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{{short description|Early Slavic people inhabiting parts of Eastern Europe in the Early Middle Ages}}
{{Redirect3|Antae|For the architectural elements, see ]}}
{{redirect|Antae|the architectural element|Anta (architecture)}}
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The '''Antes''' or '''Antae''' were an early Slavic tribal polity which existed in the 6th century lower ] and northwestern ] region (modern Moldova and western Ukraine). They are commonly associated with the archaeological ].<ref>{{harvtxt|Baran|1986}}</ref><ref>{{harvtxt|Shchukin|1986}}</ref><ref>{{harvtxt|Gimbutas|1971 |p=90}}</ref><ref>{{harvtxt|Sedov|1996|p=280}}</ref> They were prominent in military and diplomatic affairs in Southeastern Europe, becoming ] ''foederati'' until their eventual demise in the early 7th century AD.
]]]


The '''Antes''' or '''Antae''' ({{langx|el|Ἄνται}}) were an ] ] ] of the 6th century CE. They lived on the lower ], in the northwestern ] region (present-day ] and central ]), and in the regions around the ] (in ] and ]).<ref>{{Cite book|url =https://books.google.com/books?id=9lHeh36S8ooC&q=His+great-nephew+Vinithar+attacked+the+South-Russian+Slavs,+the+Antae,+and+after++one+reverse+overcame+first+them+...+and+later+in+the+sixth+century+possessed+the++whole+region+from+the+Dniester+to+the+Don,+which+was+formerly+held+by+the+Goths.&pg=PT697|title= The Cambridge Medieval History Series volumes 1-5|publisher= Plantagenet Publishing|language= en}}</ref> Scholars commonly associate the Antes with the archaeological ].<ref name="Baran 1986">{{harvtxt|Baran|1988}}</ref><ref name="Shchukin 1986">{{harvtxt|Shchukin|1986}}</ref><ref name="Gimbutas 1971 90">{{harvtxt|Gimbutas|1971 |p=90}}</ref><ref name="Sedov 1996 280">{{harvtxt|Sedov|1996|p=280}}</ref>
==Historiography==


First mentioned in the historical record in 518, the Antes invaded the ] sometime between the years of 533 and 545. Thereafter, they became ] '']'' and received gold payments and a fort (named "Turris" – the Latin word ''turris'' means 'tower') somewhere north of the Danube at a strategically important location to prevent hostile barbarians from invading ] lands. Thus from 545 to the 580s, Antean soldiers fought in various Byzantine campaigns. The ], ] and ] attacked the Antes in the 7th century, causing disapperance of the Antes as a group and of the ] phenomenon.
Based on the literary evidence provided by Procopius and Jordanes, the Antes (along with the Sklaveni and Venethi) have long been viewed as one of the constituent ''proto-Slavic'' peoples from which, both, medieval groups and modern nations descended.<ref>{{harvtxt|Szmoniewski|2012|p=''passim''}}</ref> Studied since the late 18th century, modern scholars have at times engaged in heated polemics regarding Antean origins and the attribution of their ancestors. They have been variously regarded as ancestors of specifically the ] or ], from medieval perspective, and the Ukrainians versus all East Slavs with regard to extant populations. South Slavic historians additionally regarded the Antes as the ancestors of the eastern South Slavs (Bulgarians, Macedonians).<ref>{{harvtxt|Szmoniewski|2012|p=62}}</ref>


==Origin==
==Ethnolinguistic affinities==
===Historiography===
Scholars have studied the Antes since the late 18th century. Based on the literary evidence provided by ] (c. 500–560 CE) and ] (fl. c. 551), the Antes, along with the ] and the ], have long been viewed as the constituent ] peoples ancestral to both medieval Slavic ethnicities and modern Slavic nations.<ref>{{harvtxt|Szmoniewski| 2012|p=''passim''}}</ref> At times, debate over the origins and the descendants of the Antes has been heated. The tribe has been variously regarded as the ancestors of, specifically, the ] or the ] (from a medieval perspective), and, in terms of extant populations, of the ] versus other East Slavs. Additionally, South Slavic historians have regarded the Antes as the ancestors of the eastern ].<ref>{{harvtxt|Szmoniewski|2012|p=62}}
</ref>


===Ethnolinguistic affinities===
Although regarded as a predominantly Slavic tribal union, numerous other theories have arisen, especially with regard to the origins of their ruling core; including theories of a Gothic, Iranic and Slavic ruling nobility, or some mixture thereof.<ref>{{harvtxt|Magosci|2010|p=36}}</ref> Much dispute arose because of scant literary evidence: little is known apart from the tribal name itself and a handful of anthroponyms.
Although the Antes are regarded as a predominantly Slavic tribal union, numerous other theories of their ethnic components have arisen. The origins of their core ruling class have drawn particular attention, including theories that this ruling ] was ethnically ], ], Slavic, or some mixture thereof.<ref>{{harvtxt|Magosci|2010|p=36}}</ref> Much of this dispute has arisen from the scantness of the literary evidence: little is known of the Antes apart from the tribal name itself and a handful of ]. The name ''Antes'' itself does not appear to be Slavic, and is often held to be an ] word.<ref>{{harvtxt|Sedov|2012|p=389}}</ref> ], citing ], argues that because ''anta-'' means "frontier, end" in ], ''*ant-ya'' could mean "frontiersman"<ref>{{harvtxt|Pritsak|1983|p=358}}</ref> or "that which is at the end"; and in ] ''att'iya'' means "the last, behind".<ref>{{harvtxt|Sedov|2012|pp=389–390}}</ref> F.P. Filin and ]<ref name="Sedov390">{{harvtxt|Sedov|2012|p=390}}</ref> shared this opinion. In contrast, Bohdan Struminskyj considered the etymology of ''Antes'' unproven and "irrelevant".<ref>{{harvtxt|Strumins'kyj|1979|p=787}}</ref> Struminskyj analyzed the personal names of Antean chiefs and offered ] etymological alternatives to the commonly accepted Slavic etymologies that had first been proposed by ].<ref>{{harvtxt|Strumins'kyj|1979|pp=788–96}}</ref>


Although the first unequivocal attestation of the Antes tribe is from the 6th century CE, scholars (e.g. Vernadsky) have tried to connect the Antes with a tribe rendered as '']'' 奄蔡 (< ] *''ʔɨam<sup>A</sup>''-''sɑ<sup>C</sup>'' < ] (125 BCE) *''ʔɨam-sɑs''; compare ] ''Abzoae'',<ref>], '']'' IV </ref> identified with the ] (] ''Αορσιοι'')<ref>{{harvtxt|Schuessler|2014|p=268}}</ref><ref>], '']''. draft translation by John E. Hill (2004). ''Translator's Notes'' quote: "Yăncài, already mentioned in the text as a country northwest of Kāngjū (at that time in the region of Tashkend), has long been identified with the Aorsoi of western sources, a nomadic people out of whom the well-known Alans later emerged (Pulleyblank )".</ref>) in the ], a 2nd-century-BCE Chinese source.<ref>''Shiji'', quote: "
The name ''Antes'' itself does not appear to be Slavic, but is often held to be an Iranian word. Pritsak, citing Max Vasmer, argues that ''anta-'' means "fontier, end" (in Saskrit), thus ''*ant-ya'' could mean frontier-man.<ref>{{harvtxt|Pritsak|1983|p=358}}</ref>
'''奄蔡'''在康居西北可二千里，行國，與康居大同俗。控弦者十餘萬。臨大澤，無崖，蓋乃北海云。" translation: "'''Yancai''' is located possibly 2,000 li to the Northwest of ]. It is a nomadic nation; its customs largely resemble Kangju's. over 100,000 bowstring-drawers . It borders a great shoreless lake, possibly also called the North Sea."</ref><ref>'']'', </ref><ref name="Szmoniewski 2012 55">{{harvtxt|Szmoniewski|2012|p=55}}</ref> ]<ref>''Natural History'' VI, 35</ref> mentions some ''Anti'' living near the shores of the ], and inscriptions from the ] dating to the 3rd century CE bear the word ''antas''.<ref>{{harvtxt|Gimbutas|1971|p=61,61}}</ref> Based on documentation of "]" tribes inhabiting the north ] region during the early centuries of the Common Era, presumed Iranic loanwords in Slavic languages, and Sarmatian "cultural borrowings" into the ], scholars such as ],<ref name="Magosci 2010 42, 43">{{harvtxt|Magosci|2010|pp=42, 43}}</ref> Valentin Sedov,<ref>{{harvtxt|Sedov|1996|p=281}}</ref> and ]<ref>{{harvtxt|Fine|2006|p=25}}</ref> maintain earlier proposals by Soviet-era scholars such as ], that the Antes were originally a Sarmatian–] frontier tribe that become Slavicized but preserved their name.<ref name="Magosci 2010 42, 43"/> Sedov argues that the ] referred to the Slavic–Scythian–Sarmatian population living between the Dniester and Dnieper Rivers, and later to the related Slavic tribes who ] from this Slavic–Iranian symbiosis.<ref name="Sedov390"/>


