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{{Hinduism small}}
In ], '''Yajna''' (यज्ञ ] ''{{IAST|yajñá}}'', also anglicized as '''Yagna''' or '''Yagya''') is a ] ] of ] (] gives the meanings "], ], praise; offering, oblation, sacrifice"), performed to please the ], or sometimes to the Supreme Spirit ]. It involves pouring oblations into the divine ] (the sacrificial fire). Everything that is offered in the divine ] reaches the ]. A yajna is typically performed by a ], with a number of additional priests playing a supporting role, chanting Vedic verses. Often there will be a fire in the centre of the stage and items are offered into the fire. Among the items offered as ''ahuti'' in the '''Yajna''' include many coconuts, large quantities of ], sandalwood shavings and even quantities of clothing. A yajna can go on for several hours, typically with a large number of people in attendance. Yajna ,where milk products (ghee or yogurt), fruits, flowers, cloth, and money are offered, is also termed ''homa'' or ''havan''. A typical Hindu marriage essentially consists of a yajna, because the fire deity Agni is supposed to be the witness of all pious marriages.


{{short description|Ritual offering sacrifice in Hinduism}}
Brahmins and certain other castes receive a yagnopavitham at their Uppanayanam (coming of age ceremony). The yagnopavitham symbolizes the right of the individual to carry out yagnas or homams. However, even this principle has changed over time. These days at temples, only the brahmin priests (not the brahmin lay people, even if they have a yagnopavitam) can carry out homams/havans. At other temples, the homam is supervised by a brahmin priest, but lay people (brahmins and non-brahmins, men, women, and children) can all participate in the homam.
{{about|the Vedic ritual|concurrent Hindu usage|Homa (ritual)| the avatar of Vishnu|Yagya (avatar)}}
{{Redirect|Yagam|the films|Yagam (1982 film)|and|Yagam (2010 film)}}
{{redirect|Yagnam|the films|Yagnam (1992 film)|and|Yagnam (2004 film)}}
] of ]]]
{{Hinduism}}
]'' for ''yajna'' in ] in Nepal]]
'''''Yajna''''' '''or ''Yagna''''' ({{langx|sa|यज्ञ|lit=act of devotion, worship, offering in fire}}, {{IAST3|yajña}}) also known as '''Hawan''' in ] refers to any ] done in front of a sacred fire, often with ]s.{{sfn|Nigal|1986|p=80-81}} Yajna has been a ] tradition, described in a layer of Vedic literature called ]s, as well as ].<ref>Laurie Patton (2005), The Hindu World (Editors: Sushil Mittal, Gene Thursby), Routledge, {{ISBN|978-0415772273}}, pages 38–39</ref> The tradition has evolved from offering oblations and libations into sacred fire to symbolic offerings in the presence of sacred fire (]).{{sfn|Nigal|1986|p=80-81}}


Yajna rituals-related texts have been called the ''Karma-kanda'' (ritual works) portion of the Vedic literature, in contrast to the ''Jnana-kanda'' (knowledge) portion found in the Vedic ]s. The proper completion of Yajna-like rituals was the focus of ] school of ].<ref>Randall Collins (1998), The Sociology of Philosophies, Harvard University Press, {{ISBN|978-0674001879}}, page 248</ref> Yajna have continued to play a central role in a Hindu's rites of passage, such as weddings.<ref name=rjb1969/> Modern major ] ceremonies, Hindu community celebrations, or monastic initiations may also include Vedic Yajna rites, or alternatively be based on ] rituals.
Yet another significance of the yagna is that prior to temple worship (being the norm as it is today among Hindus), the gap between lay people and gods was bridged by brahmins, with agni (fire) as the medium. The mode of temple worship is termed agamic, while communication to divinity through the fire god, Agni, is considered Vedic. Temples of today are generally a combination of both Vedic and Agamic rituals.


==Etymology==
==Pancha Mahayajnas==
The word ''yajna'' ({{langx|sa|यज्ञ|yajña|translit-std=IAST}}) has its root in the Sanskrit {{transl|sa|IAST|yaj}} meaning 'to worship, adore, honour, revere' and appears in the early Vedic literature, composed in 2nd millennium BCE.<ref name=monier839/><ref name=sikora86>Jack Sikora (2002), Religions of India, iUniverse, {{ISBN|978-0595247127}}, page 86</ref> In Rigveda, Yajurveda (itself a derivative of this root) and others, it means "worship, devotion to anything, prayer and praise, an act of worship or devotion, a form of offering or oblation, and sacrifice".<ref name=monier839>Monier Monier-Williams, Sanskrit English Dictionary, Oxford University Press, {{ISBN|978-8120831056}} (Reprinted in 2011), pages 839–840</ref> In post-Vedic literature, the term meant any form of rite, ceremony or devotion with an actual or symbolic offering or effort.<ref name=monier839/>


A yajna included major ceremonial devotions, with or without a sacred fire, sometimes with feasts and community events. It has, states Nigal, a threefold meaning of worship of the deities ('']na''), unity (''sangatikarana'') and charity ('']'').<ref>Nigal, p. 81.</ref>
Hindu tradition has the ''Pancha Mahayajnas'' ("Five Great Yajnas", ] ] 2.10) namely:


The Sanskrit word is related to the ] term '']'' of ]. Unlike the Vedic ''yajna'', however, the ''Yasna'' is the name of a specific religious service, not a class of rituals, and they have "to do with water rather than fire".<ref>Drower, 1944:78</ref><ref>Boyce, 1975:147–191</ref> The Sanskrit word is further related to Ancient Greek ''ἅζομαι'' (házomai), "to revere", deriving from the Proto-Indo-European root ''*Hyeh₂ǵ-'' ("to worship").
*Devayajna- consists of offering ''ahutis'' to ''devas''
*Pitruyajna- consists of offering to ancestors or pitrus
*Bhutayajna- consists of offering ''bali'' or foodstuffs to all creatures
*Manushyayajna- consists of feeding guests
*Brahmayajna- consists of chanting ], namely ], ], ] and (Ved Bhawan International, for example, is the largest group of Vedic Pandits throughout the world which has revived the system of Yajna / Yagya] Click here to know more Yagya / Yajna [http://www.vedic-yagya.com.


