and one for the praefecti gentilium Sarmatarum (prefects of Sarmatian gentiles, i.e. "natives") in Italy and Gaul, all under the command of the magister peditum praesentalis, the commander of the imperial escort army in Italy (despite his title, which means "master of infantry", this officer commanded cavalry as well as infantry units).

Praefecti laetorum in Gaul

Praefecti gentilium Sarmatarum in Italy

Praefecti gentilium Sarmatarum in Gaul

Marcomanni

The Notitia also mentions a tribunus gentis Marcomannorum under the command of the dux Pannoniae et Norici and a tribunus gentis per Raetias deputatae (tribune of natives in the Raetian provinces). These Marcomanni were probably laeti also and may be the descendants of tribespeople settled in the area in the 2nd century by Marcus Aurelius. Alternatively (or additionally), they may have been descended from Germans settled in Pannonia following Gallienus's treaty with King Attalus of the Marcomanni in AD 258 or 259.

The Notitia thus contains 34 entries concerning laeti. But some entries relate to several settlements, not just one, e.g. the Sarmatian settlements in Apulia and Calabria. Furthermore, more than two pages of entries appear to be missing. The number of settlements may thus have been in the hundreds, in the western half of the empire alone.

Impact

The Notitia lists of laeti settlements, incomplete as they are, show their considerable proliferation over the fourth century. This, together with the large numbers of military units with barbarian names, gave rise to the "barbarisation" theory of the fall of the Roman empire. This view ultimately originates from Edward Gibbon's magnum opus, the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire. According to this view, a critical factor in the disintegration of the western Roman empire in the 5th century was the Romans' ever-increasing reliance on barbarian recruits to man (and lead) their armies, while they themselves became soft and averse to military service. The barbarian recruits had no fundamental loyalty to Rome and repeatedly betrayed Rome's interests. This view does not distinguish between laeti, foederati and mercenaries.

This view has remained in history writing since the more than 200 years since Gibbon wrote his narrative. In recent times the views of Gibbon has been generally discounted. According to Goldsworthy, there is no evidence that barbarian officers or men were any less reliable than their Roman counterparts. Instead, the evidence points to the conclusion that laeti were a crucial source of first-rate recruits to late Roman army. Recruitment of Barbarians was not something new and had been present since the days of the Roman Republic, Julius Caesar and Marc Antony recruited defeated Gallic and German horsemen which served in their campaigns. The practice was taken up by the first emperor Augustus with the establishment of the auxiliaries, incorporating the defeated Barbarians into the Roman army. The Laeti, like the auxiliaries, were set on a path of Romanization.

See also

Citations

  1. Goldsworthy (2000) 215
  2. Walde & Hofmann (1965) Bd. 1. A - L. 4. Aufl.
  3. Neue Pauly-Wissowa Laeti
  4. ^ Jones (1964) 620
  5. Dio Cassius LXXI.11
  6. ^ Tacitus Germ. XXVIII
  7. Tacitus Hist. I.78
  8. ^ Elton (1996) 130
  9. Notitia Occidens XLII
  10. ^ Notitia Occ. XLII
  11. ^ Goldsworthy (2005) 208
  12. Birley (2002) 43
  13. Elton (1996) 130-2
  14. Notitia Occ. IX & Oriens XI
  15. ^ Elton (1996) 131
  16. Roman Army in Britain, from roman-britain.co.uk
  17. Goldsworthy (2003) 208
  18. Mattingly (2006) 238
  19. ^ Notitia Occ. XXXIV and XXXV
  20. Goldsworthy (2005) 204
  21. Alfoldi: Cambridge Ancient History, Vol XII 1939)

References

Ancient

Modern

  • Birley, Anthony (2002), Band of Brothers: Garrison Life at Vindolanda
  • Elton, Hugh (1996), Roman Warfare 350-425
  • Goldsworthy, Adrian (2000), Roman Warfare
  • Goldsworthy Adrian, (2005), The Complete Roman Army
  • Jones, A. H. M. (1964), Later Roman Empire
  • Mattingly, David (2006), An imperial possession: Britain in the Roman empire
  • Neue Pauly-Wissowa
  • Walde, A. and Hofmann, J.B. (1965), Lateinisches etymologisches Wörterbuch.
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