Misplaced Pages

Latest revision as of 06:39, 9 January 2025

Sudhan

سُدھن
Map showing the distribution of Sudhan populations in Azad Kashmir, Pakistan
Total population
Around 500,000 (2006 estimations)
Regions with significant populations
Poonch, Sudhanoti, Bagh, Kotli
Languages
Pahari (Poonchi Dialect)
Religion
Islam

Sudhan (also known as Saddozai Sudhan) are one of the major tribes from the Poonch Division in Azad Kashmir with their population centered around Poonch and Sudhanoti, alongside a smaller population in the northern areas of the neighboring Bagh and Kotli. According to the local oral tradition of the tribe, they are allegedly a branch of the Saddozai tribe and originated from Pashtun areas in Afghanistan, and were the founders of their heartland of Sudhanoti.

History and origins

The tribe claims an Afghan ancestry. According to Syed Ali, Sudhans have a Pashtun descent and moved to the Poonch district of Kashmir region some centuries ago. Sudhans from Poonch considered themselves to be Sudhozai Pathans (Pashtuns). Scholar Iffat Malik of the Institute of Strategic Studies Islamabad writes:

The Sudhans claim their origin from Afghanistan and they consider themselves to be descendants of a common ancestor Jassi Khan, who was an Afghan chief and had earned the name of Sudhan (from Sanskrit, meanings "justice, fair and honest") as a compliment to his valour as he 500 years or so ago landed in Western parts of Poonch and fought for their existence, but the local people dominated them in this period, they multiplied quickly and emerged into a strong and powerful tribe. According to them, they are same as the Sudhazai tribe of high class Afghans. In social habits and customs they also are certainly akin to Sudhazais of Afghanistan. Among Afghans, Sudhazai are a very respected clan with long good history behind them. Sikhs and Dogras had to fight the Sudhans in wars spread over a fairly long time as they had never been reconciled to their rule by them, and there was first rebellion in 1837, after Sudhan people went in revolt against Sikh Empire, had captured hills from Sikhs, however Sudhans were defeated by Sikhs but survived as a strong tribe. In 1947, Sudhans were first to challenge Dogras.

About 40,000–60,000 Sudhans were recruited and served in the British Indian Army during the First and Second World Wars. The Sadozai are a lineage of the Popalzai clan of the Abdali tribe of the ethnic Pashtun. The lineage takes its name from its ancestor, Sado Khan.

Alleged origins

Jassi Khan's Migration and Conquest

According to some oral traditions, an Afghan chieftain named Jassi Khan is said to be the forefather of the Saddozai Sudhans, and a descendant of one Sadullah Khan. This origin is only present in greater detail in certain books written in the later half of the 20th and 21st centuries, which claim and form the basis of the 1300 invasion origin, with other contemporary and older oral traditions pointing towards different times, different origins, or giving vaguer details.

Invasion of Sudhanoti in the 1300s Origin

According to books written throughout the 20th and 21st centuries, such as "The Pearl String of Saddozais" by Sabir Hussain Sabir, Jassi Khan belongs to the lineage of a different Sadullah Khan than the Saddu Khan of the Saddozai branch of the Durrani Confederation. This Sadullah is said to have been born in 961 AD, and was the son of Atman, whom himself was a descendant of one Uthman. This gives way to an "Uthmanzai" branch of a different Saddozai tribe.

Sometime in the 1300s, Jassi Khan gathered an army of soldiers belonging to his clan, from in and around Ghazni, after he had been requested by the local Brahman tribes of present-day Sudhanoti to rescue them from a "tyrannous tribe", allegedly the "Bhagars" whom are said to have recently occupied those territories and ruled the local populace with cruelty.

Jassi, after routing the Bhagars from Sudhanoti, was granted the laqab (title) "Sudhan" from Sanskrit by the Brahmans, which is said to translate to "Very fair". Jassi later settled these territories with his troops and their families, accepting the title "Sudhan" and proceeding to rule the region of Sudhanoti until his death. His descendants continued Sudhan rule in Sudhanoti in one form or another until 1837, when after their rebellion against the Sikhs, they were stripped of all autonomy and subjugated to a direct foreign government, with the Sikhs completely annexing Poonch into the Sikh Empire and bringing it under the control of the Lahore government.