== History ==
==Three kinds of Shrauta Yajnas==
Yajna has been a part of an individual or social ritual since ]. When the ritual fire – the divine ], the god of fire and the messenger of gods – was deployed in a Yajna, ]s were chanted.<ref name=sikora86/> The hymns and songs sung and oblations offered into the fire were a form of hospitality towards the Vedic gods. The offerings were believed to be carried by ''Agni'' to the gods; the gods in return were expected to grant boons and ]s, and thus the ritual served as a means of spiritual exchange between gods and human beings.<ref name=sikora86/><ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.thehindu.com/society/faith/give-and-take-spirit/article27393857.ece|title=Give and take spirit|date=2019-05-31|work=The Hindu|access-date=2019-06-01|language=en-IN|issn=0971-751X}}</ref> The ]s, or auxiliary sciences attached to the Vedic literature, define Yajna as follows:


<blockquote style="background-color:none;margin-right:5em;margin-left:0em;border-left:solid 6px #FFE0BB;padding:1.0em">
Those yajnas explicitly described in the ] are known as ''Shrauta'' yajnas. The ] describe 400 Yajnas. In the category of ] there are 21 sacrifices. There is no compulsion with regard to the rest of the 400 Yajnas. But the 21, included in the forty ], are required to be performed at least once in a lifetime of a ]. These are divided into groups of seven - ''paaka-yajnas'', ''havir-yajnas'', and ''soma-yajnas''.
'''Definition of a Vedic sacrifice'''
<poem>
Yajña, sacrifice, is an act by which we surrender something for the sake of the gods. Such an act must rest on a sacred authority (''āgama''), and serve for man's salvation (''śreyortha''). The nature of the gift is of less importance. It may be cake (puroḍāśa), pulse (''karu''), mixed milk (''sāṃnāyya''), an animal (''paśu''), the juice of soma-plant (soma), etc; nay, the smallest offerings of butter, flour, and milk may serve for the purpose of a sacrifice.
</poem>
— ''Apastamba Yajna Paribhasa-sutras 1.1'', Translator: M Dhavamony<ref>{{cite book|author=M Dhavamony|title=Hindu Worship: Sacrifices and Sacraments|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=kwLaO91rsu0C|series=Studia Missionalia|volume=23|year=1974|publisher=Gregorian Press, Universita Gregoriana, Roma|pages=107–108}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|author=Jan Gonda|author-link=Jan Gonda|title=Handbuch Der Orientalistik: Indien. Zweite Abteilung|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=7UBxYpXWP30C|year=1980|publisher=BRILL Academic|isbn=978-90-04-06210-8|pages=345–346}}</ref>
</blockquote>


In the Upanishadic times, or after 500 BCE, states Sikora, the meaning of the term Yajna evolved from "ritual sacrifice" performed around fires by priests, to any "personal attitude and action or knowledge" that required devotion and dedication.<ref name=sikora86/> The oldest Vedic Upanishads, such as the Chandogya Upanishad (~700 BCE) in Chapter 8, for example state,<ref name=hume266/>
===Pakayajnas===


<blockquote style="background-color:none;margin-right:5em;margin-left:0em;border-left:solid 6px #FFE0BB;padding:1.0em">
''Pakayajnas'' are minor sacrifices and are performed at home. On every Prathama (first day of the lunar fortnight), a pakayajna and a haviryajna have to be performed in the grhyagni and srautagni respectively. The first is called sthalipaka. "Sthali" is the pot in which rice is cooked and it must be placed on the aupasana fire and the rice called "caru" cooked in it must be offered in the same fire.
<poem>
अथ य'''द्यज्ञ''' इत्याचक्षते ब्रह्मचर्यमेव
तद्ब्रह्मचर्येण ह्येव यो ज्ञाता तं
विन्दतेऽथ यदिष्टमित्याचक्षते ब्रह्मचर्यमेव
तद्ब्रह्मचर्येण ह्येवेष्ट्वात्मानमनुविन्दते ॥ १ ॥


What is commonly called '''Yajna''' is really the chaste life of the student of sacred knowledge,
===Haviryajnas===
for only through the chaste life of a student does he who is a knower find that,
What is commonly called ''Istam'' (sacrificial offering) is really the chaste life of the student of sacred knowledge,
for only having searched with chaste life of a student does one find ] (Soul, Self) || 1 ||
</poem>
— ''] 8.5.1'' <ref name=hume266>Robert Hume, , Oxford University Press, page 266</ref><ref name=sikora87>Jack Sikora (2002), Religions of India, iUniverse, {{ISBN|978-0595247127}}, page 87</ref>
</blockquote>


The later Vedic Upanishads expand the idea further by suggesting that ] is a form of ''Yajna'' (devotion, sacrifice).<ref name=sikora87/> The ] in verse 1.5.14, for example, uses the analogy of ''Yajna'' materials to explain the means to see one's soul and God, with inner rituals and without external rituals.<ref name=sikora87/><ref name=hume396>Robert Hume, , Oxford University Press, page 396</ref> It states, "by making one's own body as the lower friction sticks, the syllable ] as the upper friction sticks, then practicing the friction of meditation, one may see the ] who is hidden, as it were".<ref name=hume396/>
The ''haviryajnas'' are more elaborate, though not so large in scale as the somayajnas. The haviryajna performed on every Prathama is "darsa-purna-isti", "darsa" meaning the new moon and "purna" the full moon. So the "istis" or sacrifices conducted on the day following the new moon and the full moon (the two Prathamas) are together given the name of darsa-purna-isti. The two rituals are also referred to merely as "isti". This is the ''prakrti'' (archetype) for haviryajnas. The first four haviryajnas - adhana, ], ] and agrayana - are performed at home. The last three haviryajnas - caturmasya, nirudhapasubandha and sautramani - are performed in a yagasala.


=== Changing nature of Vedic offerings ===
===Somayajnas===
{{Further|Dhyāna in Hinduism#Agnihotra}}


The nature of Vedic sacrifice and rituals evolved over time, with major changes during the 1st millennium BCE, changes that influenced concepts later adopted by other traditions such as Buddhism.<ref name="Witzel2015p79">{{cite book| author= Tadeusz Skorupski |editor=Michael Witzel |title=Homa Variations: The Study of Ritual Change Across the Longue Durée |url= https://books.google.com/books?id=tIShCgAAQBAJ |year= 2015|publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn= 978-0-19-935158-9|pages=78–81 }}</ref> Early Vedic period sacrifices involved animal sacrifice, but the rituals were progressively reinterpreted over time, substituting the offerings and making it non-violent or symbolic, with the superiority of knowledge and celebration of sound of mantra replacing the physical offerings. Ultimately, the external rituals were reformulated and replaced with "internal oblations performed within the human body".<ref name="Witzel2015p79"/> These ideas of substitution, evolution from external actions (]) to internal knowledge (]), were highlighted in many rituals-related sutras, as well as specialized texts such as the ] (~800 BCE), ], ] and ].<ref>{{cite book|last = Deussen |first =Paul |title=Sixty Upanishads of the Veda |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=XYepeIGUY0gC | year=1997 |publisher=Motilal Banarsidass | isbn=978-81-208-1467-7| pages=645–651}}</ref><ref>{{cite book| author= Tadeusz Skorupski |editor=Michael Witzel |title=Homa Variations: The Study of Ritual Change Across the Longue Durée |url= https://books.google.com/books?id=tIShCgAAQBAJ |year = 2015 | publisher=Oxford University Press | isbn= 978-0-19-935158-9 |pages=79–84 }}</ref>
The name ''somayajna'' is derived from the fact that the essence of the ] plant, said to be ''relished by the celestials'', is made as an oblation. For soma sacrifices "]" is the prakrti, the word "stoma" also meaning a sacrifice. Apart from this, animals are also sacrificed. Even so the Saman is sung. In such soma sacrifices there is the full complement of priests - the hota, the adhvaryu, the udgata and the brahma. Each priest is assisted by three others. So in all there are sixteen priests in a soma sacrifice. Agnistoma which is the first of the seven somayajnas is the ''prakrti'' (archetype) and the other six are its ''vikrti''. These six are: atyagnistoma, uktya, sodasi, vajapeya, atiratra and aptoryama. ''Vajapeya'' is regarded as particularly important. When its yajamana (sacrificer) comes after having had his ritual bath (avabhrtha snana) at the conclusion of the sacrifice, the king himself holds up a white umbrella for him. "Vaja" means rice (food) and "peya" means a drink. As the name suggests, the vajapeya sacrifice is believed to bring in a bountiful crop and plentiful water. The name is appropriate in another sense also. This sacrifice consists of soma-rasa homa, pasu-homa (23 animals) and anna - or vaja-homa. The sacrificer is "bathed" in the rice that is left over. Since the rice is "poured over" him like water the term "vajapeya" is apt.


