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			{{Short description\|Science of arranging events in order of occurrence}}
	{{For\|the Misplaced Pages timeline\|Centuries}}
			{{About\|\|other uses\|Chronology (disambiguation)\|specific lists of events\|Timeline}}
	{{For\|the novel by Michael Crichton\|Timeline (novel)}}
			{{redirect\|Chronography\|historical works with this title\|Chronographia}}
			{{More citations needed\|date=January 2008}}
			]'s ''De emendatione temporum'' (1583) began the modern science of chronology<ref>{{cite book
			\| first = E. G. \| last = Richards \| author-link = \| title = Mapping Time: The Calendar and History \| url = https://archive.org/details/mappingtimecalen00rich \| url-access = registration \| place = Oxford \| publisher = ] \| year = 1998 \| pages = \| isbn = 0-19-286205-7}}</ref>]]

			'''Chronology''' (from ] {{Lang\|la\|chronologia}}, from ] {{lang\|grc\|]}}, {{Lang\|grc-latn\|chrónos}}, {{Gloss\|time}}; and {{lang\|grc\|-λογία}}, '']'')<ref>{{cite EB1911\|wstitle=Chronology\|volume=6\|last= Cates \|first=William Leist Readwin \|author-link= William Leist Readwin Cates\| pages=305-318 \|short=1}}</ref> is the ] of arranging events in their order of occurrence in ]. Consider, for example, the use of a ] or ]. It is also "the determination of the actual temporal sequence of past events".<ref name="wordnet">Memidex/WordNet, "chronology," {{Webarchive\|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191215083359/http://www.memidex.com/chronology+humanistic-discipline \|date=2019-12-15 }} (accessed September 25, 2010).</ref>
	]]]
	'''Chronology''' is the science of locating events in ]. An arrangement of events, from either earliest to latest or the reverse, is also called a '''chronology''' or, particularly when involving graphical elements, a timeline. See also ].

			Chronology is a part of ]. It is also a part of the discipline of ] including ], the ], and study of the ].
	== Definition ==
	Unlike ] (i.e. timekeeping), which is part of ], chronology (i.e. arithmetic of time), as the science of localizing historical events in time, is part of ].

			==Related fields==
	The familiar terms ‘]’ (taken as a system of numbered calendar years) and ‘]’ concern two complementary fundamental concepts of chronology. So during eight centuries the calendar belonging to the ], which era was taken in use in the eighth century, was the ], but after the year 1582 it was the ]. ] (about the year 500) was the founder.
			Chronology is the science of locating historical events in time. It relies mostly upon ], which is also known as timekeeping, and ], which examines the writing of history and the use of historical methods. ] estimates the age of formerly living things by measuring the proportion of ] ] in their ] content. ] estimates the age of trees by ] of the various ] in their wood to known year-by-year reference sequences in the region to reflect year-to-year climatic variation. Dendrochronology is used in turn as a ] reference for ] curves.

			==Calendar and era==
	A chronology may be either ''relative''—that is, locating related events relative to each other—or ''absolute''—locating these events to specific ]s in a '''Chronological ]'''. In that these dates are themselves events, the difference between the two blurs a little: an absolute chronology just includes a special sort of event called a '''date''' which is common to all absolute chronologies covering the same period of time. Even this distinction may be blurred by use of different ]s; in Judeo-Christian cultures, historical dates in an absolute chronology are understood to be referred to the ] in combination with the ].
			{{Main\|Calendar}}

			The familiar terms '']'' and '']'' (within the meaning of a coherent system of numbered calendar years) concern two complementary fundamental concepts of chronology. For example, during eight centuries the calendar belonging to the ], which era was taken in use in the 8th century by ], was the Julian calendar, but after the year 1582 it was the Gregorian calendar. ] (about the year 500) was the founder of that era, which is nowadays the most widespread dating system on earth. An ] is the date (year usually) when an era begins.
	Other familiar chronological subjects are for example: ], ], ], ]. Subjects of the Christian chronology are for example: ], ], ], ], ], ], ].

