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{{Short description|President of the United States from 1969 to 1974}}
{{Infobox_President | name=Richard M. Nixon
{{Redirect|Nixon|other uses|Nixon (disambiguation)|and|Richard Nixon (disambiguation)}}
| nationality=American
{{Featured article}}
| image=Nixon.jpg
{{Pp-vandalism|small=yes}}
| order=37th ]
{{Pp-move}}
| term_start=] ]
{{Use American English|date=February 2019}}
| term_end=] ]
{{Use mdy dates|date=February 2024}}
| predecessor=]
{{Infobox officeholder
| successor=]
| image = Richard Nixon presidential portrait (1).jpg
| birth_date=] ]
| alt = Presidential portrait of Richard Nixon
| birth_place=]
| caption = Official portrait, 1972
| death_date=] ]
| order = 37th
| death_place=], ]
| office = President of the United States
| religion=]
| vicepresident = {{plainlist|
| spouse=]
* {{longitem|] {{nwr|(1969–1973)}}}}
| party=]
* {{longitem|''None'' {{nwr|(Oct–Dec 1973)}}}}
| vicepresident=] (1969-1973),<br>] (1973-1974)
* {{longitem|Gerald Ford {{nwr|(1973–1974)}}}}
| order2=36th ]
}}
| term_start2=] ]
| term_end2=] ] | term_start = January 20, 1969
| term_end = August 9, 1974
| predecessor2=]
| successor2=] | predecessor = ]
| successor = ]
| president=]
| order1 = 36th
|}}
| office1 = Vice President of the United States
| president1 = ]
| term_start1 = January 20, 1953
| term_end1 = January 20, 1961
| predecessor1 = ]
| successor1 = Lyndon B. Johnson
| jr/sr2 = United States senator
| state2 = ]
| term_start2 = December 1, 1950
| term_end2 = January 1, 1953
| predecessor2 = ]
| successor2 = ]
| state3 = California
| district3 = {{ushr|CA|12|12th}}
| term_start3 = January 3, 1947
| term_end3 = November 30, 1950
| predecessor3 = ]
| successor3 = ]
| birth_name = Richard Milhous Nixon
| birth_date = {{birth date|1913|1|9}}
| birth_place = ], U.S.
| death_date = {{death date and age|1994|4|22|1913|1|9}}
| death_place = New York City,<!-- Do not link this, see ]. --> U.S.
| resting_place = ]
| party = ]
| spouse = {{marriage|]|June 21, 1940|June 22, 1993|end=died}}
| children = {{flatlist|
* ]
* ]
}}
| parents = {{ubl|]|]}}
| occupation = {{flatlist|
* Author
* lawyer
* politician
}}
| education = {{plainlist|
* ] (])
* ] (])
}}
| signature = Richard Nixon Signature.svg
| signature_alt = Cursive signature in ink
| branch = ]
| serviceyears = {{plainlist|
* 1942–1946 (active)
* 1946–1966 (inactive)
}}
| rank = ]
| battles = ] {{nwr|(]<ref name="archives">{{cite web |url=http://nixon.archives.gov/thelife/nixonbio.pdf |title=Richard Nixon Presidential Library and Museum |date=September 21, 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150921204555/http://nixon.archives.gov/thelife/nixonbio.pdf |archive-date=September 21, 2015 |url-status=dead}}</ref>)}}
| mawards = {{plainlist|
* ]
* ]
* ]
* ]
* ]
}}
| module = {{Listen|pos=center|embed=yes|filename=Richard Nixon speaks on Peace in Vietnam.ogg|title=Richard Nixon's voice|type=speech|description=Nixon speaks on ]<br />Recorded November 3, 1969}}
}}
{{Richard Nixon series}}
'''Richard Milhous Nixon''' (January 9, 1913{{spnd}}April 22, 1994) was the 37th ], serving from 1969 until ] in 1974. A member of the ], he previously served as a ] and ] from ] and as the 36th ] from 1953 to 1961 under President ]. ] saw the reduction of U.S. involvement in the ], '']'' with the ] and ], the ] Moon landing, and the establishment of the ] and ]. Nixon's second term ended early when he became the only U.S. president to resign from office, as a result of the ].


Nixon was born into a poor family of ] in ], ]. He graduated with a ] degree from ] in 1934 and a ] from ] in 1937, practiced law in California, and then moved with his wife ] to ], in 1942 to work for the ]. After serving active duty in the ] during ], he was elected to the ] in ]. His work on the ] case established his reputation as a leading ]. In ], he was elected to the ]. Nixon was the running mate of Eisenhower, the Republican Party's presidential nominee in the ], and served for eight years as vice president. He narrowly lost the ] to ]. After his loss in the ] race for governor of California, he announced his retirement from politics. However, in ], he made another run for the presidency and narrowly defeated the Democratic incumbent vice president ].
'''Richard Milhous Nixon ''' (] ] &ndash; ] ]) was the 37th ], serving from ] to ]. He was also the 36th ] (1953&ndash;1961) serving under ]. Nixon redefined the office of Vice President, making it for the first time a high visibility platform and base for a presidential candidacy. He is the only person to have been elected twice to the Vice Presidency and twice to the Presidency, and the only President to have ] from office. His resignation came in the face of imminent ] related to the ] and the subsequent ].


Seeking to bring the North Vietnamese to the negotiating table, Nixon ordered ] and ] in Cambodia. He covertly aided Pakistan during the ] in 1971 and ended American combat involvement in Vietnam in 1973 and the ] the same year. His ] in 1972 eventually led to ], and he then finalized the ] with the Soviet Union. Domestically, Nixon pushed for the ] and began the ]. Nixon's first term took place at the height of the American ] and enacted many progressive environmental policy shifts; his administration created the ] and passed legislation such as the ] and the ]. He implemented the ratified ], which lowered the voting age from 21 to 18, and enforced the ] of Southern schools. Under Nixon, relations with Native Americans improved, seeing an increase in ] for ] and his administration rescinded the ]. Nixon imposed wage and price controls for 90 days, began the ], and presided over the Apollo 11 Moon landing, which signaled the end of the ]. He was re-elected in ], when he defeated ] in ].
Nixon is noted for his diplomatic accomplishments in ], especially ] relations with the ] and ], and ending the ]. He is also noted for his middle-of-the-road domestic policy that combined conservative rhetoric and, in many cases, liberal action, as in his environmental policy.


In his second term, Nixon ordered ] to resupply Israeli materiel losses in the ], a conflict which led to the ] at home. From 1973, ongoing revelations from the Nixon administration's involvement in Watergate eroded his support in Congress and the country. The scandal began with a break-in at the ] office, ordered by administration officials, and escalated despite ] efforts by the Nixon administration, of which he was aware. On August 9, 1974, facing almost certain ] and removal from office, Nixon resigned. Afterward, he was issued ] by his successor, ]. During nearly 20 years of retirement, Nixon wrote nine books and undertook many foreign trips, rehabilitating his image into that of an elder statesman and leading expert on foreign affairs. On April 18, 1994, he suffered a debilitating ], and ]. ] of his time in office have proven complex, with the successes of his presidency contrasted against the circumstances of both his ascension and his departure from office.
As President, Nixon imposed ], indexed ] for inflation, and created ]. The number of pages added to the ] each year doubled under Nixon. He advocated ] and eradicated the last remnants of the ]. Nixon created the ] and ] and implemented the ], the first significant federal ] program. As a party leader, Nixon helped build the ] (GOP), but he ran his 1972 campaign separately from the party, which perhaps helped the GOP escape some of the damage from Watergate.


==Birth and early years== == Early life and education ==
] orphans; his brother ] is to his right.|left]]
Richard Nixon was born in ] to ] and Hannah Milhous Nixon in a house his father built from a ]. He was raised by his mother as an ] ]. His upbringing is said to have been marked by conservative evangelical Quaker observances such as refraining from drinking, dancing and swearing. His father (known as Frank) was a former member of the ] who had sincerely converted to Quakerism but never fully absorbed its spirit, retaining instead a volatile temper. Richard Nixon's great-grandfather George Nixon III had been killed at the ] during the ] while serving in the 73rd Ohio Volunteer Infantry.
Richard Milhous Nixon was born on January 9, 1913, in what was then the township precinct of ],<ref>{{cite web |date=August 15, 2016 |title=Richard Nixon in the U.S. Census Records |url=https://www.archives.gov/research/census/presidents/nixon.html |access-date=August 31, 2022 |website=National Archives}}</ref> in a house built by his father, on his family's lemon ranch.<ref name="archives"/>{{sfn|NPS, Nixon Birthplace}}{{sfn|Ferris|p=209}} His parents were ] and ]. His mother was a ], and his father converted from ] to the Quaker faith. Through his mother, Nixon was a descendant of the early English settler ].<ref>{{cite web |last=Reitwiesner |first=William Addams |authorlink=William Addams Reitwiesner |title=The Ancestors of Senator John Forbes Kerry (b. 1943) |url=http://www.wargs.com/political/kerry.html |access-date=August 31, 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190427081750/http://www.wargs.com/political/kerry.html |archive-date=April 27, 2019 |url-status=live}}</ref>
]


Nixon's upbringing was influenced by Quaker observances of the time such as abstinence from alcohol, dancing, and swearing. He had four brothers: Harold (1909–1933), ] (1914–1987), Arthur (1918–1925), and ] (1930– 2019).{{sfn|Nixon Library, Childhood}} Four of the five Nixon boys were named after historic British kings; Richard, for example, was named after ].{{sfn|Aitken|p=11}}
Nixon attended ] from 1926-28 and Whittier High School from 1928-30. He graduated first in his class; showing a penchant for ] and ]. He won a full ] ] from ]; but since it did not cover living expenses, Nixon's family was unable to afford to send him away to college. Nixon attended ], a local Quaker school where he co-founded ], a ] that competed with the already established ]. Nixon was elected student body president. A lifelong ] buff, Nixon practiced with the team assiduously but spent most of his time on the bench. In 1934, he graduated second in his class from Whittier and went on to ] ], where he received a full scholarship.


Nixon's early life was marked by hardship, and he later quoted ] in describing his boyhood: "We were poor, but the glory of it was we didn't know it".{{sfn|Aitken|p=12}} The Nixon family ranch failed in 1922, and the family moved to ]. In an area of East Whittier with many Quakers, Frank Nixon opened a grocery store and gas station at what is now the corner of Whittier Boulevard and Santa Gertrudes Avenue.{{sfn|Aitken|p=21}}<ref>{{cite web|url=https://richardnixonsocal.com/2023/01/whittier-to-the-white-house-10/ |title=Whittier to the White House
In ] Nixon returned to California, passed the ] exam, and began working in the small-town law office of a family friend in nearby ]. The work was mostly routine, and Nixon generally found it to be dull, although he was entirely competent. He later wrote that family law cases caused him particular discomfort, since his reticent Quaker upbringing was severely at odds with the idea of discussing intimate marital details with strangers.
|date=January 9, 2023 |author=Paul Carter}}</ref> During this time period, the Nixon family attended East Whittier Friends Church.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://richardnixonsocal.com/2023/01/whittier-to-the-white-house-13/ |title=Whittier to the White House |date=January 9, 2023 |author=Paul Carter}}</ref> Richard's younger brother Arthur died in 1925 at the age of seven after a short illness.{{sfn|Ambrose|1987|p=41}} Richard was 12 years old when a spot was found on his lung; with a family history of ], he was forbidden to play sports. The spot turned out to be scar tissue from an early bout of ].{{sfn|Aitken|p=27}}{{sfn|Ambrose|1987|pp=56–57}}


=== Primary and secondary education ===
It was during this period that he met his wife ], a ] teacher; they were married on ], ]. They had two daughters, ] and ].
] in 1930]]
Nixon attended East Whittier Elementary School, where he was president of his eighth-grade class.{{sfn|Black|p=16}} His older brother Harold had attended ], which his parents thought resulted in Harold's dissolute lifestyle, before he contracted tuberculosis (that killed him in 1933). They decided to send Nixon to the larger ].{{sfn|Morris|p=89}}{{sfn|Black|pp=17–19}} Though he had to ride a school bus an hour each way during his freshman year, he attained excellent grades. Later, he lived with an aunt in ] during the week.{{sfn|Morris|p=91}} He played junior varsity football, and seldom missed a practice, though he rarely was used in games.{{sfn|Morris|p=92}} He had greater success as a debater, winning a number of championships and taking his only formal tutelage in public speaking from Fullerton's Head of English, H. Lynn Sheller. Nixon later mused on Sheller's words, "Remember, speaking is conversation...don't shout at people. Talk to them. Converse with them."{{sfn|Aitken|p=28}} Nixon said he tried to use a conversational tone as much as possible.{{sfn|Aitken|p=28}}


At the start of his junior year in September 1928, Nixon's parents permitted him to transfer to Whittier High School. At Whittier, Nixon lost a bid for student body president&mdash;his first electoral defeat. He often rose at 4&nbsp;a.m. to drive the family truck to Los Angeles to purchase vegetables at the market and then drove to the store to wash and display them before going to school. Harold was diagnosed with tuberculosis the previous year; when their mother took him to Arizona hoping to improve his health, the demands on Nixon increased, causing him to give up football. Nevertheless, Nixon graduated from Whittier High third in his class of 207.{{sfn|Black|pp=20–23}}
During ], Nixon served as an officer in the ]. He received his training at ], and ], before serving in the supply corps in the South ]. There he was known as "Nick" and for his prowess in ], banking a large sum that helped finance his first campaign for ].


=== College and law school ===
Nixon was elected to the ] in 1946, defeating Democratic incumbent ] for ]. Nixon's victory was aided when he began implying that his opponent's labor support showed that Voorhis was a communist supporter. During Nixon's two terms, he became well-known as a member of the ], particularly for his leading role in the ] case.
Nixon was offered a tuition grant to attend ], but with Harold's continued illness requiring his mother's care, Richard was needed at the store. He remained in his hometown, and enrolled at ] in September 1930. His expenses were met by his maternal grandfather.<ref name="archives"/>{{sfn|Black|pp=23–24}} Nixon played for the basketball team; he also tried out for football, and though he lacked the size to play, he remained on the team as a substitute and was noted for his enthusiasm.{{sfn|Gellman|p=15}} Instead of fraternities and sororities, Whittier had literary societies. Nixon was snubbed by the only one for men, the Franklins, many of whom were from prominent families, unlike Nixon. He responded by helping to found a new society, the Orthogonian Society.{{sfn|Black|pp=24–25}} In addition to the society, his studies, and work at the store, Nixon engaged in several extracurricular activities; he was a champion debater and hard worker.{{sfn|Ambrose|1987|p=61}} In 1933, he was engaged to Ola Florence Welch, daughter of the Whittier police chief, but they broke up in 1935.{{sfn|Aitken|pp=58–63}}


After graduating '']'' with a ] degree in ] from Whittier in 1934, Nixon was accepted at the new ],{{sfn|Nixon Library, Student & Sailor}}<ref>{{cite web|publisher=]|access-date=March 29, 2024|title=Richard M. Nixon's '34 100th birthday celebrated|date=January 9, 2013|url=https://www.whittier.edu/news/richard-nixon-100th-birthday}}</ref> which offered scholarships to top students, including Nixon.{{sfn|Ambrose|1987|pp=33–34}} It paid high salaries to its professors, many of whom had national or international reputations.{{sfn|Aitken|p=67}} The number of scholarships was greatly reduced for second- and third-year students, creating intense competition.{{sfn|Ambrose|1987|pp=33–34}} Nixon kept his scholarship, was elected president of the Duke Bar Association,{{sfn|Parmet|p=81}} inducted into the ],{{sfn|Nixon Library, Family Collection Guide}} and graduated third in his class in June 1937.{{sfn|Nixon Library, Student & Sailor}}
In 1950, Nixon was elected to the ] over Congresswoman ].


== Early career and marriage ==
==Vice Presidency==
] and ], President Nixon, First Lady ], ], and ] on December 24, 1971]]
{| class="wikitable" width="250" style="float:right; text-align:left; margin:1em 0 1em 1em"
After graduating from Duke, Nixon initially hoped to join the ]. He received no response to his letter of application, and learned years later that he had been hired, but his appointment had been canceled at the last minute due to budget cuts.{{sfn|Aitken|p=76}} He was admitted to the ] in 1937, and began practicing in Whittier with the law firm Wingert and Bewley in the ].{{sfn|Nixon Library, Student & Sailor}}<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.whittierdailynews.com/2012/09/16/historic-whittier-bank-building-was-president-nixons-law-office-at-one-time/
|-
|title=Historic Whittier bank building was President Nixon's law office at one time
! Order:
|author=Keith Durflinger
| 36th Vice President
|publisher=Whittier Daily News |date=August 29, 2017}}</ref> His work concentrated on ] for local petroleum companies and other corporate matters, as well as on ].{{sfn|Aitken|pp=79–82}} Nixon was reluctant to work on divorce cases, disliking frank sexual talk from women.{{sfn|Morris|p=193}} In 1938, he opened up his own branch of Wingert and Bewley in ],{{sfn|Black|p=44}} and became a full partner in the firm the following year.{{sfn|Black|p=43}} In later years, Nixon proudly said he was the only modern president to have previously worked as a practicing attorney.{{sfn|Morris|p=193}} During this period, Nixon was also the president of the Citra-Frost Company, which attempted to produce and sell frozen orange juice, but the company went bankrupt after just 18 months.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Klein |first1=Christopher |title=10 Things You May Not Know About Richard Nixon |url=https://www.history.com/news/10-things-you-may-not-know-about-richard-nixon |website=History |access-date=March 3, 2021}}</ref><ref name=NixonsCounty>{{cite web|url=https://www.ocweekly.com/dick-nixons-orange-county-6394777/ |publisher=] |title=Dick Nixon's Orange County | date= August 5, 1999}}</ref>
|-
! Term of Office:
| ] ] – ] ]
|-
! Preceded by:
| ]
|-
! Succeeded by:
| ]
|-
! ]:
| ]
|-
! Political&nbsp;party:
| ]
|}


In January 1938, Nixon was cast in the Whittier Community Players production of '']'' in which he played opposite his future wife, a high school teacher named ].{{sfn|Nixon Library, Student & Sailor}} In his memoirs, Nixon described it as "a case of ]",{{sfn|Nixon|1978|p=23}} but apparently for Nixon only, since Pat Ryan turned him down several times before agreeing to date him.{{sfn|Farrell|pp=385–393}} Once they began their courtship, Ryan was reluctant to marry Nixon; they dated for two years before she assented to his proposal. They wed in a small ceremony on June 21, 1940. After a honeymoon in ], the Nixons began their married life in Whittier.{{sfn|Farrell|pp=37, 402}} They had two daughters: ], born in 1946, and ], born in 1948.{{sfn|Nixon Library, Nixon Family}}
In ], he was elected ] on ]'s ticket, although he was only 39 years old.


== Military service ==
] stop]]
], {{Circa|1945}}]]
During the campaign, Nixon was accused by nameless sources of misappropriating money out of a business fund for personal use. He went on TV and defended himself in an emotional speech, where he provided an independent third-party review of the fund's accounting along with a personal summary of his finances, which he cited as exonerating him from wrongdoing, and he charged that the ] Presidential candidate, ], also had a ] (see Memoirs of Richard Nixon, page 99). This speech would, however, become better known for its rhetoric, such as when he stated that his wife Pat did not wear mink, but rather "a respectable Republican cloth coat", and that although he had been given a ] named "Checkers" in addition to his other campaign contributions, he was not going to give it back because his daughters loved it. As a result, this speech became known as the "]", and it resulted in a flood of support, prompting Eisenhower to keep Nixon on the ticket.
In January 1942, the couple moved to the Northern Virginia suburbs, where Nixon took a job at the ] in ]{{sfn|Nixon Library, Student & Sailor}}{{sfn|Nixon|1978|p=26}} In his political campaigns, Nixon suggested that this was his response to ], but he had sought the position throughout the latter part of 1941. Both Nixon and his wife believed he was limiting his prospects by remaining in Whittier.{{sfn|Morris|pp=124–126}} He was assigned to the tire rationing division, where he was tasked with replying to correspondence. He did not enjoy the role, and four months later applied to join the ].{{sfn|Kornitzer|pp=143–144}} Though he could have claimed an exemption from ] as a birthright Quaker, or a deferral due to his government service, Nixon nevertheless sought a commission in the Navy. His application was approved, and he was appointed a ] in the ] on June 15, 1942.<ref name="navy.mil">{{Cite web |url=https://www.history.navy.mil/research/histories/biographies-list/bios-n/nixon-richard.html |title=Naval Profiles: Richard Milhous Nixon |date=February 18, 2015 |website=Naval History and Heritage Command |publisher=U.S. Navy |access-date=March 6, 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170315133741/https://www.history.navy.mil/research/histories/biographies-list/bios-n/nixon-richard.html |archive-date=March 15, 2017 |url-status=live }}</ref>{{sfn|Aitken|pp=96–97}}


In October 1942, he was given his first assignment as aide to the commander of the ] in ], until May 1943. Seeking more excitement, he requested sea duty; on July 2, 1943, he was assigned to ] and the ] (SCAT), where he supported the ] of operations in the ] during ].{{sfn|Naval Historical Center, Commander Nixon}}{{sfn|Black|pp=58–60}}{{sfn|Armstrong|p=81}}
Nixon reinvented the office of Vice President. Although he had no formal power, he had the attention of the media and the Republican party. He demonstrated for the first time that the office could be a springboard to the ]; most Vice Presidents since have followed his lead and sought the presidency (exceptions being ] and ]). Nixon was the first Vice President to actually step in to temporarily run the government. He did so three times when Eisenhower was ill: on the occasions of Eisenhower's ] on ] ]; his ] in June ]; and his ] on ] ]. His quick thinking was on display on ] ], at the opening of the American National Exhibition in ] where he and ] leader ] had an impromptu "]" about the merits of ] versus ].


On October 1, 1943, Nixon was promoted to ].<ref name="navy.mil"/> Nixon commanded the SCAT forward detachments at ], ], and finally at ].<ref name="navy.mil"/>{{sfn|Armstrong|p=81}} His unit prepared manifests and flight plans for ] operations and supervised the loading and unloading of the transport aircraft. For this service, he received a ], awarded a Navy Commendation Ribbon, which was later updated to the ], from his commanding officer for "meritorious and efficient performance of duty as Officer in Charge of the South Pacific Combat Air Transport Command". Upon his return to the U.S., Nixon was appointed the administrative officer of the ] in ].
==1960 election and post-Vice Presidency==
{{main|United States presidential election, 1960}}
]


In January 1945, he was transferred to the ] office in ], where he helped negotiate the termination of World War II contracts, and received his second letter of commendation, from the ]{{sfn|Black|p=62}} for "meritorious service, tireless effort, and devotion to duty". Later, Nixon was transferred to other offices to work on contracts, and he moved from the Virginia suburbs of Washington, D.C. to Philadelphia, New York and finally to Baltimore.{{sfn|Aitken|p=112}}{{sfn|Nixon|1978|p=33}} On October 3, 1945, he was promoted to ].<ref name="navy.mil"/>{{sfn|Black|p=62}} On March 10, 1946, he was relieved of active duty.<ref name="navy.mil"/> On June 1, 1953, he was promoted to ] in the U.S. Naval Reserve, and he retired from the U.S. Naval Reserve on June 6, 1966.<ref name="navy.mil"/>
In ], he ran for President on his own but lost to ]. The race was very close all year long. <ref> - Erika Tyner Allen, ], accessed ] ]</ref> Nixon campaigned on his experience, but Kennedy said it was time for new blood and suggested the Eisenhower-Nixon administration had been soft on defense. It also did not help that when asked of major policy decisions that Nixon had helped make, Eisenhower responded: "Give me a week and I might think of one". This hurt his standing early in the campaign, showing that he did not necessarily have the experience to be President or Eisenhower's firm backing. It is also believed that Nixon's chances were further damaged by the televised debates. While Nixon was visibly sweaty and even stumbled from nervousness, Kennedy looked handsome and very confident to TV viewers.


While in the Navy, Nixon became a very good ] poker player, helping finance his first congressional campaign with the winnings. In a 1983 interview, he described turning down an invitation to dine with ] because he was hosting a game.<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/sports/for-us-presidents-poker-is-a-main-event/2019/06/16/7a1a5e54-8fb1-11e9-b08e-cfd89bd36d4e_story.html |title=For U.S. presidents, poker is a main event |first=Norman |last=Chad |authorlink=Norman Chad |date=June 16, 2019 |newspaper=]}}</ref><ref>{{cite magazine |url=https://www.cardplayer.com/poker-news/14681-men-of-action-richard-the-big-bluffer-nixon |title=Men Of Action -- Richard "The Big Bluffer" Nixon |first=Bob |last=Paijich |date=December 25, 2012 |magazine=]}}</ref>
In ], Nixon lost a race for ]. In his concession ], Nixon accused the media of favoring his opponent ] and stated that it was his "last press conference" and that "You don't have Dick Nixon to kick around any more".


== U.S. House of Representatives (1947–1950) ==
==1968 Election==
{{further|1946 California's 12th congressional district election}}
{{main|United States presidential election, 1968}}
]
Nixon moved to ] where he became a well-paid senior partner in a leading law firm, Nixon Mudge Rose Guthrie & Alexander. During the ], he stumped the country in support of Republican candidates, rebuilding his base in the party. In the ], he completed a remarkable political comeback by taking the nomination. Nixon appealed to what he called the "]" of socially conservative Americans who disliked the "]" ] and ] demonstrators. Nixon promised "peace with honor," and without claiming to be able to win the war, Nixon claimed that "new leadership will end the war and win the peace in the ]". He did not explain in detail his plans to end the ], leading Democratic nominee ] and the media to allege that he must have some "]." Nixon did not use the phrase, and stated in his memoirs that he had no such plan. He defeated Humphrey and independent candidate ] to become the 37th President of the United States.
Republicans in ] were frustrated by their inability to defeat Democratic representative ], and they sought a consensus candidate who would run a strong campaign against him. In 1945, they formed a "Committee of 100" to decide on a candidate, hoping to avoid internal dissensions which had led to previous Voorhis victories. After the committee failed to attract higher-profile candidates, Herman Perry, manager of Whittier's ] branch, suggested Nixon, a family friend with whom he had served on Whittier College's board of trustees before the war. Perry wrote to Nixon in ], and after a night of excited conversation with his wife, Nixon gave Perry an enthused response,{{sfn|Parmet|pp=91–96}}{{sfn|Gellman|pp=27–28}} confirming that he was registered to vote in California at his parents' Whittier residence.{{sfn|Aitken|p=114}} Nixon flew to California and was selected by the committee. When he left the Navy at the start of 1946, Nixon and his wife returned to Whittier, where he began a year of intensive campaigning.{{sfn|Parmet|pp=91–96}}{{sfn|Gellman|pp=27–28}} He contended that Voorhis had been ineffective as a representative and suggested that Voorhis's endorsement by a group linked to Communists meant that Voorhis must have radical views.{{sfn|Parmet|pp=111–113}} Nixon won the election, receiving 65,586 votes to Voorhis's 49,994.{{sfn|Gellman|p=82}}


In June 1947, Nixon supported the ], a federal law that monitors the activities and power of labor unions, and he served on the ]. In August 1947, he became one of 19 House members to serve on the ],<ref name=Final>
==Presidency 1969-1974==
{{cite web
===Foreign policies===
|title=Final Report on Foreign Aid of the House Select Committee on Foreign Aid
Once in office, he proposed the ] to establish a strategy of turning over the fighting of the war to the ]. In July 1969, he visited ], and met with President ] and with U.S. military commanders. American involvement in the war declined steadily until all American troops were gone in 1973. After the withdrawal of U.S. troops, fighting was left to the South Vietnamese army, which was well supplied with modern arms, but whose fighting capability was in question because of inadequate funding, low morale, and corruption. The lack of funding was primarily because of large funding cutbacks by the ].
|publisher = Marshall Foundation
|url=http://www.marshallfoundation.org/library/wp-content/uploads/sites/16/2014/04/Studies_Prior_to_the_Marshall_Plan.pdf
|date=May 1, 1948
|access-date = May 30, 2020
|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20151221035849/http://www.marshallfoundation.org/library/wp-content/uploads/sites/16/2014/04/Studies_Prior_to_the_Marshall_Plan.pdf
|archive-date = December 21, 2015
|url-status = live}}</ref> which went to Europe to report on the need for U.S. foreign aid. Nixon was the youngest member of the committee and the only Westerner.{{sfn|Gellman|pp=105–107, 125–126}} Advocacy by Herter Committee members, including Nixon, led to congressional passage of the ].{{sfn|Morris|p=365}}


In his memoirs, Nixon wrote that he joined the ] (HUAC) "at the end of 1947". However, he was already a HUAC member in early February 1947, when he heard "Enemy Number One" ] and his sister ] testify. On February 18, 1947, Nixon referred to Eisler's belligerence toward HUAC in his maiden speech to the House. Also by early February 1947, fellow U.S. Representative ] had introduced him to Father ] in Baltimore. Cronin shared with Nixon his 1945 privately circulated paper "The Problem of American Communism in 1945",<ref>{{cite web
Nixon ordered secret bombing campaigns in ] in March 1969 (code-named ''Menu'') to destroy what was believed to be the headquarters of the ].
| first = John Francis
] (and future Republican Senator) Navy officer ] (on crutches) after years of imprisonment in ], 1973]]
| last = Cronin
| authorlink = John Francis Cronin
| title = The Problem of American Communism in 1945: Facts and Recommendations
| publisher = A Confidential Study for Private Circulation
| url = http://mdhistory.net/hiss/cronin-report.pdf
| date = October 29, 1945
| access-date = July 26, 2017
| archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20130514131612/http://mdhistory.net/hiss/cronin-report.pdf
| archive-date = May 14, 2013
| url-status = live
}}</ref> with much information from the FBI's ] who by 1961 headed domestic intelligence under ].<ref name="NixonV1">
{{cite book
| first = Stephen E.
| last = Ambrose
| authorlink = Stephen E. Ambrose
| title = Nixon Volume I: The Education of a Politician 1913–1962
| publisher = Simon and Schuster
| url = https://books.google.com/books?id=Q-5zAgAAQBAJ
| pages = 144–147
| date = March 18, 2014
| access-date = July 26, 2017| isbn = 978-1-4767-4588-6
}}</ref>
By May 1948, Nixon had co-sponsored the ] to implement "a new approach to the complicated problem of internal communist subversion{{nbsp}}... It provided for registration of all ] members and required a statement of the source of all printed and broadcast material issued by organizations that were found to be Communist fronts." He served as floor manager for the Republican Party. On May 19, 1948, the bill passed the House by 319 to 58, but later it failed to pass the Senate.{{sfn|Nixon|1978|loc=Running for Congress: 1946}} The Nixon Library cites this bill's passage as Nixon's first significant victory in Congress.<ref>{{cite web |title=Timeline |url=https://www.nixonlibrary.gov/thetimes/timeline/ |url-status=dead |publisher=Nixon Library |access-date=April 2, 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170403015648/https://www.nixonlibrary.gov/thetimes/timeline/ |archive-date=April 3, 2017}}</ref>
], {{ca|April 1950}}]]


Nixon first gained national attention in August 1948, when his persistence as a House Un-American Activities Committee member helped break the ] spy case. While many doubted ]'s allegations that Hiss, a former ] official, had been a ] spy, Nixon believed them to be true and pressed for the committee to continue its investigation. After Hiss filed suit, alleging defamation, Chambers produced documents corroborating his allegations, including paper and ] copies that Chambers turned over to House investigators after hiding them overnight in a field; they became known as the "]".{{sfn|Black|pp=129–135}} Hiss was convicted of ] in 1950 for denying under oath he had passed documents to Chambers.{{sfn|Gellman|pp=239–241}} In 1948, Nixon successfully ] as a candidate in his district, winning both major party primaries,{{sfn|Morris|p=381}} and was comfortably reelected.{{sfn|Nixon Library, Congressman}}
In ordering the bombings, Nixon realized he would be extending an unpopular war as well as breaching Cambodia's "official" (but false) neutrality. During deliberations over Nixon's ], his unorthodox use of ] in ordering the bombings was considered as an article of impeachment, but the charge was dropped as not a violation of Constitutional powers.