The Vedic text ] defines a sacrifice as an act of abandonment of something one holds of value, such as oblations offered to god and ] (fees, gifts) offered during the yajna.<ref name="Witzel2015p79"/> For gifts and fees, the text recommends giving '''cows''', clothing, horses or gold.<ref name="Witzel2015p79"/> The oblations recommended are cow milk, ghee (clarified butter), seeds, grains, flowers, water and food cakes (rice cake, for example). Similar recommendations are repeated in other texts, such as in the '']'' 2.10 of the ]).<ref name=madangopal>{{cite book|title=India through the ages|url=https://archive.org/details/indiathroughages00mada|last=Gopal|first=Madan|year= 1990| page= |editor=K.S. Gautam|publisher=Publication Division, Ministry of Information and Broadcasting, Government of India}}</ref>
''See Also: ]''


Tadeusz Skorupski states that these sacrifices were a part of ritual way of life, and considered to have inherent efficacy, where doing these sacrifices yielded repayment and results without the priests or gods getting involved.<ref name="Witzel2015p79"/> These Vedic ideas, adds Skorupski, influenced "the formulation of Buddhist theory of generosity".<ref name="Witzel2015p79"/> Buddhist ideas went further, criticizing "the Brahmins for their decadence and failure to live in conformity with the Brahmanic legacy of the ancient Brahmins", who claimed the Vedic ancients "lived in self restraint, were ascetics, had no cattle, no gold, and no wealth".<ref name=witzelp86>{{cite book| author= Tadeusz Skorupski |editor=Michael Witzel |title=Homa Variations: The Study of Ritual Change Across the Longue Durée |url= https://books.google.com/books?id=tIShCgAAQBAJ |year = 2015 | publisher=Oxford University Press | isbn= 978-0-19-935158-9| pages=86–87 }}</ref> The Buddha sought return to more ancient values, states Tadeusz Skorupski, where the Vedic sages "had study as their grain and wealth, guarded the holy life as their treasure, praised morality, austerity and nonviolence; they performed sacrifices consisting of rice, barley and oil, but they did not kill the cows".<ref name=witzelp86/>
==See also==


== Yajamana ==
*]
In Vedic rituals, the sacrifice is offered by a patron known as the ]. Commonly translated as "sacrificer", yajamana doesn't personally perform the sacrifice but rather hires priests for it. The yajamana acts as the patron, and the sacrifice is conducted for his benefit.<ref name=":0">{{Cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Lsp18ZvstrcC |title=The Early Upanishads: Annotated Text and Translation |date=1998-09-24 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-535242-9 |pages=16–18 |language=en}}</ref>

== Priests ==
Vedic (]) yajnas are typically performed by four priests of the ]: the hota, the adhvaryu, the udgata and the Brahma.<ref>Mahendra Kulasrestha (2007), The Golden Book of Upanishads, Lotus, {{ISBN|978-8183820127}}, page 21</ref> The functions associated with the priests were:<ref>Nigal, p. 79.</ref>
* The ''Hota'' recites invocations and litanies drawn from the ]. He use three Rig verses, the introductory verse, the accompanying verse and benediction as the third.<ref name=hume109/>
* The ''Adhvaryu'' is the priest's assistant and is in charge of the physical details of the ritual like measuring the ground, building the altar explained in the ]. The adhvaryu offers oblations.<ref name=hume109>Robert Hume, , Oxford University Press, pages 107- 109</ref>
* The ''Udgata'' is the chanter of hymns set to melodies and music (sāman) drawn from the ]. The udgatar, like the hota, chants the introductory, accompanying and benediction hymns.<ref name=hume109/>
* The ''Brahma'' is the superintendent of the entire performance, and is responsible for correcting mistakes by means of supplementary verses taken from the ].

== Offerings and style ==
]

The central element of all Vedic sacrifices is the ritual fire, which is essential regardless of the complexity of the ceremony. Three ritual fires are traditionally used during a Vedic sacrifice. These are the householder's fire (''garhapatya''), the southern fire (''anvaharyapacana'' or ''daksinagni''), and the offertorial fire (''ahavaniya'').<ref name=":0" /> Oblations are offered into the fire. Among the ingredients offered as ]s in the yajna are ], milk, grains, cakes and ].<ref name=rgriffithwycontents/> The duration of a yajna depends on its type, some last only a few minutes whereas others are performed over a period of hours, days or even months. Some yajnas were performed privately, while others were community events.<ref name=rgriffithwycontents>Ralph Griffith, EJ Lazarus, page i–xvi, 87–171, 205–234</ref><ref>] (2009), Discovering the Vedas: Origins, Mantras, Rituals, Insights, Penguin, {{ISBN|978-0143099864}}, page 124</ref> In other cases, yajnas were symbolic, such as in the ] hymn 3.1.6, where "the mind is the Brahmin of sacrifice" and the goal of sacrifice was complete release and liberation (]).<ref name=hume109/>

The blessings offered ranged from long life, gaining friends, health and heaven, more prosperity, to better crops.<ref>Michael Witzel (2003), "Vedas and Upaniṣads", in The Blackwell Companion to Hinduism (Editor: Gavin Flood), Blackwell, {{ISBN|0-631215352}}, pages 76–77</ref><ref>Frits Staal (2009), Discovering the Vedas: Origins, Mantras, Rituals, Insights, Penguin, {{ISBN|978-0143099864}}, pages 127–128</ref> For example,

{{Quote|
<poem>
May my ] plants and my barley, and my beans and my ],
and my kidney-beans and my vetches, and my ] and my ],
and my ] and my wild rice, and my ] and my ]s,
prosper by sacrifice (''Yajna'').
</poem>
|Shukla Yajurveda 18.12|<ref>Ralph Griffith, EJ Lazarus, page 163</ref>}}