			===Ab Urbe condita era===
	In the absence of written history, with its ] and ]s, late 19th century archaeologists found that they could develop relative chronologies based on pottery techniques and styles. In the field of ], ] pioneered sequence dating to penetrate pre-dynastic ] times, using groups of contemporary artefacts deposited together at a single time in graves and working backwards methodically from the earliest historical phases of Egypt. Compare the American technique of ].
			{{Main\|Ab urbe condita}}
			''Ab Urbe condita'' is ] for "from ] of the City (])",<ref>Literally translated as "From the city having been founded".</ref> traditionally set in 753 BC. It was used to identify the Roman year by a few Roman historians. Modern historians use it much more frequently than the Romans themselves did; the dominant method of identifying Roman years was to name the two ]s who held office that year. Before the advent of the modern critical edition of historical Roman works, AUC was indiscriminately added to them by earlier editors, making it appear more widely used than it actually was.

			It was used systematically for the first time only about the year 400, by the Iberian historian ]. ], in about the year 600, seems to have been the first who made a connection between these this era and ]. (AD 1 = AUC 754.)
	Known wares discovered at strata in sometimes quite distant sites, the product of trade, helped extend the network of chronologies. Some cultures have retained the name applied to them in reference to characteristic forms, for lack of an idea of what they called themselves: "The ]" in northern Europe during the ], for example. The study of the means of placing pottery and other cultural artefacts into some kind of order proceeds in two phases, classification and typology: Classification creates categories for the purposes of description, and typology seeks to identify and analyse changes that allow artefacts to be placed into sequences .

			===Astronomical era===
	An increasing battery of laboratory techniques developed particularly after mid-20th century helped constantly revise and refine the chronologies developed for specific cultural areas. Unrelated dating methods help reinforce a chronology, an axiom of corroborative ]. Ideally, archaeological materials used for dating a site should complement each other and provide a means of cross-checking. Conclusions drawn from just one unsupported technique are usually regarded as unreliable.
			{{Main\|Astronomical year numbering}}
			Dionysius Exiguus' Anno Domini era (which contains only calendar years ''AD'') was extended by ] to the complete ] (which contains, in addition all calendar years ''BC'', but no ''year zero''). Ten centuries after Bede, the French astronomers ] (in the year 1702) and ] (in the year 1740), purely to simplify certain calculations, put the ] (proposed in the year 1583 by ]) and with it an astronomical era into use, which contains a ] zero, which precedes the year 1 (AD).<ref>Richards 2013, pp. 591-592. (Incomplete reference).</ref>

			==Prehistory==
	] has recently started to be routinely applied in the analysis of chronological information, including radiocarbon-derived dates,
			While of critical importance to the historian, methods of determining chronology are used in most disciplines of science, especially ], ], ] and ].

			In the absence of ], with its ]s and ], late 19th century archaeologists found that they could develop relative chronologies based on pottery techniques and styles. In the field of ], ] pioneered sequence dating to penetrate pre-dynastic ] times, using groups of contemporary artefacts deposited together at a single time in graves and working backwards methodically from the earliest historical phases of Egypt. This method of dating is known as ].
	Several legendary sources tend to assign unrealistically long lifespans to pre-historical heroes and monarchs (e.g Egypt, Hebrews, Japanese), if the number of years there reported are understood as years of more than 340 days. One potent explanation for this has been that there have been more than one harvest during the actual year, and memories evolving to legends tend to count each growth period as separate year.

			Known wares discovered at strata in sometimes quite distant sites, the product of trade, helped extend the network of chronologies. Some cultures have retained the name applied to them in reference to characteristic forms, for lack of an idea of what they called themselves: "The ]" in northern Europe during the 3rd millennium BCE, for example. The study of the means of placing pottery and other cultural artifacts into some kind of order proceeds in two phases, classification and typology: Classification creates categories for the purposes of description, and typology seeks to identify and analyse changes that allow artifacts to be placed into sequences.<ref>{{cite book \| last =Greene \| first =Kevin \| title =Archaeology : An Introduction \| publisher =University of Newcastle Upon Tyne \| date =November 2007 \| pages =Chapter 4 \| url =http://www.staff.ncl.ac.uk/kevin.greene/wintro/chap4.htm \| access-date =2008-01-04 \| no-pp =true \| archive-url =https://web.archive.org/web/20050329085720/http://www.staff.ncl.ac.uk/kevin.greene/wintro/chap4.htm \| archive-date =2005-03-29 \| url-status =dead }}</ref>
	Though chronologies formulated before the 1960s are subject to serious skepticism today, more recent results are more robust than readily appears to journalists and enthusiastic amateurs.