However, more-recent perspectives view the tribal entities named by Graeco-Roman sources as fluctuant political formations that were, above all, ] categorizations based on ethnographic stereotypes rather than on first-hand, accurate knowledge of the barbarian language or "culture." Bartłomiej Szymon Szmoniewski argues that the Antes were not a "discrete, ethnically homogeneous entity" but rather "a highly complex political reality".<ref name="Szmoniewski 2012 55"/> Linguistically, contemporary evidence suggests that ] was the ] of an area that extended from the eastern Alps to the Black Sea and was spoken by peoples of varying ethnic backgrounds, including Slavs, provincial Romans, Germanic tribes (such as the ] and ]), and ] peoples (such as the ] and ]).<ref>{{harvtxt|Curta|2009| pp=12, 13}}</ref><ref>{{harvtxt|Curta|2004}}</ref>
Although the first unequivocal attestation of the tribal Antes in the 6th century AD, scholars have tried to connect the Antes with a tribe rendered ''An-tsai'' in a 2nd-century BC Chinese source (''Hou Han-shu'', 118, fol. 13r).<ref name="Szmoniewski 2012 35">{{harvtxt|Szmoniewski|2012|p=35}}</ref> Pliny the Elder (''Natural History'' VI, 35) mentions some ''Anti'' living near the ] shores; and inscriptions from the ] dating to the third century AD bear the word ''antas''.<ref>{{harvtxt|Gimbutas|1971|p=61,61}}</ref> Based on documentation of "Sarmatian" tribes inhabiting the north Pontic region during the early centuries of the Common Era, presumed Iranian loanwords into Slavic, and Sarmatian 'cultural borrowings' into the ], scholars such as Robert Magosci,<ref name="Magosci 2010 42, 43">{{harvtxt|Magosci|2010|pp=42, 43}}</ref> Valentin Sedov<ref>{{harvtxt|Sedov|1996|p=281}}</ref> and John Fine Jr.<ref>{{harvtxt|Fine|2006|p=25}}</ref> maintain earlier proposals by Soviet-era scholars such as Boris Rybakov, that the Antes were originally a Sarmatian-] frontier tribe who become Slavicized, but preserved their name.<ref name="Magosci 2010 42, 43"/>


==History==
Bohdan Strumins'kyj highlights, however, that the etymology of Antes remains unproven and is nevertheless "irrelevant".<ref>{{harvtxt|Struminskij|1979|p=787}}</ref> He instead analyses the personal names of Antean chiefs and offers Germanic alternatives to the commonly accepted Slavic etymology (first proposed by Stanislaw Rospond):<ref>{{harvtxt|Struminskij|1979|pp=788–96}}</ref>
{{see also|Slavic migrations to the Balkans}}
* Boz: the Antean king mentioned by Jordanes. Slavic etymologies include ''*Bosы'' - barefooted, or ''*Božы''- divine; ''*Vo(d)žы'' - chief. B.S. suggests Germanic ''*Bōs'', possibly meaning socerer.
]
*Chilbudious: the Antean chief with a Byzantine namesake. Slavic ''*Xvalibud'' - 'awakener of glory' vs Gemanic ''Hilibodo'' - 'battle-messenger' (c.f. Gothic Cannabaudes ~ 300 AD)
*Dabregezas: an Antian mercenary fighting for the Byzantines in the southern Caucasus. Slavic ''*Dobrogost'' - 'good visitor' vs Germanic ''*Dapragaizuz'' - 'having a heavy spear' (c.f. Radagaisus - 'having a light spear')
*Mezamiron: Antian envoy to the Avars. Slavic ''*Mezamir'' - 'the peaceful' vs Germanic ''*Mezamirs'' - 'glorious for being greater' (c.f Thiudimer, Vidimer: 'glorious in battle', 'glorious in forests', resp)
*Kaligostos: another envoy. Slavic ''*Kaligost'' - 'healthy, glowing guest' vs Germanic ''*Kallagastuz'' - 'healthy guest' also (cf. attested Nordic name Heilgestr)


===Early history===
However, recent perspectives view the tribal entities named by Graeco-Roman sources as fluctuant political formations which were, above all, ] categorizations based on ethnographic stereotypes rather than first-hand, accurate knowledge of barbarian language or 'culture'. Szmoniewski summarizes that the Antes were not a "discrete, ethnically homogeneous entity" but rather "a highly complex political reality".<ref name="Szmoniewski 2012 35"/> Linguistically, contemporary evidence suggests that Slavic was ] over a large area (from the eastern Alps to the Black Sea) by various ''ethnie'', including those Roman provincial, "Germanic" (such as Gepids and Lombards), and Oghuric (Avars, Bulgars) populations.<ref>{{harvtxt|Curta|2009| pp=12, 13}}</ref><ref>{{harvtxt|Curta|2004}}</ref> It has further been proposed that the ''Sklaveni'' were not distinguished from others on the basis of language or culture, but the type of their military organization. Ie compared to the Avars, or 6th century Goths, the Sklaveni were numerous, smaller disunited groups, one of which - the Antai- became ''foederati'' constituted by a treaty.<ref>{{harvtxt|Armory|2003|p= 85}}</ref><ref>{{harvtxt|Paliga|2012|p=19}}</ref>
According to historians who argue for a connection between the Antes and the Sarmatians, the Antes were a subgroup of the ], who dominated the Black Sea and ] region during the ]. The Antes were based between the ] and lower ] in the 1st–2nd centuries CE. In the 4th century, their center of power shifted northward toward the ]. In the 5th and 6th centuries, they settled in ] and subsequently in the middle ] region near the present-day city of ].<ref name="Magosci 2010 39, 40">{{harvtxt|Magosci|2010|pp=39, 40}}</ref> As they moved north from the open ] to the forest steppe, they organized the Slavic tribes, and the name ''Antes'' came to be used for the mixed Slavo–Alanic polity.<ref name="Magosci 2010 39, 40"/><ref group=note>Today ] are better known as ].</ref>


Whatever the exact origins of the tribe, ] and ] both appear to suggest that the Antes were Slavic by the 5th century. In describing the lands of '']'',<ref>'']. 35''</ref> Jordanes states that "the populous race of the ] occupy a great expanse of land. Though their names are now dispersed amid various clans and places, yet they are chiefly called Sklaveni and Antes." Later, in describing the deeds of ], the mythical ] king, Jordanes writes that the Venethi "have now three names: Venethi, Antes, and Sklaveni".<ref>''Get. 119''</ref> Finally, he describes a battle between the Antean king ] and Ermanaric's successor ] after the latter's subjugation by the Huns. After initially defeating the Goths, the Antes lost the second battle, and Boz and 70 of his leading nobles were ] (''Get. 247'').<ref>{{harvtxt|Curta|1999|pp=321–26}}</ref> Scholars have traditionally taken the accounts of Jordanes as face-value evidence that the Sklaveni and (the bulk of the) Antes descended from the ], a tribe known to historians such as ], ], and ] since the 2nd century CE.
== History==
]


However, the utility of ''Getica'' as an accurate work of ] has been questioned. ], for example, argues that ''Getica'' created an entirely ''mythical'' story of Gothic and other peoples' origins.<ref>{{harvtxt|Goffart|2006|pp=56–72}}</ref><ref group=note>The very purpose of Jordanes' narrative, especially with regard to the alleged Scandinavian origin of the Goths, was to show that there was no place for the Goths in Roman territory. Together with his enumeration of other barbarian tribes in Scythia and around Dacia, Jordanes was stating that Scythia is overpopulated with barbarians, and the Goths should belong to the frozen wastelands of the North. Jordanes only feigned his own Gothic roots, and his work is designed to celebrate the destruction of the Gothic kingdom by the Byzantines. (Goffart, 2006)</ref> ] further argues that Jordanes had no real ethnographic knowledge of "Scythia," despite claims that he himself was a Goth and was born in Thrace. He borrowed heavily from earlier historians and only artificially linked the 6th-century Sklaveni and Antes with the earlier Venethi, who had otherwise long disappeared by that century. This ] was paired with a "modernizing narrative strategy" whereby Jordanes retold older events – the war between the ] ] and the Alans – as a war between Vinitharius and the contemporary Antes.<ref>{{harvtxt|Curta|1999|pp=330–32}}</ref> In any case, no 4th-century source mentions the Antes, and the "]" did not form until the 5th century – inside the Balkans.<ref>Heather, ''The Goths'' 52–55.<br>Kulikowski 111.</ref> Some scholars related to the Antes the ''Anthaib'' (mentioned in '']'' of the 8th century '']''), a land which ] had to pass through and ruled before reaching modern day ] in the 5th century.<ref name="Dvornik56">{{cite book |last=Dvornik |first=Francis |author-link=Francis Dvornik |date=1956 |title=The Slavs: Their Early History and Civilization |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=DEoLAQAAIAAJ |location=Boston |publisher=] |page=28}}</ref>
===''Mythical''===