== U.S. Senate (1950–1953) ==
On ] ], Nixon addressed ] and ] live via raido during their historic ]. Nixon also made the world's longest distance phone call to Neil Armstrong on the moon. On ], ], Nixon approved the development of the ], a decision that profoundly influenced U.S. efforts to explore and develop space for several decades thereafter.
{{see also|1950 United States Senate election in California}}
] ] (left) in a visit to China, 1972]]
], during his ]]]
In 1949, Nixon began to consider running for the ] against the Democratic incumbent, ],{{sfn|Gellman|p=282}} and entered the race in November.{{sfn|Morris|p=535}} Downey, faced with a bitter primary battle with Representative ], announced his retirement in March 1950.{{sfn|Gellman|pp=296–297}} Nixon and Douglas won the primary elections{{sfn|Gellman|p=304}} and engaged in a contentious campaign in which the ongoing ] was a major issue.{{sfn|Gellman|p=310}} Nixon tried to focus attention on Douglas's liberal voting record. As part of that effort, a "]" was distributed by the Nixon campaign suggesting that Douglas's voting record was similar to that of New York Congressman ], reputed to be a communist, and their political views must be nearly identical.{{sfn|Morris|p=581}} Nixon won the election by almost twenty percentage points.{{sfn|Gellman|p=335}} During the campaign, Nixon was first called "Tricky Dick" by his opponents for his campaign tactics.{{sfn|Gellman|p=303}}


In the Senate, Nixon took a prominent position in opposing global ], traveling frequently and speaking out against it.{{sfn|Nixon Library, Senator}} He maintained friendly relations with ], his fellow ], controversial U.S. Senate colleague from ], but was careful to keep some distance between himself and McCarthy's allegations.{{sfn|Ambrose|1987|pp=211, 311–312}} Nixon criticized President ]'s handling of the ].{{sfn|Nixon Library, Senator}} He supported statehood for ] and ], voted in favor of civil rights for minorities, and supported federal disaster relief for ] and ].{{sfn|Black|p=178}} He voted against price controls and other monetary restrictions, benefits for illegal immigrants, and public power.{{sfn|Black|p=178}}
Relations between the Western and Eastern power blocs changed dramatically in the early 70s. In 1960, the ] ended the alliance with its biggest ally, the ], in the ]. As tensions between the two communist nations reached its peak in 1969 and 1970, Nixon decided to use their conflict to shift the balance of power towards the West in the Cold War. In what later would be known as the "China Card", Nixon deliberately improved relations with China in order to blackmail the Soviet Union. In 1971, a move was made to improve relationships when China invited an American table tennis team to China; hence the term "]". The U.S. response was to support China’s entry into the U.N., something it had always vetoed. In October 1971, China entered the ] In 1972, Richard Nixon became the first U.S. President to ], though the U.S. kept a massive naval fleet off of ]. Fearing the possibility of a Sino-American alliance, the Soviet Union yielded to Nixon immediately. The first ] were finally concluded the same year.


== Vice presidency (1953–1961) ==
Nixon was vocal in supporting General ] of ] despite escalating violence in ]. Subsequently declassified documents reveal the extent of support offered by Nixon to the dictator notwithstanding the widespread human rights violations. <ref> - Sajit Gandhi, ] Electronic Briefing Book No. 79, ] ] </ref> He was also vocal in abusing ] ] as an "old ]" in private conversations with ], who is also recorded as making derogatory comments against Indians.
{{see also|Presidency of Dwight D. Eisenhower}}
{{Further|Checkers speech}}
]–Nixon campaign in the ]]]
], {{circa|1953–1961}}]]
General ] was nominated for president by the Republicans in 1952. He had no strong preference for a vice-presidential candidate, and Republican officeholders and party officials met in a "]"<!-- Gellman does say their first actions on getting inside the room were to take off jackets and light up. So it was. --> and recommended Nixon to the general, who agreed to the senator's selection. Nixon's youth (he was then 39), stance against communism, and political base in California—one of the largest states—were all seen as vote-winners by the leaders. Among the candidates considered along with Nixon were Senator ] of Ohio, Governor ] of New Jersey, and Senator ] of Illinois.{{sfn|Gellman|pp=440–441}}{{sfn|Aitken|pp=205–206}} On the campaign trail, Eisenhower spoke of his plans for the country, and left the negative campaigning to his ].{{sfn|Aitken|pp=222–223}}


In mid-September, the Republican ticket faced a major crisis when the media reported that Nixon had a political fund, maintained by his backers, which reimbursed him for political expenses.<ref>John W. Malsberger, "Dwight Eisenhower, Richard Nixon, and the Fund Crisis of 1952," ''Historian,'' 73 (Fall 2011), pp 526–47.</ref>{{sfn|Kornitzer|p=191}} Such a fund was not illegal, but it exposed Nixon to allegations of a potential conflict of interest. With pressure building for Eisenhower to demand Nixon's resignation from the ], Nixon went on television to address the nation on September 23, 1952.{{sfn|Aitken|pp=210–217}} The address, later named the ], was heard by about 60&nbsp;million Americans, which represented the largest audience ever for a television broadcast at that point.{{sfn|Thompson|p=291}} In the speech, Nixon emotionally defended himself, stating that the fund was not secret and that his donors had not received special favors. He painted himself as a patriot and man of modest means, mentioning that his wife had no mink coat; instead, he said, she wore a "respectable Republican cloth coat".{{sfn|Aitken|pp=210–217}} The speech was remembered for the gift which Nixon had received, but which he would not give back, which he described as "a little cocker spaniel dog{{nbsp}}...sent all the way from Texas. And our little girl—Tricia, the 6-year-old—named it Checkers."{{sfn|Aitken|pp=210–217}} The speech prompted a huge public outpouring of support for Nixon.{{sfn|Aitken|p=218}} Eisenhower decided to retain him on the ticket,{{sfn|Morris|p=846}} and the ticket was victorious in ].{{sfn|Aitken|pp=222–223}}
Nixon supported the wave of military ] in ]. Through Henry Kissinger, he gave at least an implicit help to ]'s coup, in 1973, and then helped set up ] (as evidenced by ] documents released in 2000, following Pinochet's arrest in 1998). A U.S. intelligence base in ] coordinated the acts of the various Latino secret services, such as ] and ].


Eisenhower granted Nixon more responsibilities during his term than any previous vice president.<ref>John W. Malsberger, ''The General and the Politician: Dwight Eisenhower, Richard Nixon, and American Politics'' (2014)</ref> Nixon attended ] and ] meetings and chaired them in Eisenhower's absence. A 1953 tour of the Far East succeeded in increasing local goodwill toward the United States and gave Nixon an appreciation of the region as a potential industrial center. He visited ] and ] in ].{{sfn|Aitken|pp=225–227}} On his return to the United States at the end of 1953, Nixon increased the time he devoted to foreign relations.{{sfn|Ambrose|1987|p=342}}
===Domestic policies===
He established the ] (EPA) on ], ].


Biographer Irwin Gellman, who chronicled Nixon's congressional years, said of his vice presidency:
On ], ], Nixon signed a bill that lowered the maximum U.S. ] to 55 miles per hour (90 ]) in order to conserve ] during the ]. This law remained in effect until 1995.
{{blockquote|Eisenhower radically altered the role of his running mate by presenting him with critical assignments in both foreign and domestic affairs once he assumed his office. The vice president welcomed the president's initiatives and worked energetically to accomplish White House objectives. Because of the collaboration between these two leaders, Nixon deserves the title, "the first modern vice president".{{r|Gellman-Small}}
}}
{{Multiple image
| align = left
| width = 140
| title =
| image1 = LosAngelesTimes May9 1958.jpg
| caption1 = <small>'']''</small>
| image2 = SanFranciscoChronicle May9 1958.jpg
| caption2 = <small>'']''</small>
| footer = American newspaper covers on May 9, 1958, covering student protests against Nixon at the ] in ], Peru
}}
Despite intense campaigning by Nixon, who reprised his strong attacks on the Democrats, the Republicans lost control of both houses of Congress in the ]. These losses caused Nixon to contemplate leaving politics once he had served out his term.{{sfn|Ambrose|1987|pp=357–358}} On September 24, 1955, President Eisenhower suffered a heart attack and his condition was initially believed to be life-threatening. Eisenhower was unable to perform his duties for six weeks. The ] had not yet been proposed, and the vice president had no formal power to act. Nonetheless, Nixon acted in Eisenhower's stead during this period, presiding over Cabinet meetings and ensuring that aides and Cabinet officers did not seek power.{{sfn|Aitken|pp=256–258}} According to Nixon biographer ], Nixon had "earned the high praise he received for his conduct during the crisis&nbsp;... he made no attempt to seize power".{{sfn|Ambrose|1987|pp=375–376}}


His spirits buoyed, Nixon sought a second term, but some of Eisenhower's aides aimed to displace him. In a December 1955 meeting, Eisenhower proposed that Nixon not run for reelection and instead become a Cabinet officer in a second Eisenhower administration, to give him administrative experience before a 1960 presidential run. Nixon believed this would destroy his political career. When Eisenhower announced his reelection bid in February 1956, he hedged on the choice of his running mate, saying it was improper to address that question until he had been renominated. Although no Republican was opposing Eisenhower, Nixon received a substantial number of write-in votes against the president in the 1956 ] election. In late April, the President announced that Nixon would again be his running mate.{{sfn|Aitken|pp=237–241}} Eisenhower and Nixon were reelected by a comfortable margin in the ].{{sfn|Parmet|p=294}}
===Major initiatives===
] and Richard Nixon at ] ]]]


In early 1957, Nixon undertook another foreign trip, this time to Africa. On his return, he helped shepherd the ] through Congress. The bill was weakened in the Senate, and civil rights leaders were divided over whether Eisenhower should sign it. Nixon advised the President to sign the bill, which he did.{{sfn|Black|pp=349–352}} Eisenhower suffered a mild ] in November 1957, and Nixon gave a press conference, assuring the nation that the Cabinet was functioning well as a team during Eisenhower's brief illness.{{sfn|Black|p=355}}
In ], Nixon was re-elected in one of the biggest landslide election victories in U.S. political history, defeating ] and garnering over 60% of the popular vote. He carried 49 of the 50 states, losing only in ].
] and Nixon speak as the press looks on at the ] on July 24, 1959; '']'' host ] is on the far left.]]


On April 27, 1958, Richard and Pat Nixon reluctantly embarked on a goodwill tour of ]. In ], Uruguay, Nixon made an impromptu visit to a college campus, where he fielded questions from students on U.S. foreign policy. The trip was uneventful until the Nixon party reached ], Peru, where he was met with student demonstrations. Nixon went to the historical campus of ], the oldest university in the Americas, got out of his car to confront the students, and stayed until forced back into the car by a volley of thrown objects. At his hotel, Nixon faced another mob, and one demonstrator spat on him.{{sfn|Ambrose|1987|pp=465–469}} In ], Venezuela, Nixon and his wife were spat on by anti-American demonstrators and ] by a pipe-wielding mob.{{sfn|Ambrose|1987|pp=469–479}} According to Ambrose, Nixon's courageous conduct "caused even some of his bitterest enemies to give him some grudging respect".{{sfn|Ambrose|1987|p=463}} Reporting to the cabinet after the trip, Nixon claimed there was "absolute proof that were directed and controlled by a central Communist conspiracy." Secretary of State ] and his brother, ] ], both concurred with Nixon.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Rabe|first1=Stephen G.|authorlink=Stephen G. Rabe|title=Eisenhower and Latin America: The Foreign Policy of Anticommunism|date=1988|publisher=University of North Carolina press|location=Chapel Hill|isbn=978-0-8078-4204-1|page=}}</ref>
* ] with the ] and partially abandoning the ] on ] as part of ], a foreign policy eschewing moral considerations. In the short term Nixon was successful in playing the "China card" against the Soviet Union and its client state ].
* ], or the peaceful pause in the Cold War; détente ended in 1979, replaced by another phase of the Cold War.
* Establishment of the ].
* Establishment of the ].
* Establishment of the ].
* Establishment of the ].
* Establishment of the ] program.
* Establishment of the ]
* Post Office Department abolished as a cabinet department and reorganized as a government owned corporation, the U.S Postal Service.
* ], or ], led to the signing of the ].
* "Vietnamization": the training and arming of South Vietnamese forces to allow the withdrawal of U.S. troops from ].
* Suspension of the convertibility of the US dollar into gold, a central point of the ], allowing its value to float in world markets.
* ] program started.
* Endorsed an enlightened self-determination policy for Native Americans that changed the direction of policy as continued from the New Deal through the Great Society.


In July 1959, President Eisenhower sent Nixon to the ] for the opening of the ] in Moscow. On July 24, Nixon was touring the exhibits with Soviet first secretary and premier ] when the two stopped at a model of an American kitchen and engaged in an impromptu exchange about the merits of capitalism versus communism that became known as the "]".{{sfn|Farrell|pp=1394–1400}}<ref>{{cite web|title=Richard Nixon and Nikita Khrushchev have a "kitchen debate"|publisher=]|accessdate=November 7, 2023|url=https://www.history.com/this-day-in-history/nixon-and-khrushchev-have-a-kitchen-debate}}</ref>
On ], ], Nixon announced he would pay $432,787.13 in back taxes plus interest after a Congressional committee reported that he had inadvertently underpaid his 1969 and 1972 taxes.


== 1960 presidential campaign ==
In light of the near certainty of both his impeachment (due to the Watergate scandal) by the House of Representatives and his conviction by the Senate, Nixon resigned on ] ].
{{main|Richard Nixon 1960 presidential campaign}}
{{see also|1960 Republican Party presidential primaries|1960 United States presidential election}}
] and Nixon before their first ]]]
] results]]
In 1960, Nixon launched his first campaign for President of the United States, officially announcing on January 9, 1960.<ref>{{cite news |title=Nixon Makes it Official |work=The Desert Sun |date=January 9, 1960}}</ref> He faced little opposition in the Republican primaries{{sfn|UPI 1960 in Review}} and chose former Massachusetts senator ] as his running mate.{{sfn|Nixon Library, Vice President}} His Democratic opponent was ] and the race remained close for the duration.{{sfn|Museum of Broadcast Communications, "Kennedy–Nixon Debates"}} Nixon campaigned on his experience, but Kennedy called for new blood and claimed the ] had ].{{sfn|Steel|2003-05-25}} While Kennedy faced issues about his Catholicism, Nixon remained a divisive figure to some.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Costello |first=William |title=The Facts About Nixon |publisher=Viking Adult |date=June 24, 1960 |isbn=978-0670018918}}</ref>


Televised ] made their debut as a political medium during the campaign. In the first of four such debates, Nixon appeared pale, with a ], in contrast to the photogenic Kennedy.{{sfn|Nixon Library, Vice President}} Nixon's performance in the debate was perceived to be mediocre in the visual medium of television, though many people listening on the radio thought Nixon had won.{{sfn|Foner|p=843}} Nixon narrowly lost the election, with Kennedy winning the popular vote by only 112,827 votes (0.2&nbsp;percent).{{sfn|Nixon Library, Vice President}}
===Administration and Cabinet===
The Nixon Administration was comprised of an impressive array of talent both in the cabinet and in the White House staff. Among the many people who came to Washington to serve in the administration were one future President (]); a Vice President (]); six secretaries of state (], ], ], ], ], and ]); five secretaries of defense (], ], ], ], and ]); a chairman of the joint chiefs of staff (]), two secretaries of the treasury (] and ]); a secretary of energy (]); and three chiefs of staff (], ], and ]). Indeed a member of the Nixon Administration has held a cabinet post or been a senior advisor within the subsequent six administrations. That so many key figures of the ], ], ], and ] Administrations first entered government service in the Nixon White House is arguably the most profound and long-lasting legacy of Richard Nixon.


There were charges of ] in Texas and Illinois, both states won by Kennedy. Nixon refused to consider contesting the election, feeling a lengthy controversy would diminish the United States in the eyes of the world and that the uncertainty would hurt U.S. interests.{{sfn|Carlson|2000-11-17}} At the end of his term of office as vice president in January 1961, Nixon and his family returned to California, where he practiced law and wrote a bestselling book, '']'', which included coverage of the Hiss case, Eisenhower's heart attack, and the Fund Crisis, which had been resolved by the Checkers speech.{{sfn|Nixon Library, Vice President}}{{sfn|Black|p=431}}
]
{| cellpadding="1" cellspacing="4" style="margin:3px; border:3px solid #000000;" align="left"
!bgcolor="#000000" colspan="3"|
|-
|align="left"|'''OFFICE'''||align="left"|'''NAME'''||align="left"|'''TERM'''
|-
!bgcolor="#000000" colspan="3"|
|-
|align="left"|]||align="left" |'''Richard Nixon'''||align="left"|1969&ndash;1974
|-
|align="left"|]||align="left"|''']'''||align="left"|1969&ndash;1973
|-
|align="left"|&nbsp;||align="left"|''']'''||align="left"|1973&ndash;1974
|-
!bgcolor="#000000" colspan="3"|
|-
|align="left"|]||align="left"|''']'''||align="left"|1969&ndash;1973
|-
|align="left"|&nbsp;||align="left"|''']'''||align="left"|1973&ndash;1974
|-
|align="left"|]||align="left"|''']'''||align="left"|1969&ndash;1971
|-
|align="left"|&nbsp;||align="left"|''']'''||align="left"|1971&ndash;1972
|-
|align="left"|&nbsp;||align="left"|''']'''||align="left"|1972&ndash;1974
|-
|align="left"|&nbsp;||align="left"|''']'''||align="left"|1974
|-
|align="left"|]||align="left"|''']'''||align="left"|1969&ndash;1973
|-
|align="left"|&nbsp;||align="left"|''']'''||align="left"|1973&ndash;1973
|-
|align="left"|&nbsp;||align="left"|''']'''||align="left"|1973&ndash;1974
|-
|align="left"|]||align="left"|''']'''||align="left"|1969&ndash;1972
|-
|align="left"|&nbsp;||align="left"|''']'''||align="left"|1972&ndash;1973
|-
|align="left"|&nbsp;||align="left"|''']'''||align="left"|1973&ndash;1974
|-
|align="left"|&nbsp;||align="left"|''']'''||align="left"|1974
|-
|align="left"|]||align="left"|''']'''||align="left"|1969&ndash;1974
|-
|align="left"|]||align="left"|''']'''||align="left"|1969&ndash;1971
|-
|align="left"|&nbsp;||align="left"|''']'''||align="left"|1971&ndash;1974
|-
|align="left"|]||align="left"|''']'''||align="left"|1969&ndash;1971
|-
|align="left"|&nbsp;||align="left"|''']'''||align="left"|1971&ndash;1974
|-
|align="left"|]||align="left"|''']'''||align="left"|1969&ndash;1972
|-
|align="left"|&nbsp;||align="left"|''']'''||align="left"|1972&ndash;1973
|-
|align="left"|&nbsp;||align="left"|''']'''||align="left"|1973&ndash;1974
|-
|align="left"|]||align="left"|''']'''||align="left"|1969&ndash;1970
|-
|align="left"|&nbsp;||align="left"|''']'''||align="left"|1970&ndash;1973
|-
|align="left"|&nbsp;||align="left"|''']'''||align="left"|1973&ndash;1974
|-
|align="left"|]||align="left"|''']'''||align="left"|1969&ndash;1970
|-
|align="left"|&nbsp;||align="left"|''']'''||align="left"|1970&ndash;1973
|-
|align="left"|&nbsp;||align="left"|''']'''||align="left"|1973&ndash;1974
|-
|align="left"|]||align="left"|''']'''||align="left"|1969&ndash;1973
|-
|align="left"|&nbsp;||align="left"|''']'''||align="left"|1973&ndash;1974
|-
|align="left"|]||align="left"|''']'''||align="left"|1969&ndash;1973
|-
|align="left"|&nbsp;||align="left"|''']'''||align="left"|1973&ndash;1974
|}
<br clear="both">


==1962 California gubernatorial campaign==
===Administration notables===
]
====Chiefs of Staff====
{{main|1962 California gubernatorial election}}
* ] - Chief of Staff (1969 - 1973)
Local and national Republican leaders encouraged Nixon to challenge incumbent ] for ] in the ] gubernatorial election.{{sfn|Nixon Library, Vice President}} Despite initial reluctance, Nixon entered the race.{{sfn|Nixon Library, Vice President}} The campaign was clouded by public suspicion that Nixon viewed the office as a stepping stone for another presidential run, some opposition from the far-right of the party, and his own lack of interest in being California's governor.{{sfn|Nixon Library, Vice President}} Nixon hoped a successful run would confirm his status as the nation's leading active Republican politician, and ensure he remained a major player in national politics.{{sfn|Black|pp=432–433}} Instead, he lost to Brown by more than five percentage points, and the defeat was widely believed to be the end of his political career.{{sfn|Nixon Library, Vice President}}
* ] - Chief of Staff (1973 - 1974)


In ] the morning after the election, Nixon blamed the media for favoring his opponent, saying, "You won't have Nixon to kick around anymore because, gentlemen, this is my last press conference."{{sfn|Aitken|pp=304–305}} The California defeat was highlighted in the November 11, 1962, episode of ]'s ] show, ''Howard K. Smith: News and Comment'', titled "The Political Obituary of Richard M. Nixon".{{sfn|Ambrose|1987|p=673}} Alger Hiss appeared on the program, and many members of the public complained that it was unseemly to give a convicted felon air time to attack a former vice president. The furor drove Smith and his program from the air,{{sfn|Museum of Broadcast Communications, "Smith, Howard K."}} and public sympathy for Nixon grew.{{sfn|Ambrose|1987|p=673}}
====Undersecretaries====
* ] - undersecretary of Health, Education and Welfare
* ] - special assistant to the Director of the OEO, White House staff assistant, assistant director of the Cost of Living Council, and Deputy Assistant to the President.


== Wilderness years ==
====Assistants====
] officer as he crosses between the sectors of divided ] in July 1963]]
* ] - Counselor to the President
In 1963 the Nixon family traveled to Europe, where Nixon gave press conferences and met with leaders of the countries he visited.{{sfn|Black|p=446}} The family moved to New York City, where Nixon became a ] in the leading law firm ].{{sfn|Nixon Library, Vice President}} When announcing his California campaign, Nixon had pledged not to run for president in 1964; even if he had not, he believed it would be difficult to defeat Kennedy, or after ], Kennedy's successor, Lyndon Johnson.{{sfn|Aitken|pp=297, 321}}
* ] - Deputy Assistant to the President
* ] - Special Assistant to the President (1968-71) and then Deputy Assistant (1971-73)
* ] - Assistant to National Security Advisor
* ] - Assistant to the President for Domestic Affairs
* ] - Special Assistant to the President
* ] - Military Assistant and Deputy Assistant to the President for National Security Affairs
* John Whitaker - Principal Advisor on the Environment


In 1964, Nixon won write-in votes ], and was considered a serious contender by both Gallup polls<ref>{{cite news |last=Gallup |first=George |date=April 5, 1964 |title=42% of GOP Rank and File on Lodge Bandwagon |url=https://www.newspapers.com/article/the-boston-globe-42-of-gop-rank-and-fil/156807833/ |access-date=2024-10-09 |work=] |pages=32 |via=]}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |last=Gallup |first=George |date=January 3, 1964 |title=Johnson Leads Nixon, 3 To 1 In Latest Presidential Poll |url=https://www.newspapers.com/article/the-montgomery-advertiser-johnson-leads/156807869/ |access-date=2024-10-09 |work=The Montgomery Advertiser |pages=3 |via=]}}</ref> and members of the press.<ref>{{cite news|date=March 12, 1964|title=Goldwater Looks to California and Oregon Primaries as Crucial to His Chances...|work=]|url=https://www.nytimes.com/1964/03/12/archives/goldwater-looks-to-california-and-oregon-primaries-as-crucial-to.html|access-date=August 15, 2021}}</ref> He was even placed on a primary ballot as an active candidate by Oregon's secretary of state.<ref>{{cite news|date=May 16, 1964|title=ROCKEFELLER WINS OREGON PRIMARY, UPSETTING LODGE...|work=The New York Times|url=https://www.nytimes.com/1964/05/16/archives/rockefeller-wins-oregon-primary-upsetting-lodge-envoys-campaign.html|access-date=August 12, 2021}}</ref> As late as two months before the ], however, Nixon fulfilled his promise to remain out of the presidential nomination process and instead endorsed Arizona senator ], the eventual Republican nominee. When Goldwater won the nomination, Nixon was selected to introduce him at the convention. Nixon felt that Goldwater was unlikely to win, but campaigned for him loyally. In the ], Goldwater lost in a landslide to Johnson and Republicans experienced heavy losses in Congress and among state governors.{{sfn|Aitken|pp=321–322}}
====White House Counsel====
* ] - White House Counsel
* ] - White House Special Counsel


Nixon was one of the few leading Republicans not blamed for the disastrous results, and he sought to build on that in the ] in which he campaigned for many Republicans and sought to regain seats lost in the Johnson landslide. Nixon was credited with helping Republicans win major electoral gains that year.{{sfn|Aitken|pp=323–326}}
====Communications Office====
* ] - Director of White House Communications
* ] - Communications Director for the Executive Branch


In 1967, Nixon was approached by an associate at his firm in ] about a case involving the press and perceived invasion of privacy. Garment suggested Nixon to argue on behalf of the Hill family in '']'' at the ]. Nixon studied strenuously in the months prior to the oral argument before the Court. While the final decision was in favor of Time Inc., Nixon was encouraged by the praise he received for his argument. It was the first and only case he argued in front of the Supreme Court.<ref>{{cite news|date=October 6, 1988|title=Cover-Up and Privacy in Nixon vs. ABC|work=]|url=https://www.nytimes.com/1989/10/06/opinion/l-cover-up-and-privacy-in-nixon-vs-abc-081489.html|access-date=August 23, 2024}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Barbas |first=Samantha |date=2017 |title=Richard Nixon at the Supreme Court |url=https://www.oah.org/process/richard-nixon-supreme-court/ |access-date=2024-09-23 |website=Process |publisher=]}}</ref>
====Press Secretary====
* ] - White House Press Secretary (1969 - 1974), Assistant to the President (1974)


== 1968 presidential campaign ==
====Speech Writers====
{{Main|Richard Nixon 1968 presidential campaign}}
* Aram Bakshian, Jr - speech writer
{{See also|1968 Republican Party presidential primaries|1968 United States presidential election}}
* ] - speech writer
] meet at the ] prior to Nixon's nomination in July 1968]]
* ] - speech writer
], July 1968]]
* Lee Heubner - special assistant to the president and associate director, White House writing and research staff
] results; the popular vote split between Nixon and Democrat ] was less than one percentage point.]]
* Jim Keogh - speech writer
At the end of 1967, Nixon told his family he planned to run for president a second time. Pat Nixon did not always enjoy public life,{{sfn|Parmet|p=502}} being embarrassed, for example, by the need to reveal how little the family owned in the Checkers speech.{{sfn|Morris|pp=410–411}} She still managed to be supportive of her husband's ambitions. Nixon believed that with the Democrats torn over the issue of the ], a Republican had a good chance of winning, although he expected the election to be as close as in 1960.{{sfn|Parmet|p=502}}
* ] - speech writer
* Ray Price - speech writer
* ] - speech writer
* ] - speech writer


An exceptionally tumultuous ] season began as the ] was launched in January 1968. President Johnson ] in March, after an unexpectedly poor showing in the New Hampshire primary. In June, Senator ], a Democratic candidate, ] just moments after his victory in the California primary. On the Republican side, Nixon's main opposition was Michigan governor ], though New York governor ] and California governor ] each hoped to be nominated in a ]. Nixon secured the nomination on the first ballot.{{sfn|Parmet|pp=503–508}} He was able to secure the nomination to the support of many Southern delegates, after he and his subordinates made concessions to ] and ].<ref>{{cite book |last=Perlstein |first=Rick |author-link=Rick Perlstein |date=2008 |title=Nixonland: The Rise of a President and the Fracturing of America |url= |location=New York |publisher=] |pages=295–303 |isbn=978-0-7432-4302-5}}</ref> He selected Maryland governor ] as his running mate, a choice which Nixon believed would unite the party, appealing both to Northern moderates and to Southerners disaffected with the Democrats.{{sfn|Parmet|p=509}}
====Others====
* ] - Solicitor General
* ]
* ]
* ] - "Plumber"
* ] - "Plumber"
* ]
* ] - assistant to ]
* ] - ]
* ] - Deputy Attorney General


Nixon's Democratic opponent in the general election was Vice President ], who was nominated at ] marked ].{{sfn|Nixon Library, President}} Throughout the campaign, Nixon portrayed himself as a figure of stability during this period of national unrest and upheaval.{{sfn|Nixon Library, President}} He appealed to what he later called the "]" of ] Americans who disliked the ] and the ] demonstrators. Agnew became an increasingly vocal critic of these groups, solidifying Nixon's position with the right.{{sfn|Morrow|1996-09-30}}
===Supreme Court appointments===
Nixon appointed the following Justices to the ]:


Nixon waged a prominent television advertising campaign, meeting with supporters in front of cameras.{{sfn|Black|pp=513–514}} He stressed that the crime rate was too high, and attacked what he perceived as a surrender of the United States' nuclear superiority by the Democrats.{{sfn|Black|p=550}} Nixon promised "]" in the Vietnam War and proclaimed that "new leadership will end the war and win the peace in the Pacific".{{sfn|Schulzinger|p=413}} He did not give specifics of how he hoped to end the war, resulting in media intimations that he must have a "secret plan".{{sfn|Schulzinger|p=413}} His slogan of "Nixon's the One" proved to be effective.{{sfn|Black|pp=513–514}}
*''']''' (]) &ndash; ]
*''']''' &ndash; ]
*''']''' &ndash; ]
*''']''' &ndash; ]


Johnson's negotiators hoped to reach a truce in Vietnam, or at least a cessation of bombings. On October 22, 1968, candidate Nixon received information that Johnson was preparing a so-called "]", abandoning three non-negotiable conditions for a bombing halt, to help elect Humphrey in the last days of the campaign.<ref name=Monkey-Wrench>{{cite web|url=https://www.nixonfoundation.org/2017/06/misunderstanding-a-monkey-wrench/|title=Misunderstanding a Monkey Wrench|website=Richard Nixon Foundation|access-date=November 12, 2017|date=June 2, 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170606192751/https://www.nixonfoundation.org/2017/06/misunderstanding-a-monkey-wrench/|archive-date=June 6, 2017|url-status=live}}</ref> Whether the Nixon campaign interfered with negotiations between the Johnson administration and the South Vietnamese by engaging ], a fundraiser for the Republican party, remains a controversy.<ref name=Monkey-Wrench/> It is not clear whether the government of South Vietnam needed encouragement to opt out of a peace process they considered disadvantageous.<ref name=New-York-Times-Peter-Baker-January-2-2017> {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170307110433/https://www.nytimes.com/2017/01/02/us/politics/nixon-tried-to-spoil-johnsons-vietnam-peace-talks-in-68-notes-show.html?_r=0 |date=March 7, 2017}}, ''The New York Times'', Politics Section, Peter Baker, January 2, 2017. See also {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170205221138/https://www.nytimes.com/interactive/2016/12/31/opinion/sunday/haldeman-notes.html |date=February 5, 2017}}, ''The New York Times'', December 31, 2016, which reprints four pages of Haldeman's notes.</ref>
Nixon also made the following unsuccessful Supreme Court nominations:


In a three-way race between Nixon, Humphrey, and ] candidate ], Nixon defeated Humphrey by only 500,000 votes, a margin almost as close as in 1960, with both elections seeing a gap of less than one percentage point of the popular vote. However, Nixon earned 301 electoral votes to 191 for Humphrey and 46 for Wallace, a majority.{{sfn|Nixon Library, President}}{{sfn|Black|p=558}} He became the first non-incumbent vice president to be elected president.<ref name="Azari">{{Cite news |last=Azari |first=Julia |date=August 20, 2020 |title=Biden Had To Fight For The Presidential Nomination. But Most VPs Have To. |work=FiveThirtyEight |url=https://fivethirtyeight.com/features/biden-had-to-fight-for-the-presidential-nomination-but-most-vps-have-to/}}</ref> In his victory speech, Nixon pledged that his administration would try to ].{{sfn|Evans & Novak|pp=33–34}} Nixon said: "I have received a very gracious message from the Vice President, congratulating me for winning the election. I congratulated him for his gallant and courageous fight against great odds. I also told him that I know exactly how he felt. I know how it feels to ]."{{sfn|UPI 1968 in Review}}
* ] - rejected by the ]
* ] - rejected by the ]
* ] - passed over in favor of ] after the ] found Friday "unqualified"
* ] - passed over in favor of ] after the ] found Lillie "unqualified"


== Presidency (1969–1974) ==
===Watergate===
{{Main|Presidency of Richard Nixon}}{{for timeline|Timeline of the Richard Nixon presidency}}
{{main|Watergate scandal}}
]. The new first lady, Pat, holds the family Bible.]]
]
] ]]]


Nixon ] as ] on January 20, 1969, sworn in by his onetime political rival, ] ]. Pat Nixon held the family Bibles open at ] 2:4, which reads, "They shall beat their swords into plowshares, and their spears into pruning hooks." In his inaugural address, which received almost uniformly positive reviews, Nixon remarked that "the greatest honor history can bestow is the title of peacemaker"{{sfn|Black|pp=567–568}}—a phrase that found a place on his gravestone.{{sfn|Frick|p=189}} He spoke about turning partisan politics into a new age of unity:
In October 1972, '']'' reported the ] had determined Nixon aides had spied on and sabotaged numerous Democratic presidential candidates as a part of the operations that led to the infamous ]. During the campaign five burglars were arrested on ], ], in the ] headquarters at the ] office complex. They were subsequently linked to the ]. This became one of a series of major scandals involving the ] (known as CRP but referred to by outsiders as CREEP), including the White House ] and assorted "]." The ensuing Watergate scandal exposed the Nixon administration's rampant corruption, illegality, and deceit.
{{blockquote|In these difficult years, America has suffered from a fever of words; from inflated rhetoric that promises more than it can deliver; from angry rhetoric that fans discontents into hatreds; from bombastic rhetoric that postures instead of persuading. We cannot learn from one another until we stop shouting at one another, until we speak quietly enough so that our words can be heard as well as our voices.{{sfn|UPI 1969 in Review}}
}}


=== Foreign policy ===
Nixon himself downplayed the scandal as mere politics, but when his aides resigned in disgrace, Nixon's role in ordering an illegal cover-up came to light in the press, courts, and congressional investigations. Nixon evaded taxes, accepted illicit ]s, ordered secret bombings, and harassed opponents with ], ]s, and break-ins. His supporters noted that the abuses of the Nixon presidency were but a logical extension of partisan abuses by Presidents Franklin Roosevelt, Kennedy, and Johnson such as use of the ] against political opponents. Unlike the tape recordings by those Presidents, his secret recordings of ] conversations were revealed and ]ed and showed details of his complicity in the cover-up. Nixon was named by the grand jury investigating Watergate as "an unindicted co-conspirator" in the ].