1819 - 1832 Resistance Against Sikh Conquest

In 1819, under the leadership of Ranjit Singh, the Sikhs had successfully routed the Saddozai Kingdom from Kashmir. Subsequently, the Sikh Empire came to rule the region of the Kashmir Valley, though they had previously already obtained control over Jammu.

The regions of Poonch and Muzaffarabad had not yet been conquered. In Muzaffarabad, the local Rajput clans of Khakha and Bambah led a resistance against Sikh conquest. A Sikh army was then dispatched from Srinagar and defeated them, declaring Sikh suzerainty over Muzaffarabad.

In Poonch, the Sudhans were at the head of resistance against the Sikhs. The Sudhans were led by a local chieftain Shams Khan, and the Sudhan sardars Sabz Ali and Malli Khan. They worked in collaboration with other Muslim tribes of Poonch to form an effective coalition against the Sikhs. The Sikhs were unable to launch a large-scale invasion of Poonch, as the resistance was staunch and they had problems elsewhere.

After Gulab Singh received the chakla of Jammu as a jagir (autonomous territory), he made renewed attempts at conquering Poonch, but the armies he raised were not large enough to defeat the Sudhan led resistance, and consequently he would face defeats before being forced to withdraw.

This continued for several years, until 1832, when Gulab Singh and his brother Dhian Singh made an appeal to Ranjit Singh, requesting him to put an end to the Sudhan-led resistance of Poonch. Ranjit Singh obliged, and marched with an army of 60,000 with a large assortment of hill-cannons.

Ranjit Singh's army was overwhelmingly superior in arms and number, with the deadly hill-cannons wreaking havoc upon the local territories. Consequently, Shams Khan and the other sardars made the decision to sue for peace. Ranjit Singh accepted their surrender, as the tribes acknowledged his suzerainty over Poonch. Shams Khan was taken as a hostage, to ensure the tribes would not rebel.

1837 Sudhan Revolt

Shams Khan (also known as Shams-Ud-Din Khan) was an influential zamindar of Poonch and headman of the Sudhans was the leader of the 1837 rebellion. After the prior successful conquest of Poonch, the local tribes of the region, including the Sudhans, had been pacified. From the Sudhans, Shams Khan was taken as a hostage and given to the care of Dhian Singh, who began to grow a liking for him.

In the year 1836, he returned to Poonch and began to take charge once again. At around the same time, the Yusufzai began a revolt, distracting the Sikhs and the leader of the Dogras, Gulab Singh. Rumors of a Sikh defeat began to spread, which in turn began the rise of clashes throughout Poonch between the locals and Sikh garrisons. Gulab Singh gained intelligence that Shams Khan was behind this, and called for the arrest of him and his family. Shams eluded the chasing authorities.

After this, an all-out rebellion broke out. The local Muslim tribes too joined the Sudhans and began amassing their armies. Gulab Singh ordered his son Ottam Singh to suppress the revolt before it grew further in strength. Ottam Singh arrived with a Dogra force of five thousand troops, but was defeated by rebels commandeered by Shams and his lieutenants. The prince himself was able to escape with some remnants of the army, but now Poonch was laid bare to the rebels.

Assaults over local forts began, resulting in great success. The garrisons were caught off-guard and ill-prepared, and fell to the attacking rebel armies. Some soldiers of the garrisons, whom had previously treated the locals with cruelty were cut-up with their corpses fed to dogs.

Following the defeats, Gulab Singh quickly forced the Yusufzai into peace, and then marched to Kahuta, where he raised an army of eight thousand regular infantry and twelve thousand irregulars. Though Gulab had raised a sizeable and professional army, he chose not to engage the rebellion immediately to minimize the number of Dogra casualties. He focused on bribing local Sardars of the various tribes and the many enemies of Shams, promising lavish rewards or positions of power if they betrayed Shams and the Sudhan-led rebels. This either neutralized them as foes, or turned a small number to his side completely, resulting in them aiding Gulab with either information or later fighting against the rebels. Thus Gulab had successfully incited treachery within some ranks of the rebellion.