Apart from the influence of older historians, Jordanes' narrative style was shaped by his polemical debate with his contemporary Procopius.<ref>{{harvtxt|Curta|1999|p=326}}</ref> While Jordanes linked the Sclaveni and Antes with the ancient ], Procopius states that they were both once called '']''.<ref>Procopius. ''History of the Wars''. VII 14.29</ref><ref group=note>The term Spori is a ], but might have been inspired by the tribe "Spali" (curta, 1999. FN 36)</ref>
According to the Sarmatians-Antes link, the Antes were a sub-group of the Alans, which dominated the Black Sea and north Caucasus region during the ]. The Antes were based between the ] and lower ] during the 1st to 2nd centuries AD. From the 4th century, their center of power shifted northward toward the ]. In the fifth and sixth centuries they settled in ] and subsequently in the middle ] region near the present-day city of ].<ref name="Magosci 2010 39, 40">{{harvtxt|Magosci|2010|pp=39, 40}}</ref>
As they moved north from the open steppe to the forest steppe, they mixed with Slavic tribes. They organised the Slavic tribes and the name Antes came to be used for the mixed Slavo-Alanic body.<ref name="Magosci 2010 39, 40"/>


===Location in 6th century===
Whatever their exact 'origins', ] and ] appear to suggest that the Antes were Slavic by the 5th century. In describing the lands of '']'' ('']. 35''), Jordanes states that "the populous race of the Venethi occupy a great expanse of land. Though their names are now dispersed amid various clans and places, yet they are chiefly called Sklaveni and Antes". Later, in describing the deeds of ], the mythical Ostrogothic king. He informs that the Venethi "have now three names, Venethi, Antes and Sklaveni" (''Get. 119'''). Finally, Jordanes details a battle between the Antean king ''Boz'' and Vinitharius (Ermanaric's successor) after the latter's subjegation by the Huns. After initially defeating the Goths, the Antes lost the second battle, and Boz and 70 of his leading nobles were crucified (''Get. 247'').<ref>{{harvtxt|Curta|1999|pp=321–26}}</ref> Scholars have traditionally taken the accounts of Jordanes at face value as evidence that Sklaveni and (the bulk of the) Antes descended from the ], a tribe known to historians such as ], ] and ] since the 2nd century AD.
Jordanes and Procopius have been seen as invaluable sources in locating the Antes with greater precision. Jordanes (''Get. 25'') states that they dwelt "along the curve of the Black Sea" from the Dniester to the Dnieper. Paul M. Barford questions whether this implies they occupied the steppe or the regions further north,<ref>{{harvtxt|Barford|2001|p=55}}</ref> although most scholars generally place the Antes in the forest steppe zone of ].<ref>{{harvtxt|Magosci|2010|p=43}}</ref> In contrast, Procopius locates them just beyond the northern banks of the Danube (''Wars V 27.1–2'') (i.e., ]). The lack of consistency in geography demonstrates that the Antes stretched well across Sarmatian Scythia, rather than being a small and distant polity.<ref>{{harvtxt|Curta|1999|p=327}}</ref><ref group=note>Eg Jordanes states Scythia extends as far as the "Tyras" and "Danaster", although they are two names for the same river (Dniester). Procopius thought the Caucasus mountains extended as far as Illyricum. (Curta, 199, p. 327-8)</ref>


===6th and 7th centuries===
However, the utility of Getica as an accurate ethnographic excursus has been questioned. Prominent in raising doubts has been Walter Goffart, who argues that Getica created an entirely ''mythical'' story of Gothic, and other peoples' origins.<ref>{{harvtxt|Goffart|2006|pp=56–72}}</ref><ref group=note>''The very purpose of Jordanes' narrative, especially with regard to the alleged Scandinavian origin of the Goths, was to show that there is no placed for the Goths in Roman territory. Together with his enumeration of other barbarian tribes in Scythia and aroun Dacia, Jordanes was stating that Scythia is overpopulated with barbarians, and the Goths should belong to the frozen wastelands of the North. Jordanes only feigned his own Gothic roots, and his work is designed to celebrate the destruction of the Gothic kingdom by the Byzantines. (Goffart, 2006)''</ref> Curta further argues that Jordanes had no real ethnographic knowledge of "Scythia", despite claims that he himself was a Goth and was born in Thrace. He borrowed heavily from earlier historians, and only articifially linked the 6th century Sklaveni and Antes with the earlier Venethi, who had otherwise long disappeared by the 6th century. Whilst being anachonistic, he also employed a "modernizing narrative strategy" whereby older events - the war between the Ostrogothic Vithimiris and the Alans - was re-told as a war between Vinitharius and the contemporary Antes.<ref>{{harvtxt|Curta|1999|pp=330–32}}</ref> In any case, no fourth century source mentions ''Antes'', and the "]" only formed in the 5th century - inside the Balkans.<ref>Heather, ''The Goths'' 52-55.<br>Kulikowski 111.</ref>
The first contact between the ] and the Antes was in 518 CE. Recorded by Procopius,<ref></ref> the Antean raid appeared to coincide with the ]' revolt, but was intercepted and defeated by the ''magister militum per Thraciam'' ].<ref>{{harvtxt|Curta|2001|p=75}}</ref> Germanus was replaced by ] in the early 530s, who was killed three years later during an expedition against the various Sklavenoi. With the death of Chilbudius, ] appears to have changed his policy against Slavic barbarians from offense to defense, exemplified by his grand program of refortifying garrisons along the Danube.<ref name="Curta, 2001. Pg 78">Curta, 2001. p. 78.</ref>


In 537, Justinian recruited 1,600 ] ] of Sclaveni and Antes to aid the rescue of ] in Italy against the Ostrogoths.<ref name="Curta, 2001. Pg 78"/> Procopius notes that in 539–40, the Sklavenes and Antes "became hostile to one another and engaged in battle,"<ref>Procopius </ref> probably encouraged by the Romans' traditional tactic of "divide and conquer."<ref name="Curta, 2001. Pg 78"/> Nevertheless, both Procopius and Jordanes report numerous raids by "]," Slavs, Bulgars, and Antes in the years 539–40 CE, reporting that some 32 forts and 120,000 Roman prisoners were captured.<ref>Curta, 2001. p. 78–9</ref> Sometime between 533 and 545, the Antes invaded the Diocese of Thrace, enslaving many Romans and taking them north of the Danube to the Antean homelands.<ref>Procopius </ref> Indeed, numerous raids were conducted during this turbulent decade by numerous barbarian groups, including the Antes.<ref>{{harvtxt|Kardaras|2010|pp=74–5}}</ref> The two tribes were at peace by 545.<ref name="Cur0179">Curta, 2001. p. 79</ref> Notably, one of the captured Antes claimed to be Roman general ] (who was killed in 534 by barbarians at the Danube). He was sold to the Antes and freed. He revealed his true identity but was pressured and continued to claim that he was Chilbudius.<ref name="Cur0179"/>
Apart from respect to older historians, Jordanes narrative style was shaped by his polemical debate with his contemporary - Procopius.<ref>{{harvtxt|Curta|1999|p=326}}</ref> Whilst Jordanes linked the Sclaveni and Antes with the ancient Venedi, Procopius states that they were both once called ''Sporoi'' (''Procopius. History of the Wars. VII 14.29'').<ref group=note>''The term Spori is a ], but might have been inspired by the tribe "Spali" (curta, 1999. FN 36)</ref>


In 545, the Antes became Roman allies (after approaching the Romans) and were given gold payments and a fort named "Turris" somewhere north of the Danube at a strategically important location, in order to prevent hostile barbarians invading Roman lands.<ref>Curta, 2001. pp. 80–1</ref> This was part of a larger set of alliances, including the ], lifting pressure off the lower Danube and enabling forces to be diverted to Italy.<ref>{{harvtxt|Kardaras|2010|p=74}}</ref> Thus, in 545, Antean soldiers were fighting in ] against Ostrogoths, and in the 580s they attacked the settlements of the Sklavenes at the behest of the Romans. In 555 and 556, ] (of Antean origin) led the Roman fleet in ] against ] positions.<ref>Agathias. III 6.9; 7.2; 21.6</ref>
===''Location in 6th century''===
Jordanes and Procopius have been seen as invaluable sources in locating the Antes with greater precision. Jordanes (''Get. 25'') states that they dwelt "along the curve of the Black Sea", from the Dniester to the Dnieper. P Barford questions whether this implies they occupied the steppe, or the regions further north;<ref>{{harvtxt|Barford|2001|p=55}}</ref> although most scholars generally envisage the Antes in the forest-steppe zone of Left -Bank Ukraine.<ref>{{harvtxt|Magosci|2010|p=43}}</ref> In contrast, Procopius locates them just beyond the northern banks of the Danube (''Wars V 27.1-2'') (ie ]). The lack of consistency and frank errors in their geography proves that neither author had anything more than vague geographic knowledge of "Scythia".<ref>{{harvtxt|Curta|1999|p=327}}</ref><ref group=note>''Eg Jordanes states Scythia extends as far as the "Tyras" and "Danaster", although they are two names for the same river (Dniester). Procopius thought the Caucasus mountains extended as far as Illyricum. (Curta, 199, p 327-8'')</ref>