{{Main|Foreign policy of the Richard Nixon administration}}
He lost support from some in his own party as well as much popular support after what became known as the ] of ], ], in which he ordered ], the ] in the Watergate case, to be fired, as well as firing several of his own subordinates who objected to this move. The ] controlled by Democrats opened formal and public ] hearings against Nixon on ], ]. Despite his efforts, one of the secret recordings, known as the "smoking gun" tape, was released on ], ], and revealed that Nixon authorized hush money to Watergate burglar ], and also revealed that Nixon ordered the CIA to tell the FBI to stop investigating certain topics because of "the Bay of Pigs thing". Such an order was later withdrawn or never carried out. In light of his loss of political support and the near certainty of both his impeachment by the House of Representatives and his probable conviction by the ], he resigned on ], ], after addressing the nation on television the previous evening. {{Audio|Nixon_Resign.ogg|listen}} He never admitted criminal wrongdoing, although he later conceded errors of judgment.


==== China ====
On ] ], a blanket pardon from President ], who served as Nixon's second ], effectively ended any possibility of indictment. The pardon was highly controversial and Nixon's critics claimed that the blanket pardon was ] for his resignation. No evidence of this "]" has ever been proven, and many modern historians dismiss any claims of overt collusion between the two men concerning the pardon. The pardon hurt Ford politically, and it was one of the major reasons cited for Ford's defeat in the election of 1976.
{{Main|1972 visit by Richard Nixon to China}}
{{multiple image
| direction = vertical
| align = right
| image1 = Nixon shakes hands with Chou En-lai.jpg
| caption1 = President Nixon shakes hands with Chinese Premier ] upon arriving in Beijing, 1972
| image2 = Nixon and Zhou toast.jpg
| caption2 = Nixon and Zhou Enlai toast during Nixon's 1972 visit to China
}}


Nixon laid the groundwork for his overture to China before he became president, writing in '']'' a year before his election: "There is no place on this small planet for a billion of its potentially most able people to live in angry isolation."{{sfn|Miller Center}} Among the reasons that Nixon sought to improve relations with China was in the hope of weakening the Soviet Union and decreasing China's support to the North in the Vietnam War.<ref name="Lampton23">{{Cite book |last=Lampton |first=David M. |title=Living U.S.-China relations: From Cold War to Cold War |date=2024 |publisher=] |isbn=978-1-5381-8725-8 |location=Lanham, MD |page=23 |author-link=David M. Lampton}}</ref> Nixon ultimately used the idea of gaining leverage against the Soviet Union through relations with China to obtain the support of key conservative figures including Barry Goldwater and Ronald Reagan.<ref name=":02">{{Cite book |last=Minami |first=Kazushi |title=People's Diplomacy: How Americans and Chinese Transformed US-China Relations during the Cold War |date=2024 |publisher=] |isbn=9781501774157 |location=Ithaca, NY |pages=38}}</ref>
==Later years and death==
<!-- Image with unknown copyright status removed: ], ]]] -->


Assisting him in pursuing relations with China was ], Nixon's ] and future ]. They collaborated closely, bypassing Cabinet officials. With relations between the Soviet Union and China at a nadir—] took place during Nixon's first year in office—Nixon sent private word to the Chinese that he desired closer relations. A breakthrough came in early 1971, when ] (CCP) ] ] invited a team of American table tennis players ]. Nixon followed up by sending Kissinger to China for clandestine meetings with Chinese officials.{{sfn|Miller Center}} On July 15, 1971, with announcements from Washington and Beijing, it was learned that the President would visit China the following February.{{sfn|Ambrose|1989|p=453}} The secrecy had allowed both sets of leaders time to prepare the political climate in their countries for the visit.{{r|Goh-Small}}
In his later years Nixon worked to rehabilitate his public image, and he enjoyed considerably more success than could have been anticipated at the time of his resignation. He gained great respect as an elder statesman in the area of foreign affairs, being consulted by both Democratic and Republican successors to the Presidency.


In February 1972, Nixon and his wife traveled to China after Kissinger briefed Nixon for over 40 hours in preparation.{{sfn|Black|p=778}} Upon touching down, the President and First Lady emerged from ] and were greeted by Chinese Premier ]. Nixon made a point of shaking Zhou's hand, something which then-secretary of state ] had refused to do in 1954 when the two met in Geneva.{{sfn|PBS, The Nixon Visit}} More than a hundred television journalists accompanied the president. On Nixon's orders, television was strongly favored over printed publications, as Nixon felt that the medium would capture the visit much better than print. It also gave him the opportunity to snub the print journalists he despised.{{sfn|PBS, The Nixon Visit}}
Further tape releases, however, removed any doubt of Nixon's involvement both in the Watergate cover-up and also the illegal campaign finances and intrusive government surveillance that were at the heart of the scandal.


] and Nixon}}]]
Nixon wrote many books after his departure from politics, including his memoirs.


Nixon and Kissinger immediately met for an hour with CCP Chairman ] and Premier Zhou at Mao's official private residence, where they discussed a range of issues.{{sfn|Black|pp=780–782}} Mao later told his doctor that he had been impressed by Nixon's forthrightness, unlike the leftists and the Soviets.{{sfn|Black|pp=780–782}} He said he was suspicious of Kissinger,{{sfn|Black|pp=780–782}} though the National Security Advisor referred to their meeting as his "encounter with history".{{sfn|PBS, The Nixon Visit}} A formal banquet welcoming the presidential party was given that evening in the ]. The following day, Nixon met with Zhou; the ] following this meeting recognized Taiwan as a part of China and looked forward to a peaceful solution to the problem of reunification.{{sfn|Ambrose|1989|p=516}} When not in meetings, Nixon toured architectural wonders, including the ], the ], and the ].{{sfn|PBS, The Nixon Visit}} Americans took their first glance into everyday Chinese life through the cameras that accompanied Pat Nixon, who toured the city of Beijing and visited communes, schools, factories, and hospitals.{{sfn|PBS, The Nixon Visit}}
On ] ], Nixon, 81, suffered a major ] at his home in ], and died four days later on ]. He was buried beside his wife ] (who had died ten months earlier, on ], ], of ]) on the grounds of the ] in ].


The visit ushered in a new era of ].{{sfn|Nixon Library, President}} Fearing the possibility of a US–China alliance, the Soviet Union yielded to pressure for ] with the United States.{{sfn|Dallek|p=300}} This was one component of ].<ref>{{cite web|title=Foreign Relations of the United States, 1969-1976, Volume I Foundations of Foreign Policy, 1969-1972|url=https://2001-2009.state.gov/r/pa/ho/frus/nixon/i/21100.htm|website=2001-2009.state.gov}}</ref>
President ], former secretary of state ], Senate Majority Leader ] and California Republican Governor ] spoke at the ] funeral. Also in attendance were former Presidents ], ], ], ] and their respective first ladies. Nixon was survived by his two daughters, along with his four grandchildren.


==== Vietnam War ====
The ] contains only Nixon's pre- and post-presidential papers, because his presidential papers have been retained as government evidence. Nixon's attempts to protect his papers and gain tax advantages from them had been one of the important themes of the Watergate affair. Because of ], the library is privately funded and does not, like the other ], receive support from the ].
{{Main|Vietnam War|Vietnamization|Role of the United States in the Vietnam War}}
]


When Nixon took office, about 300 American soldiers were dying each week in Vietnam,<ref>{{cite web | url = http://www.americanwarlibrary.com/vietnam/vwc24.htm | title = Vietnam War Deaths and Casualties By Month | access-date = June 22, 2012 | publisher = The American War Library | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20131204020044/http://www.americanwarlibrary.com/vietnam/vwc24.htm | archive-date = December 4, 2013 | url-status = live }}</ref> and the war was widely unpopular in the United States, the subject of ongoing violent protests. The Johnson administration had offered to suspend bombing unconditionally in exchange for negotiations, but to no avail. According to Walter Isaacson, Nixon concluded soon after taking office that the Vietnam War could not be won, and he was determined to end it quickly.{{sfn|Drew|p=65}} He sought an arrangement that would permit American forces to withdraw while leaving South Vietnam secure against attack.{{sfn|Black|p=569}}
==Legacy==
], both liberal and conservative, rank him near the bottom of the list because of the scandals, but most agree that Nixon presents a special problem because his foreign policy and domestic policy successes stands in dramatic contradiction to the corruption of his top aides and Nixon himself. Political scientist Walter Dean Burnham noted the "dichotomous or schizoid profiles. On some very important dimensions both Wilson and L.B. Johnson were outright failures in my view; while on others they rank very high indeed. Similarly with Nixon." Historian Alan Brinkley said: "There are presidents who could be considered both failures and great or near great (for example, Wilson, Johnson, Nixon)." James MacGregor Burns observed of Nixon, "How can one evaluate such an idiosyncratic president, so brilliant and so morally lacking?" <ref>* Skidmore, Max J. "Ranking and Evaluating Presidents: The Case of Theodore Roosevelt" ''White House Studies''. Volume: 1. Issue: 4. 2001. pp 495+.</ref>


Nixon approved a secret ] carpet bombing campaign of North Vietnamese and ] positions in Cambodia beginning in March 1969 and code-named ], without the consent of Cambodian leader ].{{sfn|Black|p=591}}<ref name="Kiernan"/><ref>{{cite book|last=Clymer|first=Kenton|title=The United States and Cambodia, 1969–2000: A Troubled Relationship|publisher=]|year=2013|isbn=978-1-134-34156-6|pages=14–16}}</ref> In mid-1969, Nixon began efforts to negotiate peace with the North Vietnamese, sending a personal letter to their leaders, and peace talks began in Paris. Initial talks did not result in an agreement,{{sfn|Ambrose|1989|pp=281–283}} and in May 1969 he publicly proposed to withdraw all American troops from South Vietnam provided North Vietnam did so, and suggesting South Vietnam hold internationally supervised elections with ] participation.<ref> {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304043247/http://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/ws/index.php?pid=2047&st=&st1= |date=March 4, 2016 }} May 14, 1969</ref>
==Media==
{{multi-listen start}}
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{{multi-listen item |
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{{Commonscat|Richard Nixon}}


]
==Popular culture==
Nixon's career was frequently dogged by Nixon's personality, and the public perception of it. Editorial cartoonists such as ] and comedians had fun exaggerating Nixon's appearance and mannerisms, to the point where the line between the human and the caricature version of him became increasingly blurred. He was often portrayed as a sullen loner, with unshaven jowls, slumped shoulders, and a furrowed, sweaty brow. He was also characterized as the epitome of a "square" and the personification of unpleasant adult authority.


In July 1969, Nixon visited ], where he met with his U.S. military commanders and President ]. Amid protests at home demanding an immediate pullout, he implemented a strategy of replacing American troops with ], known as "]".{{sfn|Nixon Library, President}} He soon instituted phased U.S. troop withdrawals,{{sfn|''Time''|1971-04-05}} but also authorized incursions into Laos, in part to interrupt the ] passing through Laos and Cambodia and used to supply North Vietnamese forces. In March 1970, at the explicit request of the Khmer Rouge and negotiated by ]'s then-second-in-command, ], North Vietnamese troops launched an offensive and overran much of Cambodia.<ref>{{cite book|first=Dmitry |last=Mosyakov |chapter=The Khmer Rouge and the Vietnamese Communists: A History of Their Relations as Told in the Soviet Archives |editor-first=Susan E. |editor-last=Cook |title=Genocide in Cambodia and Rwanda |series=Yale Genocide Studies Program Monograph Series |issue=1 |date=2004 |page=54ff |chapter-url=http://www.yale.edu/gsp/publications/Mosyakov.doc |quote=In April–May 1970, many North Vietnamese forces entered Cambodia in response to the call for help addressed to Vietnam not by Pol Pot, but by his deputy Nuon Chea. Nguyen Co Thach recalls: 'Nuon Chea has asked for help and we have liberated five provinces of Cambodia in ten days.' |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130309074636/http://www.yale.edu/gsp/publications/Mosyakov.doc |archive-date=March 9, 2013}}</ref> Nixon announced the ] on April 30, 1970, against North Vietnamese bases in the east of the country,{{sfn|AP/''St. Peterburg Independent''}} and further protests erupted against perceived expansion of the conflict, which resulted in Ohio National Guardsmen killing four unarmed students at ].<ref>{{cite book|last=Gitlin|first=Todd|title=]|publisher=Bantam Books|year=1987|isbn=978-0-553-37212-0|page=}}</ref> Nixon's responses to protesters included ] at the ] on May 9, 1970.{{r|Safire pp205–209}}{{sfn|UPI/''Beaver County Times''|1970-05-09}}{{sfn|Black|pp=675–676}} Nixon's campaign promise to curb the war, contrasted with the escalated bombing, led to claims that Nixon had a "]" on the issue.{{sfn|''Time''|1971-04-05}} It is estimated that between 50,000 and 150,000 people were killed during the ] between 1970 and 1973.<ref name="Kiernan">{{cite magazine|last1=Owen|first1=Taylor|last2=Kiernan|first2=Ben|title=Bombs Over Cambodia|magazine=The Walrus|date=October 2006|url=http://www.yale.edu/cgp/Walrus_CambodiaBombing_OCT06.pdf|pages=32–36|access-date=January 29, 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160420220434/http://www.yale.edu/cgp/Walrus_CambodiaBombing_OCT06.pdf|archive-date=April 20, 2016|url-status=live}} Kiernan and Owen later revised their estimate of 2.7 million tons of U.S. bombs dropped on Cambodia down to the previously accepted figure of roughly 500,000 tons: See {{cite web|authorlink1=Ben Kiernan|last1=Kiernan|first1=Ben|last2=Owen|first2=Taylor|url=http://apjjf.org/2015/13/16/Ben-Kiernan/4313.html|title=Making More Enemies than We Kill? Calculating U.S. Bomb Tonnages Dropped on Laos and Cambodia, and Weighing Their Implications|work=The Asia-Pacific Journal|date=April 26, 2015|access-date=November 15, 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150912002843/http://www.yale.edu/cgp/Walrus_CambodiaBombing_OCT06.pdf|archive-date=September 12, 2015|url-status=live}}</ref>
Nixon tried to shed these perceptions by staging ]s with young people and even cameo appearances on popular TV shows such as '']'' and '']'' (before he was President). He also frequently brandished the two-finger ] (alternately viewed as the "Victory sign" or "peace sign") using both hands, an act which became one of his best-known trademarks. Once the transcripts of the White House tapes were released, people were shocked at the amount of swearing and vicious comments about opponents that Nixon issued. This did not help the public perception and fed the comedians even more. Nixon's sense of being persecuted by his "enemies," his grandiose belief in his own moral and political excellence, and his commitment to utilize ruthless power at all costs led some experts to describe him as having a ] and ] personality. <ref> - Vamik D. Volkan, Norman Itzkowitz, and Andrew W. Dod, book review by Michael A. Ingall, accessed ] ]</ref> During the Watergate Scandal, Nixon's approval rating had fallen to 25%.
] in December 1970]]


In 1971, excerpts from the "]", which had been leaked by ], were published by '']'' and '']''. When news of the leak first appeared, Nixon was inclined to do nothing; the Papers, a history of United States' involvement in Vietnam, mostly concerned the lies of prior administrations and contained few real revelations. He was persuaded by Kissinger that the Papers were more harmful than they appeared, and the President tried to prevent publication, but the Supreme Court ] the newspapers.{{sfn|Ambrose|1989|pp=446–448}}
*The book and movie '']'' tell Woodward and Bernstein's story of the Watergate affair.
*Best-selling historian-author ] wrote a three-volume biography (''Nixon: The Education of a Politician 1913-1962'', ''Nixon: The Triumph of a Politician, 1962-1972'', ''Nixon: Ruin and Recovery 1973-1990'') considered the definitive work among many Nixon biographies. The detailed accounts were mostly favorably regarded by both liberal and conservative reviewers.
*Conservative author ] published a book in ] called ''It Didn't Start With Watergate''. The book points out that past presidents may have used ] and engaged in other activities that Nixon was accused of, but were never pursued by the press or the subject of impeachment hearings.
*] gives an insider account of the Watergate affair in '']''.
* ] also provides an insider's perspective in the books ''The Ends of Power'' and ''The Haldeman Diaries: Inside the Nixon White House''
* ], gives his version of the Watergate Scandal in his autobiography '']''.
*The movie '']'' directed by ].
*'']'' is an ] dealing with Nixon's visit there.
* The comedy ] tells the tale of the watergate scandal by saying that ] was two teenage girls. They choose the name because their older brother saw ] at the theater. They get in the ] since they are presidential dogwalkers.
* The ] movie '']'' starring ] as a salseman who become disillusioned by the ] and eventually decides to crash a plane into the White House in protest, killing the President. While not appearing as a character, Nixon (through television interviews and clips) is used to represent the American establishment and its use of ] to control the country.
* From ] to ], Nixon was portrayed on ] ] by ].
*Richard Nixon was elected president of the world in ] cartoon series ], claiming that the ] stated that ], and he is now just a head in a jar and was then using a robot body. Many other people are heads in jars on Futurama, but Nixon's is the one with the biggest role. He also appears in ] in flashbacks or on television. The actual text of the 22nd Amendment states that no ''person'' may run for President more than twice, or serve more than ten years as President.
*The ] offered a rare sympathetic look at Nixon during their song '']''
*Many have said that the character of ], as portrayed by ] on ], is based on Nixon. Besides the ] implications of working with the terrorists, Logan also asked assistant ] to "pray with me." This was a clear parallel to when Nixon asked ] to pray with him in the White House.
*The late folk singer ] changed his earlier song "Here's to the State of Mississippi", to "Here's to the State of Richard Nixon" in which the last line of every verse is "Here's to the land you torn out the heart of, Richard Nixon (Mississippi) find yourself another country to be part of". It is then met with large cheers.
*In issue #83 of the ]-published comic book, ''Green Lantern/Green Arrow'' (April/May 1971), ] and ] encountered a little girl with great psychic capabilities. Artist ] gave the little girl a strong resemblance to Nixon, whom Adams was not fond of.
*] character ] was named after Richard Milhous Nixon


As U.S. troop withdrawals continued, ] was phased out by 1973, and the armed forces became all-volunteer.{{sfn|Evans}} After years of fighting, the ] were signed at the beginning of 1973. The agreement implemented a cease fire and allowed for the withdrawal of remaining American troops without requiring withdrawal of the 160,000 ] regulars located in the South.{{sfn|Ambrose|1991|pp=53–55}} Once American combat support ended, there was a brief truce, before fighting resumed, and ].{{sfn|Ambrose|1991|p=473}}
==Trivia==
* The first Kennedy-Nixon debate took place on ] ], when Democratic Congressman ] selected freshman congressmen Nixon and ] to debate the ] at a public meeting.
* In 1952, Nixon became the first native of ] to appear on a major-party presidential ticket when he was chosen as ]'s running mate. (The same year, the Democratic Presidential nominee was ] Governor ], who was born in ]. The ] which nominated Stevenson took place after the ] which chose Nixon).
* On ] ], Vice-President Nixon and his family inaugurated the ], the first daily operating monorail in the western hemisphere.
* On ] ], ] (Richard's daughter) and ] (Dwight's grandson) were married.
* From ] ], when his predecessor ] died, until his resignation on ], ], Nixon was the only living current or former U.S. President.
* Nixon was an accomplished pianist, as was ].
* Nixon was the second U.S President to visit the Soviet Union (the first was President ] at the Yalta Conference in 1945).
* Nixon is one of only two men to have run on five ] for a major party (the other is ]) for Vice President in 1952 and 1956 and for the presidency in 1960,1968 and 1972. He was nominated as a resident of two different states: between his 1960 and 1968 presidential campaigns, he moved from California to ].
* Nixon was granted a ] by the short-lived ].
* Nixon was an avid ] and allegedly once bowled a ].
* Nixon was a knowledgeable sports fan, with a particular interest in football and baseball. During his presidency, he even had the odd habit of calling the losing team after the Super Bowl to offer his condolences and support.
* Nixon took a particular interest in the ]'s 1971 season. During the playoffs, he contacted ] to suggest he tell his ] team that Nixon designed a play for them. He did not actually design the play. Once the Redskins were eliminated, he began to root for the ]. He called Dolphins coach ] on January 3, 1972 to suggest the team use a quick slant pass in the ].
* Nixon was the first President to visit all 50 states.
* At the time John F. Kennedy was assassinated, Nixon was at a ] convention in ]. Nixon worked for a law firm that was in charge of the Pepsi account.
* Nixon played golf frequently, as did ], ], ] and ].
* Nixon's last public appearance was at a ] performance of ]. His granddaughter Jennie Eisenhower, great-granddaughter of ], played the role of ]. <ref> - Ruth Rovner, ''Main Line Times'', ] ]</ref>
* Nixon is mentioned twice in ]'s history themed song "]", as are many Presidents before and after him. The Watergate scandal is mentioned as well.


==== Latin American policy ====
{{See also|U.S. intervention in Chile#1973 coup|Operation Condor}}
] (to his right); motorcade in San Diego, California, September 1970]]


Nixon had been a firm supporter of Kennedy during the 1961 ] and 1962 ]. On taking office in 1969, he stepped up covert operations against Cuba and its president, ]. He maintained close relations with the Cuban-American exile community through his friend, ], who often suggested ways of irritating Castro. The Soviets and Cubans became concerned, fearing Nixon might attack Cuba and break the understanding between Kennedy and Khrushchev that ended the missile crisis. In August 1970, the Soviets asked Nixon to reaffirm the understanding, which he did, despite his hard line against Castro. The process was not completed before the Soviets began expanding their base at the Cuban port of ] in October 1970. A minor confrontation ensued, the Soviets stipulated they would not use Cienfuegos for submarines bearing ballistic missiles, and the final round of diplomatic notes were exchanged in November.{{sfn|Ambrose|1989|pp=379–383}}
==Quotations==
{{wikiquote}}
*"You don't have Nixon to kick around anymore. Because, gentlemen, this is my last press conference." (] after losing the race for Governor of ]).
*"This is the greatest week in the history of the world since the Creation, because as a result of what happened in this week, the world is bigger, infinitely." (concerning the ])
*"That sonofabitch stole it from me." (referring to his narrow ] defeat to ])


The election of Marxist candidate ] as ] in September 1970 spurred a vigorous campaign of covert opposition to him by Nixon and Kissinger.<ref name="The Pinochet File">{{cite book|last=Kornbluh|first=Peter|title=The Pinochet File: A Declassified Dossier on Atrocity and Accountability|year=2003|publisher=The New Press|location=New York|isbn=978-1-56584-936-5}}</ref>{{rp|25}} This began by trying to convince the Chilean congress to confirm ] as the winner of the election, and then messages to military officers in support of a coup.<ref name="The Pinochet File"/> Other support included strikes organized against Allende and funding for Allende opponents. It was even alleged that "Nixon personally authorized" $700,000 in covert funds to print anti-Allende messages in a prominent Chilean newspaper.<ref name="The Pinochet File"/>{{rp|93}} Following an extended period of social, political, and economic unrest, General ] assumed power in a violent ] on September 11, 1973; among the ].{{sfn|Black|p=921}}
===Foreign policy===
*"People react to fear, not love&mdash;they don't teach that in Sunday School, but it's true." (concerning fear and paranoia in the Cold War)
*"No event in American history is more misunderstood than the Vietnam War. It was misreported then, and it is misremembered now." (] looking back at the Vietnam War)
*"Publicly, we say one thing....Actually, we do another." (On his secret war in Cambodia even after it became public knowledge.) <!--Deadlink as of April 4, 2006. -->
*"North Vietnam cannot humiliate and defeat America - only Americans can do that."


===On race and religion=== ==== Soviet Union ====
]
* "But by God, they're exceptions. But Bob, generally speaking, you can't trust the bastards. They turn on us." (On ], to ]) <ref> - Timothy Noah, ''Slate'', ], ]</ref>
* "Jewish families are close, but there's this strange malignancy that seems to creep among them - radicalism."
* "You can never put, John, any person who is a Jew on a civil rights kind of case, or freedom of the press kind of case, and get even a ten percent chance.... Basically, who the hell are these people that stole the papers? It's too bad. I'm sorry. I was hoping one of them would be a gentile."
* "You know, it's a funny thing, every one of the bastards that are out for legalizing marijuana is Jewish. What the Christ is the matter with the Jews, Bob? What is the matter with them? I suppose it is because most of them are psychiatrists." 26th May 1971
* “What about the rich Jews? The IRS is full of Jews, Bob." 14th of September 1971
* "The Jews are irreligious, atheistic, immoral bunch of bastards." 1st of February 1972, Nixon telling ]
* “I have the greatest affection for them , but I know they're not going to make it for 500 years. They aren't. You know it, too. The Mexicans are a different cup of tea. They have a heritage. At the present time they steal, they're dishonest, but they do have some concept of family life. They don't live like a bunch of dogs, which the Negroes do live like."


Nixon used the improving international environment to address the topic of nuclear peace. Following the announcement of his visit to China, the Nixon administration concluded negotiations for him to visit the Soviet Union. The President and First Lady arrived in Moscow on May 22, 1972, and met with ], the ]; ], the ]; and ], the ] of the ], among other leading Soviet officials.{{sfn|BBC|1972-05-22}}
===On Watergate===
], ], ], ], and ] watched over Nixon's funeral in 1994. He was the first president to die since ] in the 70's while Nixon was still president]]


Nixon engaged in intense negotiations with Brezhnev.{{sfn|BBC|1972-05-22}} Out of the summit came agreements for increased trade and two landmark arms control treaties: ], the first comprehensive limitation pact signed by the two superpowers,{{sfn|Nixon Library, President}} and the ], which banned the development of systems designed to intercept incoming missiles. Nixon and Brezhnev proclaimed a new era of "peaceful coexistence". A banquet was held that evening at the ].{{sfn|BBC|1972-05-22}}
*"When you get in these people when you...get these people in, say: 'Look, the problem is that this will open the whole, the whole Bay of Pigs thing, and the President just feels that' ah, without going into the details... don't, don't lie to them to the extent to say there is no involvement, but just say this is sort of a comedy of errors, bizarre, without getting into it, 'the President believes that it is going to open the whole Bay of Pigs thing up again.' And, ah because these people are plugging for, for keeps and that they should call the FBI in and say that we wish for the country, don't go any further into this case, period!" The 'smoking gun tape' on ] ]. Nixon was telling Haldeman to tell the CIA to stop the FBI investigation, by telling the CIA that it would 'open the whole Bay of Pigs thing.' Haldeman did give Nixon's order to the CIA's Richard Helms, who exploded into a rage of fury when told, according to Haldeman. Haldeman would later write that Nixon used the expression 'the Bay of Pigs thing' when he was referring to the assassination of President John F. Kennedy.
*"I want to say this to the television audience. I made my mistakes, but in all of my years of public life, I have never profited, never profited from public service. I have earned every cent. And in all of my years of public life, I have never obstructed justice. And I think, too, that I can say that in my years of public life, that I welcome this kind of examination because people have got to know whether or not their President's a crook. Well, I'm not a crook. I've earned everything I've got." ] ] Televised press conference with 400 Associated Press Managing Editors at ], ], Nixon summarized his responses to journalists' questions regarding speculation and criticism of his ] and the Watergate scandal.
*"I don't give a shit what happens. I want you all to stonewall it, let them plead the ], cover up or anything else, if it'll save it, save this plan. That's the whole point. We're going to protect our people if we can." (to Haldeman, tapes ordered released for the trial of ], ] and ])
*"I recognize that this additional material I am now furnishing may further damage my case," (after the ordered release of the ] tapes ], ])
*"Well, when the President does it, that means that it's not illegal." (explaining his interpretation of Executive Privilege to interviewer ] on television, ] ]) <ref> - Landmark ] Cases, '']'', interview on ], ]</ref>
*"I was under medication when I made the decision not to burn the tapes."
*"Well, I screwed it all up real good, didn't I?"
*"The greatness comes not when things go always good for you, but the greatness comes and you are really tested, when you take some knocks, some disappointments, when sadness comes, because only if you have been in the deepest valley can you ever know how magnificent it is to be on the highest mountain... Always remember, others may hate you. Those who hate you don't win unless you hate them. And then you destroy yourself." Farewell to White House staff ] ].
*"I think that the ability of the American people to review all that there is to know about their President using a microscope is wonderful. Still, I think some people get a little carried away when they take out their ]s." (regarding the intense scrutiny which he was forced to endure.)


Nixon and Kissinger planned to link arms control to détente and to the resolution of other urgent problems through what Nixon called "]" David Tal argues:
===On peace===
*"Any nation that decides the only way to achieve peace is through peaceful means is a nation that will soon be a piece of another nation." (from his book ''No More Vietnams'')
*"The greatest honor history can bestow is the title of peacemaker." (From his 1969 inaugural, later used as Nixon's ])


{{blockquote|The linkage between strategic arms limitations and outstanding issues such as the Middle East, Berlin and, foremost, Vietnam thus became central to Nixon's and Kissinger's policy of détente. Through the employment of linkage, they hoped to change the nature and course of U.S. foreign policy, including U.S. nuclear disarmament and arms control policy, and to separate them from those practiced by Nixon's predecessors. They also intended, through linkage, to make U.S. arms control policy part of détente{{nbsp}}... His policy of linkage had in fact failed. It failed mainly because it was based on flawed assumptions and false premises, the foremost of which was that the Soviet Union wanted strategic arms limitation agreement much more than the United States did.<ref>David Tal, " 'Absolutes' and 'Stages' in the Making and Application of Nixon's SALT Policy." ''Diplomatic History'' 37.5 (2013): 1090–1116, quoting pp 1091, 1092. Nixon himself later wrote, "e decided to link progress in such areas of Soviet concern as strategic arms limitation and increased trade with progress in areas that were important to us—Vietnam, the Mideast, and Berlin. This concept became known as linkage." {{cite book|author=Richard Nixon|title=RN: The Memoirs of Richard Nixon|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=UyfcLYY9F0gC&pg=RA1-PT388|year=1978|page=346|publisher=Simon and Schuster|isbn=978-1-4767-3183-4}}</ref>}}
===Miscellaneous===
*"Sock it to ''me''?" (cameo on the ] comedy series '']'' during the 1968 election)
*"I don't know a lot about politics, but I do know a lot about ]."
*"Solutions are not the answer."
*"I would have made a good ]."
*"Let me say this about that."
*"cookie pushers and faggots in striped pants", referring to the ] and the State Department ].
*"] goes after Communists with a shotgun; I go after them with a rifle."
*"We are all ] now."
*"Bunch of big 'ol flag-mangling traitors," referring to the Democratic Party after the nomination of ].
*"In all the decisions I have made in my public life, I have always tried to do what was best for the nation. I have never been a quitter."
*"Perhaps it's just as well that I lost in '60, because when those Commie bastards tried to put their missiles on ], I'd have probably pushed the button and I sincerely mean that."
*"Any man who has had power, has been a lonely man."
*"Jesus Christ! That old cocksucker!!" (supposedly at the death of J. Edgar Hoover.)