After this, Gulab made his way to Poonch through Jhelum, and after some initial victories against local tribes, he paved way towards the Sudhan heartland, aiming to defeat the Sudhans who were both the leaders of the rebellion and made up the majority of its forces. Major clashes occurred at Pallandri, Pallangi, Pachhiot, Paral, Panthal, Baral, Narian and Chokian, alongside smaller clashes in other areas. The deadliest battle occurred in the Sudhan stronghold of Mong, where the local Sudhans both dealt and received heavy casualties. Although the rebels temporarily pushed out occupying Dogra forces in some areas, with the aid of Sikh reinforcements, Gulab counterattacked and overwhelmed the rebels. Many Sudhan commanders and notables were captured, including two sardars (scions) Malli Khan and Sabz Ali Khan, whom alongside Shams were at the head of both the tribe and the rebellion. Thus the remaining rebels had also lost key leaders.

To spread terror throughout the ranks of the rebels, Gulab Singh devastated all captured territories, permitting total plunder and terror in great excess. He also set a reward of five rupees for the head of every insurgent and anyone that was connected to him, regardless of age or gender. The remaining rebels were outmatched both in number and arms. Realizing the hopelessness of the situation, the rebellion collapsed as the rebels raced to protect their own families. Though the majority of the local population managed to escape Gulab's forces by taking refuge in nearby hills, their homes were looted, fields destroyed and cattle seized. Those who could not escape were either massacred or enslaved.

Shams Khan had evaded arrest up to this point, but eventually had his hiding place exposed to the Dogras. He was beheaded, alongside his nephew Rajwali. As a result, any remnants of the rebellion ended as the main leader of the Sudhans and the rebels was now dead. The heads of Shams and his nephew were later put in two cages of iron at the very top of the Adha Dek pass. The captured sardars Sabz Ali Khan and Malli Khan were flayed alive, alongside other commanders and notable members of the Sudhans and other rebellious tribes. As all ring leaders were now either dead or captured, any remaining insurgents now in hiding, alongside no remaining resistance, the conflict was concluded and Gulab withdrew his forces.

Though the majority of the local populace of Poonch and the Sudhans had survived by taking refuge in the hills, they returned home to barren fields and ransacked homes, alongside the deaths or disappearances of many relatives, including non-combatants and those who had nothing to do with the rebellion. The cruelty shown by the Dogra forces was not forgotten, with British contemporaries being appalled at the treatment of the rebellious tribes and the people of Poonch as a whole by Gulab. In 1846, after the Dogra Kingdom of Jammu and Kashmir was created and became a princely state of the British, Gulab Singh was forced to address the issue of his cruelty. He claimed that the actions of him and his forces were vengeance for the treatment the rebels imposed upon Dogra garrisons, and that he had only flayed alive three ring-leaders, though the locals claimed otherwise. To appease the British, he requested an advisor by whose counsel he would avoid further tyrannical action.

Role in the 1947 Poonch Revolt

The Sudhans played a monumental role in the rebellion against the Dogra Kingdom of Jammu and Kashmir. Spearheaded by Sardar Ibrahim Khan, they backed a movement supporting secession to Pakistan, which ultimately turned into an all-out revolt and later establishment of Azad Kashmir.

A large number of Sudhan tribals had participated in World War I and World War II through the British Indian Army. They had thus obtained expertise in war and some number of arms, which emboldened them to once again stand against the Dogra authorities, whom they had always been keen on expelling. The occurrence of the 1947 Jammu Massacres also served as motivation for the Muslims to revolt. Leveraging these advantages, Sardar Ibrahim Khan and his cause found much support from his tribe alongside other local Muslims living in what is now Azad Kashmir.