The Antes remained Roman allies until their demise in the first decade of the 7th century. They were often involved in conflicts with the Avars, such as the war recorded by ] (''50, frg 5.3.17–21'') in the 560s.<ref>{{harvtxt|Živković|2008|p=9}}</ref> In 602, in retaliation for a Roman attack on their Sklavene allies, the Avars sent their general ] to "destroy the nation of the Antes."<ref>] VII 15.12–14</ref> Despite numerous defections to the Romans during the campaign, the Avar attack appears to have ended the Antean polity. They never again appear in sources, apart from the epithet ''Anticus'' in the imperial ] in 612. Curta argues that the 602 attack on the Antes destroyed their political independence.<ref>Curta, 2001. p. 105.</ref> However, based on the aforementioned attestation of ''Anticus'', Georgios Kardaras rather argues that the disappearance of the Antes stemmed from the general collapse of the Scythian/lower Danubian ''limes'' they defended, ending their hegemony on the lower Danube.<ref>Kardaras, 2010. p. 85</ref>
===''6th and 7th centuries''===


===Fall===
The first contact between the East Romans and the Antes was in 518 AD. Recorded by Procopius (''Wars VII 40.5-6''), the Antean raid appeared to coincide with Vitilianus' revolt, but was intercepted and defeated by the ''magister militum per Thraciam'' Germanus.<ref>{{harvtxt|Curta|2001|p=75}}</ref> Germanus was replaced by Chilbudious in the early 530s, who was killed 3 years later, during an expedition against the various Sklavenoi. With the death of Chilbudious, Justinian appears to have changed his policy against Slavic barbarians from attack to defense, exemplified by his grand programme of re-fortification of garrisons along the Danube.<ref>Curta, 2001. Pg 78</ref> Procopius notes that in 539/ 40, the Sklavenes and Antes 'became hostile to one another an engaged in battle.<ref>Procopius ''Wars'' VII 14.7-10</ref> probably encouraged by the Romans' traditional tactic of 'divide and conquer'.<ref>Curta, 2001. Pg 78</ref> At the same time, the Romans recruited mounted merceneries from both groups to aid their war against the Ostrogoths.<ref>Curta, 2001. Pg 78</ref> Nevertheless, both Procopius and Jordanes report numerous raids by "Huns", Slavs, Bulgars and Antes in the years 539-40 AD; reporting that some 32 forts and 120, 000 Roman prisoners were captured.<ref>Curta, 2001. Pg 78-9</ref> Sometime between 533 and 545, the Antes invaded the Diocese of Thrace, enslaving many Romans and taking them north of the Danube to the Antean homelands.<ref>Procopius ''Wars'' VII.14.11</ref> Indeed, there was numerous raids during this turbulent decade by numerous barbarians, including the Antes.<ref>{{harvtxt|Kardaras|2010|p=74-5}}</ref>
Scholars often associated the fall of the Antes with the attack of the Avars. Others have seen a remote connection between the demise of the Antes and the oppression of the ] by the Avars mentioned in the '']'', and/or the tradition recorded by ] and ] that in ancient times the ''Walitābā'' (which some read as ''Walīnānā'' and identified with the ]) were "the original, pure-blooded ], the most highly honoured" and dominated the rest of the Slavic tribes, but due to "dissent" their "original organization was destroyed" and "the people divided into factions, each of them ruled by their own king", implying existence of a Slavic federation which perished after the attack of the Avars.<ref name="Fadlan2012">{{cite book|last=Faḍlān|first=Aḥmad Ibn|authorlink=Ahmad ibn Fadlan|title=Ibn Fadlan and the Land of Darkness: Arab Travellers in the Far North|url=https://archive.org/details/IbnFadlanAndTheLandOfDarknessArabTravellersInTheFarNorthPenguinClassicsCopie/page/n195/mode/2up?q=sarbin|year=2012|publisher=Penguin|translator-last1=Lunde|translator-first1=Paul|translator-last2=Stone|translator-first2=Caroline|isbn=978-0-14-045507-6|pages=128, 146, 200}}</ref><ref name="CrossNestor">{{Cite book|url=http://www.mgh-bibliothek.de/dokumente/a/a011458.pdf|title=The Russian Primary Chronicle. Laurentian Text.|first1=Samuel Hazzard |last1=Cross |first2=Olgerd P. |last2=Sherbowitz-Wetzor|publisher=Cambridge, Mass., Mediaeval Academy of America|year=1953|pages=37}}</ref>


However, according to ], the downfall of the Antes, associated Penkovka culture and ]-type hoards, happened in the first half of the 7th century with the arrival of the ] and then ] who probably acted on the behest of the Byzantine Empire against the Antes.<ref name="Kazanski2013">{{harvtxt|Kazanski|2013|p=786–793, 804, 825, 829–831}}</ref> From the west and south arrived Slavs with Prague-Korchak cultural traditions, although small groups of Antes could have survived around Southern Bug and Moldova, according to Kazanski the "main bulk of the Pen'kivka population may have retreated from the middle Dnieper to the north, to the area of their distant cousins, the Kalochyn culture population".<ref>{{harvtxt|Kazanski|2013|p=793}}</ref>
Shortly after, the Antes became Roman allies (after they approached the Romans) and were given gold payments and a fort named ''Turris'', somewhere north of the Danube at a strategically important location, so as to prevent hostile barbarians invading Roman lands.<ref>Curta, 2001. Pg 80-1</ref> This was part of a larger set of alliances, including the Lombars, so that pressure can be lifted off the lower Danube and forces can be diverted Italy.<ref>{{harvtxt|Kardaras|2010|p=74}}</ref>Thus in 545, the Antean soldiers were fighting in Lucania against Ostrogoths, and in the 580s, they attacked the settlements of the Sklavenes at the behest of the Romans. In 555 and 556, Dobregezas (of Antean origin) led the Roman fleet in Crimea against Persian positions.<ref>Agathias. III 6.9; 7.2; 21.6</ref>


==Aftermath==
The Antes remained Roman allies until their demise in the first decade of the 7th century. They were often involved in conflicts with the Avars, such as the war recorded by Menander the Guardsman (''50, frg 5.3.17-21'') in the 560s.<ref>{{harvtxt|Zivkovic|2007|p=9}}</ref> Later, in retaliation for a Roman attack on their Sklavene allies, the Avars attacked the Antes in 602. The Avars sent their general Apsich to "destroy the nation of the Antes".<ref>Theophylact Simocatta VII 15.12-14</ref> Despite numerous defections to the Romans during the campaign, the Avar attack appears to have ended the Antean polity. They never appear in sources apart from the epithet ''Anticus'' in the imperial titulature in 612. Curta argues that the 602 attack on the Antes destroyed their political independence.<ref>Curta, 2001. Pg 105</ref> However, the epithet ''Anticus'' is attested in imperial titulature until 612, thus Kardaras rather argues that they disappearance of the Antes relates to general collapse of the Scythian/ lower Danubian ''limes'' which they defended, at which time their hegemony on the lower Danube ended.<ref>Kardaras, 2010. Pg 85</ref> Whatever the case, shortly after the collapse of the Danubian ''limes'' (more specifically, the tactical Roman withdrawal), the first evidence of Slavic settlement in north-eastern Bulgaria begin to appear.<ref>{{harvtxt|Angelova|2007|p=481-82}}</ref>
]
Out of the old Antes federation, some of the following tribes are assumed to have evolved:


*], north of the Carpathian Mountains in ] (and ])<ref name = Magocsi/><ref>{{harvtxt|Sedov|1995|loc=гл. Хорваты|p=321}}</ref><ref name="Sedov501">{{harvtxt|Sedov|1995|p=501}}</ref>
==Material Culture==
*], between the ] and ] Rivers<ref name = Magocsi>Magocsi, Paul. ''A History of Ukraine''. University of Toronto Press, 1996. {{ISBN|9780802078209}} . p. 46, 49</ref>
Archaeologists such as V Baran,<ref>{{harvtxt|Baran|1986}}</ref> M Shchukin,<ref>{{harvtxt|Shchukin|1986}}</ref> M Gimbutas,<ref>{{harvtxt|Gimbutas|1971 |p=90}}</ref> and V Sedov<ref>{{harvtxt|Sedov|1996|p=280}}</ref> see the ''Penkovka culture'' as the material remains of the Antes people. Most finds of this culture are found in Left-Bank Ukraine, especially along the Sula, Seim, Psel, Donets and Oril rivers.<ref>{{harvtxt|Szmoniewski|2012|p=69}}</ref><ref>{{harvtxt|Barford|p=63}}</ref> The western 'border' of the Penkovka culture is usually taken to be at the middle Prut and Dniester rivers; where contact with the "Prague culture" occurs.<ref group=note>''The term "Prague culture", sometimes in the compound name form "Prague -Korchack", is used to refer to the entirety of postulated Early Slavic cultures from the Elbe to the Dniester, as opposed to the eastern Penkovka culture (Dniester to Dnieper). However, it is also used to refer specifically to the westernmost Slavic material grouping (around Bohemia, Moravia and western Slovakia), whilst other regions have their own distinct names - Mogilla (southern Poland), and Korchack (central Ukraine, southern Belarus). The Prague and Mogilla groups are seen as the archaeological reflection of incipient 'western Slavs' in the 6th century. See Barford, 2001, chapters 2, 3, 4'!</ref> Penkovka pottery is also found in eastern and southern Romania, where it co-exists with wheel-made pottery of late Roman derivation; and is referred to as the ''Ipotesti-Candesti culture'' by Romanian archaeologists.<ref>{{harvtxt|Barford|2001|p=49}}</ref><ref group=note>''Like other "cultures", the I-P culture has been criticized as a heuristic category invented by Romanian archaeologists to 'prove' the existence of civilized "Daco-Romans' before the arrival of barbarian Slavs.''Curta. The Making of the Slavs. Pg 231'''</ref> Penkovka-type pottery has even been found in Byzantine forts in the north-eastern Balkans.<ref>{{harvtxt|Szmoniewski|2012|pp=69–71}}</ref> "Nomadic" style wheel-made pottery (called Pastyrske or Saltovo ware) also occurs in the Ukrainian Penkovka sites as well as in the lower Danube and Bulgaria, but is most commonly found within the ], associated with Bulgars, Khazars and Alans.<ref>{{harvtxt|Szmoniewski|2012|pp=69–70}}</ref><ref>{{harvtxt|Fiedler|2008|p=214}}</ref>
*], in ] between the ], ], and ] Rivers<ref name = Magocsi/>
*], between ] and ]<ref name = Magocsi/>
*], along the ] and upper ] and ] Rivers<ref name = Magocsi/>
*], along the ] River<ref name = Magocsi/><ref name="Sedov363">{{harvtxt|Sedov|1995|loc=гл. Восточнославянская этноязыковая общность|p=363}}</ref>
*], between Dniester and ] in the forest-steppe zone<ref name = Magocsi/><ref name="Sedov363"/>


However, their association with Antes, like in the case of Croats, is often unclear and not critical enough regarding various scientific evidence of the migration period.<ref>{{citation |last=Majorov |first=Aleksandr Vjačeslavovič |year=2012 |title=Velika Hrvatska: etnogeneza i rana povijest Slavena prikarpatskoga područja |trans-title=Great Croatia: ethnogenesis and early history of Slavs in the Carpathian area |language=hr |location=Zagreb, Samobor |publisher=], Meridijani |isbn=978-953-6928-26-2 |page=131}}</ref> The tribes living in Western Ukraine (], Croats, Drevlians, ], Polans, Tivertsi, Ulichs and Volhynians) are considered to be between 7th and 10th century part of the Sakhnivka-], meanwhile in the Dnieper area (Severians, ]) part of the ]-Romny-Borshchevo culture, both of which originating from the ] identified with the eastward movement of the ].<ref name="Kazanski2013"/><ref>{{cite encyclopedia |last=Kazanski |first=Michel |author-link=Michel Kazanski |date=2020 |url=https://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr/hal-02902087/file/Kazanski_Archaeology-Slavic%20Migrations_2020.pdf |entry=Archaeology of the Slavic Migrations |encyclopedia=Encyclopedia of Slavic Languages and Linguistics Online |publisher=BRILL}}</ref><ref name="Kozak1999">{{cite book|last=Козак|first=В. Д.|title=Етногенез та етнічна історія населення Українських Карпат|year=1999|publisher=Institute of Ethnology of the National Academy of Sciences of Ukraine|location=Lviv|volume=1|language=uk|pages=483–502}}</ref><ref>{{cite encyclopedia|title=РАЙКОВЕЦЬКА КУЛЬТУРА|url=http://www.history.org.ua/?termin=Rajkovetska_k_ra|author=Абашина Н.С.|encyclopedia=Encyclopedia of Ukrainian History|access-date=20 June 2019|publisher=], ]|language=uk|quote=Носіями Р.к. були літописні племена – поляни, уличі, древляни, волиняни, бужани, хорвати, тиверці.}}</ref>
]
Hand-made Penkovka pottery is ditinguished from Prague and Korchak types on the basis of its biconical profile and tendency for out-turned rims.<ref>{{harvtxt|Barford|2001|p=63}}</ref> However, Florin Curta has argued that there can be no simple relationship between type of ceramic vessel and the ethnicity of groups which consumed them. E Teodor performed a detailed analysis of ceramic vessels in 6th century southeastern Europe, and discovered a complex picture which cannot be reduced to 2 or 3 broad 'archaeological cultures', as each microregion and even individual site shows idisyncracies in their ceramic profile and degree of connectivity to other regions of 'Slavic Europe'.<ref>{{harvtxt|Teodor|2005}}</ref>


==Rulers==
Penkovka settlements tended to be located on the terraces of rivers- usually arranged in a linear fashion.<ref>Gimbutas,1971. Pg 80-85</ref> Buildings were usually square-shaped, post-hole constructs dug into the ground, and were equipped with an oven in the corners. There are also rounded buildings, otherwise not found in other Slavic territories, which have been associated with a nomadic influence. However, they are different to traditional tent-like nomadic ''yurts''.<ref>{{harvtxt|Szmoniewski|2012|p=72}}</ref> Settlements tended to be abandoned after a period of habitation, and were often re-occupied years later, reflective of the itenerant form of agriculture practiced by the populace. Two fortified sites are known from the Penkovka region - Seliste and Pastyrke. The latter has been excavated in detail, and appears to have been an Iron Age fortification which was also occupied in early Medieval times. Measuring 25 ''ha'', it included numerous settlement buildings as well as evidence of specialised industrial activity. Szmoniewski argues that "Pastyrs’ke may have also been a political power centre, the seat of a ruler with territorial authority".<ref>{{harvtxt|Szmoniewski|2012|pp=74–76}}</ref>
*] (fl. 376–80), king of Antae and first known Slavic ruler

*{{Interlanguage link|Dabragezas|de}} (fl. 555–56), led Roman fleet in Crimea against Persian positions
Two forms of burials are found north of the Black Sea in the 6th and 7th centuries. Poorly furnished cremation burials, either inside urns or into shallow pits, are concentrated in the forest-steppe zone; whilst more elaborately equipped inhumations are found in the open steppe. Traditionally, the latter are attributed to "Turkic" nomads whilst the cremation burials were a typically Slavic rite. However, a straightforward ethnic attribution has been questioned - as the pottery and metalwork (see below) found in the 'nomadic' inhumations shows clear analogies to that found in 'Slavic' settlements in the forest-zone. Thus Curta has argued that the inhumation burials represented a marker of ''social'' distinction of chiefs and 'big men' from the forest-zone settlements.<ref name="Curta 2008">{{harvtxt|Curta|2008}}</ref>
*Idariz, or Idarisius (fl. 562), father of Mezamir

*] (fl. 562), powerful Antae ]
Another set of cultural elements often attributed to the Antes are numerous hoards of silver and gold ornaments dated to the 7th century, and are variously called "Antian antiquites" or the ''Martynovka culture''. Scholars have debated to whom the Martynovka elemenets belonged to since the late 19th century; as A Spitsyn attributed them to the Slavic Antes, whilst J Harmatta rather attributed them to Turkic groups, specifically the Cutrigurs.<ref>{{harvtxt|Szmoniewski|2012|pp=774–78}}</ref> The situation was clarified when Curta's analysis revealed that early in the 7th century, such metalwork appears in hoards deposited in the forest-steppe, whilst later assemblages appear as internment gifts in 'nomadic burials'. Thus, again, rather than simplistic ethnic explanations, Curta's analysis suggests that the pattern of ornament consumption varied with time and was related to social status and gender: i.e. earlier in the 6th century, elites displayed status by burying hoards of silver in the forest-steppe, whilst later there was more aggressive posturing and status display in the form of richly furnished male warior graves, no doubt related to the competition for supremacy of the north Black Sea region between Avars, Bulgars, Khazars and western Gokturks.<ref name="Curta 2008"/> The metalwork betrays a variety of influences - especially the world of the steppe nomad which in turn showed Caucasian, Byzantine and Sassanian inspiration. Yet other elements showed affinities with the 'Balto-Slavic' world of the forests of Eastern Europe.<ref name="Szmoniewski 2008 278–9">{{harvtxt|Szmoniewski|2008|pp=278–9}}</ref>
*Kelagast (fl. 562), brother of Mezamir