Seeking to foster better relations with the United States, China and the Soviet Union both cut back on their diplomatic support for North Vietnam and advised Hanoi to come to terms militarily.{{sfn|Gaddis|pp=294, 299}} Nixon later described his strategy:
==See also==
{{blockquote|I had long believed that an indispensable element of any successful peace initiative in Vietnam was to enlist, if possible, the help of the Soviets and the Chinese. Though rapprochement with China and détente with the Soviet Union were ends in themselves, I also considered them possible means to hasten the end of the war. At worst, Hanoi was bound to feel less confident if Washington was dealing with Moscow and Beijing. At best, if the two major Communist powers decided that they had bigger fish to fry, Hanoi would be pressured into negotiating a settlement we could accept.{{sfn|Nixon|1985|pp=105–106}}
{{main|:Category:Richard Nixon}}
}}
* ]
In 1973, Nixon encouraged the ] to finance in part a trade deal with the Soviet Union in which ]'s ] would export ] from Florida to the Soviet Union, and import Soviet ]. The deal, valued at $20 billion over 20 years, involved the construction of two major Soviet port facilities at ] and ],<ref>{{cite news|last=Smith|first=Hedrick|date=June 29, 1974|title=OCCIDENTAL SIGNS DEAL WITH SOVIET|language=en-US|work=The New York Times|url=https://www.nytimes.com/1974/06/29/archives/occidental-signs-deal-with-soviet-4-contracts-are-activated-in-a.html|access-date=December 6, 2021|issn=0362-4331}}</ref><ref name=":0">{{cite news|date=November 29, 1981|title=THE RIDDLE OF ARMAND HAMMER|language=en-US|work=The New York Times|url=https://www.nytimes.com/1981/11/29/magazine/the-riddle-of-armand-hammer.html|access-date=December 6, 2021|issn=0362-4331}}</ref><ref name="Rich">{{cite news|last=Rich|first=Spencer|date=October 4, 1979|title=Soviets Dumping Ammonia, ITC Says|language=en-US|newspaper=Washington Post|url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/archive/business/1979/10/04/soviets-dumping-ammonia-itc-says/4d53c7fa-6c89-470b-b8f0-5aced1b92513/|access-date=December 7, 2021|issn=0190-8286}}</ref> and a pipeline connecting four ammonia plants in the greater ] region to the port at Odessa.<ref name="Rich"/> In 1973, Nixon announced his administration was committed to seeking ] trade status with the USSR,<ref>{{cite news|date=October 5, 1973|title=NIXON IN APPEAL ON SOVIET TRADE|language=en-US|work=The New York Times|url=https://www.nytimes.com/1973/10/05/archives/nixon-in-appeal-on-soviet-trade-urges-congress-to-include.html|access-date=December 7, 2021|issn=0362-4331}}</ref> which was challenged by Congress in the ].<ref>{{cite book|last=Herring|first=George C.|url=https://archive.org/details/fromcolonytosupe00herr|title=From Colony to Superpower; U.S. Foreign Relations Since 1776|date=2008|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=978-0-19-507822-0|pages=804}}</ref>
* ]

* ]
During the previous two years, Nixon had made considerable progress in U.S.–Soviet relations, and he embarked on a second trip to the Soviet Union in 1974.{{sfn|Black|p=963}} He arrived in Moscow on June 27 to a welcome ceremony, cheering crowds, and a state dinner at the ] that evening.{{sfn|Black|p=963}} Nixon and Brezhnev met in ], where they discussed a proposed mutual defense pact, détente, and ]s. Nixon considered proposing a comprehensive test-ban treaty, but he felt he would not have time to complete it during his presidency.{{sfn|Black|p=963}} There were no significant breakthroughs in these negotiations.{{sfn|Black|p=963}}
* ]

* ]
==== Middle Eastern policy ====
* ]
{{anchor|Middle East policy}}
* ] in Yorba Linda, California
], June 1974]]
] of Egypt, June 1974]]

As part of the ], the U.S. avoided giving direct combat assistance to its allies and instead gave them assistance to defend themselves. During the Nixon administration, the U.S. greatly increased arms sales to the Middle East, particularly Israel, Iran and Saudi Arabia.{{r|Hanhimäki-Small}} The Nixon administration strongly supported Israel, an American ally in the Middle East, but the support was not unconditional. Nixon believed Israel should make peace with its Arab neighbors and that the U.S. should encourage it. The president believed that—except during the ]—the U.S. had failed to intervene with Israel, and should use the leverage of the large U.S. military aid to Israel to urge the parties to the negotiating table. The Arab-Israeli conflict was not a major focus of Nixon's attention during his first term—for one thing, he felt that no matter what he did, American Jews would oppose his reelection.{{efn|name=Jewish vote}}

On October 6, 1973, an Arab coalition led by Egypt and Syria, supported with arms and materiel by the Soviet Union, attacked Israel in the ]. Israel suffered heavy losses and Nixon ordered an airlift to resupply Israeli losses, cutting through inter-departmental squabbles and bureaucracy and taking personal responsibility for any response by Arab nations. More than a week later, by the time the U.S. and Soviet Union began ], Israel had penetrated deep into enemy territory. The truce negotiations rapidly escalated into a superpower crisis; when Israel gained the upper hand, Egyptian president Sadat requested a joint U.S.–USSR peacekeeping mission, which the U.S. refused. When Soviet Premier Brezhnev threatened to unilaterally enforce any peacekeeping mission militarily, Nixon ordered the U.S. military to ]3,<ref name="fas-defcon">{{cite web|url=https://fas.org/nuke/guide/usa/c3i/defcon.htm|title=DEFCON DEFense CONdition|work=fas.org|access-date=June 17, 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150617123557/https://fas.org/nuke/guide/usa/c3i/defcon.htm|archive-date=June 17, 2015|url-status=live}}</ref> placing all U.S. military personnel and bases on alert for nuclear war. This was the closest the world had come to nuclear war since the Cuban Missile Crisis. Brezhnev backed down as a result of Nixon's actions.{{sfn|Nixon|1978|pp=938–940}}

Because Israel's victory was largely due to U.S. support, the Arab OPEC nations retaliated by refusing to sell crude oil to the U.S., resulting in the ].{{sfn|Black|pp=923–928}} The embargo caused gasoline shortages and rationing in the United States in late 1973, but was eventually ended by the oil-producing nations as peace in the Middle East took hold.{{sfn|Ambrose|1991|p=311}}

After the war, and under Nixon's presidency, the U.S. reestablished relations with Egypt for the first time since 1967. Nixon used the Middle East crisis to restart ]; he wrote in a confidential memo to Kissinger on October 20:
<blockquote>I believe that, beyond a doubt, we are now facing the best opportunity we have had in 15 years to build a lasting peace in the Middle East. I am convinced history will hold us responsible if we let this opportunity slip by&nbsp;... I now consider a permanent Middle East settlement to be the most important final goal to which we must devote ourselves.<ref>Tyler, Patrick (2010), p. 161</ref></blockquote>

Nixon made one of his final international visits as president to the Middle East in June 1974, and became the first president to visit Israel.{{sfn|Black|pp=951–952, 959}}

==== South Asia policy ====
] at the White House, October 1970]]
Since 1960s, the United States perceived Pakistan as an integral bulwark against global communism in the Cold War. Nixon was fond of Pakistani president ] and according to American journalist ], "Nixon liked very few people, but he did like General Agha Muhammad Yahya Khan." {{Sfn|Bass|2013|p=7}}

During the ], the United States stood by Pakistan against Bengali nationalists in terms of diplomacy and military threats.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Jarrod Hayes |year=2012 |title=Securitization, social identity, and democratic security: Nixon, India, and the ties that bind |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/241754960 |journal=International Organization |volume=66 |issue=1 |pages=63–93 |doi=10.1017/S0020818311000324 |jstor=41428946 |s2cid=145504278}}</ref> Nixon urged President Khan multiple times to exercise restraint,{{Sfn|Black|2007|p=751}} fearing an Indian invasion of Pakistan that would lead to Indian domination of ] and strengthen the position of the Soviet Union.<ref name="Time_19720117">{{cite magazine |date=17 January 1972 |title=The Kissinger Tilt |url=http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,877618-2,00.html |url-access=subscription |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121106061724/http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,877618-2,00.html |archive-date=6 November 2012 |access-date=30 September 2008 |magazine=Time |page=17}}</ref> In the wake of the ], Nixon issued a statement blaming Pakistan for starting the conflict and blaming India for escalating it while personally favoring a ceasefire.{{Sfn|Black|2007|p=753}} The United States used the threat of an aid cut-off to force Pakistan to back down, while its continued military aid to Islamabad prevented India from launching incursions deeper into the country. Nixon denied getting involved in the situation, saying that it was an internal matter of Pakistan, but when Pakistan's defeat seemed certain, he sent the aircraft carrier ] to the ].<ref>{{cite news |last=Scott |first=Paul |date=21 December 1971 |title=Naval 'Show of Force' By Nixon Meant as Blunt Warning to India |url=https://news.google.com/newspapers?id=HUU0AAAAIBAJ&pg=5099,2016461 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220602154916/https://news.google.com/newspapers?id=HUU0AAAAIBAJ&pg=5099,2016461 |archive-date=2 June 2022 |access-date=8 November 2020 |work=Bangor Daily News}}</ref>

=== Domestic policy ===
==== Economy ====
{{further|Nixon shock|1970s energy crisis}}
]' 1969 Opening Day with team owner ] (arms folded) and Baseball Commissioner ] (hand on mouth). Nixon's ], Major ], sits behind them in uniform]]
At the time Nixon took office in 1969, inflation was at 4.7&nbsp;percent—its highest rate since the Korean War. The ] had been enacted under Johnson, which, together with the Vietnam War costs, was causing large budget deficits. Unemployment was low, but interest rates were at their highest in a century.{{sfn|Ambrose|1989|pp=225–226}} Nixon's major economic goal was to reduce inflation; the most obvious means of doing so was to end the war.{{sfn|Ambrose|1989|pp=225–226}} This could not be accomplished overnight, and the U.S. economy continued to struggle through 1970, contributing to a lackluster Republican performance in the midterm congressional elections (Democrats controlled both Houses of Congress throughout Nixon's presidency).{{sfn|Ambrose|1989|pp=431–432}} According to political economist Nigel Bowles in his 2011 study of Nixon's economic record, the new president did little to alter Johnson's policies through the first year of his presidency.{{r|Bowles-Small}}

Nixon was far more interested in foreign affairs than domestic policies, but he believed that voters tend to focus on their own financial condition and that economic conditions were a threat to his reelection. As part of his "]" views, he proposed grants to the states, but these proposals were for the most part lost in the congressional budget process. However, Nixon gained political credit for advocating them.{{sfn|Ambrose|1989|pp=431–432}} In 1970, Congress had granted the president the power to impose wage and price freezes, though the Democratic majorities, knowing Nixon had opposed such controls throughout his career, did not expect Nixon to actually use the authority.{{r|Bowles-Small}} With inflation unresolved by August 1971, and an election year looming, Nixon convened a summit of his economic advisers at ]. Nixon's options were to limit fiscal and monetary expansionist policies that reduced unemployment or end the dollar's fixed exchange rate; Nixon's dilemma has been cited as an example of the ] in international economics.<ref name=":1">{{cite book|last=Oatley|first=Thomas|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=4GJoDwAAQBAJ|title=International Political Economy: Sixth Edition|date=2019|publisher=Routledge|isbn=978-1-351-03464-7|pages=351–352}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last=Gowa|first=Joanne|title=Closing the Gold Window|date=1983|url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/10.7591/j.ctvr7f40n|publisher=Cornell University Press |jstor=10.7591/j.ctvr7f40n|isbn=978-0-8014-1622-4}}</ref> He then announced temporary wage and price controls, allowed the dollar to float against other currencies, and ended the convertibility of the dollar into gold.{{sfn|Aitken|pp=399–400}} Bowles points out,
<blockquote>by identifying himself with a policy whose purpose was inflation's defeat, Nixon made it difficult for Democratic opponents&nbsp;... to criticize him. His opponents could offer no alternative policy that was either plausible or believable since the one they favored was one they had designed but which the president had appropriated for himself.{{r|Bowles-Small}}</blockquote>

Nixon's policies dampened inflation through 1972, although their aftereffects contributed to inflation during his second term and into the Ford administration.{{sfn|Aitken|pp=399–400}} Nixon's decision to end the gold standard in the United States led to the collapse of the ]. According to Thomas Oatley, "the Bretton Woods system collapsed so that Nixon might win the 1972 presidential election."<ref name=":1"/>

After Nixon won re-election, inflation was returning.{{sfn|Hetzel|p=92}} He reimposed price controls in June 1973. The price controls became unpopular with the public and businesspeople, who saw powerful labor unions as preferable to the price board bureaucracy.{{sfn|Hetzel|p=92}} The controls produced ], as meat disappeared from grocery stores and farmers drowned chickens rather than sell them at a loss.{{sfn|Hetzel|p=92}} Despite the failure to control inflation, controls were slowly ended, and on April 30, 1974, their statutory authorization lapsed.{{sfn|Hetzel|p=92}}

==== Governmental initiatives and organization ====
]]]
], {{circa|1984}}]]
]]]
Nixon advocated a "]", which would devolve power to state and local elected officials, though Congress was hostile to these ideas and enacted few of them.{{sfn|Aitken|p=395}} He eliminated the Cabinet-level ], which in 1971 became the government-run ].{{sfn|USPS, Periodicals postage}}

Nixon was a late supporter of the ]. Environmental policy had not been a significant issue in the 1968 election, and the candidates were rarely asked for their views on the subject. Nixon broke new ground by discussing environmental policy in his ] in 1970. He saw that the first ] in April 1970 presaged a wave of voter interest on the subject, and sought to use that to his benefit; in June he announced the formation of the ] (EPA).{{sfn|Aitken|pp=397–398}} He relied on his domestic advisor ], who favored protection of natural resources, to keep him "out of trouble on environmental issues."<ref name="Distillations"/> Other initiatives supported by Nixon included the ] and the ] (OSHA), and the ] required ]s for many Federal projects.<ref name="Distillations">{{cite magazine|last1=Rinde|first1=Meir|title=Richard Nixon and the Rise of American Environmentalism|magazine=Distillations|date=2017|volume=3|issue=1|pages=16–29|url=https://www.sciencehistory.org/distillations/magazine/richard-nixon-and-the-rise-of-american-environmentalism|access-date=April 4, 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180405024821/https://www.sciencehistory.org/distillations/magazine/richard-nixon-and-the-rise-of-american-environmentalism|archive-date=April 5, 2018|url-status=live}}</ref>{{sfn|Aitken|pp=397–398}} Nixon vetoed the ] of 1972—objecting not to the policy goals of the legislation but to the amount of money to be spent on them, which he deemed excessive. After Congress overrode his veto, Nixon ] the funds he deemed unjustifiable.{{sfn|Aitken|p=396}}

In 1971, Nixon proposed health insurance reform—a private health insurance employer mandate,{{Efn|name=voluntary|Voluntary for employees}} federalization of ] for poor families with dependent minor children,{{sfn|NHI: CQ Almanac 1971}} and support for ]s (HMOs).{{sfn|HMO: CQ Almanac 1973}} A limited HMO bill was enacted in 1973.{{sfn|HMO: CQ Almanac 1973}} In 1974, Nixon proposed more comprehensive health insurance reform—a private health insurance employer mandate{{Efn|name=voluntary}} and replacement of Medicaid by state-run health insurance plans available to all, with income-based premiums and ].{{sfn|NHI: CQ Almanac 1974}}

Nixon was concerned about the prevalence of domestic drug use in addition to drug use among American soldiers in Vietnam. He called for a ] and pledged to cut off sources of supply abroad. He also increased funds for education and for rehabilitation facilities.{{sfn|Ambrose|1989|p=418}}

As one policy initiative, Nixon called for more money for ] research, treatment, and education in February 1971{{sfn|Office of the Federal Register|pp=179–182}} and signed the National Sickle Cell Anemia Control Act on May 16, 1972.{{sfn|The American Presidency Project}}{{sfn|National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute|p=2}}{{Efn|See especially page 2 (after introductory material) in which a bar graph displays NHLBI funding for sickle cell research from FY 1972 through FY 2001, totaling $923 million for these thirty years, starting at $10 million for 1972, then about $15 million a year through 1976, about $20 million for 1977, etc.}} While Nixon called for increased spending on such high-profile items as sickle-cell disease and for a ], at the same time he sought to reduce overall spending at the ].{{sfn|Wailoo|pp=165, 170}}

==== Civil rights ====
The Nixon presidency witnessed the first large-scale ] of public schools in the South.{{sfn|Boger|p=6}} Nixon sought a middle way between the segregationist Wallace and liberal Democrats, whose support of integration was alienating some Southern whites.{{sfn|Sabia}} Hopeful of doing well in the South in 1972, he sought to dispose of desegregation as a political issue before then. Soon after his inauguration, he appointed Vice President Agnew to lead a task force, which worked with local leaders—both white and black—to determine how to ] local schools. Agnew had little interest in the work, and most of it was done by Labor Secretary ]. Federal aid was available, and a meeting with President Nixon was a possible reward for compliant committees. By September 1970, less than ten percent of black children were attending segregated schools. By 1971, however, tensions over desegregation surfaced in Northern cities, with angry protests over the ] of children to schools outside their neighborhood to achieve racial balance. Nixon opposed busing personally but enforced court orders requiring its use.{{sfn|Parmet|pp=595–597, 603}}

Some scholars, such as James Morton Turner and John Isenberg, believe that Nixon, who had advocated for civil rights in his 1960 campaign, slowed down ] as president, appealing to the racial conservatism of Southern whites, who were angered by the ]. This, he hoped, would boost his election chances in 1972.<ref>{{Cite book|url=http://www.hup.harvard.edu/catalog.php?isbn=9780674979970|title=The Republican Reversal—James Morton Turner, Andrew C. Isenberg {{!}} Harvard University Press|via=www.hup.harvard.edu|date=November 12, 2018 |page=36|publisher=Harvard University Press |isbn=9780674979970 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190108151027/http://www.hup.harvard.edu/catalog.php?isbn=9780674979970|archive-date=January 8, 2019|url-status=live|access-date=July 31, 2019}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|url=https://www.press.uchicago.edu/ucp/books/book/chicago/P/bo8212972.html|title=The Partisan Sort|series=Chicago Studies in American Politics |pages=24|publisher=University of Chicago Press |access-date=July 31, 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190731184243/https://www.press.uchicago.edu/ucp/books/book/chicago/P/bo8212972.html|archive-date=July 31, 2019|url-status=live}}</ref>

In addition to desegregating public schools, Nixon implemented the ] in 1970—the first significant federal ] program.{{sfn|Delaney|1970-07-20}} He also endorsed the ] after it passed both houses of Congress in 1972 and went to the states for ratification.{{sfn|Frum|p=246}} He also pushed for African American civil rights and economic equity through a concept known as black capitalism.<ref>{{Cite book|title=Harambee City: Congress of Racial Equality in Cleveland and the Rise of Black Power Populism.|last=Frazier|first=Nishani|publisher=University of Arkansas Press|year=2017|isbn=978-1-68226-018-0|pages=184–207}}</ref> Nixon had campaigned as an ERA supporter in 1968, though feminists criticized him for doing little to help the ERA or their cause after his election. Nevertheless, he appointed more women to administration positions than Lyndon Johnson had.{{sfn|PBS, Nixon, Domestic Politics}}

=== Space policy ===
{{further|Space policy of the United States}}
] astronauts in quarantine aboard the aircraft carrier ]]]

After a ], the United States won the race to land astronauts on the Moon on July 20, 1969, with the flight of ]. Nixon spoke with ] and ] during their moonwalk. He called the conversation "the most historic phone call ever made from the White House".{{sfn|Parmet|p=563}}

Nixon was unwilling to keep funding for the ] (NASA) at the high level seen during the 1960s as NASA prepared to send men to the Moon. NASA Administrator ] drew up ambitious plans for the establishment of a permanent base on the Moon by the end of the 1970s and the launch of a crewed expedition to Mars as early as 1981. Nixon rejected both proposals due to the expense.{{sfn|Handlin}} Nixon also canceled the Air Force ] program in 1969, because uncrewed ]s were a more cost-effective way to achieve the same reconnaissance objective.{{sfn|Hepplewhite|pp=204–205|loc=ch. 5}} NASA cancelled the last three planned Apollo lunar missions to place ] in orbit more efficiently and free money up for the design and construction of the ].<ref name="MIT_notes">{{cite web | url=http://ocw.mit.edu/courses/aeronautics-and-astronautics/16-885j-aircraft-systems-engineering-fall-2005/video-lectures/logsdn_lec_notes.pdf | title=MIT lecture notes in "Aircraft Systems Engineering," fall 2005, on early Space Shuttle policy | publisher=Massachusetts Institute of Technology | date=Fall 2005 | pages=7 | access-date=August 22, 2014 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140826120157/http://ocw.mit.edu/courses/aeronautics-and-astronautics/16-885j-aircraft-systems-engineering-fall-2005/video-lectures/logsdn_lec_notes.pdf | archive-date=August 26, 2014 | url-status=live }}</ref>

On May 24, 1972, Nixon approved a five-year cooperative program between NASA and the ], culminating in the 1975 ] linking in space.{{sfn|Ezell|p=192|loc=ch. 6–11}}

=== Reelection, Watergate scandal, and resignation ===

==== 1972 presidential campaign ====
{{main|Richard Nixon 1972 presidential campaign|1972 United States presidential election}}
]
Nixon believed his rise to power had peaked at a moment of ]. The Democratic "]" had long been a source of frustration to Republican ambitions. Goldwater had won several Southern states by opposing the ] but had alienated more moderate Southerners. Nixon's efforts to gain Southern support in 1968 were diluted by Wallace's candidacy. Through his first term, he pursued a ] with policies, such as his desegregation plans, that would be broadly acceptable among Southern whites, encouraging them to realign with the Republicans in the aftermath of the ]. He nominated two Southern conservatives, ] and ], to the Supreme Court, but neither was confirmed by the Senate.{{r|Mason-Small}}

Nixon entered his name on the New Hampshire primary ballot on January 5, 1972, effectively announcing his candidacy for reelection.{{sfn|Black|p=766}} Virtually assured the Republican nomination,{{sfn|Black|p=795}} the President had initially expected his Democratic opponent to be ] senator ] (brother of ]), who was largely removed from contention after the July 1969 ].{{sfn|Black|p=617}} Instead, ] senator ] became the front runner, with ] senator ] in a close second place.{{sfn|Black|p=766}}

On June 10, McGovern won the California primary and secured the Democratic nomination.{{sfn|Black|p=816}} The following month, Nixon was renominated at the ]. He dismissed the Democratic platform as cowardly and divisive.{{sfn|Black|p=834}} McGovern intended to sharply reduce defense spending{{sfn|White|p=123}} and supported amnesty for draft evaders as well as ]. With some of his supporters believed to be in favor of drug legalization, McGovern was perceived as standing for "amnesty, abortion and acid". McGovern was also damaged by his vacillating support for his original running mate, ] senator ], dumped from the ticket following revelations that he had received ] for ].{{sfn|''Time''|1972-08-14}}{{sfn|''Time''|1970-11-20}} Nixon was ahead in most polls for the entire election cycle, and was reelected on November 7, 1972, in ]. He defeated McGovern with over 60&nbsp;percent of the popular vote, losing only in Massachusetts and D.C.{{sfn|Parmet|p=629}}

==== Watergate ====
{{Main|Watergate scandal|Impeachment process against Richard Nixon}}
]

The term ''Watergate'' has come to encompass an array of clandestine and often illegal activities undertaken by members of the Nixon administration. Those activities included "dirty tricks", such as bugging the offices of political opponents, and the harassment of activist groups and political figures. The activities were brought to light after five men were caught breaking into the Democratic party headquarters at the ] in Washington, D.C., on June 17, 1972. '']'' picked up on the story; reporters ] and ] relied on an informant known as "]"—later revealed to be ], associate director at the ]—to link the men to the Nixon administration. Nixon downplayed the scandal as mere politics, calling news articles biased and misleading. A series of revelations made it clear that the ], and later the White House, were involved in attempts to sabotage the Democrats. Senior aides such as ] ] faced prosecution; in total 48 officials were convicted of wrongdoing.{{sfn|Nixon Library, President}}{{sfn|''The Washington Post'', The Post Investigates}}{{sfn|''The Washington Post'', The Government Acts}}

], October 1973]]
] and famously said "I'm not a crook"]]
In July 1973, White House aide ] testified ] to Congress that Nixon had a secret taping system and recorded his conversations and phone calls in the Oval Office. ] were ]ed by Watergate Special Counsel ]; Nixon provided transcripts of the conversations but not the actual tapes, citing ]. With the White House and Cox at loggerheads, Nixon had Cox fired in October in the "]"; he was replaced by ]. In November, Nixon's lawyers revealed that a tape of conversations held in the White House on June 20, 1972, had an {{frac|18|1|2}}{{nbsp}}minute gap.{{sfn|''The Washington Post'', The Government Acts}} ], the President's personal secretary, claimed responsibility for the gap, saying that she had accidentally wiped the section while transcribing the tape, but her story was widely mocked. The gap, while not conclusive proof of wrongdoing by the President, cast doubt on Nixon's statement that he had been unaware of the cover-up.{{sfn|Aitken|pp=511–512}}

Though Nixon lost much popular support, even from his own party, he rejected accusations of wrongdoing and vowed to stay in office.{{sfn|''The Washington Post'', The Government Acts}} He admitted he had made mistakes but insisted he had no prior knowledge of the burglary, did not break any laws, and did not learn of the cover-up until early 1973.{{sfn|''The Washington Post'', Nixon Resigns}} On October 10, 1973, Vice President Agnew resigned for reasons unrelated to Watergate: he was convicted on charges of bribery, tax evasion and money laundering during his tenure as governor of Maryland. Believing his first choice, ], would not be confirmed by Congress,{{sfn|Aitken|p=555}} Nixon chose ], ], to replace Agnew.{{sfn|Ambrose|1989|pp=231–232, 239}} One researcher suggests Nixon effectively disengaged from his own administration after Ford was sworn in as vice president on December 6, 1973.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Beckmann|first=Matthew N.|date=April 1, 2017|title=Did Nixon quit before he resigned?|journal=Research & Politics|volume=4|issue=2|pages=2053168017704800|doi=10.1177/2053168017704800|doi-access=free|issn=2053-1680}}</ref>

On November 17, 1973, during a televised question-and-answer session{{sfn|Frum|p=26}} with 400 ] ]s, Nixon said, "People have got to know whether or not their president is a crook. Well, I'm not a crook. I've earned everything I've got."{{sfn|Kilpatrick|1973-11-18}}

]

The legal battle over the tapes continued through early 1974, and in April Nixon announced the release of 1,200 pages of transcripts of White House conversations between himself and his aides. The ] opened ] hearings against the President on May 9, 1974, which were televised on the major TV networks. These hearings culminated in votes for impeachment.{{sfn|''The Washington Post'', Nixon Resigns}} On July 24, the Supreme Court ] that the full tapes, not just selected transcripts, must be released.{{sfn|Ambrose|1991|pp=394–395}}

The scandal grew to involve a slew of additional allegations against the President, ranging from the improper use of government agencies to accepting gifts in office and his personal finances and taxes; Nixon repeatedly stated his willingness to pay any outstanding taxes due, and later paid $465,000 (equivalent to ${{Inflation|US|.465|1974|r=1}}&nbsp;million in {{Inflation-year|US}}) in back taxes in 1974.{{sfn|Samson}}

)]]

Even with support diminished by the continuing series of revelations, Nixon hoped to fight the charges. But one of the new tapes, recorded soon after the break-in, demonstrated that Nixon had been told of the White House connection to the Watergate burglaries soon after they took place, and had approved plans to thwart the investigation. In a statement accompanying the release of what became known as ] on August 5, 1974, Nixon accepted blame for misleading the country about when he had been told of White House involvement, stating that he had had a lapse of memory.{{sfn|Ambrose|1991|pp=414–416}} Senate Minority Leader ], Senator ], and House Minority Leader ] met with Nixon soon after. Rhodes told Nixon he faced certain impeachment in the House. Scott and Goldwater told the president that he had, at most, only 15 votes in his favor in the Senate, far fewer than the 34 needed to avoid removal from office.{{sfn|Black|p=978}}

==== Resignation ====
] on ] shortly before his resignation became effective, August 9, 1974]]

In light of his loss of political support and the near-certainty that he would be impeached and removed from office, Nixon resigned the presidency on August 9, 1974, after ].{{sfn|''The Washington Post'', Nixon Resigns}} The resignation speech was delivered from the Oval Office and was carried live on radio and television. Nixon said he was resigning for the good of the country and asked the nation to support the new president, Gerald Ford. Nixon went on to review the accomplishments of his presidency, especially in foreign policy.{{sfn|Ambrose|1991|pp=435–436}} He defended his record as president, quoting from ]'s 1910 speech '']'':
{{blockquote|Sometimes I have succeeded and sometimes I have failed, but always I have taken heart from what Theodore Roosevelt once said about the man in the arena, "whose face is marred by dust and sweat and blood, who strives valiantly, who errs and comes up short again and again because there is not effort without error and shortcoming, but who does actually strive to do the deed, who knows the great enthusiasms, the great devotions, who spends himself in a worthy cause, who at the best knows in the end the triumphs of high achievements and who at the worst, if he fails, at least fails while daring greatly".{{sfn|PBS, Resignation Speech}}
}}
]
Nixon's speech received generally favorable initial responses from network commentators, with only ] of ] stating that Nixon had not admitted wrongdoing.{{sfn|Ambrose|1991|p=437}} It was termed "a masterpiece" by ], one of his biographers. Black opined that "What was intended to be an unprecedented humiliation for any American president, Nixon converted into a virtual parliamentary acknowledgement of almost blameless insufficiency of legislative support to continue. He left while devoting half his address to a recitation of his accomplishments in office."{{sfn|Black|p=983}}

== Post-presidency (1974–1994) ==
=== Pardon and illness ===
{{further|Pardon of Richard Nixon}}
]

Following his resignation, the Nixons flew to their home ] in ].{{sfn|Nixon Library, Post Presidency}} According to his biographer, ], "Nixon was a soul in torment" after his resignation.{{sfn|Aitken|p=529}} Congress had funded Nixon's transition costs, including some salary expenses, though reducing the appropriation from $850,000 to $200,000. With some of his staff still with him, Nixon was at his desk by 7:00&nbsp;a.m. with little to do.{{sfn|Aitken|p=529}} His former press secretary, ], sat with him alone for hours each day.{{sfn|Aitken|pp=529–530}}

Nixon's resignation had not put an end to the desire among many to see him punished. The Ford White House considered a pardon of Nixon, even though it would be unpopular in the country. Nixon, contacted by Ford emissaries, was initially reluctant to accept the pardon, but then agreed to do so. Ford insisted on a statement of contrition, but Nixon felt he had not committed any crimes and should not have to issue such a document. Ford eventually agreed and, on September 8, 1974, he granted Nixon a "full, free, and absolute pardon", which ended any possibility of an indictment. Nixon then released a statement:
{{blockquote|I was wrong in not acting more decisively and more forthrightly in dealing with Watergate, particularly when it reached the stage of judicial proceedings and grew from a political scandal into a national tragedy. No words can describe the depth of my regret and pain at the anguish my mistakes over Watergate have caused the nation and the presidency, a nation I so deeply love, and an institution I so greatly respect.{{sfn|Aitken|p=532}}{{sfn|Black|p=990}}
}}