Yajnas, where milk products, fruits, flowers, cloth and money are offered, are called '']'' or ''havan''.<ref>{{Cite web|title=What is Havan? – Definition from Yogapedia|url=https://www.yogapedia.com/definition/6783/havan|access-date=2020-08-22|website=Yogapedia.com|language=en}}</ref>

== Types ==
{{multiple image
| direction = horizontal
| width1 = 150
| width2 = 132
| footer = Different types of yajna.
| image1 = Vishnu Yagna Kunda.jpg
| image2 = Yagya at Old Durga Mandir of Banaras 1.jpg
| caption1 = Priests performing Vedic yajña at Vishnu Kunda in ]
| caption2 = Old Durga Mandir, ]
}}
] list the following yajna types:<ref>Prasoon, Ch.2, Vedang, Kalp.</ref>
* ]: — Aṣtaka, sthālipāka, parvana, srāvaṇi, āgrahayani, caitri, and āsvīyuji. These yajñās involve consecrating cooked items.
* ]: — ], atyajnistoma, uktya, shodasi, vājapeya, atirātra, and aptoryama are the seven soma-yajñās.
* ]: — Agniyādhāna, ], darśa-pūrṇamāsa, āgrayana, cāturmāsya, niruudha paśu bandha,<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://kamakoti.org/hindudharma/part5/chap23.htm|title=Is Sacrificial Killing Justified? from the Chapter "The Vedas", in Hindu Dharma|website=kamakoti.org|access-date=2019-03-09}}</ref> sautrāmaṇi. These involve offering havis or oblations.
* Pañca-mahā-yajñās: — The "five great yajnas" or mahāsattras. (See below.)
* ]: — They are four in number and done during Vedic education.
* Sixteen yajñās performed during one-time ]: garbhādhānā, pumsavana, sīmanta, jātakarma, nāmakaraṇa, annaprāśana, chudākarma / caula, niskramana, karnavedha, vidyaarambha, upanayana, keshanta, snātaka and vivāha, nisheka, antyeshti. These are specified by the ].

{| class="wikitable" align=center style = " background: transparent; "
|+ The five great Vedic sacrifices (''Mahasattra'')
|-style="text-align: center;"
! style="background: #ffcc66;" width= 140px |Name of sacrifice
! width= 140px | What is sacrificed?<ref name="Witzel2015p79"/> || width= 225px | To whom?<ref name="Witzel2015p79"/> || Frequency
|-style="text-align: center;"
! Bhuta-yajna
| Food cakes || Sacrifice to living beings<br>(animals, birds, etc.) || Daily<ref name="Witzel2015p79"/><ref name="Klostermaier2007p125">{{cite book|author=Klaus K. Klostermaier|title=A Survey of Hinduism: Third Edition|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=E_6-JbUiHB4C |year=2007|publisher=State University of New York Press|isbn=978-0-7914-7082-4|pages=125–127}}</ref>
|-style="text-align: center;"
! Manushya-yajna
| Alms and water<br>(], ]) || Sacrifice to fellow human beings || Daily<ref name="Witzel2015p79"/><ref name="Klostermaier2007p125"/>
|-style="text-align: center;"
! Pitr-yajna
| ]s of water || Sacrifice to ancestors || Daily<ref name="Witzel2015p79"/><ref name="Klostermaier2007p125"/>
|-style="text-align: center;"
! Deva-yajna (])
| Ghee<ref>{{cite book|author=James G. Lochtefeld|title=The Illustrated Encyclopedia of Hinduism: A-M|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=5kl0DYIjUPgC&dq=devayajna&pg=PA186 |year=2002|publisher=Rosen Publishing Group|isbn=978-0-8239-3179-8|pages=186}}</ref> || Sacrifice to gods || Daily<ref name="Witzel2015p79"/><ref name="Klostermaier2007p125"/>
|-style="text-align: center;"
! Brahma-yajna
| Words (reading of the Vedas) || Sacrifice to ]<br>(ultimate reality) || When possible<ref name="Witzel2015p79"/><ref name="Klostermaier2007p125"/>
|}

== Methods ==
{{multiple image
| align = left
| direction = horizontal
| width1 = 150
| width2 = 91
| footer = A Yajna ''Vedi'' (square altar) with ''Samagri'' (offerings) on left, and a Yajna in progress (right).
| image1 = Homa kundam.JPG
| image2 = (A) Hindu puja, yajna, yagna, Havanam in progress.jpg
}}

The Vedic yajna ritual is performed in the modern era on a square altar called ''Vedi'' (''Bedi'' in Nepal), set in a ''mandapa'' or ''mandala'' or ''kundam'', wherein wood is placed along with oily seeds and other combustion aids.<ref name=varadpande45/> However, in ancient times, the square principle was incorporated into grids to build large complex shapes for community events.<ref name=plofker16/> Thus a rectangle, trapezia, rhomboids or "large falcon bird" altars would be built from joining squares.<ref name=plofker16/><ref>Ralph Griffith, EJ Lazarus, pages 87–171</ref> The geometric ratios of these Vedi altar, with mathematical precision and geometric theorems, are described in ], one of the precursors to the development of mathematics in ancient India.<ref name=plofker16>Kim Plofker (2009), '']'', Princeton University Press, {{ISBN|978-0691120676}}, pages 16–27</ref> The offerings are called ''Samagri'' (or ''Yajāka'', ''Istam''). The proper methods for the rites are part of ], but also found in Riddle Hymns (hymns of questions, followed by answers) in various ]s.<ref name=varadpande45/> When multiple priests are involved, they take turns as in a dramatic play, where not only are praises to gods recited or sung, but the dialogues are part of a dramatic representation and discussion of spiritual themes.<ref name=varadpande45/>

{{Quote|
The Vedic sacrifice (''yajna'') is presented as a kind of drama, with its actors, its dialogues, its portion to be set to music, its interludes, and its climaxes.
|]|Vedic India<ref name=varadpande45>ML Varadpande, History of Indian Theatre, Volume 1, Abhinav, ISBN , pages 45–47</ref>}}

] bird Athirathram yajna altar built using the ] principle.]]
The Brahmodya Riddle hymns, for example, in Shatapatha Brahmana's chapter 13.2.6, is a ''yajna'' dialogue between a ''Hotri'' priest and a ''Brahmin'' priest, which would be played out during the yajna ritual before the attending audience.