The Sudhans obtained further weaponry from the Pashtuns of FATA, prior to the breakout of rebellion. After rebellion was officially declared, a rebel force (dubbed the 'Azad Army'), made up of local militiamen and veterans from mainly the Sudhans, alongside a smaller number of Dhunds of Bagh, was raised in Poonch. Influential Sudhan figures, such as Khan Muhammad Khan, and Hussain Khan played key roles in raising the rebel forces. The local Dogra garrisons were overwhelmed and defeated, with a provisional government declared with its capital in the Sudhan stronghold of Pallandri, which was later followed by a capture of the majority of the Poonch district. Succeeding this, Pashtun lashkars arrived as reinforcements, all of which caused widespread collapse of Dogra authority in the Kingdom, which ultimately culminated in the creation of Azad Kashmir, Dogra Kingdom of Jammu and Kashmir's secession to India and the subsequent Indo-Pakistani war of 1947–1948.

1955 Poonch Uprising

Sudhans played an immense role in the 1955 Poonch rebellion, who revolted against the appointment of Sher Ahmed Khan and dismissal of Sardar Ibrahim Khan. The violent anti government protestors demanded regional autonomy, especially in the administration and for budgets.

Baral Agreement

The Baral Agreement was an agreement between the Government of Pakistan and rebellious Sudhan tribes signed on 20 December 1956 following the 1955 uprising.

Politics and governance

Together with the Dhunds & Rajputs. It is the Sudhans who dominate the politics of Azad Kashmir in the present day, although the Gujjar community is estimated to be the largest among the population.

First Government of Azad Kashmir

On October 4 1947, Azad Kashmir's First Government was established in Sudhanoti. Sudhanoti is the home and centre of the Sudhans, with the tribe overwhelmingly dominating the population of the tehsil By October 4 1947, the rebellion led by the Sudhans successfully captured their heartland from the Dogra regime. As there was no parliamentary house present in Sudhanoti from where the proclaimed government could be run, a temporary government structure was established and run from Moti Mahal in Rawalpindi.

By October 24, the rebel-founded government of Azad Kashmir prepared a 40-room parliamentary house at Sudhanoti's Chonjal Hill in Pallandri, to where the government was shifted. The government was transferred to Muzaffarabad on 1 August 1949. One of the main reasons for the transfer were the growing differences between the Sudhan tribals and the Government of Pakistan, with the Sudhans demanding greater autonomy. This would later culminate in the 1955 Poonch uprising.

Notable people

• Shams Khan (otherwise known as Shams-Ud-Din), tribal chieftain, local governor of Poonch, and rebel leader during the 1837 Sudhan Revolt.
• Malli Khan, sardar of the tribe and rebel leader during the 1837 Sudhan Revolt.
• Sabaz Ali Khan, sardar of the tribe and rebel leader during the 1837 Sudhan Revolt.
• Muhammad Ibrahim Khan, first and longest-serving President of Azad Kashmir.
• Sher Ahmed Khan, rebel leader during the First Kashmir War and former President of Azad Kashmir.
• Captain Hussain Khan, rebel leader during the First Kashmir War.
• Khan Muhammad Khan of Mong, rebel leader during the First Kashmir War.
• Khan Muhammad Khan, politician who served as the Chairman of the War Council during the 1947 Poonch Rebellion.
• Maqbool Hussain, recipient of Sitara-e-Jurat.
• Mohammad Rahim Khan, former military general, diplomat, and later civil servant.
• Aziz Khan, 11th Chairman Joint Chief of Staff Committee (CJCSC) of Pakistan Armed Forces
• Masood Khan, former President of Azad Kashmir and current Pakistani ambassador to the United States.
• Muhammad Anwar Khan, former military general, and later politician.
• Muhammad Hayat Khan, politician and former President of Azad Kashmir
• Muhammad Yaqoob Khan, politician and former President of Azad Kashmir
• Salman Irshad Khan, cricketer currently playing for Peshawar Zalmi.
• Sajjad Afghani, militant and Commander-in-Chief of Harkat-ul-Mujahideen

Bibliography

• Bamzai, P. N. K. (1994), Culture and Political History of Kashmir, M.D. Publications Pvt. Ltd., ISBN 978-81-85880-31-0