In October 1974, Nixon fell ill with ]. Told by his doctors that he could either be operated on or die, a reluctant Nixon chose surgery, and President Ford visited him in the hospital. Nixon was under subpoena for the trial of three of his former aides—Dean, Haldeman, and ]—and ''The Washington Post'', disbelieving his illness, printed a cartoon showing Nixon with a cast on the "wrong foot". Judge ] excused Nixon's presence despite the defendants' objections.{{sfn|Aitken|pp=533–534}} Congress instructed Ford to retain Nixon's presidential papers—beginning a three-decade legal battle over the documents that was eventually won by the former president and his estate.{{sfn|Black|pp=994, 999}} Nixon was in the hospital when the ] were held, and Watergate and the pardon were contributing factors to the Republican loss of 49&nbsp;seats in the House and four in the Senate.{{sfn|Black|p=998}}

=== Return to public life ===
] and ex-presidents ] and Nixon meet at the White House before former vice president ]'s funeral, 1978]]

In December 1974, Nixon began planning his comeback despite the considerable ill will against him in the country. He wrote in his diary, referring to himself and Pat,
{{blockquote|So be it. We will see it through. We've had tough times before and we can take the tougher ones that we will have to go through now. That is perhaps what we were made for—to be able to take punishment beyond what anyone in this office has had before particularly after leaving office. This is a test of character and we must not fail the test.{{sfn|Aitken|p=535}}
}}

By early 1975, Nixon's health was improving. He maintained an office in a ] station {{convert|300|yd}} from his home, at first taking a golf cart and later walking the route each day; he mainly worked on his memoirs.{{sfn|Ambrose|1991|p=481}} He had hoped to wait before writing his memoirs; the fact that his assets were being eaten away by expenses and lawyer fees compelled him to begin work quickly.{{sfn|Aitken|pp=537, 539}} He was handicapped in this work by the end of his transition allowance in February, which compelled him to part with many of his staff, including Ziegler.{{sfn|Black|p=1000}} In August of that year, he met with British talk-show host and producer ], who paid him $600,000 (equivalent to ${{Inflation|US|.6|1975|r=1}}&nbsp;million in {{Inflation-year|US}}) for ], filmed and aired in 1977.{{sfn|Black|p=1004}} They began on the topic of foreign policy, recounting the leaders he had known, but the most remembered section of the interviews was that on Watergate. Nixon admitted he had "let down the country" and that "I brought myself down. I gave them a sword and they stuck it in. And they twisted it with relish. And, I guess, if I'd been in their position, I'd have done the same thing."{{sfn|Drew|p=138}} The interviews garnered 45–50 million viewers—becoming the most-watched program of its kind in television history.{{sfn|Ambrose|1991|p=512}}

The interviews helped improve Nixon's financial position—at one point in early 1975 he had only $500 in the bank—as did the sale of his Key Biscayne property to a trust set up by wealthy friends of Nixon, such as ].{{sfn|Aitken|pp=539–540}} In February 1976, Nixon visited China at the personal invitation of Mao. Nixon had wanted to return to China but chose to wait until after Ford's own visit in 1975.{{sfn|Black|p=1005}} Nixon remained neutral in the close 1976 primary battle between Ford and Reagan. Ford won, but was defeated by ] governor ] in ]. The Carter administration had little use for Nixon and blocked his planned trip to Australia, causing the government of Prime Minister ] to withhold its official invitation.{{sfn|Aitken|p=543}}

In 1976, Nixon was ] by the ] for ] in the Watergate affair. He chose not to present any defense.<ref>"Nixon disbarred in New York in 1st ruling of Watergate guilt", ''Toledo Blade'', July 9, 1976, p.1</ref> In early 1978, he visited the United Kingdom; there, he was shunned by American diplomats, most ministers of the ] government, and two former prime ministers, ] and ]. He was welcomed, however, by the ], ], and former prime ministers ] and Sir ]. Nixon addressed the ] regarding Watergate:
{{blockquote| felt that on this matter that I had not handled it properly, and they were right. I screwed it up and I paid the price.<ref>{{cite news|last1=L|first1=Stephen|last2=rigan|date=1978-12-01|title=Protesters Heckle Nixon at Oxford Opponents of Oxford Speech Cool Nixon's Warm Welcome|language=en-US|newspaper=The Washington Post|url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/archive/politics/1978/12/01/protesters-heckle-nixon-at-oxford-opponents-of-oxford-speech-cool-nixons-warm-welcome/dd7cd6d2-943d-4f86-b36e-0d45b647682e/|access-date=2022-01-03|issn=0190-8286}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|last=Reed|first=Roy|date=December 1, 1978|title=Welcome For Nixon At Oxford Is Warm|language=en-US|work=The New York Times|url=https://www.nytimes.com/1978/12/01/archives/welcome-for-nixon-at-oxford-is-warm-questions-friendly-though-some.html|access-date=January 3, 2022|issn=0362-4331}}</ref>}}

=== Author and elder statesman ===
] meets with his three immediate predecessors, ], ] and Nixon, at the White House, October 1981; the three former presidents would represent the United States at the funeral of Egyptian president ].]]
In 1978, Nixon published his memoirs, ''RN: The Memoirs of Richard Nixon'', the first of nine books he was to author in his retirement.{{sfn|Nixon Library, Post Presidency}} ] deemed it one of the better presidential memoirs, candid and capturing its author's voice; he deemed its rise up the bestseller lists justified.{{sfn|Farrell|p=2852}} Nixon visited the White House in 1979, invited by Carter for the state dinner for Chinese Vice Premier ]. Carter had not wanted to invite Nixon, but Deng had said he would visit Nixon in California if the former president was not invited. Nixon had a private meeting with Deng and visited Beijing again in mid-1979.{{sfn|Ambrose|1991|pp=524–525}}

On August 10, 1979, the Nixons purchased a 12‐room condominium occupying the seventh floor of 817 ] New York City<ref>{{cite news|url=https://news.google.com/newspapers?id=Bp9RAAAAIBAJ&pg=4685%2C1596331|newspaper=Pittsburgh Post-Gazette|date=August 11, 1979|title=Nixons Buy Fifth Avenue Condo in N.Y.|access-date=June 17, 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150910174454/https://news.google.com/newspapers?id=Bp9RAAAAIBAJ&sjid=0W0DAAAAIBAJ&pg=4685%2C1596331|archive-date=September 10, 2015|url-status=live}}</ref> after being rejected by two Manhattan ].{{sfn|Ambrose|1991|p=528}} When the deposed ] died in Egypt in July 1980, Nixon defied the State Department, which intended to send no U.S. representative, by attending the funeral. Though Nixon had no official credentials, as a former president he was seen as the American presence at its former ally's funeral.{{sfn|Ambrose|1991|p=533}} Nixon supported Ronald Reagan for president in ], making television appearances portraying himself as, in biographer Stephen Ambrose's words, "the senior statesman above the fray".{{sfn|Ambrose|1991|p=534}} He wrote guest articles for many publications both during the campaign and after Reagan's victory.{{sfn|Ambrose|1991|p=540}} After 18 months in the New York City townhouse, Nixon and his wife moved in 1981 to ], New Jersey.{{sfn|Nixon Library, Post Presidency}}

Throughout the 1980s, Nixon maintained an ambitious schedule of speaking engagements and writing,{{sfn|Nixon Library, Post Presidency}} traveled, and met with many foreign leaders, especially those of Third World countries. He joined former presidents Ford and Carter as representatives of the United States at the funeral of Egyptian president ].{{sfn|Nixon Library, Post Presidency}} On a trip to the Middle East, Nixon made his views known regarding Saudi Arabia and Libya, which attracted significant U.S. media attention; ''The Washington Post'' ran stories on Nixon's "rehabilitation".{{sfn|Ambrose|1991|p=545}} Nixon visited the Soviet Union in 1986 and on his return sent President Reagan a lengthy memorandum containing foreign policy suggestions and his personal impressions of Soviet general secretary ].{{sfn|Nixon Library, Post Presidency}} Following this trip, Nixon was ranked in ] as one of the ten most admired men in the world.{{sfn|Drew|p=142}}

] in the residence of the White House, March 1993]]

In 1986, Nixon addressed a convention of newspaper publishers, impressing his audience with his ''tour d'horizon'' of the world.{{sfn|Drew|p=144}} At the time, ] ] wrote, "Even when he was wrong, Nixon still showed that he knew a great deal and had a capacious memory, as well as the capacity to speak with apparent authority, enough to impress people who had little regard for him in earlier times."{{sfn|Drew|p=144}} ''Newsweek'' ran a story on "Nixon's comeback" with the headline "He's back".{{sfn|Aitken|pp=561–562}}

On July 19, 1990, the Richard Nixon Library and Birthplace in ], opened as a private institution with the Nixons in attendance. They were joined by a large crowd of people, including Presidents Ford, Reagan, and ], as well as their wives, ], ], and ].{{sfn|Aitken|pp=565–568}} In January 1994, the former president founded the Nixon Center (today the ]), a Washington policy ] and conference center.{{sfn|Black|pp=1045–1046}}<ref>{{cite press release|date= March 9, 2011|title= Nixon Center Becomes Center for the National Interest|url= https://www.prnewswire.com/news-releases/nixon-center-becomes-center-for-the-national-interest-117654558.html|location= Washington, D.C.|publisher= Center for the National Interest|agency= PR Newswire|access-date= September 9, 2018|archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20180909073801/https://www.prnewswire.com/news-releases/nixon-center-becomes-center-for-the-national-interest-117654558.html|archive-date= September 9, 2018|url-status= live}}</ref>

Pat Nixon died on June 22, 1993, of ] and ]. Her funeral services were held on the grounds of the Richard Nixon Library and Birthplace. Former president Nixon was distraught throughout the interment and delivered a tribute to her inside the library building.{{sfn|Black|pp=1049–1050}}

== Death and funeral ==
{{main|Death and state funeral of Richard Nixon}}
], ], ], ] and ]) and their wives attending Nixon's funeral, April 27, 1994]]
Nixon suffered a severe ] on April 18, 1994, while preparing to eat dinner in his home at ], New Jersey.{{sfn|Weil & Randolph|1994-04-23}} A ] resulting from the ] he had suffered for many years had formed in his upper heart, ], and traveled to his brain.<ref>{{cite news |last=Altman |first=Lawrence K. |title=THE 37TH PRESIDENT: THE LAST DAYS; Disabled, Yet Retaining Control Over His Care |url=https://www.nytimes.com/1994/04/24/us/the-37th-president-the-last-days-disabled-yet-retaining-control-over-his-care.html |url-status=live |newspaper=The New York Times |access-date=February 12, 2016 |date=April 24, 1994 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160217061301/http://www.nytimes.com/1994/04/24/us/the-37th-president-the-last-days-disabled-yet-retaining-control-over-his-care.html |archive-date=February 17, 2016}}</ref> He was taken to ] in ], initially alert but unable to speak or to move his right arm or leg.{{sfn|Weil & Randolph|1994-04-23}} Damage to the brain caused swelling (]), and Nixon slipped into a deep coma. He died at 9:08&nbsp;p.m. on April 22, 1994, with his daughters at his bedside. He was 81 years old.{{sfn|Weil & Randolph|1994-04-23}}

Nixon's funeral took place on April 27, 1994, in ]. Eulogists at the Nixon Library ceremony included President ], former secretary of state ], Senate Minority Leader ], California governor ], and the Reverend ]. Also in attendance were former presidents Ford, Carter, Reagan, George H. W. Bush, and their wives.{{sfn|Black|pp=1051–1053}}

Richard Nixon was buried beside his wife Pat on the grounds of the Nixon Library. He was survived by his two daughters, ] and ], and four grandchildren.{{sfn|Weil & Randolph|1994-04-23}} In keeping with his wishes, his funeral was not a full ], though his body did ] in the Nixon Library lobby from April 26 to the morning of the funeral service.{{sfn|BBC|2004-06-11}} Mourners waited in line for up to eight hours in chilly, wet weather to pay their respects.{{sfn|''The Deseret News''|1994-04-27}} At its peak, the line to pass by Nixon's casket was three miles long with an estimated 42,000 people waiting.{{sfn|Frick|p=206}}

John F. Stacks of '']'' magazine said of Nixon shortly after his death,
<blockquote>An outsize energy and determination drove him on to recover and rebuild after every self-created disaster that he faced. To reclaim a respected place in American public life after his resignation, he kept traveling and thinking and talking to the world's leaders&nbsp;... and by the time Bill Clinton came to the White House , Nixon had virtually cemented his role as an elder statesman. Clinton, whose wife served on the staff of the committee that voted to impeach Nixon, met openly with him and regularly sought his advice.{{sfn|Stacks|1994-05-02}}</blockquote>

] of ''The New York Times'' noted that Nixon had been equalled only by ] in being five times nominated on a major party ticket and, quoting Nixon's 1962 farewell speech, wrote,
<blockquote>Richard Nixon's jowly, beard-shadowed face, the ski-jump nose and the widow's peak, the arms upstretched in the V-sign, had been so often pictured and caricatured, his presence had become such a familiar one in the land, he had been so often in the heat of controversy, that it was hard to realize the nation really would not "have Nixon to kick around anymore".{{sfn|Wicker|1994-04-24}}</blockquote>

Ambrose said of the reaction to Nixon's death, "To everyone's amazement, except his, he's our beloved elder statesman."{{sfn|Sawhill|2011-02}}

Upon Nixon's death, the news coverage mentioned Watergate and the resignation but much of the coverage was favorable to the former president. '']'' stated, "History ultimately should show that despite his flaws, he was one of our most farsighted chief executives."{{sfn|Frick|pp=205–206}} This offended some; columnist ] complained of "a group conspiracy to grant him absolution".{{sfn|Frick|pp=204–205}} Cartoonist ] of the '']'' depicted History before a blank canvas, his subject Nixon, as America looks on eagerly. The artist urges his audience to sit down; the work will take some time to complete, as "this portrait is a little more complicated than most".{{sfn|Frick|p=210}} ] wrote a scathing piece denouncing Nixon for '']'', entitled "He Was a Crook" (which also appeared a month later in '']'').<ref name="atlantic">{{cite magazine |last=Thompson |first=Hunter S. |authorlink=Hunter S. Thompson |title=He Was a Crook |url=https://www.theatlantic.com/magazine/archive/1994/07/he-was-a-crook/308699/ |url-status=live |magazine=] |date=July 1994 |access-date=June 4, 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170607195033/https://www.theatlantic.com/magazine/archive/1994/07/he-was-a-crook/308699/ |archive-date=June 7, 2017}}</ref> In his article, Thompson described Nixon as "a political monster straight out of ] and a very dangerous enemy".<ref name="atlantic" />

== Legacy ==
{{main|List of awards and honors received by Richard Nixon}}
] located in ]]]
{{conservatism US|politicians}}
]

Historian and political scientist ] asked of Nixon, "How can one evaluate such an idiosyncratic president, so brilliant and so morally lacking?"{{sfn|Skidmore|p=495}} Evaluations ] have proven complex, contrasting his presidency's domestic and foreign policy successes with the acrimonious circumstances of his departure.{{sfn|Skidmore|p=495}} According to Ambrose, "Nixon wanted to be judged by what he accomplished. What he will be remembered for is the nightmare he put the country through in his second term and for his resignation."{{sfn|Ambrose|1991|p=592}} Irwin Gellman, who chronicled Nixon's congressional career, suggests, "He was remarkable among his congressional peers, a success story in a troubled era, one who steered a sensible ] course against the excess of McCarthy."{{sfn|Gellman|p=460}} Aitken feels that "Nixon, both as a man and as a statesman, has been excessively maligned for his faults and inadequately recognised<!-- not a typo --> for his virtues. Yet even in a spirit of ], no simple verdict is possible."{{sfn|Aitken|p=577}}

Nixon saw his policies on Vietnam, China, and the Soviet Union as central to his place in history.{{r|Hanhimäki-Small}} Nixon's onetime opponent ] commented in 1983, "President Nixon probably had a more practical approach to the two superpowers, China and the Soviet Union, than any other president since World War{{nbsp}}II ... With the exception of his inexcusable continuation of the war in Vietnam, Nixon really will get high marks in history."{{sfn|Greider|1983-10-10}} Political scientist ] disagrees, saying that Nixon's diplomacy was merely a continuation of the ] policy of ] by diplomatic, rather than military, means.{{r|Hanhimäki-Small}} Historian ] concludes that "Nixon was a great statesman on the world stage as well as a shabby practitioner of electoral politics in the domestic arena. While the criminal farce of Watergate was in the making, Nixon's inspirational statesmanship was establishing new working relationships both with Communist China and with the Soviet Union."{{sfn|Andrew|1995|p=384}}

Nixon's stance on domestic affairs has been credited with the passage and enforcement of environmental and regulatory legislation. In a 2011 paper on Nixon and the environment, historian Paul Charles Milazzo points to Nixon's creation of the ] (EPA), and to his enforcement of legislation such as the 1973 ], stating that "though unsought and unacknowledged, Richard Nixon's environmental legacy is secure".{{r|Milazzo-Small}} Nixon himself did not consider the environmental advances he made in office an important part of his legacy; some historians contend that his choices were driven more by political expediency than any strong ].<ref name="Distillations" /> Some historians say Nixon's ] turned the ] into a Republican stronghold, while others deem economic factors more important in the change.{{r|Mason-Small}} Throughout his career, Nixon moved his party away from the control of isolationists, and as a Congressman he was a persuasive advocate of containing Soviet communism.{{sfn|Black|p=1053}}

Historian ] has written that Nixon left a legacy of fundamental mistrust of government, rooted in Vietnam and Watergate.{{r|Olson-Small}} During the ] in 1998, both sides tried to use Nixon and Watergate to their advantage: Republicans suggested that Clinton's misconduct was comparable to Nixon's, while Democrats contended that Nixon's actions had been far more serious than Clinton's.{{sfn|Frick|pp=211–214}} For a time, there was a decrease in the power of the presidency as Congress passed restrictive legislation in the wake of Watergate. Olson suggests that legislation in the aftermath of the ] restored the president's power.{{r|Olson-Small}}

According to his biographer Herbert Parmet, "Nixon's role was to steer the Republican party along a middle course, somewhere between the competitive impulses of the Rockefellers, the Goldwaters, and the Reagans."{{sfn|Parmet|p=viii}}

== Personality and public image ==
Nixon's career was frequently dogged by his persona and the public's perception of it. Editorial cartoonists and comedians often exaggerated his appearance and mannerisms, to the point where the line between the human and the caricature became increasingly blurred. He was often portrayed with unshaven jowls, slumped shoulders, and a furrowed, sweaty brow.{{sfn|Reeves|pp=281–283}}

] in December 1970: "The President & The King"]]

Nixon had a complex personality, both very secretive and awkward, yet strikingly reflective about himself. He was inclined to distance himself from people and was formal in all aspects, wearing a coat and tie even when home alone.{{sfn|Drew|p=150}} Nixon biographer ] described him as being "driven" though also "uneasy with himself in some ways".{{sfn|Black|p=574}} According to Black, Nixon
<blockquote>thought that he was doomed to be traduced, double-crossed, unjustly harassed, misunderstood, underappreciated, and subjected to the trials of ], but that by the application of his mighty will, tenacity, and diligence, he would ultimately prevail.{{sfn|Black|p=700}}</blockquote>

]

Nixon sometimes drank alcohol to excess, especially during 1970. He also was prescribed sleeping pills. According to ], Nixon sometimes took them in together. Nixon also took ], recommended by ]. That medicine is usually prescribed to treat and prevent seizures, but in Nixon's case it was for depression. His periodic overindulgences, especially during stressful times such as during ], concerned Price and others, including then-advisor Ehrlichman and long-time ] ].<ref>{{cite web |title=The Year Nixon Fell Apart |url=https://www.politico.com/magazine/story/2017/03/john-farrell-nixon-book-excerpt-214954 |url-status=live |website=] |date=March 26, 2017 |access-date=July 15, 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190607015351/https://www.politico.com/magazine/story/2017/03/john-farrell-nixon-book-excerpt-214954 |archive-date=June 7, 2019}}</ref> Author and former British politician ] deemed Nixon an ].<ref>{{cite web |title=David Owen: Lessons in removing politicians from public office |url=https://www.independent.co.uk/voices/commentators/david-owen-lessons-in-removing-politicians-from-public-office-891446.html |url-status=live |website=] |date=August 12, 2008 |access-date=July 15, 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190715193824/https://www.independent.co.uk/voices/commentators/david-owen-lessons-in-removing-politicians-from-public-office-891446.html |archive-date=July 15, 2019}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |last=Boseley |first=Sarah |title=A doctor writes: Politicians' pride is a medical disorder |url=https://www.theguardian.com/politics/2009/mar/28/politicians-hubris-medical-condition |url-status=live |newspaper=] |date=March 28, 2009 |access-date=July 15, 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190715195739/https://www.theguardian.com/politics/2009/mar/28/politicians-hubris-medical-condition |archive-date=July 15, 2019}}</ref>

Biographer ] summarized Nixon as a "smart, talented man, but most peculiar and haunted of presidents".{{sfn|Drew|p=151}} In his account of the Nixon presidency, author ] described Nixon as "a strange man of uncomfortable shyness, who functioned best alone with his thoughts".{{sfn|Reeves|p=12}} Nixon's presidency was doomed by his personality, Reeves argues:
<blockquote>He assumed the worst in people and he brought out the worst in them&nbsp;... He clung to the idea of being "tough". He thought that was what had brought him to the edge of greatness. But that was what betrayed him. He could not open himself to other men and he could not open himself to greatness.{{sfn|Reeves|p=13}}</blockquote>

In October 1999, a volume of 1971 White House audio tapes was released which contained multiple statements by Nixon deemed derogatory toward Jews.<ref>. '']'', October 6, 1999. Retrieved on April 4, 2011.</ref> In one conversation with ], Nixon said that Washington was "full of Jews" and that "most Jews are disloyal", making exceptions for some of his top aides.<ref name="Noah"/> He then added, "But, Bob, generally speaking, you can't trust the bastards. They turn on you. Am I wrong or right?"<ref name=Noah>]. . ], October 7, 1999. Retrieved on July 17, 2011.</ref> Elsewhere on the 1971 recordings, Nixon denies being antisemitic, saying, "If anybody who's been in this chair ever had reason to be antisemitic, I did&nbsp;... And I'm not, you know what I mean?"<ref name="Noah"/>

Nixon believed that putting distance between himself and other people was necessary for him as he advanced in his political career and became president. Even ], by some accounts his closest friend, did not call him by his first name. Nixon said of this,
<blockquote>Even with close friends, I don't believe in letting your hair down, confiding this and that and the other thing—saying, "Gee, I couldn't sleep&nbsp;..." I believe you should keep your troubles to yourself. That's just the way I am. Some people are different. Some people think it's good therapy to sit with a close friend and, you know, just spill your guts&nbsp;... reveal their inner psyche—whether they were breast-fed or bottle-fed. Not me. No way.{{sfn|Greene}}</blockquote>
When Nixon was told that most Americans felt they did not know him even at the end of his career, he replied, "Yeah, it's true. And it's not necessary for them to know."{{sfn|Greene}}<!-- Also printed in ''Chicago Tribute'' with fee for article -->

==Books==
* Nixon, Richard M. (1960). '']'', Doubleday, {{ISBN|978-0-385-00125-0}}.
* Nixon, Richard M. (1978). '''', Simon & Schuster, {{ISBN|978-0-671-70741-5}}.
* Nixon, Richard M. (1980). ''The Real War'', Sidgwick & Jackson Ltd. {{ISBN|978-0-283-98650-5}}.
* Nixon, Richard M. (1982). ''Leaders'', Random House {{ISBN|978-0-446-51249-7}}.
* Nixon, Richard M. (1984). ''Real Peace'', Sidgwick & Jackson Ltd. {{ISBN|978-0-283-99076-2}}.
{{external media
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* Nixon, Richard M. (1987). ''No More Vietnams'', Arbor House Publishing. {{ISBN|978-0-87795-668-6}}.
* Nixon, Richard M. (1988). ''1999: Victory Without War'', Simon & Schuster. {{ISBN|978-0-671-62712-6}}.
* Nixon, Richard M. (1990). ''In the Arena: A Memoir of Victory, Defeat, and Renewal'', Simon & Schuster. {{ISBN|978-0-671-72318-7}}.
* Nixon, Richard M. (1992). ''Seize the Moment: America's Challenge in a One-Superpower World'', Simon & Schuster. {{ISBN|978-0-671-74343-7}}.
* Nixon, Richard M. (1994). ''Beyond Peace'', Random House. {{ISBN|978-0-679-43323-1}}.

== See also ==
* ]
* ]
* ]
* ]
* ], film, 1995
* ]
* ]

== Notes ==

{{notelist
| notes =
{{efn
| name = Jewish vote
| {{harvnb|Black|pp=583–585}}. In 1972, Nixon did more than double his percentage of the Jewish vote, from 17&nbsp;percent to 35&nbsp;percent. {{harvnb|Merkley|p=}}.
}}
}}


== References == == References ==
=== Citations ===
<div class="references-small">
===Primary sources===
* Nixon, Richard. (1960). ''The Challenges We Face: Edited and Compiled from the Speeches and Papers of Richard M. Nixon'' ISBN 0195457626.
* Nixon, Richard. (1962). ''Six Crises''. Doubleday. ISBN 0385001258.
* Nixon, Richard. (1978). ''RN: The Memoirs of Richard Nixon'' (Reprint). Simon & Schuster. ISBN 0671707418.
* Nixon, Richard. (1980). ''Real War''. Sidgwich Jackson. ISBN 0283986506.
* Nixon, Richard. (1982). ''Leaders''. Random House. ISBN 0446512494.
* Nixon, Richard. (1987). ''No More Vietnams''. Arbor House Publishing. ISBN 0877956685.
* Nixon, Richard. (1988). ''1999: Victory Without War''. Simon & Schuster. ISBN 0671627120.
* Nixon, Richard. (1990). ''In the Arena: A Memoir of Victory, Defeat, and Renewal''. Simon & Schuster. ISBN 0671723189.
* Nixon, Richard. (1992). ''Seize The Moment: America's Challenge In A One-Superpower World''. Simon & Schuster. ISBN 0671743430.
* Nixon, Richard. (1994). ''Beyond Peace''. Random House. ISBN 0679433236.
====Other Memoirs====
* John D. Ehrlichman, ''Witness to Power. The Nixon Years'' (1982)
* H. R. Haldeman, ''The Haldeman Diaries. Inside the Nixon White House'' (1994) (also on CD-ROM);
* ]. ''Memoirs.'' 2 vols. (1979-1982).
* Raymond Price, ''With Nixon'' (1977)
* William Safire, ''Before the Fall. An Inside View of the Pre-Watergate White House'' (1975)
* Maurice H. Stans, ''One of the President's Men: Twenty Years with Eisenhower and Nixon'' (1995)


{{Reflist
===Secondary sources===
| colwidth = 20em
===Biographies===
| refs =
* Aitken, Jonathan. ''Nixon: A Life'' (1993), generally favorable
<ref name="Gellman-Small">Gellman, Irwin. "The Richard Nixon vice presidency: Research without the Nixon manuscripts" in {{harvnb|Small|pp=102–120}}.</ref>
* ] ''Nixon: The Education of a Politician 1913&ndash;1962'' (1987); ''Nixon: The Triumph of a Politician, 1962&ndash;1972'' (1989); ''Nixon: Ruin and Recovery 1973&ndash;1990'' (1991). The nost detailed study; generally hostile
* Greenberg, David. ''Nixon's Shadow: The History of an Image'' (2003).
* Hoff, Joan. ''Nixon Reconsidered'' (1994). quite favorable
* Morris, Roger. ''Richard Milhous Nixon: The Rise of an American Politician'' (1990).
* Iwan Morgan. ''On Nixon'' (2002), favourable British view
* Parmet, Herbert S. ''Richard Nixon and His America.'' (1990).
* Reeves, Richard. ''President Nixon: Alone in the White House'' (2002).
* Wicker, Tom. ''One of Us: Richard Nixon and the American Dream'' (1991).