			Laboratory techniques developed particularly after mid-20th century helped constantly revise and refine the chronologies developed for specific cultural areas. Unrelated dating methods help reinforce a chronology, an axiom of corroborative ]. Ideally, archaeological materials used for dating a site should complement each other and provide a means of cross-checking. Conclusions drawn from just one unsupported technique are usually regarded as unreliable.

			==Synchronism==
			The fundamental problem of chronology is to synchronize events. By synchronizing an event it becomes possible to relate it to the current time and to compare the event to other events. Among historians, a typical need is to synchronize the reigns of kings and leaders in order to relate the history of one country or region to that of another. For example, the ] (325 A.D.) is one of the major works of historical synchronism. This work has two sections. The first contains narrative chronicles of nine different kingdoms: Chaldean, Assyrian, Median, Lydian, Persian, Hebrew, Greek, Peloponnesian, Asian, and Roman. The second part is a long table synchronizing the events from each of the nine kingdoms in parallel columns.

			By comparing the parallel columns, the reader can determine which events were contemporaneous, or how many years separated two different events. To place all the events on the same time scale, Eusebius used an ] (A.M.) era, meaning that events were dated from the supposed beginning of the world as computed from the ] in the Hebrew ]. According to the computation Eusebius used, this occurred in 5199 B.C. The Chronicon of Eusebius was widely used in the medieval world to establish the dates and times of historical events. Subsequent chronographers, such as ] (died circa 811), analyzed and elaborated on the Chronicon by comparing with other chronologies. The last great chronographer was ] (1540-1609) who reconstructed the lost Chronicon and synchronized all of ancient history in his two major works, ''De emendatione temporum'' (1583) and ''Thesaurus temporum'' (1606). Much of modern historical datings and chronology of the ancient world ultimately derives from these two works.<ref name=Grafton>{{cite book\|last1=Grafton\|first1=Anthony\|title=Joseph Scaliger: A Study in the History of Classical Scholarship\|date=1994\|publisher=Oxford University Press\|location=Oxford}}</ref> Scaliger invented the concept of the ] which is still used as the standard unified scale of time for both historians and astronomers.{{citation needed\|date=April 2015}}

			In addition to the literary methods of synchronism used by traditional chronographers such as Eusebius, Syncellus and Scaliger, it is possible to synchronize events by archaeological or astronomical means. For example, the ], described in the first book of ] can potentially be used to date the Lydian War because the eclipse took place during the middle of an important battle in that war. Likewise, various eclipses and other astronomical events described in ancient records can be used to astronomically synchronize historical events.<ref>{{cite book\|last1=Kelley\|first1=David H.\|title=Exploring Ancient Skies: A Survey of Ancient and Cultural Astronomy\|url=https://archive.org/details/exploringancient00kell\|url-access=limited\|date=2011\|publisher=Springer\|isbn=978-1441976239\|pages=}}</ref> Another method to synchronize events is the use of archaeological findings, such as pottery, to do ].

	==See also==		==See also==
			{{Col-begin}}
	===Chronologies===
			{{Col-1-of-2}}
	* ]
	* ]
	* ]
	* ]
	* ]
	** ]
	* ]
	* ]
	* ] (controversial)
	* ]
	* ]
	* ]
	** ]
	* ]
	* ]

			===Examples===
	* ]
	* ]		* ]
			* ] – specific chronologies
	* ]
			* ] – overall historical chronology
	* ]
	* ]
	* ]
	* ]

			===Christian chronology===
	*]
			* ]
	*]
			* ]
			* ]
			* ]
			* ]
			* ]
			{{Col-2-of-2}}

	===~~Techniques~~===		===General===
			* ]
	* ] counts growth rings in timber, and correlates patterns
			* ]
	* ]
			* ]
	* ] measures when objects were last heated
			* ]
	* ] dates events related to language evolution

	===~~Other~~===		===Fiction writing===
			Aspects and examples of non-chronological story-telling:
	* ]
			* ]
			* ]
			* ]
			* ]
			{{Col-end}}

			==Notes==
	===Chronology in Misplaced Pages===
			{{Reflist}}
	* ]