{{Quote|
<poem>
Who is that is born again?
It is the moon that is born again.
And what is the great vessel?
The great vessel, doubtless, is this world.
Who was the smooth one?
The smooth one, doubtless, was the beauty (Sri, ]).
What is the remedy for cold?
The remedy for cold, doubtless, is fire.
</poem>
|Shatapatha Brahmana|13.2.6.10–18<ref>ML Varadpande, History of Indian Theatre, Volume 1, Abhinav, ISBN , page 48</ref>}}

== During weddings ==
{{multiple image
| direction = horizontal
| width1 = 120
| width2 = 180
| footer = A Vedic Yajna plays a central role in ]s.
| image1 = Hindu wedding ceremony fire.jpg
| image2 = (A) Hindu wedding, Saptapadi ritual before Agni Yajna.jpg
}}
Agni and yajna play a central role in ]s. A typical Hindu marriage involves a Yajna, with Agni being considered the witness of the marriage.<ref>Hazen, Walter. Inside Hinduism. Lorenz Educational Press. {{ISBN|9780787705862}}. P. 34.</ref> Various mutual promises between the bride and groom are made in front of the fire, and the marriage is completed by an actual or symbolic walk around the fire. The wedding ritual of ''Panigrahana'', for example, is the 'holding the hand' ritual<ref name=jgl2001>The Illustrated Encyclopedia of Hinduism: A-M, James G. Lochtefeld (2001), {{ISBN|978-0823931798}}, Page 427</ref> as a symbol of their impending marital union, and the groom announcing his acceptance of responsibility to four deities: Bhaga signifying wealth, Aryama signifying heavens/milky way, Savita signifying radiance/new beginning, and Purandhi signifying wisdom. The groom faces west, while the bride sits in front of him with her face to the east, he holds her hand while the Rig vedic mantra is recited in the presence of fire.<ref name=rjb1969>Hindu Saṁskāras: Socio-religious Study of the Hindu Sacraments, Rajbali Pandey (1969), see Chapter VIII, {{ISBN|978-8120803961}}, pages 153–233</ref><ref name=prabhu2011>P.H. Prabhu (2011), ''Hindu Social Organization'', {{ISBN|978-8171542062}}, see pages 164–165</ref>

The '']'' (Sanskrit for ''seven steps/feet''), is the most important ritual in Hindu weddings, and represents the legal part of Hindu marriage.<ref name=bbc2009>, Nawal Prinja (August 24, 2009)</ref> The couple getting married walks around the ] (''Agni''), and the yajna fire is considered a witness to the vows they make to each other.<ref name="sinha2008">{{Citation | title=Basics of Hinduism | author=Shivendra Kumar Sinha | year=2008 | publisher=Unicorn Books | isbn=978-81-7806-155-9 | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=pSOEETzRVqsC | quote=The two rake the holy vow in the presence of Agni ... In the first four rounds, the bride leads and the groom follows, and in the final three, the groom leads and the bride follows. While walking around the fire, the bride places her right palm on the groom's right palm and the bride's brother pours some unhusked rice or barley into their hands and they offer it to the fire ...}}</ref> In some regions, a piece of clothing or sashes worn by the bride and groom are tied together for this ceremony. Each circuit around the fire is led by either the bride or the groom, varying by community and region. Usually, the bride leads the groom in the first circuit. The first six circuits are led by the bride, and the final one by the groom.<ref name="goi1962">{{Citation | title=Census of India, 1961, v. 20, pt. 6, no. 2 | author=Office of the Registrar General, Government of India | year=1962 | publisher=Manager of Publications, Government of India | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=0sbUAAAAMAAJ | quote=The bride leads in all the first six pheras but follows the bridegroom on the seventh}}</ref> With each circuit, the couple makes a specific vow to establish some aspect of a happy relationship and household for each other. The fire altar or the Yajna Kunda is square.

== See also ==
{{col div|colwidth=30em}}
*] *]
*]
*]
*] *]
*]
*]
*] *]
*]
*]
*]
*], Persian conjugate
{{colend}}

== References ==
{{reflist|30em}}

== Sources ==
{{Refbegin|30em|indent=yes}}


* {{cite book |last1=Agrawala |first1=Vasudeva Sharana |title=India as Known to Pāṇini: A Study of the Cultural Material in the Ashṭādhyāyī |date=1953 |publisher=University of Lucknow |url=https://ia801901.us.archive.org/13/items/in.ernet.dli.2015.57441/2015.57441.India-As-Known-To-Panini.pdf |language=en}}
==Literature==
* {{cite book |last1=Dallapiccola |first1=Anna Libera |title=Dictionary of Hindu lore and legend |date=2002 |publisher=Hudson & Thames |location=London |isbn=0-500-51088-1 |url=https://books.google.com/books/about/Dictionary_of_Hindu_Lore_and_Legend.html?id=XYhtQgAACAAJ}}
* {{cite book |last1=Gyanshruti |first1=Sanyasi |last2=Srividyananda |first2=Sanyasi |title=Yajna: a comprehensive survey |date=2006 |publisher=Yoga Publ. Trust |location=Munger, Bihar, India |isbn=8186336478 |edition=1. |url=https://books.google.com/books/about/Yajna_a_Comprehensive_Survey.html?id=hK1IAQAAIAAJ}}
* {{cite book |last1=Krishnananda |first1=Swami |title=A Short History of Religious and Philosophic Thought in India |date=1970 |publisher=U.P., Divine Life Society |url=https://books.google.com/books/about/A_Short_History_of_Religious_and_Philoso.html?id=ocEgAAAAMAAJ |language=en}}
* {{cite book |last1=Nigal |first1=Sahebrao Genu |title=Axiological approach to the Vedas |date=1986 |publisher=Northern book centre |location=New Delhi |isbn=81-85119-18-X |url=https://books.google.com/books/about/Axiological_Approach_to_the_Vedas.html?id=mMZzmB4duPoC#:~:text=A%20creative%20and%20systematic%20Axiology,and%20its%20findings%20are%20profound.}}
* {{cite book |last1=Prasoon |first1=Shrikant |title=Indian scriptures: Vedic literature and Hindu religion |date=2008 |publisher=Hindoology Books |location=New Delhi |isbn=978-81-223-1007-8 |url=https://archive.org/details/indianscriptures0000pras}}
* {{cite book |last1=Vedananda |first1=Swami |title=Aum Hindutvam: (Daily Religious Rites of the Hindus) |date=1993 |publisher=Motilal Banarsidas Publishers |location=Delhi |isbn=978-81-208-1081-5 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=rFPZb4tuKiMC&printsec=copyright#v=onepage&q&f=false |language=en}}


{{Refend}}
*l ''Vedic Yagya Programme''
*], , pdf file, 2001
*], , pdf file, 2001


{{Hindudharma}}
==References==
*''Dictionary of Hindu Lore and Legend'' (ISBN 0500510881) by Anna Dhallapiccola
*
*''''''
*- Aim of the Article: Considering its importance, Yaagam is explained in a practical and step-by-step manner, although a complete and detailed explanation is beyond the scope of this article. However, this may help the reader to understand what Yaagam is and how Namboothiris perform it.