<ref name="Goh-Small">Goh, Evelyn. "The China card" in {{harvnb|Small|pp=425–443}}.</ref>
===Specialized studies===
* Hal W. Bochin; ''Richard Nixon: Rhetorical Strategist'' Greenwood Press, 1990
* Friedman, Leon and William F. Levantrosser, eds. ''Richard M. Nixon: Politician, President, Administrator'' (1991), essays.
* Genovese, Michael A. ''The Nixon Presidency: Power and Politics in Turbulent Times'' (1990).
* John Robert Greene. ''The Limits of Power: The Nixon and Ford Administrations'' (1992)
* Gellman, Irwin. ''The Contender: Richard Nixon: The Congress Years, 1946 to 1952'' (1999).
* Reichley, A. James. ''Conservatives in an Age of Change: The Nixon and Ford Administrations'' (1981), detailed narrative.
* Small, Melvin. ''The Presidency of Richard Nixon'' (2003).
* Summers, Anthony. ''The Arrogance of Power The Secret World of Richard Nixon'' (2000).
* White, Theodore. ''The Making of the President 1968 : A narrative History of American politics in Action'' (1969)
* White, Theodore. ''The Making of the President, 1972'' (1973)


<ref name="Hanhimäki-Small">Hanhimäki, Jussi M. "Foreign Policy Overview" in {{harvnb|Small|pp=345–361}}.</ref>
====Foreign Policy and Vietnam====
* Andreas W. Daum et al., eds. ''America, the Vietnam War, and the World : Comparative and International Perspectives'' (Publications of the German Historical Institute) (2003)
* Jeffrey P. Kimball. ''Nixon's Vietnam War'' (2002
* Levantrosser, William F. ed. ''Cold War Patriot and Statesman, Richard M. Nixon'' (1993), essays by scholars and senior officials.
* Thornton, Richard C. ''The Nixon-Kissinger Years: Reshaping America's Foreign Policy'' (1989).
====Domestic Policy====
* Flippen, J. Brooks. ''Nixon and the Environment'' (2000).
* Vincent J. Burke. ''Nixon's Good Deed: Welfare Reform'' (1974)* J. Larry Hood, "The Nixon Administration and the Revised Philadelphia Plan for Affirmative Action: A Study in Expanding Presidential Power and Divided Government;' ''Presidential Studies Quarterly'' 23 (Winter 1993): 145-67;
* Dean J. Kotlowski; "Richard Nixon and the Origins of Affirmative Action" ''The Historian''. Volume: 60. Issue: 3. 1998. pp 523+.
* Lawrence J. McAndrews; "The Politics of Principle: Richard Nixon and School Desegregation" ''The Journal of Negro History'', Vol. 83 #3, 1998 pp 187+
* Kenneth O'Reilly. ''Nixon's Piano: Presidents and Racial Politics from Washingtion to Clinton'' (1995)
* Allen J. Matusow. ''Nixon's Economy: Booms, Busts, Dollars, and Votes'' (1998)


<ref name="Bowles-Small">Bowles, Nigel. "Economic Policy" in {{harvnb|Small|pp=235–251}}.</ref>
===Watergate===
* Friedman, Leon and William F. Levantrosser, eds. ''Watergate and Afterward: The Legacy of Richard M. Nixon'' (1992), essays.
* Kutler, Stanley I. "'The Wars of Watergate: The Last Crisis of Richard Nixon.'' (1990).
* Michael Schudson. ''Watergate in American Memory: How We Remember, Forget, and Reconstruct the Past'' (1993)


<ref name="Mason-Small">Mason, Robert "Political realignment" in {{harvnb|Small|pp=252–269}}.</ref>


<ref name="Milazzo-Small">Milazzo, Paul Charles. "Nixon and the Environment" in {{harvnb|Small|pp=270–291}}.</ref>
===Notes===

<references/>
<ref name="Olson-Small">Olson, Keith W. "Watergate" in {{harvnb|Small|pp=481–496}}.</ref>
</div>

<ref name="Safire pp205–209">{{harvnb|Safire|pp=}}</ref>
}}

=== Print sources ===
{{refbegin}}
{{divcol}}
* {{cite book
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| authorlink = Jonathan Aitken
| year = 1996
| title = Nixon: A Life
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| publisher = Regnery Publishing
| location = Washington, D.C.
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| ref = {{sfnRef|Aitken}}
}}
* {{cite book
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| authorlink = Stephen E. Ambrose
| year = 1987
| title = Nixon: The Education of a Politician 1913–1962
| volume = I
| url = https://archive.org/details/nixon00ambr
| publisher = Simon & Schuster
| location = New York
| isbn = 978-0-671-52836-2
| url-access = registration
}}
* {{cite book
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| first = Stephen E.
| year = 1989
| title = Nixon: The Triumph of a Politician 1962–1972
| volume = II
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| publisher = Simon & Schuster
| location = New York
| isbn = 978-0-671-72506-8
| url-access = registration
}}
* {{cite book
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| first = Stephen E.
| year = 1991
| title = Nixon: Ruin and Recovery 1973–1990
| volume = III
| url = https://archive.org/details/nixon00ambr
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| location = New York
| isbn = 978-0-671-69188-2
| url-access = registration
}}
* {{cite book
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| publisher = HarperCollins
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| isbn = 978-0-06-092178-1
}}
* {{cite book
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}}
* {{cite book
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| year = 2007
| authorlink = Conrad Black
| title = Richard M. Nixon: A Life in Full
| publisher = PublicAffairs Books
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}}
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}}
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| ref = {{sfnRef|Boger}}
}}
* {{cite book
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}}
* {{cite book
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}}
* {{cite book
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| publisher = Random House
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}}
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}}
* {{cite book |last1=Farrell |first1=John A. |authorlink=John A. Farrell |title=Richard Nixon: The Life |date=2017 |publisher=Penguin Random House |isbn=9780345804969 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=oupUDwAAQBAJ |edition=eBook| ref = {{sfnRef|Farrell}} }}
* {{cite book
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}}
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| location = New York
| isbn = 978-0-393-92784-9
| ref = {{sfnRef|Foner}}
}}
* {{cite book
| last = Frick
| first = Daniel
| year = 2008
| title = Reinventing Richard Nixon
| publisher = University of Kansas Press
| location = Lawrence, Kans.
| isbn = 978-0-7006-1599-5
| ref = {{sfnRef|Frick}}
| url-access = registration
| url = https://archive.org/details/reinventingricha0000fric
}}
* {{cite book
| last = Frum
| first = David
| authorlink = David Frum
| year = 2000
| title = How We Got Here: The '70s
| publisher = Basic Books
| location = New York
| isbn = 978-0-465-04195-4
| ref = {{sfnRef|Frum}}
| url = https://archive.org/details/howwegothere70sd00frum
}}
* {{cite book
| last = Gaddis
| first = John Lewis
| authorlink = John Lewis Gaddis
| year = 1982
| title = Strategies of Containment: A Critical Appraisal of Postwar American National Security Policy
| publisher = Oxford University Press
| location = Oxford
| isbn = 978-0-19-503097-6
| ref = {{sfnRef|Gaddis}}
| url = https://archive.org/details/strategiesofcon000gadd
}}
* {{cite book
| last = Gellman
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| title = The Contender
| url = https://archive.org/details/contenderrichard00gellrich
| url-access = registration
| publisher = The Free Press
| isbn = 978-1-4165-7255-8
| location = New York
| ref = {{sfnRef|Gellman}}
}}
* Greenberg, David. ''Nixon's Shadow: The History of an Image'' (2003). Important study of how Nixon was perceived by media and scholars.
* Hall, Mitchell K. ed. ''Historical Dictionary of the Nixon-Ford Era'' (2008) 285pp
* {{cite book
| last = Hepplewhite
| first = T.A.
| year = 1999
| title = The Space Shuttle Decision: NASA's Search for a Reusable Space Vehicle
| publisher = NASA History Office
| location = Washington D.C.
| url = https://history.nasa.gov/SP-4221/sp4221.htm
| ref = {{sfnRef|Hepplewhite}}
}}
* {{cite book
| last = Hetzel
| first = Robert L.
| year = 2008
| title = The Monetary Policy of the Federal Reserve
| publisher = Cambridge University Press
| location = New York
| isbn = 978-0-521-88132-6
| ref = {{sfnRef|Hetzel}}
}}
* {{cite book
| last = Ingle
| first = H. Larry
| year = 2015
| title = Nixon's First Cover-up: The Religious Life of a Quaker President
| publisher = University of Missouri Press
| location = Columbia, Missouri
| isbn = 978-0-8262-2042-4
| ref = {{sfnRef|Ingle|}}
| url-access = registration
| url = https://archive.org/details/nixonsfirstcover00ingl
}}
* {{cite book
| last = Kornitzer
| first = Bela
| year = 1960
| title = The Real Nixon: An Intimate Biography
| publisher = Rand McNally & Company
| location = New York
| url = https://books.google.com/books?id=Q1V3AAAAMAAJ
| ref = {{sfnRef|Kornitzer}}
}}
* {{cite book
| last = Langguth
| first = A.J.
| authorlink = A. J. Langguth
| year = 2000
| title = Our Vietnam: The War 1954–1975
| publisher = Simon and Schuster
| location = New York
| isbn = 978-0-7432-1244-1
| url = https://archive.org/details/unset0000unse_f6q3
| url-access = registration
| page =
| ref = {{sfnRef|Langguth}}
}}
* Malsberger, John W. ''The General and the Politician: Dwight Eisenhower, Richard Nixon, and American Politics'' (2014)
* {{cite book
| last = Merkley
| first = Paul Charles
| year = 2004
| title = American Presidents, Religion, and Israel: the Heirs of Cyrus
| publisher = Greenwood Publishing Group
| location = Westport, Conn.
| isbn = 978-0-275-98340-6
| url = https://books.google.com/books?id=TP4g-RhUJmcC
| ref = {{sfnRef|Merkley}}
}}
* {{cite book
| last = Morris
| first = Roger
| authorlink = Roger Morris (American writer)
| year = 1990
| title = Richard Milhous Nixon: The Rise of an American Politician
| location = New York
| publisher = Henry Holt & Co
| isbn = 978-0-8050-1834-9
| url = https://books.google.com/books?id=Uw8_HAAACAAJ
| ref = {{sfnRef|Morris}}
}}
* {{cite book
| last = Nixon
| first = Richard
| year = 1978
| title = RN: The Memoirs of Richard Nixon
| publisher = Grosset & Dunlap
| location = New York
| isbn = 978-0-448-14374-3
| url = https://archive.org/details/rnmemoirsofricha00nixo
}}
* {{cite book
| last = Nixon
| first = Richard
| year = 1985
| title = No More Vietnams
| publisher = Arbor House Publishing Company
| location = Westminster, Md.
| isbn = 978-0-87795-668-6
| url = https://archive.org/details/nomorevietnams00nixo
}}
* {{cite book
| last = Parmet
| first = Herbert S.
| year = 1990
| title = Richard Nixon and His America
| publisher = Little, Brown & Co
| location = Boston
| isbn = 978-0-316-69232-8
| ref = {{sfnRef|Parmet}}
| url = https://archive.org/details/richardnixonhisa00parm_0
}}
* {{cite book
| last = Perlstein
| first = Richard
| authorlink = Rick Perlstein
| year = 2008
| title = Nixonland: The Rise of a President and the Fracturing of America
| publisher = Scribner
| location = New York
| isbn = 978-0-7432-4302-5
| title-link = Nixonland: The Rise of a President and the Fracturing of America
}}
* {{cite book
| last = Reeves
| first = Richard
| authorlink = Richard Reeves (American writer)
| year = 2001
| title = President Nixon: Alone in the White House
| publisher = Simon & Schuster
| location = New York
| isbn = 978-0-684-80231-2
| ref = {{sfnRef|Reeves}}
| url = https://archive.org/details/presidentnixonal00reev
}}
* {{cite book
| last = Safire
| first = William
| authorlink = William Safire
| year = 2005
| orig-year = 1975
| title = Before The Fall: An Insider View of the Pre-Watergate White House, with a 2005 Preface by the Author
| publisher = Transaction Publishers
| url = https://books.google.com/books?id=xahIAOPX8JwC
| ref = {{sfnRef|Safire}}
| isbn = 978-1-4128-0466-0
}} Originally published: Garden City, N.Y.: Doubleday, 1975 (new material 2005)
* {{cite book
| editor-last = Small
| editor-first = Melvin
| year = 2011
| title = A Companion to Richard M. Nixon
| publisher = Wiley-Blackwell
| location = Oxford
| isbn = 978-1-4443-3017-5
| url = https://www.questia.com/library/120083897/a-companion-to-richard-m-nixon
| ref = {{sfnRef|Small}}
| editor-link = Melvin Small
}}; Emphasis on historiography
* {{cite book
| last = Schulzinger
| first = Robert D.
| year = 2003
| title = A Companion to American Foreign Relations
| publisher = Blackwell Publishing
| location = Oxford
| isbn = 978-1-4051-4986-0
| ref = {{sfnRef|Schulzinger}}
}}
* {{cite book
| last = Thompson
| first = John B.
| authorlink = John Thompson (sociologist)
| year = 2000
| title = Political Scandal: Power and Visibility in the Media Age
| publisher = Polity Press
| location = Cambridge
| isbn = 978-0-7456-2550-8
| url = https://books.google.com/books?id=PAEwuLjQm4gC
| ref = {{sfnRef|Thompson}}
}}
* {{cite book
| last = Tyler
| first = Patrick
| authorlink = Patrick Tyler
| year = 2010
| title = A World of Trouble: The White House and the Middle East—from the Cold War to the War on Terror
| publisher = Macmillan
| location = New York
}}
* {{cite book
| last = White
| first = Theodore H.
| authorlink = Theodore H. White
| year = 1973
| title = The Making of the President 1972
| url = https://archive.org/details/makingofpresiden1972whit
| url-access = registration
| publisher = Antheneum
| location = New York
| isbn = 978-0-689-10553-1
| ref = {{sfnRef|White}}
}}
{{divcol-end}}
{{refend}}

=== Nixon Library ===
{{refbegin}}
{{divcol}}
* {{cite web
|title = Childhood
|publisher = Richard Nixon Presidential Library and Museum
|work = The Life
|url = http://www.nixonlibrary.gov/thelife/childhood.php
|access-date = July 16, 2011
|ref = {{sfnRef|Nixon Library, Childhood}}
|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20131021194530/http://www.nixonlibrary.gov/thelife/childhood.php
|archive-date = October 21, 2013
|url-status = dead
}}
* {{cite web
|title = A Student & Sailor
|publisher = Richard Nixon Presidential Library and Museum
|work = The Life
|url = http://www.nixonlibrary.gov/thelife/astudentandsailor.php
|access-date = July 16, 2011
|ref = {{sfnRef|Nixon Library, Student & Sailor}}
|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20131021194531/http://www.nixonlibrary.gov/thelife/astudentandsailor.php
|archive-date = October 21, 2013
|url-status = dead
}}
* {{cite web
|title = The Nixon Family
|publisher = Richard Nixon Presidential Library and Museum
|work = The Life
|url = http://www.nixonlibrary.gov/thelife/thenixonfamily.php
|access-date = July 16, 2011
|ref = {{sfnRef|Nixon Library, Nixon Family}}
|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20131021225422/http://www.nixonlibrary.gov/thelife/thenixonfamily.php
|archive-date = October 21, 2013
|url-status = dead
}}
* {{cite web
|title = The Congressman
|publisher = Richard Nixon Presidential Library and Museum
|work = The Life
|url = http://www.nixonlibrary.gov/thelife/apolitician/thecongressman.php
|access-date = July 17, 2011
|ref = {{sfnRef|Nixon Library, Congressman}}
|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20130615041941/http://www.nixonlibrary.gov/thelife/apolitician/thecongressman.php
|archive-date = June 15, 2013
|url-status = dead
}}
* {{cite web
|title = The Senator
|publisher = Richard Nixon Presidential Library and Museum
|work = The Life
|url = http://www.nixonlibrary.gov/thelife/apolitician/thesenator.php
|access-date = July 17, 2011
|ref = {{sfnRef|Nixon Library, Senator}}
|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20130216113442/http://www.nixonlibrary.gov/thelife/apolitician/thesenator.php
|archive-date = February 16, 2013
|url-status = dead
}}
* {{cite web
|title = The Vice President
|publisher = Richard Nixon Presidential Library and Museum
|work = The Life
|url = http://www.nixonlibrary.gov/thelife/apolitician/thevicepresident.php
|access-date = July 17, 2011
|ref = {{sfnRef|Nixon Library, Vice President}}
|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20130615014220/http://www.nixonlibrary.gov/thelife/apolitician/thevicepresident.php
|archive-date = June 15, 2013
|url-status = dead
}}
* {{cite web
|title = The President
|publisher = Richard Nixon Presidential Library and Museum
|work = The Life
|url = http://www.nixonlibrary.gov/thelife/apolitician/thepresident/
|access-date = July 17, 2011
|ref = {{sfnRef|Nixon Library, President}}
|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20121120163546/http://www.nixonlibrary.gov/thelife/apolitician/thepresident/
|archive-date = November 20, 2012
|url-status = dead
}}
* {{cite web
|title = Post Presidency
|publisher = Richard Nixon Presidential Library and Museum
|work = The Life
|url = http://www.nixonlibrary.gov/thelife/postpresidency.php
|access-date = March 5, 2012
|ref = {{sfnRef|Nixon Library, Post Presidency}}
|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20131021194537/http://www.nixonlibrary.gov/thelife/postpresidency.php
|archive-date = October 21, 2013
|url-status = dead
}}
* {{cite web
| last = Lee
| first = Meghan
| url = https://www.nixonlibrary.gov/sites/default/files/forresearchers/find/textual/findingaids/findingaid_nixonfamily.pdf
| date = June 22, 2004
| title = Guide to the Nixon Family Collection (1909–1967)
| publisher = Richard Nixon Presidential Library and Museum
| ref = {{sfnRef|Nixon Library, Family Collection Guide}}
}}
{{divcol-end}}
{{refend}}

=== Other sources ===
{{refbegin}}
{{divcol}}
* {{Cite book |last=Bass |first=Gary J. |author-link=Gary J. Bass |year=2013 |title=The Blood Telegram: Nixon, Kissinger, and a Forgotten Genocide |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=9PnNZTp3BQYC&pg=PT28 |location=New York |publisher=Alfred A. Knopf |isbn=978-0-307-70020-9}}
* * {{Cite book |last=Black |first=Conrad |year=2007 |title=Richard M. Nixon: A Life in Full |publisher=PublicAffairs |location=New York |isbn=9781586486747}}
* {{Cite news
| title = 1972: President Nixon arrives in Moscow
| publisher = BBC
| date = June 11, 2004
| url = http://news.bbc.co.uk/onthisday/hi/dates/stories/may/22/newsid_4373000/4373149.stm
| access-date = July 17, 2011
| ref = {{sfnRef|BBC|1972-05-22}}
}}
* {{Cite news
| title = Reagan funeral: Schedule of events
| publisher = BBC
| date = June 11, 2004
| url = http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/americas/3783085.stm
| access-date = May 11, 2012
| ref = {{sfnRef|BBC|2004-06-11}}
}}
* {{cite news
| last = Delaney
| first = Paul
| date = July 20, 1970
| newspaper = The New York Times
| title = Nixon Plan for Negro Construction Jobs Is Lagging
| page = 1
| url = http://select.nytimes.com/gst/abstract.html?res=F20813F7355A1B7493C2AB178CD85F448785F9
| ref = {{sfnRef|Delaney|1970-07-20}}
}}
* {{cite news
| newspaper = ]
| date = April 27, 1994
| title = Mourners pay last respects to Nixon
| page = 1
| url = https://news.google.com/newspapers?id=i_RHAAAAIBAJ&dq=nixon%20funeral&pg=6218%2C5816141
| access-date = July 16, 2011
| ref = {{sfnRef|''The Deseret News''|1994-04-27}}
}}
* {{cite news
| last = Steel
| first = Ronald
| authorlink = Ronald Steel
| date = May 25, 2003
| newspaper = The New York Times
| title = The World: New Chapter, Old Debate; Would Kennedy Have Quit Vietnam?
| url = https://www.nytimes.com/2003/05/25/weekinreview/the-world-new-chapter-old-debate-would-kennedy-have-quit-vietnam.html
| access-date = July 17, 2011
| ref = {{sfnRef|Steel|2003-05-25}}
}}
* {{cite news
| last = Wicker
| first = Tom
| authorlink = Tom Wicker
| date = April 24, 1994
| newspaper = The New York Times
| title = From afar: An indomitable man, an incurable loneliness
| url = https://www.nytimes.com/1994/04/24/weekinreview/from-afar-an-indomitable-man-an-incurable-loneliness.html
| access-date = August 7, 2011
| ref = {{sfnRef|Wicker|1994-04-24}}
}}
* {{cite news
| last = Kilpatrick
| first = Carroll
| date = November 18, 1973
| newspaper = The Washington Post
| title = Nixon tells editors, 'I'm not a crook'
| url = https://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-srv/national/longterm/watergate/articles/111873-1.htm
| access-date = July 17, 2011
| ref = {{sfnRef|Kilpatrick|1973-11-18}}
}}
* {{cite news
| newspaper = The Washington Post
| title = The Post Investigates
| series = The Watergate Story
| url = https://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-srv/politics/special/watergate/part1.html
| access-date = July 17, 2011
| ref = {{sfnRef|''The Washington Post'', The Post Investigates}}
}}
* {{cite news
| newspaper = The Washington Post
| title = The Government Acts
| series = The Watergate Story
| url = https://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-srv/politics/special/watergate/part2.html
| access-date = July 16, 2011
| ref = {{sfnRef|''The Washington Post'', The Government Acts}}
}}
* {{cite news
| newspaper = The Washington Post
| title = Nixon Resigns
| series = The Watergate Story
| url = https://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-srv/politics/special/watergate/part3.html
| access-date = July 16, 2011
| ref = {{sfnRef|''The Washington Post'', Nixon Resigns}}
}}
* {{cite news
| last1 = Weil
| first1 = Martin
| last2 = Randolph
| first2 = Eleanor
| date = April 23, 1994
| newspaper = The Washington Post
| page = A01
| title = Richard M. Nixon, 37th President, dies
| url = https://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2002/06/11/AR2005112200809.html
| access-date = July 16, 2011
| ref = {{sfnRef|Weil & Randolph|1994-04-23}}
}}
* {{cite news
| last1 = Lardner
| first1 = George Jr.
| last2 = Dobbs
| first2 = Michael
| date = October 6, 1999
| newspaper = The Washington Post
| page = A31
| title = New tapes reveal depth of Nixon's anti-Semitism
| url = https://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-srv/politics/daily/oct99/nixon6.htm
| access-date = April 4, 2011
| ref = {{sfnRef|Lardner & Dobbs}}
}}
* {{cite news
|last = Carlson
|first = Peter
|date = November 17, 2000
|newspaper = The Washington Post
|page = A01
|title = Another Race to the Finish
|ref = {{sfnRef|Carlson|2000-11-17}}
}}
* {{cite news
| title = 8,000 Move Into Cambodia
| newspaper = ]
| agency = AP (Saigon)
| date = May 1, 1970
| page = 20–A
| url = https://news.google.com/newspapers?id=utwLAAAAIBAJ&pg=7133%2C160415
| ref = {{sfnRef|AP/''St. Peterburg Independent''}}
}}
* {{cite news
| title = Nixon Up Early, See Protesters
| agency = UPI
| newspaper = Beaver County Times
| date = May 9, 1970
| location = Pennsylvania
| page = one
| url = https://news.google.com/newspapers?id=FGwyAAAAIBAJ&pg=1864%2C2379598
| ref = {{sfnRef|UPI/''Beaver County Times''|1970-05-09}}
}}
* {{cite magazine
| last = Greene
| first = Bob
| authorlink = Bob Greene
| date = April 8, 2002
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| title = What Nixon's best friend couldn't buy
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| access-date = July 16, 2011
| ref = {{sfnRef|Greene}}
}}
* {{cite magazine
| last = Greider
| first = William
| date = November 10, 1983
| title = The McGovern factor
| magazine = ]
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| ref = {{sfnRef|Greider|1983-10-10}}
}}
* {{cite magazine
| last1 = Kiernan
| first1 = Ben
| authorlink = Ben Kiernan
| last2 = Owen
| first2 = Taylor
| date = October 2006
| title = Bombs over Cambodia
| magazine = The Walrus
| url = http://www.yale.edu/cgp/Walrus_CambodiaBombing_OCT06.pdf
| access-date = January 29, 2012
| ref = {{sfnRef|Kiernan & Owen}}
}}
* {{cite magazine
| last = Noah
| first = Timothy
| authorlink = Timothy Noah
| date = October 7, 1999
| magazine = ]
| title = Nixon: I Am Not an Anti-Semite
| url = http://www.slate.com/articles/news_and_politics/chatterbox/1999/10/nixon_i_am_not_an_antisemite.html
| access-date = May 11, 2012
| ref = {{sfnRef|Noah|1999-10-07}}
}}
* {{cite magazine
| last = Sawhill
| first = Ray
| date = February 2011
| title = The Fall and Rise of an American President
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| url = http://www.operanews.com/Opera_News_Magazine/2011/2/Features/The_Fall_and_Rise_of_an_American_President.html
| access-date = July 16, 2011
| ref = {{sfnRef|Sawhill|2011-02}}
}}
* {{cite magazine
| magazine = ]
| date = April 5, 1971
| title = Again, the Credibility Gap?
| url = http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,876891,00.html
| archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20081221212832/http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,876891,00.html
| url-status = dead
| archive-date = December 21, 2008
| access-date = July 29, 2011
| ref = {{sfnRef|''Time''|1971-04-05}}
}}
* {{cite magazine
| magazine = ]
| date = August 14, 1972
| title = Behavior: Evaluating Eagleton
| url = http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,906223,00.html
| archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20080102000612/http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,906223,00.html
| url-status = dead
| archive-date = January 2, 2008
| access-date = July 23, 2011
| ref = {{sfnRef|''Time''|1972-08-14}}
}}
* {{cite magazine
| magazine = ]
| date = November 20, 1972
| title = Democrats: The long journey to disaster
| url = http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,712186,00.html
| archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20080421063556/http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,712186,00.html
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| access-date = July 23, 2011
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}}
* {{cite journal
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}}
* {{cite magazine
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| magazine = ]
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| archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20110122202901/http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,980651,00.html
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| access-date = July 16, 2011
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}}
* {{cite magazine
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| first = Lance
| date = September 30, 1996
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| title = Naysayer to the nattering nabobs
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| archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20061110050539/http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,985217,00.html
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}}
* {{cite web
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}}
* {{cite web
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}}
* {{cite web
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}}
* {{cite web
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}}
* {{cite web
|title=American President: Richard Milhous Nixon (1913–1994), Foreign Affairs
|publisher=Miller Center for Public Affairs, University of Virginia
|url=http://millercenter.org/president/nixon/essays/biography/5
|access-date=July 17, 2011
|ref={{sfnRef|Miller Center}}
|url-status=dead
|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110811201550/http://millercenter.org/president/nixon/essays/biography/5
|archive-date=August 11, 2011
}}
* {{cite web
| publisher = ]
| title = Richard M. Nixon Birthplace
| url = http://www.nps.gov/history/nr/travel/presidents/nixon_birthplace.html
| access-date = May 11, 2012
| ref = {{sfnRef|NPS, Nixon Birthplace}}
}}
* {{cite web
|title=Commander Richard M. Nixon, USNR
|work=Naval Historical Center
|publisher=United States Navy
|date=August 7, 2006
|url=http://www.history.navy.mil/faqs/faq60-8.htm
|access-date=July 16, 2011
|ref={{sfnRef|Naval Historical Center, Commander Nixon}}
|url-status=dead
|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110816114029/http://www.history.navy.mil/faqs/faq60-8.htm
|archive-date=August 16, 2011
}}
* {{cite web
| last = Nixon
| first = Richard
| date = August 8, 1974
| title = President Nixon's Resignation Speech
| publisher = Public Broadcasting Service
| work = Character Above All
| url = https://www.pbs.org/newshour/character/links/nixon_speech.html
| access-date = July 15, 2011
| ref = {{sfnRef|PBS, Resignation Speech}}
| archive-date = July 18, 2011
| archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20110718133421/http://www.pbs.org/newshour/character/links/nixon_speech.html
| url-status = dead
}}
* {{cite web
| title = The Nixon Visit (February 21–28, 1972)
| publisher = Public Broadcasting Service
| work = American Experience
| url = https://www.pbs.org/wgbh/amex/china/sfeature/nixon.html
| access-date = July 17, 2011
| ref = {{sfnRef|PBS, The Nixon Visit}}
}}
* {{cite web
| title = Richard M. Nixon, Domestic Politics
| publisher = Public Broadcasting Service
| work = American Experience
| url = https://www.pbs.org/wgbh/americanexperience/features/general-article/nixon-domestic/
| access-date = May 11, 2012
| ref = {{sfnRef|PBS, Nixon, Domestic Politics}}
| archive-date = May 23, 2012
| archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20120523191923/http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/americanexperience/features/general-article/nixon-domestic/
| url-status = dead
}}
* {{cite web
| last = Sabia
| first = Joseph J.
| url = http://hnn.us/articles/5331.html
| title = Why Richard Nixon Deserves to Be Remembered Along with ''Brown''
| publisher = History News Network
| date = May 31, 2004
| access-date = May 11, 2012
| ref = {{sfnRef|Sabia}}
}}
* {{cite web
| publisher = United Press International
| work = 1960 Year In Review
| title = Kennedy Wins 1960 Presidential Election
| url = http://www.upi.com/Audio/Year_in_Review/Events-of-1960/Kennedy-Wins-1960-Presidential-Election/12295509435928-8/
| access-date = July 17, 2011
| ref = {{sfnRef|UPI 1960 in Review}}
}}
* {{cite web
| publisher = United Press International
| work = 1968 Year in Review
| title = 1968 Presidential Election
| url = http://www.upi.com/Audio/Year_in_Review/Events-of-1968/1968-Presidential-Election/12303153093431-2/
| access-date = July 16, 2011
| ref = {{sfnRef|UPI 1968 in Review}}
}}
* {{cite web
| publisher = United Press International
| work = 1969 Year in Review
| title = Nixon Becomes President
| url = http://www.upi.com/Audio/Year_in_Review/Events-of-1969/War-Protests/12303189849225-3/
| access-date = July 16, 2011
| ref = {{sfnRef|UPI 1969 in Review}}
}}
* {{cite web
| url = http://about.usps.com/who-we-are/postal-history/periodicals-postage-history.pdf
| title = Postage rates for periodicals: A narrative history
| publisher = ]
| access-date = August 6, 2011
| ref = {{sfnRef|USPS, Periodicals postage}}
| archive-date = July 30, 2013
| archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20130730162257/http://about.usps.com/who-we-are/postal-history/periodicals-postage-history.pdf
| url-status = dead
}}
* {{cite book
| author = Office of the Federal Register
| title = Public Papers of the Presidents of the United States, Richard Nixon, 1971
| chapter = New Actions To Prevent Illnesses And Accidents
| year = 1999
| publisher = National Archives and Records Service
| chapter-url = https://books.google.com/books?id=r2qRyBmB15EC&pg=PA180
| isbn = 978-0-16-058863-1
| ref = {{sfnRef|Office of the Federal Register}}
}}
* {{cite web
| title = Statement on Signing the National Sickle Cell Anemia Control Act
| date = May 16, 1972
| work = The American Presidency Project
| publisher = University of California, Santa Barbara
| url = http://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/ws/index.php?pid=3413
| ref = {{sfnRef|The American Presidency Project}}
}}
* {{cite web
|author=<nowiki>National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute</nowiki>
|publisher=National Institutes of Health
|date=September 2002
|title=Sickle Cell Research for Treatment and Cure
|url=http://www.nhlbi.nih.gov/resources/docs/scd30/scd30.pdf
|id=02-5214
|ref={{sfnRef|National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute}}
|url-status=dead
|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120131185453/http://www.nhlbi.nih.gov/resources/docs/scd30/scd30.pdf
|archive-date=January 31, 2012
}}
* {{cite book
| last = Wailoo
| first = Keith
| year = 2001
| publisher = University of North Carolina Press
| title = Dying in the City of the Blues: Sickle Cell Anemia and the Politics of Race and Health
| url = https://archive.org/details/dyingincityofblu00keit
| url-access = registration
| page =
| isbn = 978-0-8078-4896-8
| ref = {{sfnRef|Wailoo}}
}}
* {{cite journal
| year = 1972
| title = Health insurance: hearings on new proposals
| journal = Congressional Quarterly Almanac Plus
| volume = 27
| location = Washington, D.C.
| publisher= Congressional Quarterly
| pages = 541–544
| issn = 0095-6007
| oclc = 1564784
| ref = {{sfnRef|NHI: CQ Almanac 1971}}
}}
* {{cite journal
| year = 1974
| title = Limited experimental health bill enacted
| journal = Congressional Quarterly Almanac Plus
| volume = 29 | location = Washington, D.C.
| publisher= Congressional Quarterly
| pages = 499–508
| issn = 0095-6007
| oclc = 1564784
| ref = {{sfnRef|HMO: CQ Almanac 1973}}
}}
* {{cite journal
| year = 1975
| title = National health insurance: no action in 1974
| journal = Congressional Quarterly Almanac Plus
| volume = 30 | location = Washington, D.C.
| publisher= Congressional Quarterly
| pages = 386–394
| issn = 0095-6007
| oclc = 1564784
| ref = {{sfnRef|NHI: CQ Almanac 1974}}
}}
* {{cite web
| url = http://www.taxhistory.org/thp/readings.nsf/cf7c9c870b600b9585256df80075b9dd/f8723e3606cd79ec85256ff6006f82c3?OpenDocument
| title = President Nixon's Troublesome Tax Returns
| last = Samson
| first = William
| year = 2005
| publisher = TaxAnalysts
| access-date = December 20, 2013
| ref = {{sfnRef|Samson}}
}}
* {{cite web
| url = http://www.csmonitor.com/USA/DC-Decoder/Decoder-Wire/2011/0418/Tax-Day-2011-Why-do-presidents-release-tax-returns-Hint-I-am-not-a
| title = Tax Day 2011: Why do presidents release tax returns?
| last = Grier
| first = Peter
| year = 2011
| work = ]
| access-date = December 20, 2013
}}
{{divcol-end}}
{{refend}}

== Further reading ==
* {{cite book |last=Li |first=Victor |title=Nixon in New York: How Wall Street Helped Richard Nixon Win the White House |publisher=Fairleigh Dickinson University Press |location=Madison, NJ |year=2018 |isbn=978-1-68393-000-6}}
* {{cite book |last=Thomas |first=Evan |authorlink=Evan Thomas |title=Being Nixon: A Man Divided |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ZFoDBwAAQBAJ |publisher=Random House |location=New York |year=2015 |isbn=978-0-8129-9536-7 |oclc=904756092}}


==External links== ==External links==
{{sister project links|Richard Nixon}}
{{wikisource author}}

{{wikiquote}}
===Official websites===
{{Commons}}
* *
*
* {{gutenberg author|id=Richard_Milhous_Nixon|name=Richard Nixon}}
* *

* {{imdb name|id=0633271|name=Richard Nixon}}
===Media coverage===
* {{New York Times topic}}
* {{C-SPAN}}
** , from ]'s '']'', November 19, 1999

===Other===
* {{CongBio|N000116}} * {{CongBio|N000116}}
* from the ]
*
* from the Library of Congress
*
* , an ] documentary
*
* {{Internet Archive author |sname=Richard Milhous Nixon}}
* Nixon's 1972 Campaign Jingle video
* {{Librivox author |id=10724}}
* 1956 Democratic Campaign Ad video
* *
* {{IMDb name}}
*
* {{Gutenberg author|id=1668}}
*
*
*
* Developed by the Yorba Linda Public Library. Includes newspaper articles about Nixon from the''Yorba Linda Star''.
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Latest revision as of 06:03, 5 January 2025

President of the United States from 1969 to 1974 "Nixon" redirects here. For other uses, see Nixon (disambiguation) and Richard Nixon (disambiguation).