References

1. ""With Friends Like These...": Human Rights Violations in Azad Kashmir: II. Background". Human Rights Watch. Archived from the original on 8 March 2021. Retrieved 14 June 2019.
2. Cite Genealogy https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/a/a0/Sadu_Zai_subtribe.jpg
3. ^ Snedden, Christopher (2013). Kashmir: The Unwritten History. India: Harper Collins Publishers. ISBN 978-9350298978.
4. ^ Snedden, Christopher (December 2013). Kashmir - The Untold Story. HarperCollins India. p. 43. ISBN 9789350298985. Sudhans from Poonch considered themselves to be Sudho Zai Pathans (Pukhtoons), which explained why the Pashtun tribesmen from NWFP province lost no time coming to help Jammu and Kashmir's Muslims in 1947..
5. Snedden, Christopher (2012). The Untold Story of the People of Azad Kashmir. Columbia University Press. p. xix. ISBN 9780231800204. Sudhan/Sudhozai – one of the main tribes of (southern) Poonch, allegedly originating from Pashtun areas.
6. Tarikhi Sudhan qabail Author : Muhammad Arif Khan Saddozai Summary : History of the Sudhan tribes of Kashmir https://id.lib.harvard.edu/alma/990071496180203941/catalog
7. Hussain, Rifaat (2005). "Pakistan's Relations with Azad Kashmir and the Impact on Indo-Pakistani Relations". In Dossani, Rafiq; Rowen, Henry S. (eds.). Prospects for Peace in South Asia. Stanford University Press. p. 361. ISBN 9780804750851.
8. Syed Ali (1998). "South Asia: The Perils of Covert Coercion". In Lawrence Freedman (ed.). Strategic Coercion: Concepts and Cases. Oxford University Press. p. 253. ISBN 0-19-829349-6. Poonch at the time of partition was predominantly Muslim and the overwhelming majority of them were Sudhans, who were descendants of Pashtuns of Afghanistan, settled in the region some centuries ago.
9. Malik, Iffat (2002), "Jammu Province", Kashmir: Ethnic Conflict International Dispute, Oxford University Press, p. 62, ISBN 978-0-19-579622-3
10. Syed Ali (1998). "South Asia: The Perils of Covert Coercion". In Lawrence Freedman (ed.). Strategic Coercion: Concepts and Cases. Oxford University Press. p. 253. ISBN 0-19-829349-6.
11. Stephens, Ian (1963). Pakistan. Frederick A. Praeger Inc. p. 199.
12. Moorehead, Catherine (30 September 2013). The K2 Man (and His Molluscs): The Extraordinary life of Haversham Godwin-Austen. Neil Wilson Publishing. ISBN 978-1-906000-60-8.
13. Nawab Jassi Khan Ghazni to SidhnutiAhmad, Pirzada Irshad (2003). A Hand Book on Azad Jammu & Kashmir. Nawab Sons Publication. ISBN 978-969-530-050-3.
14. Wikeley, J. M. (1968). Punjabi Musalmans. Pakistan National Publishers. They claim Pathan origin and say that they are descendants of Ismail, who founded Dera Ismail Khan, and also of one Jassi, who was a Pathan.
15. ^ Sabir, Sabir (2015). Pearl String of Saddozais. Rawalpindi Arts Council.
16. ^ Balocu, Nabī Bak̲h̲shu K̲h̲ānu (1989). Maulānā Āzād Subḥānī: taḥrīk-i āzādī ke ek muqtadir rahnumā (in Urdu). Idārah-yi Taḥqīqāt-i Pākistān, Dānishgāh-i Panjāb. ISBN 978-969-425-071-7.
17. Hutchison, John; Vogel, Jean Philippe (1933). "Chapter XXIV". History of the Punjab Hill States. Vol. 2 volumes in 1 (Reprinted ed.).
18. "Statistical Year Book 2019" (PDF). Statistics Azad Jammu and Kashmir. Archived (PDF) from the original on 30 June 2020. Retrieved 20 April 2020.
19. Saraf, Muhammad Yusuf (1977). Kashmiris Fight for Freedom: 1819-1946 (PDF). University of California: Ferozsons. p. 64. Their rule lasted till 1819 when the State was conquered by Maharaja Ranjit Singh.