Overall, the equation of the Penkovka culture and Martynovka hoards with the Antes is problematic, as such cultural features exist into the 8th century, long after the Antes were defeated by the Avars in 602 AD and ceased to exist as an independent tribal polity.<ref name="Curta 2008"/> Such diffuse styles cannot be directly linked to any single people, but rather reflect a myriad of peoples who existed in the Black Sea region from 450 - 750 AD, including Antes, Cutrigurs and Bulgars.<ref name="Szmoniewski 2008 278–9"/>


==See also== ==See also==
{{commons category|Antes}}
*]
*] *]
*]
*]


==Notes== ==Notes==
{{reflist|group=note}} {{reflist|group=note}}


==References== ==Citations==
{{reflist|3}} {{reflist|colwidth=30em}}


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* {{cite journal|last= Schuessler|first= Axel|title= Phonological Notes on Hàn Period Transcriptions of Foreign Names and Words|journal= Studies in Chinese and Sino-Tibetan Linguistics: Dialect, Phonology, Transcription and Text|series= Language and Linguistics Monograph Series|issue= 53|publisher= Institute of Linguistics, Academia Sinica|location= Taipei, Taiwan|year= 2014|url= http://www.ling.sinica.edu.tw/Files/LL/UploadFiles/MonoFullText/Studies%20in%20Chinese%20and%20Sino-Tibetan%20Linguistics.pdf|access-date= 2022-01-01|archive-date= 2021-06-07|archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20210607101617/http://www.ling.sinica.edu.tw/Files/LL/UploadFiles/MonoFullText/Studies%20in%20Chinese%20and%20Sino-Tibetan%20Linguistics.pdf|url-status= dead}}
* {{cite book | first = Valentin |last=Sedov | chapter = Tribal Societies in Eastern Europe |title=History of Humanity: From the seventh century B.C. to the seventh century A.D. |editor-first=Sigfried J. |editor-last=de Laet |publisher =UNESCO | year = 1996 |isbn=923102812X}}
*{{cite book |first=Valentin Vasilyevich |last=Sedov |year=2012 |orig-year=1994 |title=Славяне в древности |trans-title=Sloveni u dalekoj prošlosti (Slavs in the distant past) |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=n2goAAAAMAAJ |publisher=Akademska knjiga |location=Novi Sad |isbn=978-86-6263-022-3}}
*{{cite book |first=Valentin Vasilyevich |last=Sedov |year=2013 |orig-year=1995 |title=Славяне в раннем Средневековье |trans-title=Sloveni u ranom srednjem veku (Slavs in Early Middle Ages) |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=HD4oAAAAMAAJ |publisher=Akademska knjiga |location=Novi Sad |isbn=978-86-6263-026-1 }}
*{{cite book |first=Valentin Vasilyevich |last=Sedov |year=1995 |script-title=ru:Славяне в раннем Средневековье|language=ru |trans-title=Slavs in Early Middle Ages |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=HD4oAAAAMAAJ |publisher=Фонд археологии |location=Moscow |isbn=5-87059-021-3}} 415 pages
* {{citation |first=Mark B. |last=Shchukin |title=The Balto-Slavic Forest Direction in the Archaeological Study of the Ethnogenesis of the Slavs|journal=Wiadomosci Archeologiczne |volume=1|year=1986}}
* {{citation|first=Bohdan|last=Strumins'kyj|title=Were the Antes Eastern Slavs?|url=https://projects.iq.harvard.edu/huri/files/viii-iv_1979-1980_part2.pdf|journal=Harvard Ukrainian Studies|volume=3/4|year=1979|pages=786–796|access-date=2021-09-16|archive-date=2022-01-20|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220120071136/https://projects.iq.harvard.edu/huri/files/viii-iv_1979-1980_part2.pdf|url-status=dead}}
* {{cite book |last=Szmoniewski|first=B. S. |editor-first=Florin |editor-last=Curta|chapter=The Antes: Eastern "Brothers" of the Sclavenes ? |title=Neglected Barbarians|year=2012|publisher =Brepols|isbn= 978-2-503-53125-0}}
* {{citation |title=The Other Europe in the Middle Ages – Avars, Bulgars, Khazars, and Cumans|editor2-first=Roman |editor2-last=Kovalev|editor1-first=Florin |editor1-last=Curta |first=Bartlomiej |last=Szmoniewski|chapter=Two worlds, one hoard: what do metal finds from the forest-steppe belt speak about ?|year=2008|publisher =Brill |isbn=978-90-04-16389-8}}
* {{cite book |first=Eugene |last=Teodor|chapter = The Shadow of a Frontier: The Walachian Plain during the Justinianic Age|editor=Florin Curta|title=Borders, Barriers, and Ethnogenesis Frontiers in Late Antiquity and the Middle Ages|year=2005|publisher=Brepols|isbn=978-2-503-51529-8}}
* {{Cite book |last=Živković|first=Tibor|authorlink=Tibor Živković|title=Forging unity: The South Slavs between East and West 550-1150|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=JlIsAQAAIAAJ|year=2008|location=Belgrade|publisher=The Institute of History, Čigoja štampa|isbn=9788675585732}}

==Further reading==
* Kardaras, Georgios. "". In: '''' Vol. LXVII, n. 3 (2018): 377-393.

{{History of Slavs}}
{{Barbarian kingdoms}}


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Latest revision as of 19:08, 3 January 2025

Early Slavic people inhabiting parts of Eastern Europe in the Early Middle Ages "Antae" redirects here. For the architectural element, see Anta (architecture).
Archaeological cultures of the early 7th century identified with the early Slavs
Antes near Pontic Olbia

The Antes or Antae (Greek: Ἄνται) were an early Slavic tribal polity of the 6th century CE. They lived on the lower Danube River, in the northwestern Black Sea region (present-day Moldova and central Ukraine), and in the regions around the Don River (in Middle and Southern Russia). Scholars commonly associate the Antes with the archaeological Penkovka culture.

First mentioned in the historical record in 518, the Antes invaded the Diocese of Thrace sometime between the years of 533 and 545. Thereafter, they became Byzantine foederati and received gold payments and a fort (named "Turris" – the Latin word turris means 'tower') somewhere north of the Danube at a strategically important location to prevent hostile barbarians from invading Roman lands. Thus from 545 to the 580s, Antean soldiers fought in various Byzantine campaigns. The Pannonian Avars, Bulgars and Khazars attacked the Antes in the 7th century, causing disapperance of the Antes as a group and of the Penkovka culture phenomenon.

Origin

Historiography

Scholars have studied the Antes since the late 18th century. Based on the literary evidence provided by Procopius (c. 500–560 CE) and Jordanes (fl. c. 551), the Antes, along with the Sclaveni and the Venethi, have long been viewed as the constituent proto-Slavic peoples ancestral to both medieval Slavic ethnicities and modern Slavic nations. At times, debate over the origins and the descendants of the Antes has been heated. The tribe has been variously regarded as the ancestors of, specifically, the Vyatichi or the Rus (from a medieval perspective), and, in terms of extant populations, of the Ukrainians versus other East Slavs. Additionally, South Slavic historians have regarded the Antes as the ancestors of the eastern South Slavs.

Ethnolinguistic affinities

Although the Antes are regarded as a predominantly Slavic tribal union, numerous other theories of their ethnic components have arisen. The origins of their core ruling class have drawn particular attention, including theories that this ruling nobility was ethnically Iranic, Gothic, Slavic, or some mixture thereof. Much of this dispute has arisen from the scantness of the literary evidence: little is known of the Antes apart from the tribal name itself and a handful of anthroponyms. The name Antes itself does not appear to be Slavic, and is often held to be an Iranian word. Omeljan Pritsak, citing Max Vasmer, argues that because anta- means "frontier, end" in Sanskrit, *ant-ya could mean "frontiersman" or "that which is at the end"; and in Ossetian att'iya means "the last, behind". F.P. Filin and Oleg Trubachyov shared this opinion. In contrast, Bohdan Struminskyj considered the etymology of Antes unproven and "irrelevant". Struminskyj analyzed the personal names of Antean chiefs and offered Germanic etymological alternatives to the commonly accepted Slavic etymologies that had first been proposed by Stanisław Rospond.