	==~~External links~~==		==References==
			* Hegewisch, D. H., & Marsh, J. (1837). . Burlington : C. Goodrich.
	*
			* B. E. Tumanian, "Measurement of Time in Ancient and Medieval Armenia," Journal for the History of Astronomy 5, 1974, pp. 91–98.
	*
			* Kazarian, K. A., "History of Chronology by B. E. Tumanian," Journal for the History of Astronomy, 4, 1973, p. 137
	* an introduction
			* Porter, T. M., "The Dynamics of Progress: Time, Method, and Measure". The American Historical Review, 1991.
	*
	*
	* http://www.centuries.co.uk/studies.htm - a proposed revision by a number of archeologists
	* http://devlab.dartmouth.edu/history/bronze_age/chrono.html

	==Further reading==		==Further reading==
	* M. Aitken, ''Science-Based dating in Archaeology'' (Thames and Hudson, London) 1990: a recent overview
	* P. Warren and V. Hankey, ''Aegean Bronze Age Chronology''. Bristol, 1989.
	* S. W. Manning, ''The Absolute Chronology of the Aegean Early Bronze Age: Archaeology, Radiocarbon, and History''. Sheffield, 1995.

			===Published in the 18th–19th centuries===
	]
			* Weeks, J. E. (1701). The gentleman's hour glass; or, An introduction to chronology; being a plain and compendious analysis of time. Dublin: James Hoey.
			* Hodgson, J., Hinton, J., & Wallis, J. (1747). An introduction to chronology:: containing an account of time; also of the most remarkable cycles, epoch's, era's, periods, and moveable feasts. To which is added, a brief account of the several methods proposed for the alteration of the style, the reforming the calendar, and fixing the true time of the celebration of Easter. London: Printed for J. Hinton, at the King's Arms in St Paul's Church-yard.
			* Smith, T. (1818). An introduction to chronology. New York: Samuel Wood.

			===Published in the 20th century===
			* Keller, H. R. (1934). The dictionary of dates. New York: The Macmillan company.
			* Poole, R. L., & Poole, A. L. (1934). Studies in chronology and history. Oxford: Clarendon Press.
			* Langer, W. L., & Gatzke, H. W. (1963). An encyclopedia of world history, ancient, medieval and modern, chronologically arranged. Boston: Houghton Mifflin.
			* Momigliano, A. "Pagan and Christian Historiography in the Fourth Century A.D." in A. Momigliano, ed., The Conflict Between Paganism and Christianity in the Fourth Century, The Clarendon Press, Oxford, 1963, pp. 79–99
			* Williams, N., & Storey, R. L. (1966). Chronology of the modern world: 1763 to the present time. London: Barrie & Rockliffe.
			* Steinberg, S. H. (1967). Historical tables: 58 B.C.-A.D. 1965. London: Macmillan.
			* Freeman-Grenville, G. S. P. (1975). Chronology of world history: a calendar of principal events from 3000 BC to AD 1973. London: Collings.
			* Neugebauer, O. (1975). ''A History of Ancient Mathematical Astronomy'' Springer-Verlag.
			* Bickerman, E. J. (1980). ''The Chronology of the Ancient World''. London: Thames and Hudson.
			* Whitrow, G. J. (1990). Time in history views of time from prehistory to the present day. Oxford : Oxford Univ. Press.
			* Aitken, M. (1990). ''Science-Based Dating in Archaeology''. London: Thames and Hudson.
			* Richards, E. G. (1998). ''Mapping Time: The Calendar and History''. Oxford University Press.

			===Published in the 21st century===
			* Koselleck, R. "Time and History." The Practice of Conceptual History. Timing History, Spacing Concepts. Palo Alto: Stanford University Press, 2002.
			* {{cite book \|author=Ronald H. Fritze \|edition=2nd \|title=Reference Sources in History: An Introductory Guide \|year=2004 \|publisher=ABC-CLIO \|isbn=978-0-87436-883-3 \|chapter=Chronologies, Calendars, and Lists of Rulers \|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=7VyOANl2qxoC&pg=PA4 \|pages= \|display-authors=etal \|url=https://archive.org/details/referencesources0000frit_a2s9/page/4 }}
			* {{cite book\|editor=H. James Birx\|editor-link=H. James Birx\|title=Encyclopedia of Time: Science, Philosophy, Theology, & Culture \|year=2009\|publisher=Sage \|isbn=978-1-4129-4164-8 \|chapter=Chronology \|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=b3ddWSxmi9cC&pg=PA183 \|author=Olena V. Smyntyna }}
			* {{Cite book\|publisher = Princeton Architectural Press \|location = New York \|title = Cartographies of Time: A History of the Timeline \|date = 2009 \|author1 = Daniel Rosenberg \|author2 = Anthony Grafton \|isbn=9781568987637 \|author-link2 = Anthony Grafton}}