] ]
] ]
] ]
] ]

Latest revision as of 04:33, 27 December 2024

Ritual offering sacrifice in Hinduism This article is about the Vedic ritual. For concurrent Hindu usage, see Homa (ritual). For the avatar of Vishnu, see Yagya (avatar). "Yagam" redirects here. For the films, see Yagam (1982 film) and Yagam (2010 film). "Yagnam" redirects here. For the films, see Yagnam (1992 film) and Yagnam (2004 film).
A yagna being performed by Nambudiris of Kerala
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A mandala for yajna in Kumbheshwar Temple in Nepal

Yajna or Yagna (Sanskrit: यज्ञ, lit. 'act of devotion, worship, offering in fire', IAST: yajña) also known as Hawan in Hinduism refers to any ritual done in front of a sacred fire, often with mantras. Yajna has been a Vedic tradition, described in a layer of Vedic literature called Brahmanas, as well as Yajurveda. The tradition has evolved from offering oblations and libations into sacred fire to symbolic offerings in the presence of sacred fire (Agni).

Yajna rituals-related texts have been called the Karma-kanda (ritual works) portion of the Vedic literature, in contrast to the Jnana-kanda (knowledge) portion found in the Vedic Upanishads. The proper completion of Yajna-like rituals was the focus of Mimansa school of Hindu philosophy. Yajna have continued to play a central role in a Hindu's rites of passage, such as weddings. Modern major Hindu temple ceremonies, Hindu community celebrations, or monastic initiations may also include Vedic Yajna rites, or alternatively be based on Agamic rituals.

Etymology

The word yajna (Sanskrit: यज्ञ, romanized: yajña) has its root in the Sanskrit yaj meaning 'to worship, adore, honour, revere' and appears in the early Vedic literature, composed in 2nd millennium BCE. In Rigveda, Yajurveda (itself a derivative of this root) and others, it means "worship, devotion to anything, prayer and praise, an act of worship or devotion, a form of offering or oblation, and sacrifice". In post-Vedic literature, the term meant any form of rite, ceremony or devotion with an actual or symbolic offering or effort.

A yajna included major ceremonial devotions, with or without a sacred fire, sometimes with feasts and community events. It has, states Nigal, a threefold meaning of worship of the deities (devapujana), unity (sangatikarana) and charity (dána).

The Sanskrit word is related to the Avestan term yasna of Zoroastrianism. Unlike the Vedic yajna, however, the Yasna is the name of a specific religious service, not a class of rituals, and they have "to do with water rather than fire". The Sanskrit word is further related to Ancient Greek ἅζομαι (házomai), "to revere", deriving from the Proto-Indo-European root *Hyeh₂ǵ- ("to worship").

History

Yajna has been a part of an individual or social ritual since Vedic times. When the ritual fire – the divine Agni, the god of fire and the messenger of gods – was deployed in a Yajna, mantras were chanted. The hymns and songs sung and oblations offered into the fire were a form of hospitality towards the Vedic gods. The offerings were believed to be carried by Agni to the gods; the gods in return were expected to grant boons and benedictions, and thus the ritual served as a means of spiritual exchange between gods and human beings. The Vedangas, or auxiliary sciences attached to the Vedic literature, define Yajna as follows:

Definition of a Vedic sacrifice

Yajña, sacrifice, is an act by which we surrender something for the sake of the gods. Such an act must rest on a sacred authority (āgama), and serve for man's salvation (śreyortha). The nature of the gift is of less importance. It may be cake (puroḍāśa), pulse (karu), mixed milk (sāṃnāyya), an animal (paśu), the juice of soma-plant (soma), etc; nay, the smallest offerings of butter, flour, and milk may serve for the purpose of a sacrifice.

— Apastamba Yajna Paribhasa-sutras 1.1, Translator: M Dhavamony

In the Upanishadic times, or after 500 BCE, states Sikora, the meaning of the term Yajna evolved from "ritual sacrifice" performed around fires by priests, to any "personal attitude and action or knowledge" that required devotion and dedication. The oldest Vedic Upanishads, such as the Chandogya Upanishad (~700 BCE) in Chapter 8, for example state,

अथ यद्यज्ञ इत्याचक्षते ब्रह्मचर्यमेव
 तद्ब्रह्मचर्येण ह्येव यो ज्ञाता तं
विन्दतेऽथ यदिष्टमित्याचक्षते ब्रह्मचर्यमेव
 तद्ब्रह्मचर्येण ह्येवेष्ट्वात्मानमनुविन्दते ॥ १ ॥

What is commonly called Yajna is really the chaste life of the student of sacred knowledge,
  for only through the chaste life of a student does he who is a knower find that,
What is commonly called Istam (sacrificial offering) is really the chaste life of the student of sacred knowledge,
  for only having searched with chaste life of a student does one find Atman (Soul, Self) || 1 ||

— Chandogya Upanishad 8.5.1

The later Vedic Upanishads expand the idea further by suggesting that Yoga is a form of Yajna (devotion, sacrifice). The Shvetashvatara Upanishad in verse 1.5.14, for example, uses the analogy of Yajna materials to explain the means to see one's soul and God, with inner rituals and without external rituals. It states, "by making one's own body as the lower friction sticks, the syllable Om as the upper friction sticks, then practicing the friction of meditation, one may see the Deva who is hidden, as it were".

Changing nature of Vedic offerings

Further information: Dhyāna in Hinduism § Agnihotra

The nature of Vedic sacrifice and rituals evolved over time, with major changes during the 1st millennium BCE, changes that influenced concepts later adopted by other traditions such as Buddhism. Early Vedic period sacrifices involved animal sacrifice, but the rituals were progressively reinterpreted over time, substituting the offerings and making it non-violent or symbolic, with the superiority of knowledge and celebration of sound of mantra replacing the physical offerings. Ultimately, the external rituals were reformulated and replaced with "internal oblations performed within the human body". These ideas of substitution, evolution from external actions (karma-kanda) to internal knowledge (jñana-kanda), were highlighted in many rituals-related sutras, as well as specialized texts such as the Brihadaranyaka Upanishad (~800 BCE), Chandogya Upanishad, Kaushitaki Upanishad and Pranagnihotra Upanishad.

The Vedic text Satapatha Brahmana defines a sacrifice as an act of abandonment of something one holds of value, such as oblations offered to god and dakshina (fees, gifts) offered during the yajna. For gifts and fees, the text recommends giving cows, clothing, horses or gold. The oblations recommended are cow milk, ghee (clarified butter), seeds, grains, flowers, water and food cakes (rice cake, for example). Similar recommendations are repeated in other texts, such as in the Taittiriya Shakha 2.10 of the Krishna Yajurveda).

Tadeusz Skorupski states that these sacrifices were a part of ritual way of life, and considered to have inherent efficacy, where doing these sacrifices yielded repayment and results without the priests or gods getting involved. These Vedic ideas, adds Skorupski, influenced "the formulation of Buddhist theory of generosity". Buddhist ideas went further, criticizing "the Brahmins for their decadence and failure to live in conformity with the Brahmanic legacy of the ancient Brahmins", who claimed the Vedic ancients "lived in self restraint, were ascetics, had no cattle, no gold, and no wealth". The Buddha sought return to more ancient values, states Tadeusz Skorupski, where the Vedic sages "had study as their grain and wealth, guarded the holy life as their treasure, praised morality, austerity and nonviolence; they performed sacrifices consisting of rice, barley and oil, but they did not kill the cows".