Richard Nixon
Presidential portrait of Richard NixonOfficial portrait, 1972
37th President of the United States
In office
January 20, 1969 – August 9, 1974
Vice President
  • Spiro Agnew (1969–1973)
  • None (Oct–Dec 1973)
  • Gerald Ford (1973–1974)
Preceded byLyndon B. Johnson
Succeeded byGerald Ford
36th Vice President of the United States
In office
January 20, 1953 – January 20, 1961
PresidentDwight D. Eisenhower
Preceded byAlben W. Barkley
Succeeded byLyndon B. Johnson
United States Senator
from California
In office
December 1, 1950 – January 1, 1953
Preceded bySheridan Downey
Succeeded byThomas Kuchel
Member of the U.S. House of Representatives
from California's 12th district
In office
January 3, 1947 – November 30, 1950
Preceded byJerry Voorhis
Succeeded byPatrick J. Hillings
Personal details
BornRichard Milhous Nixon
(1913-01-09)January 9, 1913
Yorba Linda, California, U.S.
DiedApril 22, 1994(1994-04-22) (aged 81)
New York City, U.S.
Resting placeRichard Nixon Presidential Library and Museum
Political partyRepublican
Spouse Pat Ryan ​ ​(m. 1940; died 1993)​
Children
Parents
Education
Occupation
  • Author
  • lawyer
  • politician
SignatureCursive signature in ink
Military service
Branch/serviceUnited States Navy
Years of service
  • 1942–1946 (active)
  • 1946–1966 (inactive)
RankCommander
Battles/warsWorld War II (Pacific War)
Awards
Richard Nixon's voice Nixon speaks on peace in Vietnam
Recorded November 3, 1969
This article is part of
a series aboutRichard Nixon
Pre-vice presidency
36th Vice President of the United States
Post-vice presidency
37th President of the United States
Judicial appointments
Policies
First term
Second term
Impeachment process
Post-presidency
Presidential campaigns
Vice presidential campaigns
Seal of the President of the United States

Richard Milhous Nixon (January 9, 1913 – April 22, 1994) was the 37th president of the United States, serving from 1969 until his resignation in 1974. A member of the Republican Party, he previously served as a representative and senator from California and as the 36th vice president from 1953 to 1961 under President Dwight D. Eisenhower. His presidency saw the reduction of U.S. involvement in the Vietnam War, détente with the Soviet Union and China, the Apollo 11 Moon landing, and the establishment of the Environmental Protection Agency and Occupational Safety and Health Administration. Nixon's second term ended early when he became the only U.S. president to resign from office, as a result of the Watergate scandal.

Nixon was born into a poor family of Quakers in Yorba Linda, Southern California. He graduated with a Bachelor of Arts degree from Whittier College in 1934 and a Juris Doctor from Duke University in 1937, practiced law in California, and then moved with his wife Pat to Washington, D.C., in 1942 to work for the federal government. After serving active duty in the Naval Reserve during World War II, he was elected to the House of Representatives in 1946. His work on the Alger Hiss case established his reputation as a leading anti-communist. In 1950, he was elected to the Senate. Nixon was the running mate of Eisenhower, the Republican Party's presidential nominee in the 1952 election, and served for eight years as vice president. He narrowly lost the 1960 presidential election to John F. Kennedy. After his loss in the 1962 race for governor of California, he announced his retirement from politics. However, in 1968, he made another run for the presidency and narrowly defeated the Democratic incumbent vice president Hubert Humphrey.

Seeking to bring the North Vietnamese to the negotiating table, Nixon ordered military operations and carpet bombing campaigns in Cambodia. He covertly aided Pakistan during the Bangladesh Liberation War in 1971 and ended American combat involvement in Vietnam in 1973 and the military draft the same year. His visit to China in 1972 eventually led to diplomatic relations between the two nations, and he then finalized the Anti-Ballistic Missile Treaty with the Soviet Union. Domestically, Nixon pushed for the Controlled Substances Act and began the war on drugs. Nixon's first term took place at the height of the American environmental movement and enacted many progressive environmental policy shifts; his administration created the Environmental Protection Agency and passed legislation such as the Endangered Species Act and the Clean Air Acts. He implemented the ratified Twenty-sixth Amendment, which lowered the voting age from 21 to 18, and enforced the desegregation of Southern schools. Under Nixon, relations with Native Americans improved, seeing an increase in self-determination for Native Americans and his administration rescinded the termination policy. Nixon imposed wage and price controls for 90 days, began the war on cancer, and presided over the Apollo 11 Moon landing, which signaled the end of the Space Race. He was re-elected in 1972, when he defeated George McGovern in one of the largest landslide victories in American history.

In his second term, Nixon ordered an airlift to resupply Israeli materiel losses in the Yom Kippur War, a conflict which led to the oil crisis at home. From 1973, ongoing revelations from the Nixon administration's involvement in Watergate eroded his support in Congress and the country. The scandal began with a break-in at the Democratic National Committee office, ordered by administration officials, and escalated despite cover-up efforts by the Nixon administration, of which he was aware. On August 9, 1974, facing almost certain impeachment and removal from office, Nixon resigned. Afterward, he was issued a controversial pardon by his successor, Gerald Ford. During nearly 20 years of retirement, Nixon wrote nine books and undertook many foreign trips, rehabilitating his image into that of an elder statesman and leading expert on foreign affairs. On April 18, 1994, he suffered a debilitating stroke, and died four days later. Rankings of his time in office have proven complex, with the successes of his presidency contrasted against the circumstances of both his ascension and his departure from office.

Early life and education

Nixon (second from right) makes his newspaper debut in 1916, contributing five cents to a fund for World War I orphans; his brother Donald is to his right.

Richard Milhous Nixon was born on January 9, 1913, in what was then the township precinct of Yorba Linda, California, in a house built by his father, on his family's lemon ranch. His parents were Francis A. Nixon and Hannah (Milhous) Nixon. His mother was a Quaker, and his father converted from Methodism to the Quaker faith. Through his mother, Nixon was a descendant of the early English settler Thomas Cornell.

Nixon's upbringing was influenced by Quaker observances of the time such as abstinence from alcohol, dancing, and swearing. He had four brothers: Harold (1909–1933), Donald (1914–1987), Arthur (1918–1925), and Edward (1930– 2019). Four of the five Nixon boys were named after historic British kings; Richard, for example, was named after Richard the Lionheart.

Nixon's early life was marked by hardship, and he later quoted Dwight Eisenhower in describing his boyhood: "We were poor, but the glory of it was we didn't know it". The Nixon family ranch failed in 1922, and the family moved to Whittier, California. In an area of East Whittier with many Quakers, Frank Nixon opened a grocery store and gas station at what is now the corner of Whittier Boulevard and Santa Gertrudes Avenue. During this time period, the Nixon family attended East Whittier Friends Church. Richard's younger brother Arthur died in 1925 at the age of seven after a short illness. Richard was 12 years old when a spot was found on his lung; with a family history of tuberculosis, he was forbidden to play sports. The spot turned out to be scar tissue from an early bout of pneumonia.

Primary and secondary education

Nixon as a senior at Whittier High School in 1930

Nixon attended East Whittier Elementary School, where he was president of his eighth-grade class. His older brother Harold had attended Whittier High School, which his parents thought resulted in Harold's dissolute lifestyle, before he contracted tuberculosis (that killed him in 1933). They decided to send Nixon to the larger Fullerton Union High School. Though he had to ride a school bus an hour each way during his freshman year, he attained excellent grades. Later, he lived with an aunt in Fullerton during the week. He played junior varsity football, and seldom missed a practice, though he rarely was used in games. He had greater success as a debater, winning a number of championships and taking his only formal tutelage in public speaking from Fullerton's Head of English, H. Lynn Sheller. Nixon later mused on Sheller's words, "Remember, speaking is conversation...don't shout at people. Talk to them. Converse with them." Nixon said he tried to use a conversational tone as much as possible.

At the start of his junior year in September 1928, Nixon's parents permitted him to transfer to Whittier High School. At Whittier, Nixon lost a bid for student body president—his first electoral defeat. He often rose at 4 a.m. to drive the family truck to Los Angeles to purchase vegetables at the market and then drove to the store to wash and display them before going to school. Harold was diagnosed with tuberculosis the previous year; when their mother took him to Arizona hoping to improve his health, the demands on Nixon increased, causing him to give up football. Nevertheless, Nixon graduated from Whittier High third in his class of 207.

College and law school

Nixon was offered a tuition grant to attend Harvard University, but with Harold's continued illness requiring his mother's care, Richard was needed at the store. He remained in his hometown, and enrolled at Whittier College in September 1930. His expenses were met by his maternal grandfather. Nixon played for the basketball team; he also tried out for football, and though he lacked the size to play, he remained on the team as a substitute and was noted for his enthusiasm. Instead of fraternities and sororities, Whittier had literary societies. Nixon was snubbed by the only one for men, the Franklins, many of whom were from prominent families, unlike Nixon. He responded by helping to found a new society, the Orthogonian Society. In addition to the society, his studies, and work at the store, Nixon engaged in several extracurricular activities; he was a champion debater and hard worker. In 1933, he was engaged to Ola Florence Welch, daughter of the Whittier police chief, but they broke up in 1935.

After graduating summa cum laude with a Bachelor of Arts degree in history from Whittier in 1934, Nixon was accepted at the new Duke University School of Law, which offered scholarships to top students, including Nixon. It paid high salaries to its professors, many of whom had national or international reputations. The number of scholarships was greatly reduced for second- and third-year students, creating intense competition. Nixon kept his scholarship, was elected president of the Duke Bar Association, inducted into the Order of the Coif, and graduated third in his class in June 1937.

Early career and marriage

Nixon's family: Julie and David Eisenhower, President Nixon, First Lady Pat Nixon, Tricia, and Edward Cox on December 24, 1971

After graduating from Duke, Nixon initially hoped to join the FBI. He received no response to his letter of application, and learned years later that he had been hired, but his appointment had been canceled at the last minute due to budget cuts. He was admitted to the California bar in 1937, and began practicing in Whittier with the law firm Wingert and Bewley in the National Bank of Whittier Building. His work concentrated on commercial litigation for local petroleum companies and other corporate matters, as well as on wills. Nixon was reluctant to work on divorce cases, disliking frank sexual talk from women. In 1938, he opened up his own branch of Wingert and Bewley in La Habra, California, and became a full partner in the firm the following year. In later years, Nixon proudly said he was the only modern president to have previously worked as a practicing attorney. During this period, Nixon was also the president of the Citra-Frost Company, which attempted to produce and sell frozen orange juice, but the company went bankrupt after just 18 months.

In January 1938, Nixon was cast in the Whittier Community Players production of The Dark Tower in which he played opposite his future wife, a high school teacher named Thelma "Pat" Ryan. In his memoirs, Nixon described it as "a case of love at first sight", but apparently for Nixon only, since Pat Ryan turned him down several times before agreeing to date him. Once they began their courtship, Ryan was reluctant to marry Nixon; they dated for two years before she assented to his proposal. They wed in a small ceremony on June 21, 1940. After a honeymoon in Mexico, the Nixons began their married life in Whittier. They had two daughters: Tricia, born in 1946, and Julie, born in 1948.

Military service

Nixon as a lieutenant commander in the United States Navy, c. 1945

In January 1942, the couple moved to the Northern Virginia suburbs, where Nixon took a job at the Office of Price Administration in Washington, D.C. In his political campaigns, Nixon suggested that this was his response to Pearl Harbor, but he had sought the position throughout the latter part of 1941. Both Nixon and his wife believed he was limiting his prospects by remaining in Whittier. He was assigned to the tire rationing division, where he was tasked with replying to correspondence. He did not enjoy the role, and four months later applied to join the United States Navy. Though he could have claimed an exemption from the draft as a birthright Quaker, or a deferral due to his government service, Nixon nevertheless sought a commission in the Navy. His application was approved, and he was appointed a lieutenant junior grade in the United States Naval Reserve on June 15, 1942.

In October 1942, he was given his first assignment as aide to the commander of the Naval Air Station Ottumwa in Wapello County, Iowa, until May 1943. Seeking more excitement, he requested sea duty; on July 2, 1943, he was assigned to Marine Aircraft Group 25 and the South Pacific Combat Air Transport Command (SCAT), where he supported the logistics of operations in the South Pacific theater during World War II.

On October 1, 1943, Nixon was promoted to lieutenant. Nixon commanded the SCAT forward detachments at Vella Lavella, Bougainville, and finally at Nissan Island. His unit prepared manifests and flight plans for R4D/C-47 operations and supervised the loading and unloading of the transport aircraft. For this service, he received a Navy Letter of Commendation, awarded a Navy Commendation Ribbon, which was later updated to the Navy and Marine Corps Commendation Medal, from his commanding officer for "meritorious and efficient performance of duty as Officer in Charge of the South Pacific Combat Air Transport Command". Upon his return to the U.S., Nixon was appointed the administrative officer of the Alameda Naval Air Station in Alameda, California.

In January 1945, he was transferred to the Bureau of Aeronautics office in Philadelphia, where he helped negotiate the termination of World War II contracts, and received his second letter of commendation, from the Secretary of the Navy for "meritorious service, tireless effort, and devotion to duty". Later, Nixon was transferred to other offices to work on contracts, and he moved from the Virginia suburbs of Washington, D.C. to Philadelphia, New York and finally to Baltimore. On October 3, 1945, he was promoted to lieutenant commander. On March 10, 1946, he was relieved of active duty. On June 1, 1953, he was promoted to commander in the U.S. Naval Reserve, and he retired from the U.S. Naval Reserve on June 6, 1966.

While in the Navy, Nixon became a very good five-card stud poker player, helping finance his first congressional campaign with the winnings. In a 1983 interview, he described turning down an invitation to dine with Charles Lindbergh because he was hosting a game.

U.S. House of Representatives (1947–1950)

Further information: 1946 California's 12th congressional district election
Nixon's 1946 congressional campaign flyer

Republicans in California's 12th congressional district were frustrated by their inability to defeat Democratic representative Jerry Voorhis, and they sought a consensus candidate who would run a strong campaign against him. In 1945, they formed a "Committee of 100" to decide on a candidate, hoping to avoid internal dissensions which had led to previous Voorhis victories. After the committee failed to attract higher-profile candidates, Herman Perry, manager of Whittier's Bank of America branch, suggested Nixon, a family friend with whom he had served on Whittier College's board of trustees before the war. Perry wrote to Nixon in Baltimore, and after a night of excited conversation with his wife, Nixon gave Perry an enthused response, confirming that he was registered to vote in California at his parents' Whittier residence. Nixon flew to California and was selected by the committee. When he left the Navy at the start of 1946, Nixon and his wife returned to Whittier, where he began a year of intensive campaigning. He contended that Voorhis had been ineffective as a representative and suggested that Voorhis's endorsement by a group linked to Communists meant that Voorhis must have radical views. Nixon won the election, receiving 65,586 votes to Voorhis's 49,994.

In June 1947, Nixon supported the Taft–Hartley Act, a federal law that monitors the activities and power of labor unions, and he served on the Education and Labor Committee. In August 1947, he became one of 19 House members to serve on the Herter Committee, which went to Europe to report on the need for U.S. foreign aid. Nixon was the youngest member of the committee and the only Westerner. Advocacy by Herter Committee members, including Nixon, led to congressional passage of the Marshall Plan.

In his memoirs, Nixon wrote that he joined the House Un-American Activities Committee (HUAC) "at the end of 1947". However, he was already a HUAC member in early February 1947, when he heard "Enemy Number One" Gerhard Eisler and his sister Ruth Fischer testify. On February 18, 1947, Nixon referred to Eisler's belligerence toward HUAC in his maiden speech to the House. Also by early February 1947, fellow U.S. Representative Charles J. Kersten had introduced him to Father John Francis Cronin in Baltimore. Cronin shared with Nixon his 1945 privately circulated paper "The Problem of American Communism in 1945", with much information from the FBI's William C. Sullivan who by 1961 headed domestic intelligence under J. Edgar Hoover. By May 1948, Nixon had co-sponsored the Mundt–Nixon Bill to implement "a new approach to the complicated problem of internal communist subversion ... It provided for registration of all Communist Party members and required a statement of the source of all printed and broadcast material issued by organizations that were found to be Communist fronts." He served as floor manager for the Republican Party. On May 19, 1948, the bill passed the House by 319 to 58, but later it failed to pass the Senate. The Nixon Library cites this bill's passage as Nixon's first significant victory in Congress.

Nixon in Yorba Linda, California, c. April 1950

Nixon first gained national attention in August 1948, when his persistence as a House Un-American Activities Committee member helped break the Alger Hiss spy case. While many doubted Whittaker Chambers's allegations that Hiss, a former State Department official, had been a Soviet spy, Nixon believed them to be true and pressed for the committee to continue its investigation. After Hiss filed suit, alleging defamation, Chambers produced documents corroborating his allegations, including paper and microfilm copies that Chambers turned over to House investigators after hiding them overnight in a field; they became known as the "Pumpkin Papers". Hiss was convicted of perjury in 1950 for denying under oath he had passed documents to Chambers. In 1948, Nixon successfully cross-filed as a candidate in his district, winning both major party primaries, and was comfortably reelected.

U.S. Senate (1950–1953)

See also: 1950 United States Senate election in California
Nixon campaigning in Sausalito, California, during his 1950 U.S. Senate campaign

In 1949, Nixon began to consider running for the United States Senate against the Democratic incumbent, Sheridan Downey, and entered the race in November. Downey, faced with a bitter primary battle with Representative Helen Gahagan Douglas, announced his retirement in March 1950. Nixon and Douglas won the primary elections and engaged in a contentious campaign in which the ongoing Korean War was a major issue. Nixon tried to focus attention on Douglas's liberal voting record. As part of that effort, a "Pink Sheet" was distributed by the Nixon campaign suggesting that Douglas's voting record was similar to that of New York Congressman Vito Marcantonio, reputed to be a communist, and their political views must be nearly identical. Nixon won the election by almost twenty percentage points. During the campaign, Nixon was first called "Tricky Dick" by his opponents for his campaign tactics.

In the Senate, Nixon took a prominent position in opposing global communism, traveling frequently and speaking out against it. He maintained friendly relations with Joseph McCarthy, his fellow anti-communist, controversial U.S. Senate colleague from Wisconsin, but was careful to keep some distance between himself and McCarthy's allegations. Nixon criticized President Harry S. Truman's handling of the Korean War. He supported statehood for Alaska and Hawaii, voted in favor of civil rights for minorities, and supported federal disaster relief for India and Yugoslavia. He voted against price controls and other monetary restrictions, benefits for illegal immigrants, and public power.

Vice presidency (1953–1961)

See also: Presidency of Dwight D. Eisenhower Further information: Checkers speech
Front cover of campaign literature for the Eisenhower–Nixon campaign in the 1952 presidential election
Nixon's official portrait as vice president, c. 1953–1961

General Dwight D. Eisenhower was nominated for president by the Republicans in 1952. He had no strong preference for a vice-presidential candidate, and Republican officeholders and party officials met in a "smoke-filled room" and recommended Nixon to the general, who agreed to the senator's selection. Nixon's youth (he was then 39), stance against communism, and political base in California—one of the largest states—were all seen as vote-winners by the leaders. Among the candidates considered along with Nixon were Senator Robert A. Taft of Ohio, Governor Alfred Driscoll of New Jersey, and Senator Everett Dirksen of Illinois. On the campaign trail, Eisenhower spoke of his plans for the country, and left the negative campaigning to his running mate.

In mid-September, the Republican ticket faced a major crisis when the media reported that Nixon had a political fund, maintained by his backers, which reimbursed him for political expenses. Such a fund was not illegal, but it exposed Nixon to allegations of a potential conflict of interest. With pressure building for Eisenhower to demand Nixon's resignation from the ticket, Nixon went on television to address the nation on September 23, 1952. The address, later named the Checkers speech, was heard by about 60 million Americans, which represented the largest audience ever for a television broadcast at that point. In the speech, Nixon emotionally defended himself, stating that the fund was not secret and that his donors had not received special favors. He painted himself as a patriot and man of modest means, mentioning that his wife had no mink coat; instead, he said, she wore a "respectable Republican cloth coat". The speech was remembered for the gift which Nixon had received, but which he would not give back, which he described as "a little cocker spaniel dog ...sent all the way from Texas. And our little girl—Tricia, the 6-year-old—named it Checkers." The speech prompted a huge public outpouring of support for Nixon. Eisenhower decided to retain him on the ticket, and the ticket was victorious in the November election.

Eisenhower granted Nixon more responsibilities during his term than any previous vice president. Nixon attended Cabinet and National Security Council meetings and chaired them in Eisenhower's absence. A 1953 tour of the Far East succeeded in increasing local goodwill toward the United States and gave Nixon an appreciation of the region as a potential industrial center. He visited Saigon and Hanoi in French Indochina. On his return to the United States at the end of 1953, Nixon increased the time he devoted to foreign relations.

Biographer Irwin Gellman, who chronicled Nixon's congressional years, said of his vice presidency:

Eisenhower radically altered the role of his running mate by presenting him with critical assignments in both foreign and domestic affairs once he assumed his office. The vice president welcomed the president's initiatives and worked energetically to accomplish White House objectives. Because of the collaboration between these two leaders, Nixon deserves the title, "the first modern vice president".

Los Angeles TimesSan Francisco ChronicleAmerican newspaper covers on May 9, 1958, covering student protests against Nixon at the National University of San Marcos in Lima, Peru

Despite intense campaigning by Nixon, who reprised his strong attacks on the Democrats, the Republicans lost control of both houses of Congress in the 1954 elections. These losses caused Nixon to contemplate leaving politics once he had served out his term. On September 24, 1955, President Eisenhower suffered a heart attack and his condition was initially believed to be life-threatening. Eisenhower was unable to perform his duties for six weeks. The Twenty-fifth Amendment to the United States Constitution had not yet been proposed, and the vice president had no formal power to act. Nonetheless, Nixon acted in Eisenhower's stead during this period, presiding over Cabinet meetings and ensuring that aides and Cabinet officers did not seek power. According to Nixon biographer Stephen Ambrose, Nixon had "earned the high praise he received for his conduct during the crisis ... he made no attempt to seize power".

His spirits buoyed, Nixon sought a second term, but some of Eisenhower's aides aimed to displace him. In a December 1955 meeting, Eisenhower proposed that Nixon not run for reelection and instead become a Cabinet officer in a second Eisenhower administration, to give him administrative experience before a 1960 presidential run. Nixon believed this would destroy his political career. When Eisenhower announced his reelection bid in February 1956, he hedged on the choice of his running mate, saying it was improper to address that question until he had been renominated. Although no Republican was opposing Eisenhower, Nixon received a substantial number of write-in votes against the president in the 1956 New Hampshire primary election. In late April, the President announced that Nixon would again be his running mate. Eisenhower and Nixon were reelected by a comfortable margin in the November 1956 election.

In early 1957, Nixon undertook another foreign trip, this time to Africa. On his return, he helped shepherd the Civil Rights Act of 1957 through Congress. The bill was weakened in the Senate, and civil rights leaders were divided over whether Eisenhower should sign it. Nixon advised the President to sign the bill, which he did. Eisenhower suffered a mild stroke in November 1957, and Nixon gave a press conference, assuring the nation that the Cabinet was functioning well as a team during Eisenhower's brief illness.

Nikita Khrushchev and Nixon speak as the press looks on at the Kitchen Debate on July 24, 1959; What's My Line? host John Charles Daly is on the far left.

On April 27, 1958, Richard and Pat Nixon reluctantly embarked on a goodwill tour of South America. In Montevideo, Uruguay, Nixon made an impromptu visit to a college campus, where he fielded questions from students on U.S. foreign policy. The trip was uneventful until the Nixon party reached Lima, Peru, where he was met with student demonstrations. Nixon went to the historical campus of National University of San Marcos, the oldest university in the Americas, got out of his car to confront the students, and stayed until forced back into the car by a volley of thrown objects. At his hotel, Nixon faced another mob, and one demonstrator spat on him. In Caracas, Venezuela, Nixon and his wife were spat on by anti-American demonstrators and their limousine was attacked by a pipe-wielding mob. According to Ambrose, Nixon's courageous conduct "caused even some of his bitterest enemies to give him some grudging respect". Reporting to the cabinet after the trip, Nixon claimed there was "absolute proof that were directed and controlled by a central Communist conspiracy." Secretary of State John Foster Dulles and his brother, Director of Central Intelligence Allen Dulles, both concurred with Nixon.

In July 1959, President Eisenhower sent Nixon to the Soviet Union for the opening of the American National Exhibition in Moscow. On July 24, Nixon was touring the exhibits with Soviet first secretary and premier Nikita Khrushchev when the two stopped at a model of an American kitchen and engaged in an impromptu exchange about the merits of capitalism versus communism that became known as the "Kitchen Debate".

1960 presidential campaign

Main article: Richard Nixon 1960 presidential campaign See also: 1960 Republican Party presidential primaries and 1960 United States presidential election
John F. Kennedy and Nixon before their first televised 1960 debate
1960 electoral vote results

In 1960, Nixon launched his first campaign for President of the United States, officially announcing on January 9, 1960. He faced little opposition in the Republican primaries and chose former Massachusetts senator Henry Cabot Lodge Jr. as his running mate. His Democratic opponent was John F. Kennedy and the race remained close for the duration. Nixon campaigned on his experience, but Kennedy called for new blood and claimed the Eisenhower–Nixon administration had allowed the Soviet Union to overtake the U.S. in quantity and quality of ballistic missiles. While Kennedy faced issues about his Catholicism, Nixon remained a divisive figure to some.

Televised presidential debates made their debut as a political medium during the campaign. In the first of four such debates, Nixon appeared pale, with a five o'clock shadow, in contrast to the photogenic Kennedy. Nixon's performance in the debate was perceived to be mediocre in the visual medium of television, though many people listening on the radio thought Nixon had won. Nixon narrowly lost the election, with Kennedy winning the popular vote by only 112,827 votes (0.2 percent).

There were charges of voter fraud in Texas and Illinois, both states won by Kennedy. Nixon refused to consider contesting the election, feeling a lengthy controversy would diminish the United States in the eyes of the world and that the uncertainty would hurt U.S. interests. At the end of his term of office as vice president in January 1961, Nixon and his family returned to California, where he practiced law and wrote a bestselling book, Six Crises, which included coverage of the Hiss case, Eisenhower's heart attack, and the Fund Crisis, which had been resolved by the Checkers speech.

1962 California gubernatorial campaign

1962 California gubernatorial campaign sticker
Main article: 1962 California gubernatorial election

Local and national Republican leaders encouraged Nixon to challenge incumbent Pat Brown for governor of California in the 1962 gubernatorial election. Despite initial reluctance, Nixon entered the race. The campaign was clouded by public suspicion that Nixon viewed the office as a stepping stone for another presidential run, some opposition from the far-right of the party, and his own lack of interest in being California's governor. Nixon hoped a successful run would confirm his status as the nation's leading active Republican politician, and ensure he remained a major player in national politics. Instead, he lost to Brown by more than five percentage points, and the defeat was widely believed to be the end of his political career.

In an impromptu concession speech the morning after the election, Nixon blamed the media for favoring his opponent, saying, "You won't have Nixon to kick around anymore because, gentlemen, this is my last press conference." The California defeat was highlighted in the November 11, 1962, episode of Howard K. Smith's ABC News show, Howard K. Smith: News and Comment, titled "The Political Obituary of Richard M. Nixon". Alger Hiss appeared on the program, and many members of the public complained that it was unseemly to give a convicted felon air time to attack a former vice president. The furor drove Smith and his program from the air, and public sympathy for Nixon grew.

Wilderness years

Nixon shows his papers to an East German officer as he crosses between the sectors of divided Berlin in July 1963

In 1963 the Nixon family traveled to Europe, where Nixon gave press conferences and met with leaders of the countries he visited. The family moved to New York City, where Nixon became a senior partner in the leading law firm Nixon, Mudge, Rose, Guthrie & Alexander. When announcing his California campaign, Nixon had pledged not to run for president in 1964; even if he had not, he believed it would be difficult to defeat Kennedy, or after his assassination, Kennedy's successor, Lyndon Johnson.

In 1964, Nixon won write-in votes in the primaries, and was considered a serious contender by both Gallup polls and members of the press. He was even placed on a primary ballot as an active candidate by Oregon's secretary of state. As late as two months before the 1964 Republican National Convention, however, Nixon fulfilled his promise to remain out of the presidential nomination process and instead endorsed Arizona senator Barry Goldwater, the eventual Republican nominee. When Goldwater won the nomination, Nixon was selected to introduce him at the convention. Nixon felt that Goldwater was unlikely to win, but campaigned for him loyally. In the 1964 general election, Goldwater lost in a landslide to Johnson and Republicans experienced heavy losses in Congress and among state governors.

Nixon was one of the few leading Republicans not blamed for the disastrous results, and he sought to build on that in the 1966 congressional elections in which he campaigned for many Republicans and sought to regain seats lost in the Johnson landslide. Nixon was credited with helping Republicans win major electoral gains that year.

In 1967, Nixon was approached by an associate at his firm in Leonard Garment about a case involving the press and perceived invasion of privacy. Garment suggested Nixon to argue on behalf of the Hill family in Time, Inc. v. Hill at the Supreme Court of the United States. Nixon studied strenuously in the months prior to the oral argument before the Court. While the final decision was in favor of Time Inc., Nixon was encouraged by the praise he received for his argument. It was the first and only case he argued in front of the Supreme Court.

1968 presidential campaign

Main article: Richard Nixon 1968 presidential campaign See also: 1968 Republican Party presidential primaries and 1968 United States presidential election
Nixon and President Lyndon B. Johnson meet at the White House prior to Nixon's nomination in July 1968
Nixon campaigning for president in Paoli, Pennsylvania, July 1968
1968 electoral vote results; the popular vote split between Nixon and Democrat Hubert Humphrey was less than one percentage point.

At the end of 1967, Nixon told his family he planned to run for president a second time. Pat Nixon did not always enjoy public life, being embarrassed, for example, by the need to reveal how little the family owned in the Checkers speech. She still managed to be supportive of her husband's ambitions. Nixon believed that with the Democrats torn over the issue of the Vietnam War, a Republican had a good chance of winning, although he expected the election to be as close as in 1960.

An exceptionally tumultuous primary election season began as the Tet Offensive was launched in January 1968. President Johnson withdrew as a candidate in March, after an unexpectedly poor showing in the New Hampshire primary. In June, Senator Robert F. Kennedy, a Democratic candidate, was assassinated just moments after his victory in the California primary. On the Republican side, Nixon's main opposition was Michigan governor George Romney, though New York governor Nelson Rockefeller and California governor Ronald Reagan each hoped to be nominated in a brokered convention. Nixon secured the nomination on the first ballot. He was able to secure the nomination to the support of many Southern delegates, after he and his subordinates made concessions to Strom Thurmond and Harry Dent. He selected Maryland governor Spiro Agnew as his running mate, a choice which Nixon believed would unite the party, appealing both to Northern moderates and to Southerners disaffected with the Democrats.

Nixon's Democratic opponent in the general election was Vice President Hubert Humphrey, who was nominated at a convention marked by violent protests. Throughout the campaign, Nixon portrayed himself as a figure of stability during this period of national unrest and upheaval. He appealed to what he later called the "silent majority" of socially conservative Americans who disliked the hippie counterculture and the anti-war demonstrators. Agnew became an increasingly vocal critic of these groups, solidifying Nixon's position with the right.

Nixon waged a prominent television advertising campaign, meeting with supporters in front of cameras. He stressed that the crime rate was too high, and attacked what he perceived as a surrender of the United States' nuclear superiority by the Democrats. Nixon promised "peace with honor" in the Vietnam War and proclaimed that "new leadership will end the war and win the peace in the Pacific". He did not give specifics of how he hoped to end the war, resulting in media intimations that he must have a "secret plan". His slogan of "Nixon's the One" proved to be effective.

Johnson's negotiators hoped to reach a truce in Vietnam, or at least a cessation of bombings. On October 22, 1968, candidate Nixon received information that Johnson was preparing a so-called "October surprise", abandoning three non-negotiable conditions for a bombing halt, to help elect Humphrey in the last days of the campaign. Whether the Nixon campaign interfered with negotiations between the Johnson administration and the South Vietnamese by engaging Anna Chennault, a fundraiser for the Republican party, remains a controversy. It is not clear whether the government of South Vietnam needed encouragement to opt out of a peace process they considered disadvantageous.