			==External links==
			{{Wiktionary\|chronology}}
			* (archived 29 May 2005)
			* (archived 5 April 2005) from the ] at the ]. Accessed 2008-01-04.
			* Open Library.
			* {{CathEncy\|wstitle = General Chronology}}
			* Chattopadhyay, Subhasis. '''' in '']'' 120 (10):606–609 (2015). {{ISSN\|0032-6178}}.

			{{Time Topics}}
			{{Chronology}}{{Historiography}}{{Authority control}}

			]
	]
			]
	]
	]		]
	]
	]
	]
	]
	]
	]
	]
	]
	]
	]
	]
	]
	]
	]
	]
	]
	]

Latest revision as of 18:33, 5 January 2025

Science of arranging events in order of occurrence For other uses, see Chronology (disambiguation). For specific lists of events, see Timeline. "Chronography" redirects here. For historical works with this title, see Chronographia.

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Chronology (from Latin chronologia, from Ancient Greek χρόνος, chrónos, 'time'; and -λογία, -logia) is the science of arranging events in their order of occurrence in time. Consider, for example, the use of a timeline or sequence of events. It is also "the determination of the actual temporal sequence of past events".

Chronology is a part of periodization. It is also a part of the discipline of history including earth history, the earth sciences, and study of the geologic time scale.

Related fields

Chronology is the science of locating historical events in time. It relies mostly upon chronometry, which is also known as timekeeping, and historiography, which examines the writing of history and the use of historical methods. Radiocarbon dating estimates the age of formerly living things by measuring the proportion of carbon-14 isotope in their carbon content. Dendrochronology estimates the age of trees by correlation of the various growth rings in their wood to known year-by-year reference sequences in the region to reflect year-to-year climatic variation. Dendrochronology is used in turn as a calibration reference for radiocarbon dating curves.

Calendar and era

Main article: Calendar

The familiar terms calendar and era (within the meaning of a coherent system of numbered calendar years) concern two complementary fundamental concepts of chronology. For example, during eight centuries the calendar belonging to the Christian era, which era was taken in use in the 8th century by Bede, was the Julian calendar, but after the year 1582 it was the Gregorian calendar. Dionysius Exiguus (about the year 500) was the founder of that era, which is nowadays the most widespread dating system on earth. An epoch is the date (year usually) when an era begins.

Ab Urbe condita era

Main article: Ab urbe condita

Ab Urbe condita is Latin for "from the founding of the City (Rome)", traditionally set in 753 BC. It was used to identify the Roman year by a few Roman historians. Modern historians use it much more frequently than the Romans themselves did; the dominant method of identifying Roman years was to name the two consuls who held office that year. Before the advent of the modern critical edition of historical Roman works, AUC was indiscriminately added to them by earlier editors, making it appear more widely used than it actually was.

It was used systematically for the first time only about the year 400, by the Iberian historian Orosius. Pope Boniface IV, in about the year 600, seems to have been the first who made a connection between these this era and Anno Domini. (AD 1 = AUC 754.)

Astronomical era

Main article: Astronomical year numbering

Dionysius Exiguus' Anno Domini era (which contains only calendar years AD) was extended by Bede to the complete Christian era (which contains, in addition all calendar years BC, but no year zero). Ten centuries after Bede, the French astronomers Philippe de la Hire (in the year 1702) and Jacques Cassini (in the year 1740), purely to simplify certain calculations, put the Julian Dating System (proposed in the year 1583 by Joseph Scaliger) and with it an astronomical era into use, which contains a leap year zero, which precedes the year 1 (AD).

Prehistory

While of critical importance to the historian, methods of determining chronology are used in most disciplines of science, especially astronomy, geology, paleontology and archaeology.