Yajamana

In Vedic rituals, the sacrifice is offered by a patron known as the yajamana. Commonly translated as "sacrificer", yajamana doesn't personally perform the sacrifice but rather hires priests for it. The yajamana acts as the patron, and the sacrifice is conducted for his benefit.

Priests

Vedic (Shrauta) yajnas are typically performed by four priests of the Vedic priesthood: the hota, the adhvaryu, the udgata and the Brahma. The functions associated with the priests were:

  • The Hota recites invocations and litanies drawn from the Rigveda. He use three Rig verses, the introductory verse, the accompanying verse and benediction as the third.
  • The Adhvaryu is the priest's assistant and is in charge of the physical details of the ritual like measuring the ground, building the altar explained in the Yajurveda. The adhvaryu offers oblations.
  • The Udgata is the chanter of hymns set to melodies and music (sāman) drawn from the Samaveda. The udgatar, like the hota, chants the introductory, accompanying and benediction hymns.
  • The Brahma is the superintendent of the entire performance, and is responsible for correcting mistakes by means of supplementary verses taken from the Atharva Veda.

Offerings and style

Typical sacrificial space used in Vedic yajnas with officiants

The central element of all Vedic sacrifices is the ritual fire, which is essential regardless of the complexity of the ceremony. Three ritual fires are traditionally used during a Vedic sacrifice. These are the householder's fire (garhapatya), the southern fire (anvaharyapacana or daksinagni), and the offertorial fire (ahavaniya). Oblations are offered into the fire. Among the ingredients offered as oblations in the yajna are ghee, milk, grains, cakes and soma. The duration of a yajna depends on its type, some last only a few minutes whereas others are performed over a period of hours, days or even months. Some yajnas were performed privately, while others were community events. In other cases, yajnas were symbolic, such as in the Brihadaranyaka Upanishad hymn 3.1.6, where "the mind is the Brahmin of sacrifice" and the goal of sacrifice was complete release and liberation (moksha).

The blessings offered ranged from long life, gaining friends, health and heaven, more prosperity, to better crops. For example,

May my rice plants and my barley, and my beans and my sesame,
and my kidney-beans and my vetches, and my pearl millet and my proso millet,
and my sorghum and my wild rice, and my wheat and my lentils,
prosper by sacrifice (Yajna).

— Shukla Yajurveda 18.12,

Yajnas, where milk products, fruits, flowers, cloth and money are offered, are called homa or havan.

Types

Priests performing Vedic yajña at Vishnu Kunda in Thirumakudalu NarasipuraOld Durga Mandir, BanarasDifferent types of yajna.

Kalpa Sutras list the following yajna types:

  • Pāka-yajñās: — Aṣtaka, sthālipāka, parvana, srāvaṇi, āgrahayani, caitri, and āsvīyuji. These yajñās involve consecrating cooked items.
  • Soma-yajñās: — Agnistoma, atyajnistoma, uktya, shodasi, vājapeya, atirātra, and aptoryama are the seven soma-yajñās.
  • Havir-yajñās: — Agniyādhāna, agnihotra, darśa-pūrṇamāsa, āgrayana, cāturmāsya, niruudha paśu bandha, sautrāmaṇi. These involve offering havis or oblations.
  • Pañca-mahā-yajñās: — The "five great yajnas" or mahāsattras. (See below.)
  • Veda-vrātas: — They are four in number and done during Vedic education.
  • Sixteen yajñās performed during one-time samskāras: garbhādhānā, pumsavana, sīmanta, jātakarma, nāmakaraṇa, annaprāśana, chudākarma / caula, niskramana, karnavedha, vidyaarambha, upanayana, keshanta, snātaka and vivāha, nisheka, antyeshti. These are specified by the Gṛhya Sūtrās.
The five great Vedic sacrifices (Mahasattra)
Name of sacrifice What is sacrificed? To whom? Frequency
Bhuta-yajna Food cakes Sacrifice to living beings
(animals, birds, etc.)		 Daily
Manushya-yajna Alms and water
(seva, dāna)		 Sacrifice to fellow human beings Daily
Pitr-yajna Libations of water Sacrifice to ancestors Daily
Deva-yajna (homa) Ghee Sacrifice to gods Daily
Brahma-yajna Words (reading of the Vedas) Sacrifice to Brahman
(ultimate reality)		 When possible

Methods

A Yajna Vedi (square altar) with Samagri (offerings) on left, and a Yajna in progress (right).

The Vedic yajna ritual is performed in the modern era on a square altar called Vedi (Bedi in Nepal), set in a mandapa or mandala or kundam, wherein wood is placed along with oily seeds and other combustion aids. However, in ancient times, the square principle was incorporated into grids to build large complex shapes for community events. Thus a rectangle, trapezia, rhomboids or "large falcon bird" altars would be built from joining squares. The geometric ratios of these Vedi altar, with mathematical precision and geometric theorems, are described in Shulba Sutras, one of the precursors to the development of mathematics in ancient India. The offerings are called Samagri (or Yajāka, Istam). The proper methods for the rites are part of Yajurveda, but also found in Riddle Hymns (hymns of questions, followed by answers) in various Brahmanas. When multiple priests are involved, they take turns as in a dramatic play, where not only are praises to gods recited or sung, but the dialogues are part of a dramatic representation and discussion of spiritual themes.

The Vedic sacrifice (yajna) is presented as a kind of drama, with its actors, its dialogues, its portion to be set to music, its interludes, and its climaxes.

— Louis Renou, Vedic India
A miniature illustration of a falcon bird Athirathram yajna altar built using the square principle.

The Brahmodya Riddle hymns, for example, in Shatapatha Brahmana's chapter 13.2.6, is a yajna dialogue between a Hotri priest and a Brahmin priest, which would be played out during the yajna ritual before the attending audience.

Who is that is born again?
   It is the moon that is born again.
And what is the great vessel?
   The great vessel, doubtless, is this world.
Who was the smooth one?
   The smooth one, doubtless, was the beauty (Sri, Lakshmi).
What is the remedy for cold?
   The remedy for cold, doubtless, is fire.

— Shatapatha Brahmana, 13.2.6.10–18

During weddings

A Vedic Yajna plays a central role in Hindu weddings.

Agni and yajna play a central role in Hindu weddings. A typical Hindu marriage involves a Yajna, with Agni being considered the witness of the marriage. Various mutual promises between the bride and groom are made in front of the fire, and the marriage is completed by an actual or symbolic walk around the fire. The wedding ritual of Panigrahana, for example, is the 'holding the hand' ritual as a symbol of their impending marital union, and the groom announcing his acceptance of responsibility to four deities: Bhaga signifying wealth, Aryama signifying heavens/milky way, Savita signifying radiance/new beginning, and Purandhi signifying wisdom. The groom faces west, while the bride sits in front of him with her face to the east, he holds her hand while the Rig vedic mantra is recited in the presence of fire.