20. Saraf, Muhammad Yusuf (1977). Kashmiris Fight for Freedom: 1819-1946 (PDF). University of California: Ferozsons. p. 77. The Sikh army which is estimated at thirty thousand entered Srinagar on the 4th of July, 1819.
21. Saraf, Muhammad Yusuf (1977). Kashmiris Fight for Freedom: 1819-1946 (PDF). University of California: Ferozsons. p. 77. Although Sikhs were able, to a large extent, to subdue Muslims of Kashmir valley, they did not succeed in fully subjugating the people living in hilly areas, particularly those in Poonch and Muzaffarabad. Soon after the capture of Srinagar, they marched upon Muzaffarabad. Among other tribes inhabiting the district, the most important were the Rajput tribes known as 'Khakha' and Bamba.
22. Saraf, Muhammad Yusuf (1977). Kashmiris Fight for Freedom: 1819-1946 (PDF). University of California: Ferozsons. p. 77. Although Sikhs were able, to a large extent, to subdue Muslims of Kashmir valley, they did not succeed in fully subjugating the people living in hilly areas, particularly those in Poonch.
23. ^ Saraf, Muhammad Yusuf (1977). Kashmiris Fight for Freedom: 1819-1946 (PDF). University of California: Ferozsons. p. 85. About the year 1832, Gulab Singh, who had already acquired the Chakla of Jammu as Jagir from Maharaja Ranjit Singh, made many attempts at the conquest of the district of Poonch, which was inhabited by martial tribes like the 'Sudhans'.
24. ^ Ram, Diwan Kirpa (1876). Gulabnama Of Diwan Kirpa Ram. Srinagar: Gulshan Books. pp. 156–163.
25. ^ Saraf, Muhammad Yusuf (1977). Kashmiris Fight for Freedom: 1819-1946 (PDF). University of California: Ferozsons. p. 85. Gulab Singh prevailed upon Ranjit Singh, mainly through the influence of his brothers Dhian Singh and Suchet Singh, to attack Poonch. Consequently, Ranjit Singh marched at the head of a force as large as sixty thousand equipped with a hundred and fifty pieces of ordinances which boomed day and night in the hills surrounding the territory. Instead of putting up a fight, the local leadership thought it advisable to make peace and accept the Maharaja's sovereignty in order to save their territory from the destruction that such a huge army with its artillery could have inflicted. Shamas Khan, the outstanding local leader, was taken a hostage and entrusted to the care of Dhian Singh.
26. Bawa, Satinder Singh (1966). Gulab Singh of Jammu, Ladakh, and Kashmir, 1792-1846. University of Wisconsin--Madison.
27. Smyth, G. Carmichael (1847). The History Of Reigning Family Of Lahore. p. 206. One of the head-men of the Sudhun tribe when it submitted to the Dogras, was Shumass Khan.
28. Kirpa Ram, Diwan (1876). Gulabnama of Diwan Kirpa Ram. p. 158. Shamash one of the head-men of the Sudhun tribe when it submitted to the Dogras.
29. Cunningham, Alexander (1871). Four Reports Made During the Years 1862-63-64-65. Original from National Library of Naples. Page 13. "The gallant resistance which Shams Khan, Chief of the Sadan tribe of Punanch."
30. ^ Saraf, Muhammad Yusuf (1977). Kashmiris Fight for Freedom: 1819-1946 (PDF). University of California: Ferozsons. pp. 85–89.
31. ^ Carmichael Smyth, G. (1847). "The Soodhun Revolt." In The History of the Reigning Family of Lahore (pp. 205–212). Archive.org. English.
32. Griffin, Lepel Henry (1865). The Panjab Chiefs. Oxford University: T.C. McCarthy. p. 594.