In the absence of written history, with its chronicles and king lists, late 19th century archaeologists found that they could develop relative chronologies based on pottery techniques and styles. In the field of Egyptology, William Flinders Petrie pioneered sequence dating to penetrate pre-dynastic Neolithic times, using groups of contemporary artefacts deposited together at a single time in graves and working backwards methodically from the earliest historical phases of Egypt. This method of dating is known as seriation.

Known wares discovered at strata in sometimes quite distant sites, the product of trade, helped extend the network of chronologies. Some cultures have retained the name applied to them in reference to characteristic forms, for lack of an idea of what they called themselves: "The Beaker People" in northern Europe during the 3rd millennium BCE, for example. The study of the means of placing pottery and other cultural artifacts into some kind of order proceeds in two phases, classification and typology: Classification creates categories for the purposes of description, and typology seeks to identify and analyse changes that allow artifacts to be placed into sequences.

Laboratory techniques developed particularly after mid-20th century helped constantly revise and refine the chronologies developed for specific cultural areas. Unrelated dating methods help reinforce a chronology, an axiom of corroborative evidence. Ideally, archaeological materials used for dating a site should complement each other and provide a means of cross-checking. Conclusions drawn from just one unsupported technique are usually regarded as unreliable.

Synchronism

The fundamental problem of chronology is to synchronize events. By synchronizing an event it becomes possible to relate it to the current time and to compare the event to other events. Among historians, a typical need is to synchronize the reigns of kings and leaders in order to relate the history of one country or region to that of another. For example, the Chronicon of Eusebius (325 A.D.) is one of the major works of historical synchronism. This work has two sections. The first contains narrative chronicles of nine different kingdoms: Chaldean, Assyrian, Median, Lydian, Persian, Hebrew, Greek, Peloponnesian, Asian, and Roman. The second part is a long table synchronizing the events from each of the nine kingdoms in parallel columns.

By comparing the parallel columns, the reader can determine which events were contemporaneous, or how many years separated two different events. To place all the events on the same time scale, Eusebius used an Anno Mundi (A.M.) era, meaning that events were dated from the supposed beginning of the world as computed from the Book of Genesis in the Hebrew Pentateuch. According to the computation Eusebius used, this occurred in 5199 B.C. The Chronicon of Eusebius was widely used in the medieval world to establish the dates and times of historical events. Subsequent chronographers, such as George Syncellus (died circa 811), analyzed and elaborated on the Chronicon by comparing with other chronologies. The last great chronographer was Joseph Justus Scaliger (1540-1609) who reconstructed the lost Chronicon and synchronized all of ancient history in his two major works, De emendatione temporum (1583) and Thesaurus temporum (1606). Much of modern historical datings and chronology of the ancient world ultimately derives from these two works. Scaliger invented the concept of the Julian Day which is still used as the standard unified scale of time for both historians and astronomers.

In addition to the literary methods of synchronism used by traditional chronographers such as Eusebius, Syncellus and Scaliger, it is possible to synchronize events by archaeological or astronomical means. For example, the Eclipse of Thales, described in the first book of Herodotus can potentially be used to date the Lydian War because the eclipse took place during the middle of an important battle in that war. Likewise, various eclipses and other astronomical events described in ancient records can be used to astronomically synchronize historical events. Another method to synchronize events is the use of archaeological findings, such as pottery, to do sequence dating.

Notes

Richards, E. G. (1998). Mapping Time: The Calendar and History. Oxford: Oxford University Press. pp. 12–13. ISBN 0-19-286205-7.
Cates, William Leist Readwin (1911). "Chronology" . Encyclopædia Britannica. Vol. 6 (11th ed.). pp. 305–318.
Memidex/WordNet, "chronology," memidex.com Archived 2019-12-15 at the Wayback Machine (accessed September 25, 2010).
Literally translated as "From the city having been founded".
Richards 2013, pp. 591-592. (Incomplete reference).
Greene, Kevin (November 2007). Archaeology : An Introduction. University of Newcastle Upon Tyne. Chapter 4. Archived from the original on 2005-03-29. Retrieved 2008-01-04.
Grafton, Anthony (1994). Joseph Scaliger: A Study in the History of Classical Scholarship. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Kelley, David H. (2011). Exploring Ancient Skies: A Survey of Ancient and Cultural Astronomy. Springer. pp. 614. ISBN 978-1441976239.