The Saptapadi (Sanskrit for seven steps/feet), is the most important ritual in Hindu weddings, and represents the legal part of Hindu marriage. The couple getting married walks around the Holy Fire (Agni), and the yajna fire is considered a witness to the vows they make to each other. In some regions, a piece of clothing or sashes worn by the bride and groom are tied together for this ceremony. Each circuit around the fire is led by either the bride or the groom, varying by community and region. Usually, the bride leads the groom in the first circuit. The first six circuits are led by the bride, and the final one by the groom. With each circuit, the couple makes a specific vow to establish some aspect of a happy relationship and household for each other. The fire altar or the Yajna Kunda is square.

See also

References

  1. ^ Nigal 1986, p. 80-81.
  2. Laurie Patton (2005), The Hindu World (Editors: Sushil Mittal, Gene Thursby), Routledge, ISBN 978-0415772273, pages 38–39
  3. Randall Collins (1998), The Sociology of Philosophies, Harvard University Press, ISBN 978-0674001879, page 248
  4. ^ Hindu Saṁskāras: Socio-religious Study of the Hindu Sacraments, Rajbali Pandey (1969), see Chapter VIII, ISBN 978-8120803961, pages 153–233
  5. ^ Monier Monier-Williams, Sanskrit English Dictionary, Oxford University Press, ISBN 978-8120831056 (Reprinted in 2011), pages 839–840
  6. ^ Jack Sikora (2002), Religions of India, iUniverse, ISBN 978-0595247127, page 86
  7. Nigal, p. 81.
  8. Drower, 1944:78
  9. Boyce, 1975:147–191
  10. "Give and take spirit". The Hindu. 2019-05-31. ISSN 0971-751X. Retrieved 2019-06-01.
  11. M Dhavamony (1974). Hindu Worship: Sacrifices and Sacraments. Studia Missionalia. Vol. 23. Gregorian Press, Universita Gregoriana, Roma. pp. 107–108.
  12. Jan Gonda (1980). Handbuch Der Orientalistik: Indien. Zweite Abteilung. BRILL Academic. pp. 345–346. ISBN 978-90-04-06210-8.
  13. ^ Robert Hume, Chandogya Upanishad 8.5.1, Oxford University Press, page 266
  14. ^ Jack Sikora (2002), Religions of India, iUniverse, ISBN 978-0595247127, page 87
  15. ^ Robert Hume, Shvetashvatara Upanishad 1.5.14, Oxford University Press, page 396
  16. ^ Tadeusz Skorupski (2015). Michael Witzel (ed.). Homa Variations: The Study of Ritual Change Across the Longue Durée. Oxford University Press. pp. 78–81. ISBN 978-0-19-935158-9.
  17. Deussen, Paul (1997). Sixty Upanishads of the Veda. Motilal Banarsidass. pp. 645–651. ISBN 978-81-208-1467-7.
  18. Tadeusz Skorupski (2015). Michael Witzel (ed.). Homa Variations: The Study of Ritual Change Across the Longue Durée. Oxford University Press. pp. 79–84. ISBN 978-0-19-935158-9.
  19. Gopal, Madan (1990). K.S. Gautam (ed.). India through the ages. Publication Division, Ministry of Information and Broadcasting, Government of India. p. 79.
  20. ^ Tadeusz Skorupski (2015). Michael Witzel (ed.). Homa Variations: The Study of Ritual Change Across the Longue Durée. Oxford University Press. pp. 86–87. ISBN 978-0-19-935158-9.
  21. ^ The Early Upanishads: Annotated Text and Translation. Oxford University Press. 1998-09-24. pp. 16–18. ISBN 978-0-19-535242-9.
  22. Mahendra Kulasrestha (2007), The Golden Book of Upanishads, Lotus, ISBN 978-8183820127, page 21
  23. Nigal, p. 79.
  24. ^ Robert Hume, Brihadaranyaka Upanishad 3.1, Oxford University Press, pages 107- 109
  25. ^ Ralph Griffith, The texts of the Shukla Yajurveda EJ Lazarus, page i–xvi, 87–171, 205–234
  26. Frits Staal (2009), Discovering the Vedas: Origins, Mantras, Rituals, Insights, Penguin, ISBN 978-0143099864, page 124
  27. Michael Witzel (2003), "Vedas and Upaniṣads", in The Blackwell Companion to Hinduism (Editor: Gavin Flood), Blackwell, ISBN 0-631215352, pages 76–77
  28. Frits Staal (2009), Discovering the Vedas: Origins, Mantras, Rituals, Insights, Penguin, ISBN 978-0143099864, pages 127–128
  29. Ralph Griffith, The texts of the Shukla Yajurveda EJ Lazarus, page 163
  30. "What is Havan? – Definition from Yogapedia". Yogapedia.com. Retrieved 2020-08-22.
  31. Prasoon, Ch.2, Vedang, Kalp.
  32. "Is Sacrificial Killing Justified? from the Chapter "The Vedas", in Hindu Dharma". kamakoti.org. Retrieved 2019-03-09.
  33. ^ Klaus K. Klostermaier (2007). A Survey of Hinduism: Third Edition. State University of New York Press. pp. 125–127. ISBN 978-0-7914-7082-4.
  34. James G. Lochtefeld (2002). The Illustrated Encyclopedia of Hinduism: A-M. Rosen Publishing Group. p. 186. ISBN 978-0-8239-3179-8.
  35. ^ ML Varadpande, History of Indian Theatre, Volume 1, Abhinav, ISBN , pages 45–47
  36. ^ Kim Plofker (2009), Mathematics in India, Princeton University Press, ISBN 978-0691120676, pages 16–27
  37. Ralph Griffith, The texts of the white Yajurveda EJ Lazarus, pages 87–171
  38. ML Varadpande, History of Indian Theatre, Volume 1, Abhinav, ISBN , page 48
  39. Hazen, Walter. Inside Hinduism. Lorenz Educational Press. ISBN 9780787705862. P. 34.
  40. The Illustrated Encyclopedia of Hinduism: A-M, James G. Lochtefeld (2001), ISBN 978-0823931798, Page 427
  41. P.H. Prabhu (2011), Hindu Social Organization, ISBN 978-8171542062, see pages 164–165
  42. BBC News article on Hinduism & Weddings, Nawal Prinja (August 24, 2009)
  43. Shivendra Kumar Sinha (2008), Basics of Hinduism, Unicorn Books, ISBN 978-81-7806-155-9, The two rake the holy vow in the presence of Agni ... In the first four rounds, the bride leads and the groom follows, and in the final three, the groom leads and the bride follows. While walking around the fire, the bride places her right palm on the groom's right palm and the bride's brother pours some unhusked rice or barley into their hands and they offer it to the fire ...
  44. Office of the Registrar General, Government of India (1962), Census of India, 1961, v. 20, pt. 6, no. 2, Manager of Publications, Government of India, The bride leads in all the first six pheras but follows the bridegroom on the seventh

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