Although the first unequivocal attestation of the Antes tribe is from the 6th century CE, scholars (e.g. Vernadsky) have tried to connect the Antes with a tribe rendered as Yancai 奄蔡 (< LHC *ʔɨam-sɑ < OC (125 BCE) *ʔɨam-sɑs; compare Latin Abzoae, identified with the Aorsi (Ancient Greek Αορσιοι)) in the Records of the Grand Historian, a 2nd-century-BCE Chinese source. Pliny the Elder mentions some Anti living near the shores of the Azov Sea, and inscriptions from the Kerch peninsula dating to the 3rd century CE bear the word antas. Based on documentation of "Sarmatian" tribes inhabiting the north Pontic region during the early centuries of the Common Era, presumed Iranic loanwords in Slavic languages, and Sarmatian "cultural borrowings" into the Penkovka culture, scholars such as Paul Robert Magocsi, Valentin Sedov, and John V.A. Fine, Jr. maintain earlier proposals by Soviet-era scholars such as Boris Rybakov, that the Antes were originally a Sarmatian–Alan frontier tribe that become Slavicized but preserved their name. Sedov argues that the ethnonym referred to the Slavic–Scythian–Sarmatian population living between the Dniester and Dnieper Rivers, and later to the related Slavic tribes who emerged from this Slavic–Iranian symbiosis.

However, more-recent perspectives view the tribal entities named by Graeco-Roman sources as fluctuant political formations that were, above all, etic categorizations based on ethnographic stereotypes rather than on first-hand, accurate knowledge of the barbarian language or "culture." Bartłomiej Szymon Szmoniewski argues that the Antes were not a "discrete, ethnically homogeneous entity" but rather "a highly complex political reality". Linguistically, contemporary evidence suggests that Proto-Slavic was the common language of an area that extended from the eastern Alps to the Black Sea and was spoken by peoples of varying ethnic backgrounds, including Slavs, provincial Romans, Germanic tribes (such as the Gepids and Lombards), and Turkic peoples (such as the Avars and Bulgars).

History

See also: Slavic migrations to the Balkans
The political situation in S.E.E. ~ 520 AD – the post-Hun period and prior to Byzantine re-conquest of Gothic Italy

Early history

According to historians who argue for a connection between the Antes and the Sarmatians, the Antes were a subgroup of the Alans, who dominated the Black Sea and North Caucasus region during the Late Sarmatian Period. The Antes were based between the Bug and lower Dnieper in the 1st–2nd centuries CE. In the 4th century, their center of power shifted northward toward the southern Bug. In the 5th and 6th centuries, they settled in Volhynia and subsequently in the middle Dnieper region near the present-day city of Kyiv. As they moved north from the open steppe to the forest steppe, they organized the Slavic tribes, and the name Antes came to be used for the mixed Slavo–Alanic polity.

Whatever the exact origins of the tribe, Jordanes and Procopius both appear to suggest that the Antes were Slavic by the 5th century. In describing the lands of Scythia, Jordanes states that "the populous race of the Venethi occupy a great expanse of land. Though their names are now dispersed amid various clans and places, yet they are chiefly called Sklaveni and Antes." Later, in describing the deeds of Ermanaric, the mythical Ostrogothic king, Jordanes writes that the Venethi "have now three names: Venethi, Antes, and Sklaveni". Finally, he describes a battle between the Antean king Boz and Ermanaric's successor Vinitharius after the latter's subjugation by the Huns. After initially defeating the Goths, the Antes lost the second battle, and Boz and 70 of his leading nobles were crucified (Get. 247). Scholars have traditionally taken the accounts of Jordanes as face-value evidence that the Sklaveni and (the bulk of the) Antes descended from the Venedi, a tribe known to historians such as Tacitus, Ptolemy, and Pliny the Elder since the 2nd century CE.

However, the utility of Getica as an accurate work of ethnography has been questioned. Walter Goffart, for example, argues that Getica created an entirely mythical story of Gothic and other peoples' origins. Florin Curta further argues that Jordanes had no real ethnographic knowledge of "Scythia," despite claims that he himself was a Goth and was born in Thrace. He borrowed heavily from earlier historians and only artificially linked the 6th-century Sklaveni and Antes with the earlier Venethi, who had otherwise long disappeared by that century. This anachronism was paired with a "modernizing narrative strategy" whereby Jordanes retold older events – the war between the Ostrogothic Vithimiris and the Alans – as a war between Vinitharius and the contemporary Antes. In any case, no 4th-century source mentions the Antes, and the "Ostrogoths" did not form until the 5th century – inside the Balkans. Some scholars related to the Antes the Anthaib (mentioned in Origo Gentis Langobardorum of the 8th century History of the Lombards), a land which Lombards had to pass through and ruled before reaching modern day Austria in the 5th century.

Apart from the influence of older historians, Jordanes' narrative style was shaped by his polemical debate with his contemporary Procopius. While Jordanes linked the Sclaveni and Antes with the ancient Venedi, Procopius states that they were both once called Sporoi.

Location in 6th century

Jordanes and Procopius have been seen as invaluable sources in locating the Antes with greater precision. Jordanes (Get. 25) states that they dwelt "along the curve of the Black Sea" from the Dniester to the Dnieper. Paul M. Barford questions whether this implies they occupied the steppe or the regions further north, although most scholars generally place the Antes in the forest steppe zone of right-bank Ukraine. In contrast, Procopius locates them just beyond the northern banks of the Danube (Wars V 27.1–2) (i.e., Wallachia). The lack of consistency in geography demonstrates that the Antes stretched well across Sarmatian Scythia, rather than being a small and distant polity.

6th and 7th centuries

The first contact between the Eastern Romans and the Antes was in 518 CE. Recorded by Procopius, the Antean raid appeared to coincide with the Vitalian' revolt, but was intercepted and defeated by the magister militum per Thraciam Germanus. Germanus was replaced by Chilbudius in the early 530s, who was killed three years later during an expedition against the various Sklavenoi. With the death of Chilbudius, Justinian appears to have changed his policy against Slavic barbarians from offense to defense, exemplified by his grand program of refortifying garrisons along the Danube.

In 537, Justinian recruited 1,600 mounted mercenaries of Sclaveni and Antes to aid the rescue of Belisarius in Italy against the Ostrogoths. Procopius notes that in 539–40, the Sklavenes and Antes "became hostile to one another and engaged in battle," probably encouraged by the Romans' traditional tactic of "divide and conquer." Nevertheless, both Procopius and Jordanes report numerous raids by "Huns," Slavs, Bulgars, and Antes in the years 539–40 CE, reporting that some 32 forts and 120,000 Roman prisoners were captured. Sometime between 533 and 545, the Antes invaded the Diocese of Thrace, enslaving many Romans and taking them north of the Danube to the Antean homelands. Indeed, numerous raids were conducted during this turbulent decade by numerous barbarian groups, including the Antes. The two tribes were at peace by 545. Notably, one of the captured Antes claimed to be Roman general Chilbudius (who was killed in 534 by barbarians at the Danube). He was sold to the Antes and freed. He revealed his true identity but was pressured and continued to claim that he was Chilbudius.

In 545, the Antes became Roman allies (after approaching the Romans) and were given gold payments and a fort named "Turris" somewhere north of the Danube at a strategically important location, in order to prevent hostile barbarians invading Roman lands. This was part of a larger set of alliances, including the Lombards, lifting pressure off the lower Danube and enabling forces to be diverted to Italy. Thus, in 545, Antean soldiers were fighting in Lucania against Ostrogoths, and in the 580s they attacked the settlements of the Sklavenes at the behest of the Romans. In 555 and 556, Dabragezas (of Antean origin) led the Roman fleet in Crimea against Persian positions.

The Antes remained Roman allies until their demise in the first decade of the 7th century. They were often involved in conflicts with the Avars, such as the war recorded by Menander the Guardsman (50, frg 5.3.17–21) in the 560s. In 602, in retaliation for a Roman attack on their Sklavene allies, the Avars sent their general Apsich to "destroy the nation of the Antes." Despite numerous defections to the Romans during the campaign, the Avar attack appears to have ended the Antean polity. They never again appear in sources, apart from the epithet Anticus in the imperial titulature in 612. Curta argues that the 602 attack on the Antes destroyed their political independence. However, based on the aforementioned attestation of Anticus, Georgios Kardaras rather argues that the disappearance of the Antes stemmed from the general collapse of the Scythian/lower Danubian limes they defended, ending their hegemony on the lower Danube.

Fall

Scholars often associated the fall of the Antes with the attack of the Avars. Others have seen a remote connection between the demise of the Antes and the oppression of the Dulebes by the Avars mentioned in the Primary Chronicle, and/or the tradition recorded by Al-Masudi and Abraham ben Jacob that in ancient times the Walitābā (which some read as Walīnānā and identified with the Volhynians) were "the original, pure-blooded Saqaliba, the most highly honoured" and dominated the rest of the Slavic tribes, but due to "dissent" their "original organization was destroyed" and "the people divided into factions, each of them ruled by their own king", implying existence of a Slavic federation which perished after the attack of the Avars.