References

Hegewisch, D. H., & Marsh, J. (1837). Introduction to historical chronology. Burlington : C. Goodrich.
B. E. Tumanian, "Measurement of Time in Ancient and Medieval Armenia," Journal for the History of Astronomy 5, 1974, pp. 91–98.
Kazarian, K. A., "History of Chronology by B. E. Tumanian," Journal for the History of Astronomy, 4, 1973, p. 137
Porter, T. M., "The Dynamics of Progress: Time, Method, and Measure". The American Historical Review, 1991.

External links

Dating the Past (archived 29 May 2005)
Pragmatic Bayesians: a decade of integrating radiocarbon dates in chronological models (archived 5 April 2005) from the University of Sheffield at the Internet Archive. Accessed 2008-01-04.
Open Library. Works related to chronology
Herbermann, Charles, ed. (1913). "General Chronology" . Catholic Encyclopedia. New York: Robert Appleton Company.
Chattopadhyay, Subhasis. Chronicity and Temporality: A Revisionary Hermeneutics of Time in Prabuddha Bharata or Awakened India 120 (10):606–609 (2015). ISSN 0032-6178.

Time

Key concepts

Measurement
and standards

Chronometry	UTC UT TAI Unit of time Orders of magnitude (time)
Measurement systems	Italian six-hour clock Thai six-hour clock 12-hour clock 24-hour clock Relative hour Daylight saving time Chinese Decimal Hexadecimal Hindu Metric Roman Sidereal Solar Time zone
Calendars	Main types Solar Lunar Lunisolar Gregorian Julian Hebrew Islamic Solar Hijri Chinese Hindu Panchang Maya List
Clocks	Main types astronomical astrarium atomic quantum hourglass marine sundial watch mechanical stopwatch water-based Cuckoo clock Digital clock Grandfather clock History Timeline

Philosophy of time

Human experience
and use of time

Time in science

Geology	Geological time age chron eon epoch era period Geochronology Geological history of Earth
Physics	Absolute space and time Arrow of time Chronon Coordinate time Instant Proper time Spacetime Theory of relativity Time domain Time translation symmetry Time reversal symmetry
Other fields	Chronological dating Chronobiology Circadian rhythms Clock reaction Glottochronology Time geography

Chronology

Key topics

Calendar eras	Human Era Ab urbe condita Anno Domini / Common Era Anno Mundi Bosporan era Bostran era Byzantine era Seleucid era Era of Caesar (Iberia) Before present Hijri Egyptian Sothic cycle Hindu units of time (Yuga) Mesoamerican Long Count Short Count Tzolk'in Haab'
Regnal year	Anka year Canon of Kings English and British regnal year Lists of kings Limmu
Era names	Chinese Japanese Korean Vietnamese

Calendars

Pre-Julian / Julian	Pre-Julian Roman Original Julian Proleptic Julian Revised Julian
Gregorian	Gregorian Proleptic Gregorian Old Style and New Style dates Adoption of the Gregorian calendar Dual dating
Astronomical	Lunisolar (Hebrew, Hindu) Solar Lunar (Islamic) Astronomical year numbering
Others	Chinese sexagenary cycle Geologic Calendar Iranian ISO week date Mesoamerican Maya Aztec Winter count New Earth Time

Astronomic time

Geologic time

Concepts	Deep time Geological history of Earth Geological time units
Standards	Global Standard Stratigraphic Age (GSSA) Global Boundary Stratotype Section and Point (GSSP)
Methods	Chronostratigraphy Geochronology Isotope geochemistry Law of superposition Luminescence dating Samarium–neodymium dating

Chronological
dating

Absolute dating	Amino acid racemisation Archaeomagnetic dating Dendrochronology Ice core Incremental dating Lichenometry Paleomagnetism Radiometric dating Lead–lead Potassium–argon Radiocarbon Uranium–lead Tephrochronology Luminescence dating Thermoluminescence dating
Relative dating	Fluorine absorption Nitrogen dating Obsidian hydration Seriation Stratigraphy

Genetic methods

Molecular clock

Linguistic methods

Glottochronology

Latest revision as of 18:33, 5 January 2025

Related fields

Calendar and era

Ab Urbe condita era

Astronomical era

Prehistory

Synchronism

See also

Examples

Christian chronology

General

Fiction writing

Notes

References

Further reading

Published in the 18th–19th centuries

Published in the 20th century

Published in the 21st century

External links