33. Saraf, Muhammad Yusuf (1977). Kashmiris Fight for Freedom: 1819-1946 (PDF). University of California: Ferozsons. pp. 85–89. During our interview, the Maharaja volunteered an explanation of the grounds on which he had obtained the character of a cruel tyrant, saying that in the Suodan country, the people had not only put his garrisons to the sword but cut up many of the soldiers piece-meal and thrown their corpses to the dogs, that in punishment for such atrocities and prevention of them for the future, he had flayed three ring-leaders. He then said that he would request for the services of... ((I Vigne, p. 241. 2 Maulvl Mlr Alam p. 97)) an advisor, after arriving in Kashmir by whose counsel he would abide his conduct."
34. ^ Snedden, Christopher (December 2013). Kashmir – The Untold Story. HarperCollins India. pp. 1937–1938. ISBN 9789350298985.
35. Snedden, Kashmir: The Unwritten History (2013), pp. 30–31 harvp error: no target: CITEREFSnedden,_Kashmir:_The_Unwritten_History2013 (help); Ankit, The Problem of Poonch (2010), p. 8 harvp error: no target: CITEREFAnkit,_The_Problem_of_Poonch2010 (help)
36. Syed Ali (1998). "South Asia: The Perils of Covert Coercion". In Lawrence Freedman (ed.). Strategic Coercion: Concepts and Cases. Oxford University Press. p. 253. ISBN 0-19-829349-6.
37. Stephens, Ian (1963). Pakistan. Frederick A. Praeger Inc. p. 199.
38. Snedden, Kashmir: The Unwritten History (2013), pp. 48, 58. sfnp error: no target: CITEREFSnedden,_Kashmir:_The_Unwritten_History2013 (help)
39. Josef Korbel, Danger in Kashmir, New York:United Nations Commission for India and Pakistan Report, 1954, pp.49–54
40. Snedden, Christopher. "The forgotten Poonch uprising of 1947". India-seminar.
41. Copland, State, Community and Neighbourhood in Princely North India (2005), p. 143. sfnp error: no target: CITEREFCopland,_State,_Community_and_Neighbourhood_in_Princely_North_India2005 (help)
42. Singh, Brigadier Jasbir (2013). Roar of the Tiger: Illustrated History of Operations in Kashmir by 4th Battalion. Vij Books India. pp. 4–5. ISBN 978-9382652038.
43. Snedden, Christopher (December 2013). Kashmir - The Untold Story. HarperCollins India. pp. 120, 121, 122. ISBN 9789350298985.
44. II: Revolt and Pacification 4.Early Years and the Sudhan Revolt.
45. Lyon, Stephen M.; Bolognani, Marta (2011). "The Mirror Crack'd: Shifting Gazes and the Curse of Truth". In Bolognani, Marta; Lyon, Stephen M. (eds.). Pakistan and Its Diaspora: Multidisciplinary Approaches. Palgrave Macmillan. ISBN 9780230347120.
46. Untold Story of Formation of Azad Kashmir Prof. Suresh Chander https://www.dailyexcelsior.com/untold-story-of-formation-of-azad-kashmir/
47. Kapur, Manohar Lal (1980). History of Jammu and Kashmir State: The making of the State. Kashmir History Publications.
48. the Pakistani and Azad Kashmir Government officials find it convenient not to mention the Provisional Government of 4 October 1947? (Page 163)PDF paper cover thumbnail Azad Kashmir, is it Azad? Dr Shabir ChoudhryDr Shabir Choudhry https://www.academia.edu/43135608/Azad_Kashmir_is_it_Azad
49. II: Revolt and Pacification 4.Early Years and the Sudhan Revolt. HarperCollins India. 13 February 2021.
50. Schofield, Victoria (31 December 1996). Kashmir in Conflict: India, Pakistan and the Unending War. Bloomsbury Academic. ISBN 978-1-86064-036-0.

Further reading

• Kapur, Manohar Lal (1980). History of Jammu and Kashmir State: The making of the State. Kashmir History Publications. p. 51.

• Social groups of Azad Kashmir
• Pashtun tribes