However, according to Michel Kazanski, the downfall of the Antes, associated Penkovka culture and Martynivka-type hoards, happened in the first half of the 7th century with the arrival of the Bulgars and then Khazars who probably acted on the behest of the Byzantine Empire against the Antes. From the west and south arrived Slavs with Prague-Korchak cultural traditions, although small groups of Antes could have survived around Southern Bug and Moldova, according to Kazanski the "main bulk of the Pen'kivka population may have retreated from the middle Dnieper to the north, to the area of their distant cousins, the Kalochyn culture population".

Aftermath

European territory inhabited by East Slavic tribes in 8th and 9th century

Out of the old Antes federation, some of the following tribes are assumed to have evolved:

However, their association with Antes, like in the case of Croats, is often unclear and not critical enough regarding various scientific evidence of the migration period. The tribes living in Western Ukraine (Buzhans, Croats, Drevlians, Dregoviches, Polans, Tivertsi, Ulichs and Volhynians) are considered to be between 7th and 10th century part of the Sakhnivka-Luka-Raikovetska culture, meanwhile in the Dnieper area (Severians, Radimichs) part of the Volyntsevo-Romny-Borshchevo culture, both of which originating from the Prague-Korchak culture identified with the eastward movement of the Sclaveni.

Rulers

  • Boz (fl. 376–80), king of Antae and first known Slavic ruler
  • Dabragezas [de] (fl. 555–56), led Roman fleet in Crimea against Persian positions
  • Idariz, or Idarisius (fl. 562), father of Mezamir
  • Mezamir (fl. 562), powerful Antae archon
  • Kelagast (fl. 562), brother of Mezamir

See also

Notes

  1. Today Alans are better known as Ossetians.
  2. The very purpose of Jordanes' narrative, especially with regard to the alleged Scandinavian origin of the Goths, was to show that there was no place for the Goths in Roman territory. Together with his enumeration of other barbarian tribes in Scythia and around Dacia, Jordanes was stating that Scythia is overpopulated with barbarians, and the Goths should belong to the frozen wastelands of the North. Jordanes only feigned his own Gothic roots, and his work is designed to celebrate the destruction of the Gothic kingdom by the Byzantines. (Goffart, 2006)
  3. The term Spori is a hapax, but might have been inspired by the tribe "Spali" (curta, 1999. FN 36)
  4. Eg Jordanes states Scythia extends as far as the "Tyras" and "Danaster", although they are two names for the same river (Dniester). Procopius thought the Caucasus mountains extended as far as Illyricum. (Curta, 199, p. 327-8)

Citations

  1. The Cambridge Medieval History Series volumes 1-5. Plantagenet Publishing.
  2. Baran (1988)
  3. Shchukin (1986)
  4. Gimbutas (1971, p. 90)
  5. Sedov (1996, p. 280)
  6. Szmoniewski (2012, p. passim)
  7. Szmoniewski (2012, p. 62)
  8. Magosci (2010, p. 36)
  9. Sedov (2012, p. 389)
  10. Pritsak (1983, p. 358)
  11. Sedov (2012, pp. 389–390)
  12. ^ Sedov (2012, p. 390)
  13. Strumins'kyj (1979, p. 787)
  14. Strumins'kyj (1979, pp. 788–96)
  15. Pliny the Elder, Natural History IV page 365
  16. Schuessler (2014, p. 268)
  17. Yu Huan, Weilüe. draft translation by John E. Hill (2004). Translator's Notes 11.2 quote: "Yăncài, already mentioned in the text as a country northwest of Kāngjū (at that time in the region of Tashkend), has long been identified with the Aorsoi of western sources, a nomadic people out of whom the well-known Alans later emerged (Pulleyblank )".
  18. Shiji, "Dayuan liezhuan" quote: " 奄蔡在康居西北可二千里，行國，與康居大同俗。控弦者十餘萬。臨大澤，無崖，蓋乃北海云。" translation: "Yancai is located possibly 2,000 li to the Northwest of Kangju. It is a nomadic nation; its customs largely resemble Kangju's. over 100,000 bowstring-drawers . It borders a great shoreless lake, possibly also called the North Sea."
  19. Book of the Later Han, 118, fol. 16r
  20. ^ Szmoniewski (2012, p. 55)
  21. Natural History VI, 35
  22. Gimbutas (1971, p. 61,61)
  23. ^ Magosci (2010, pp. 42, 43)
  24. Sedov (1996, p. 281)
  25. Fine (2006, p. 25)
  26. Curta (2009, pp. 12, 13)
  27. Curta (2004)
  28. ^ Magosci (2010, pp. 39, 40)
  29. Getica. 35
  30. Get. 119
  31. Curta (1999, pp. 321–26)
  32. Goffart (2006, pp. 56–72)
  33. Curta (1999, pp. 330–32)
  34. Heather, The Goths 52–55.
    Kulikowski 111.
  35. Dvornik, Francis (1956). The Slavs: Their Early History and Civilization. Boston: American Academy of Arts and Sciences. p. 28.
  36. Curta (1999, p. 326)
  37. Procopius. History of the Wars. VII 14.29
  38. Barford (2001, p. 55)
  39. Magosci (2010, p. 43)
  40. Curta (1999, p. 327)
  41. Wars VII 40.5–6
  42. Curta (2001, p. 75)
  43. ^ Curta, 2001. p. 78.
  44. Procopius Wars VII 14.7–10
  45. Curta, 2001. p. 78–9
  46. Procopius Wars VII.14.11
  47. Kardaras (2010, pp. 74–5)
  48. ^ Curta, 2001. p. 79
  49. Curta, 2001. pp. 80–1
  50. Kardaras (2010, p. 74)
  51. Agathias. III 6.9; 7.2; 21.6
  52. Živković (2008, p. 9)
  53. Theophylact Simocatta VII 15.12–14
  54. Curta, 2001. p. 105.
  55. Kardaras, 2010. p. 85
  56. Faḍlān, Aḥmad Ibn (2012). Ibn Fadlan and the Land of Darkness: Arab Travellers in the Far North. Translated by Lunde, Paul; Stone, Caroline. Penguin. pp. 128, 146, 200. ISBN 978-0-14-045507-6.
  57. Cross, Samuel Hazzard; Sherbowitz-Wetzor, Olgerd P. (1953). The Russian Primary Chronicle. Laurentian Text (PDF). Cambridge, Mass., Mediaeval Academy of America. p. 37.
  58. ^ Kazanski (2013, p. 786–793, 804, 825, 829–831)
  59. Kazanski (2013, p. 793)
  60. ^ Magocsi, Paul. A History of Ukraine. University of Toronto Press, 1996. ISBN 9780802078209 . p. 46, 49
  61. Sedov (1995, p. 321, гл. Хорваты)
  62. Sedov (1995, p. 501)
  63. ^ Sedov (1995, p. 363, гл. Восточнославянская этноязыковая общность)
  64. Majorov, Aleksandr Vjačeslavovič (2012), Velika Hrvatska: etnogeneza i rana povijest Slavena prikarpatskoga područja [Great Croatia: ethnogenesis and early history of Slavs in the Carpathian area] (in Croatian), Zagreb, Samobor: Brethren of the Croatian Dragon, Meridijani, p. 131, ISBN 978-953-6928-26-2
  65. Kazanski, Michel (2020). "Archaeology of the Slavic Migrations". Encyclopedia of Slavic Languages and Linguistics Online (PDF). BRILL.
  66. Козак, В. Д. (1999). Етногенез та етнічна історія населення Українських Карпат (in Ukrainian). Vol. 1. Lviv: Institute of Ethnology of the National Academy of Sciences of Ukraine. pp. 483–502.
  67. Абашина Н.С. "РАЙКОВЕЦЬКА КУЛЬТУРА". Encyclopedia of Ukrainian History (in Ukrainian). Naukova Dumka, NASU Institute of History of Ukraine. Retrieved 20 June 2019. Носіями Р.к. були літописні племена – поляни, уличі, древляни, волиняни, бужани, хорвати, тиверці.

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Further reading

History of the Slavic peoples
Indo-European ethnolinguistic group of Eastern European origin identified by their use of the Slavic languages, and related history
General
Prehistory
Background
Early Slavs
Ancient tribes
East Slavs
West Slavs
South Slavs
Middle Ages
(before 1500)
Slavic states
(Early Middle Ages)
Slavic states
(High Middle Ages)
Slavic states
(Late Middle Ages)
Language
development
Pre-Christian
Pagan society
(until about
Early Middle Ages)
General
Slavic
paganism
Christianisation
Barbarian kingdoms established around the Migration Period
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