In a three-way race between Nixon, Humphrey, and American Independent Party candidate George Wallace, Nixon defeated Humphrey by only 500,000 votes, a margin almost as close as in 1960, with both elections seeing a gap of less than one percentage point of the popular vote. However, Nixon earned 301 electoral votes to 191 for Humphrey and 46 for Wallace, a majority. He became the first non-incumbent vice president to be elected president. In his victory speech, Nixon pledged that his administration would try to bring the divided nation together. Nixon said: "I have received a very gracious message from the Vice President, congratulating me for winning the election. I congratulated him for his gallant and courageous fight against great odds. I also told him that I know exactly how he felt. I know how it feels to lose a close one."

Presidency (1969–1974)

Main article: Presidency of Richard NixonFor a chronological guide, see Timeline of the Richard Nixon presidency.
Nixon is sworn in as the 37th president by Chief Justice Earl Warren. The new first lady, Pat, holds the family Bible.

Nixon was inaugurated as president on January 20, 1969, sworn in by his onetime political rival, Chief Justice Earl Warren. Pat Nixon held the family Bibles open at Isaiah 2:4, which reads, "They shall beat their swords into plowshares, and their spears into pruning hooks." In his inaugural address, which received almost uniformly positive reviews, Nixon remarked that "the greatest honor history can bestow is the title of peacemaker"—a phrase that found a place on his gravestone. He spoke about turning partisan politics into a new age of unity:

In these difficult years, America has suffered from a fever of words; from inflated rhetoric that promises more than it can deliver; from angry rhetoric that fans discontents into hatreds; from bombastic rhetoric that postures instead of persuading. We cannot learn from one another until we stop shouting at one another, until we speak quietly enough so that our words can be heard as well as our voices.

Foreign policy

Main article: Foreign policy of the Richard Nixon administration

China

Main article: 1972 visit by Richard Nixon to China President Nixon shakes hands with Chinese Premier Zhou Enlai upon arriving in Beijing, 1972Nixon and Zhou Enlai toast during Nixon's 1972 visit to China

Nixon laid the groundwork for his overture to China before he became president, writing in Foreign Affairs a year before his election: "There is no place on this small planet for a billion of its potentially most able people to live in angry isolation." Among the reasons that Nixon sought to improve relations with China was in the hope of weakening the Soviet Union and decreasing China's support to the North in the Vietnam War. Nixon ultimately used the idea of gaining leverage against the Soviet Union through relations with China to obtain the support of key conservative figures including Barry Goldwater and Ronald Reagan.

Assisting him in pursuing relations with China was Henry Kissinger, Nixon's national security advisor and future secretary of state. They collaborated closely, bypassing Cabinet officials. With relations between the Soviet Union and China at a nadir—border clashes between the two took place during Nixon's first year in office—Nixon sent private word to the Chinese that he desired closer relations. A breakthrough came in early 1971, when Chinese Communist Party (CCP) chairman Mao Zedong invited a team of American table tennis players to visit China and play against top Chinese players. Nixon followed up by sending Kissinger to China for clandestine meetings with Chinese officials. On July 15, 1971, with announcements from Washington and Beijing, it was learned that the President would visit China the following February. The secrecy had allowed both sets of leaders time to prepare the political climate in their countries for the visit.

In February 1972, Nixon and his wife traveled to China after Kissinger briefed Nixon for over 40 hours in preparation. Upon touching down, the President and First Lady emerged from Air Force One and were greeted by Chinese Premier Zhou Enlai. Nixon made a point of shaking Zhou's hand, something which then-secretary of state John Foster Dulles had refused to do in 1954 when the two met in Geneva. More than a hundred television journalists accompanied the president. On Nixon's orders, television was strongly favored over printed publications, as Nixon felt that the medium would capture the visit much better than print. It also gave him the opportunity to snub the print journalists he despised.

Mao Zedong and Nixon

Nixon and Kissinger immediately met for an hour with CCP Chairman Mao Zedong and Premier Zhou at Mao's official private residence, where they discussed a range of issues. Mao later told his doctor that he had been impressed by Nixon's forthrightness, unlike the leftists and the Soviets. He said he was suspicious of Kissinger, though the National Security Advisor referred to their meeting as his "encounter with history". A formal banquet welcoming the presidential party was given that evening in the Great Hall of the People. The following day, Nixon met with Zhou; the joint communique following this meeting recognized Taiwan as a part of China and looked forward to a peaceful solution to the problem of reunification. When not in meetings, Nixon toured architectural wonders, including the Forbidden City, the Ming tombs, and the Great Wall. Americans took their first glance into everyday Chinese life through the cameras that accompanied Pat Nixon, who toured the city of Beijing and visited communes, schools, factories, and hospitals.

The visit ushered in a new era of US–China relations. Fearing the possibility of a US–China alliance, the Soviet Union yielded to pressure for détente with the United States. This was one component of triangular diplomacy.

Vietnam War

Main articles: Vietnam War, Vietnamization, and Role of the United States in the Vietnam War
Nixon delivers an address to the nation about the incursion in Cambodia

When Nixon took office, about 300 American soldiers were dying each week in Vietnam, and the war was widely unpopular in the United States, the subject of ongoing violent protests. The Johnson administration had offered to suspend bombing unconditionally in exchange for negotiations, but to no avail. According to Walter Isaacson, Nixon concluded soon after taking office that the Vietnam War could not be won, and he was determined to end it quickly. He sought an arrangement that would permit American forces to withdraw while leaving South Vietnam secure against attack.

Nixon approved a secret B-52 carpet bombing campaign of North Vietnamese and Khmer Rouge positions in Cambodia beginning in March 1969 and code-named Operation Menu, without the consent of Cambodian leader Norodom Sihanouk. In mid-1969, Nixon began efforts to negotiate peace with the North Vietnamese, sending a personal letter to their leaders, and peace talks began in Paris. Initial talks did not result in an agreement, and in May 1969 he publicly proposed to withdraw all American troops from South Vietnam provided North Vietnam did so, and suggesting South Vietnam hold internationally supervised elections with Viet Cong participation.

Nixon visits American troops in South Vietnam, July 30, 1969

In July 1969, Nixon visited South Vietnam, where he met with his U.S. military commanders and President Nguyễn Văn Thiệu. Amid protests at home demanding an immediate pullout, he implemented a strategy of replacing American troops with Vietnamese troops, known as "Vietnamization". He soon instituted phased U.S. troop withdrawals, but also authorized incursions into Laos, in part to interrupt the Ho Chi Minh trail passing through Laos and Cambodia and used to supply North Vietnamese forces. In March 1970, at the explicit request of the Khmer Rouge and negotiated by Pol Pot's then-second-in-command, Nuon Chea, North Vietnamese troops launched an offensive and overran much of Cambodia. Nixon announced the ground invasion of Cambodia on April 30, 1970, against North Vietnamese bases in the east of the country, and further protests erupted against perceived expansion of the conflict, which resulted in Ohio National Guardsmen killing four unarmed students at Kent State University. Nixon's responses to protesters included an impromptu, early morning meeting with them at the Lincoln Memorial on May 9, 1970. Nixon's campaign promise to curb the war, contrasted with the escalated bombing, led to claims that Nixon had a "credibility gap" on the issue. It is estimated that between 50,000 and 150,000 people were killed during the bombing of Cambodia between 1970 and 1973.

In 1971, excerpts from the "Pentagon Papers", which had been leaked by Daniel Ellsberg, were published by The New York Times and The Washington Post. When news of the leak first appeared, Nixon was inclined to do nothing; the Papers, a history of United States' involvement in Vietnam, mostly concerned the lies of prior administrations and contained few real revelations. He was persuaded by Kissinger that the Papers were more harmful than they appeared, and the President tried to prevent publication, but the Supreme Court ruled in favor of the newspapers.

As U.S. troop withdrawals continued, conscription was phased out by 1973, and the armed forces became all-volunteer. After years of fighting, the Paris Peace Accords were signed at the beginning of 1973. The agreement implemented a cease fire and allowed for the withdrawal of remaining American troops without requiring withdrawal of the 160,000 North Vietnam Army regulars located in the South. Once American combat support ended, there was a brief truce, before fighting resumed, and North Vietnam conquered South Vietnam in 1975.

Latin American policy

See also: U.S. intervention in Chile § 1973 coup, and Operation Condor
Nixon with Mexican president Gustavo Díaz Ordaz (to his right); motorcade in San Diego, California, September 1970

Nixon had been a firm supporter of Kennedy during the 1961 Bay of Pigs Invasion and 1962 Cuban Missile Crisis. On taking office in 1969, he stepped up covert operations against Cuba and its president, Fidel Castro. He maintained close relations with the Cuban-American exile community through his friend, Bebe Rebozo, who often suggested ways of irritating Castro. The Soviets and Cubans became concerned, fearing Nixon might attack Cuba and break the understanding between Kennedy and Khrushchev that ended the missile crisis. In August 1970, the Soviets asked Nixon to reaffirm the understanding, which he did, despite his hard line against Castro. The process was not completed before the Soviets began expanding their base at the Cuban port of Cienfuegos in October 1970. A minor confrontation ensued, the Soviets stipulated they would not use Cienfuegos for submarines bearing ballistic missiles, and the final round of diplomatic notes were exchanged in November.

The election of Marxist candidate Salvador Allende as President of Chile in September 1970 spurred a vigorous campaign of covert opposition to him by Nixon and Kissinger. This began by trying to convince the Chilean congress to confirm Jorge Alessandri as the winner of the election, and then messages to military officers in support of a coup. Other support included strikes organized against Allende and funding for Allende opponents. It was even alleged that "Nixon personally authorized" $700,000 in covert funds to print anti-Allende messages in a prominent Chilean newspaper. Following an extended period of social, political, and economic unrest, General Augusto Pinochet assumed power in a violent coup d'état on September 11, 1973; among the dead was Allende.

Soviet Union

Nixon with Brezhnev during the Soviet leader's trip to the U.S., 1973

Nixon used the improving international environment to address the topic of nuclear peace. Following the announcement of his visit to China, the Nixon administration concluded negotiations for him to visit the Soviet Union. The President and First Lady arrived in Moscow on May 22, 1972, and met with Leonid Brezhnev, the general secretary of the Communist Party; Alexei Kosygin, the Chairman of the Council of Ministers; and Nikolai Podgorny, the Chairman of the Presidium of the Supreme Soviet, among other leading Soviet officials.

Nixon engaged in intense negotiations with Brezhnev. Out of the summit came agreements for increased trade and two landmark arms control treaties: SALT I, the first comprehensive limitation pact signed by the two superpowers, and the Anti-Ballistic Missile Treaty, which banned the development of systems designed to intercept incoming missiles. Nixon and Brezhnev proclaimed a new era of "peaceful coexistence". A banquet was held that evening at the Kremlin.

Nixon and Kissinger planned to link arms control to détente and to the resolution of other urgent problems through what Nixon called "linkage." David Tal argues:

The linkage between strategic arms limitations and outstanding issues such as the Middle East, Berlin and, foremost, Vietnam thus became central to Nixon's and Kissinger's policy of détente. Through the employment of linkage, they hoped to change the nature and course of U.S. foreign policy, including U.S. nuclear disarmament and arms control policy, and to separate them from those practiced by Nixon's predecessors. They also intended, through linkage, to make U.S. arms control policy part of détente ... His policy of linkage had in fact failed. It failed mainly because it was based on flawed assumptions and false premises, the foremost of which was that the Soviet Union wanted strategic arms limitation agreement much more than the United States did.

Seeking to foster better relations with the United States, China and the Soviet Union both cut back on their diplomatic support for North Vietnam and advised Hanoi to come to terms militarily. Nixon later described his strategy:

I had long believed that an indispensable element of any successful peace initiative in Vietnam was to enlist, if possible, the help of the Soviets and the Chinese. Though rapprochement with China and détente with the Soviet Union were ends in themselves, I also considered them possible means to hasten the end of the war. At worst, Hanoi was bound to feel less confident if Washington was dealing with Moscow and Beijing. At best, if the two major Communist powers decided that they had bigger fish to fry, Hanoi would be pressured into negotiating a settlement we could accept.

In 1973, Nixon encouraged the Export-Import Bank to finance in part a trade deal with the Soviet Union in which Armand Hammer's Occidental Petroleum would export phosphate from Florida to the Soviet Union, and import Soviet ammonia. The deal, valued at $20 billion over 20 years, involved the construction of two major Soviet port facilities at Odessa and Ventspils, and a pipeline connecting four ammonia plants in the greater Volga region to the port at Odessa. In 1973, Nixon announced his administration was committed to seeking most favored nation trade status with the USSR, which was challenged by Congress in the Jackson-Vanik Amendment.

During the previous two years, Nixon had made considerable progress in U.S.–Soviet relations, and he embarked on a second trip to the Soviet Union in 1974. He arrived in Moscow on June 27 to a welcome ceremony, cheering crowds, and a state dinner at the Grand Kremlin Palace that evening. Nixon and Brezhnev met in Yalta, where they discussed a proposed mutual defense pact, détente, and MIRVs. Nixon considered proposing a comprehensive test-ban treaty, but he felt he would not have time to complete it during his presidency. There were no significant breakthroughs in these negotiations.

Middle Eastern policy

Nixon with Israeli Prime Minister Golda Meir, June 1974.
Nixon with Israeli Prime Minister Golda Meir, June 1974
Nixon with President Anwar Sadat of Egypt, June 1974

As part of the Nixon Doctrine, the U.S. avoided giving direct combat assistance to its allies and instead gave them assistance to defend themselves. During the Nixon administration, the U.S. greatly increased arms sales to the Middle East, particularly Israel, Iran and Saudi Arabia. The Nixon administration strongly supported Israel, an American ally in the Middle East, but the support was not unconditional. Nixon believed Israel should make peace with its Arab neighbors and that the U.S. should encourage it. The president believed that—except during the Suez Crisis—the U.S. had failed to intervene with Israel, and should use the leverage of the large U.S. military aid to Israel to urge the parties to the negotiating table. The Arab-Israeli conflict was not a major focus of Nixon's attention during his first term—for one thing, he felt that no matter what he did, American Jews would oppose his reelection.

On October 6, 1973, an Arab coalition led by Egypt and Syria, supported with arms and materiel by the Soviet Union, attacked Israel in the Yom Kippur War. Israel suffered heavy losses and Nixon ordered an airlift to resupply Israeli losses, cutting through inter-departmental squabbles and bureaucracy and taking personal responsibility for any response by Arab nations. More than a week later, by the time the U.S. and Soviet Union began negotiating a truce, Israel had penetrated deep into enemy territory. The truce negotiations rapidly escalated into a superpower crisis; when Israel gained the upper hand, Egyptian president Sadat requested a joint U.S.–USSR peacekeeping mission, which the U.S. refused. When Soviet Premier Brezhnev threatened to unilaterally enforce any peacekeeping mission militarily, Nixon ordered the U.S. military to DEFCON3, placing all U.S. military personnel and bases on alert for nuclear war. This was the closest the world had come to nuclear war since the Cuban Missile Crisis. Brezhnev backed down as a result of Nixon's actions.

Because Israel's victory was largely due to U.S. support, the Arab OPEC nations retaliated by refusing to sell crude oil to the U.S., resulting in the 1973 oil crisis. The embargo caused gasoline shortages and rationing in the United States in late 1973, but was eventually ended by the oil-producing nations as peace in the Middle East took hold.

After the war, and under Nixon's presidency, the U.S. reestablished relations with Egypt for the first time since 1967. Nixon used the Middle East crisis to restart the stalled Middle East Peace Negotiations; he wrote in a confidential memo to Kissinger on October 20:

I believe that, beyond a doubt, we are now facing the best opportunity we have had in 15 years to build a lasting peace in the Middle East. I am convinced history will hold us responsible if we let this opportunity slip by ... I now consider a permanent Middle East settlement to be the most important final goal to which we must devote ourselves.

Nixon made one of his final international visits as president to the Middle East in June 1974, and became the first president to visit Israel.

South Asia policy

Nixon with Pakistani president Yahya Khan at the White House, October 1970

Since 1960s, the United States perceived Pakistan as an integral bulwark against global communism in the Cold War. Nixon was fond of Pakistani president Yahya Khan and according to American journalist Gary Bass, "Nixon liked very few people, but he did like General Agha Muhammad Yahya Khan."

During the Bangladesh Liberation War, the United States stood by Pakistan against Bengali nationalists in terms of diplomacy and military threats. Nixon urged President Khan multiple times to exercise restraint, fearing an Indian invasion of Pakistan that would lead to Indian domination of the subcontinent and strengthen the position of the Soviet Union. In the wake of the Third India–Pakistan War, Nixon issued a statement blaming Pakistan for starting the conflict and blaming India for escalating it while personally favoring a ceasefire. The United States used the threat of an aid cut-off to force Pakistan to back down, while its continued military aid to Islamabad prevented India from launching incursions deeper into the country. Nixon denied getting involved in the situation, saying that it was an internal matter of Pakistan, but when Pakistan's defeat seemed certain, he sent the aircraft carrier USS Enterprise to the Bay of Bengal.

Domestic policy

Economy

Further information: Nixon shock and 1970s energy crisis
Nixon at the Washington Senators' 1969 Opening Day with team owner Bob Short (arms folded) and Baseball Commissioner Bowie Kuhn (hand on mouth). Nixon's aide, Major Jack Brennan, sits behind them in uniform

At the time Nixon took office in 1969, inflation was at 4.7 percent—its highest rate since the Korean War. The Great Society had been enacted under Johnson, which, together with the Vietnam War costs, was causing large budget deficits. Unemployment was low, but interest rates were at their highest in a century. Nixon's major economic goal was to reduce inflation; the most obvious means of doing so was to end the war. This could not be accomplished overnight, and the U.S. economy continued to struggle through 1970, contributing to a lackluster Republican performance in the midterm congressional elections (Democrats controlled both Houses of Congress throughout Nixon's presidency). According to political economist Nigel Bowles in his 2011 study of Nixon's economic record, the new president did little to alter Johnson's policies through the first year of his presidency.

Nixon was far more interested in foreign affairs than domestic policies, but he believed that voters tend to focus on their own financial condition and that economic conditions were a threat to his reelection. As part of his "New Federalism" views, he proposed grants to the states, but these proposals were for the most part lost in the congressional budget process. However, Nixon gained political credit for advocating them. In 1970, Congress had granted the president the power to impose wage and price freezes, though the Democratic majorities, knowing Nixon had opposed such controls throughout his career, did not expect Nixon to actually use the authority. With inflation unresolved by August 1971, and an election year looming, Nixon convened a summit of his economic advisers at Camp David. Nixon's options were to limit fiscal and monetary expansionist policies that reduced unemployment or end the dollar's fixed exchange rate; Nixon's dilemma has been cited as an example of the Impossible trinity in international economics. He then announced temporary wage and price controls, allowed the dollar to float against other currencies, and ended the convertibility of the dollar into gold. Bowles points out,

by identifying himself with a policy whose purpose was inflation's defeat, Nixon made it difficult for Democratic opponents ... to criticize him. His opponents could offer no alternative policy that was either plausible or believable since the one they favored was one they had designed but which the president had appropriated for himself.

Nixon's policies dampened inflation through 1972, although their aftereffects contributed to inflation during his second term and into the Ford administration. Nixon's decision to end the gold standard in the United States led to the collapse of the Bretton Woods system. According to Thomas Oatley, "the Bretton Woods system collapsed so that Nixon might win the 1972 presidential election."

After Nixon won re-election, inflation was returning. He reimposed price controls in June 1973. The price controls became unpopular with the public and businesspeople, who saw powerful labor unions as preferable to the price board bureaucracy. The controls produced food shortages, as meat disappeared from grocery stores and farmers drowned chickens rather than sell them at a loss. Despite the failure to control inflation, controls were slowly ended, and on April 30, 1974, their statutory authorization lapsed.

Governmental initiatives and organization

Nixon gives the 1971 State of the Union Address
Official Nixon portrait by James Anthony Wills, c. 1984
Graph of increases in U.S. incarceration rate

Nixon advocated a "New Federalism", which would devolve power to state and local elected officials, though Congress was hostile to these ideas and enacted few of them. He eliminated the Cabinet-level United States Post Office Department, which in 1971 became the government-run United States Postal Service.

Nixon was a late supporter of the conservation movement. Environmental policy had not been a significant issue in the 1968 election, and the candidates were rarely asked for their views on the subject. Nixon broke new ground by discussing environmental policy in his State of the Union speech in 1970. He saw that the first Earth Day in April 1970 presaged a wave of voter interest on the subject, and sought to use that to his benefit; in June he announced the formation of the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA). He relied on his domestic advisor John Ehrlichman, who favored protection of natural resources, to keep him "out of trouble on environmental issues." Other initiatives supported by Nixon included the Clean Air Act of 1970 and the Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA), and the National Environmental Policy Act required environmental impact statements for many Federal projects. Nixon vetoed the Clean Water Act of 1972—objecting not to the policy goals of the legislation but to the amount of money to be spent on them, which he deemed excessive. After Congress overrode his veto, Nixon impounded the funds he deemed unjustifiable.

In 1971, Nixon proposed health insurance reform—a private health insurance employer mandate, federalization of Medicaid for poor families with dependent minor children, and support for health maintenance organizations (HMOs). A limited HMO bill was enacted in 1973. In 1974, Nixon proposed more comprehensive health insurance reform—a private health insurance employer mandate and replacement of Medicaid by state-run health insurance plans available to all, with income-based premiums and cost sharing.

Nixon was concerned about the prevalence of domestic drug use in addition to drug use among American soldiers in Vietnam. He called for a war on drugs and pledged to cut off sources of supply abroad. He also increased funds for education and for rehabilitation facilities.

As one policy initiative, Nixon called for more money for sickle-cell research, treatment, and education in February 1971 and signed the National Sickle Cell Anemia Control Act on May 16, 1972. While Nixon called for increased spending on such high-profile items as sickle-cell disease and for a war on cancer, at the same time he sought to reduce overall spending at the National Institutes of Health.

Civil rights

The Nixon presidency witnessed the first large-scale integration of public schools in the South. Nixon sought a middle way between the segregationist Wallace and liberal Democrats, whose support of integration was alienating some Southern whites. Hopeful of doing well in the South in 1972, he sought to dispose of desegregation as a political issue before then. Soon after his inauguration, he appointed Vice President Agnew to lead a task force, which worked with local leaders—both white and black—to determine how to integrate local schools. Agnew had little interest in the work, and most of it was done by Labor Secretary George Shultz. Federal aid was available, and a meeting with President Nixon was a possible reward for compliant committees. By September 1970, less than ten percent of black children were attending segregated schools. By 1971, however, tensions over desegregation surfaced in Northern cities, with angry protests over the busing of children to schools outside their neighborhood to achieve racial balance. Nixon opposed busing personally but enforced court orders requiring its use.

Some scholars, such as James Morton Turner and John Isenberg, believe that Nixon, who had advocated for civil rights in his 1960 campaign, slowed down desegregation as president, appealing to the racial conservatism of Southern whites, who were angered by the civil rights movement. This, he hoped, would boost his election chances in 1972.

In addition to desegregating public schools, Nixon implemented the Philadelphia Plan in 1970—the first significant federal affirmative action program. He also endorsed the Equal Rights Amendment after it passed both houses of Congress in 1972 and went to the states for ratification. He also pushed for African American civil rights and economic equity through a concept known as black capitalism. Nixon had campaigned as an ERA supporter in 1968, though feminists criticized him for doing little to help the ERA or their cause after his election. Nevertheless, he appointed more women to administration positions than Lyndon Johnson had.

Space policy

Further information: Space policy of the United States
Nixon visiting the Apollo 11 astronauts in quarantine aboard the aircraft carrier USS Hornet

After a nearly decade-long national effort, the United States won the race to land astronauts on the Moon on July 20, 1969, with the flight of Apollo 11. Nixon spoke with Neil Armstrong and Buzz Aldrin during their moonwalk. He called the conversation "the most historic phone call ever made from the White House".

Nixon was unwilling to keep funding for the National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) at the high level seen during the 1960s as NASA prepared to send men to the Moon. NASA Administrator Thomas O. Paine drew up ambitious plans for the establishment of a permanent base on the Moon by the end of the 1970s and the launch of a crewed expedition to Mars as early as 1981. Nixon rejected both proposals due to the expense. Nixon also canceled the Air Force Manned Orbital Laboratory program in 1969, because uncrewed spy satellites were a more cost-effective way to achieve the same reconnaissance objective. NASA cancelled the last three planned Apollo lunar missions to place Skylab in orbit more efficiently and free money up for the design and construction of the Space Shuttle.

On May 24, 1972, Nixon approved a five-year cooperative program between NASA and the Soviet space program, culminating in the 1975 joint mission of an American Apollo and Soviet Soyuz spacecraft linking in space.

Reelection, Watergate scandal, and resignation

1972 presidential campaign

Main articles: Richard Nixon 1972 presidential campaign and 1972 United States presidential election
1972 electoral vote results

Nixon believed his rise to power had peaked at a moment of political realignment. The Democratic "Solid South" had long been a source of frustration to Republican ambitions. Goldwater had won several Southern states by opposing the Civil Rights Act of 1964 but had alienated more moderate Southerners. Nixon's efforts to gain Southern support in 1968 were diluted by Wallace's candidacy. Through his first term, he pursued a Southern Strategy with policies, such as his desegregation plans, that would be broadly acceptable among Southern whites, encouraging them to realign with the Republicans in the aftermath of the civil rights movement. He nominated two Southern conservatives, Clement Haynsworth and G. Harrold Carswell, to the Supreme Court, but neither was confirmed by the Senate.

Nixon entered his name on the New Hampshire primary ballot on January 5, 1972, effectively announcing his candidacy for reelection. Virtually assured the Republican nomination, the President had initially expected his Democratic opponent to be Massachusetts senator Ted Kennedy (brother of the late president), who was largely removed from contention after the July 1969 Chappaquiddick incident. Instead, Maine senator Edmund Muskie became the front runner, with South Dakota senator George McGovern in a close second place.

On June 10, McGovern won the California primary and secured the Democratic nomination. The following month, Nixon was renominated at the 1972 Republican National Convention. He dismissed the Democratic platform as cowardly and divisive. McGovern intended to sharply reduce defense spending and supported amnesty for draft evaders as well as abortion rights. With some of his supporters believed to be in favor of drug legalization, McGovern was perceived as standing for "amnesty, abortion and acid". McGovern was also damaged by his vacillating support for his original running mate, Missouri senator Thomas Eagleton, dumped from the ticket following revelations that he had received electroshock treatment for depression. Nixon was ahead in most polls for the entire election cycle, and was reelected on November 7, 1972, in one of the largest landslide election victories in American history. He defeated McGovern with over 60 percent of the popular vote, losing only in Massachusetts and D.C.

Watergate

Main articles: Watergate scandal and Impeachment process against Richard Nixon
Nixon takes questions at 1973 press conference

The term Watergate has come to encompass an array of clandestine and often illegal activities undertaken by members of the Nixon administration. Those activities included "dirty tricks", such as bugging the offices of political opponents, and the harassment of activist groups and political figures. The activities were brought to light after five men were caught breaking into the Democratic party headquarters at the Watergate complex in Washington, D.C., on June 17, 1972. The Washington Post picked up on the story; reporters Carl Bernstein and Bob Woodward relied on an informant known as "Deep Throat"—later revealed to be Mark Felt, associate director at the FBI—to link the men to the Nixon administration. Nixon downplayed the scandal as mere politics, calling news articles biased and misleading. A series of revelations made it clear that the Committee to Re-elect President Nixon, and later the White House, were involved in attempts to sabotage the Democrats. Senior aides such as White House Counsel John Dean faced prosecution; in total 48 officials were convicted of wrongdoing.

Demonstrator demands impeachment, October 1973
On November 17, 1973, President Nixon held a press conference at Disney's Contemporary Resort and famously said "I'm not a crook"

In July 1973, White House aide Alexander Butterfield testified under oath to Congress that Nixon had a secret taping system and recorded his conversations and phone calls in the Oval Office. These tapes were subpoenaed by Watergate Special Counsel Archibald Cox; Nixon provided transcripts of the conversations but not the actual tapes, citing executive privilege. With the White House and Cox at loggerheads, Nixon had Cox fired in October in the "Saturday Night Massacre"; he was replaced by Leon Jaworski. In November, Nixon's lawyers revealed that a tape of conversations held in the White House on June 20, 1972, had an 18+1⁄2 minute gap. Rose Mary Woods, the President's personal secretary, claimed responsibility for the gap, saying that she had accidentally wiped the section while transcribing the tape, but her story was widely mocked. The gap, while not conclusive proof of wrongdoing by the President, cast doubt on Nixon's statement that he had been unaware of the cover-up.

Though Nixon lost much popular support, even from his own party, he rejected accusations of wrongdoing and vowed to stay in office. He admitted he had made mistakes but insisted he had no prior knowledge of the burglary, did not break any laws, and did not learn of the cover-up until early 1973. On October 10, 1973, Vice President Agnew resigned for reasons unrelated to Watergate: he was convicted on charges of bribery, tax evasion and money laundering during his tenure as governor of Maryland. Believing his first choice, John Connally, would not be confirmed by Congress, Nixon chose Gerald Ford, Minority Leader of the House of Representatives, to replace Agnew. One researcher suggests Nixon effectively disengaged from his own administration after Ford was sworn in as vice president on December 6, 1973.

On November 17, 1973, during a televised question-and-answer session with 400 Associated Press managing editors, Nixon said, "People have got to know whether or not their president is a crook. Well, I'm not a crook. I've earned everything I've got."

Nixon announces the release of edited transcripts of the Watergate tapes, April 29, 1974

The legal battle over the tapes continued through early 1974, and in April Nixon announced the release of 1,200 pages of transcripts of White House conversations between himself and his aides. The House Judiciary Committee opened impeachment hearings against the President on May 9, 1974, which were televised on the major TV networks. These hearings culminated in votes for impeachment. On July 24, the Supreme Court ruled unanimously that the full tapes, not just selected transcripts, must be released.

The scandal grew to involve a slew of additional allegations against the President, ranging from the improper use of government agencies to accepting gifts in office and his personal finances and taxes; Nixon repeatedly stated his willingness to pay any outstanding taxes due, and later paid $465,000 (equivalent to $2.9 million in 2023) in back taxes in 1974.

Nixon Oval Office meeting with H. R. Haldeman: the "Smoking Gun" Conversation, June 23, 1972 (Full Transcript)

Even with support diminished by the continuing series of revelations, Nixon hoped to fight the charges. But one of the new tapes, recorded soon after the break-in, demonstrated that Nixon had been told of the White House connection to the Watergate burglaries soon after they took place, and had approved plans to thwart the investigation. In a statement accompanying the release of what became known as the "Smoking Gun Tape" on August 5, 1974, Nixon accepted blame for misleading the country about when he had been told of White House involvement, stating that he had had a lapse of memory. Senate Minority Leader Hugh Scott, Senator Barry Goldwater, and House Minority Leader John Jacob Rhodes met with Nixon soon after. Rhodes told Nixon he faced certain impeachment in the House. Scott and Goldwater told the president that he had, at most, only 15 votes in his favor in the Senate, far fewer than the 34 needed to avoid removal from office.

Resignation

Nixon leaving the White House on Marine One shortly before his resignation became effective, August 9, 1974

In light of his loss of political support and the near-certainty that he would be impeached and removed from office, Nixon resigned the presidency on August 9, 1974, after addressing the nation on television the previous evening. The resignation speech was delivered from the Oval Office and was carried live on radio and television. Nixon said he was resigning for the good of the country and asked the nation to support the new president, Gerald Ford. Nixon went on to review the accomplishments of his presidency, especially in foreign policy. He defended his record as president, quoting from Theodore Roosevelt's 1910 speech Citizenship in a Republic:

Sometimes I have succeeded and sometimes I have failed, but always I have taken heart from what Theodore Roosevelt once said about the man in the arena, "whose face is marred by dust and sweat and blood, who strives valiantly, who errs and comes up short again and again because there is not effort without error and shortcoming, but who does actually strive to do the deed, who knows the great enthusiasms, the great devotions, who spends himself in a worthy cause, who at the best knows in the end the triumphs of high achievements and who at the worst, if he fails, at least fails while daring greatly".

President Nixon's resignation speech

Nixon's speech received generally favorable initial responses from network commentators, with only Roger Mudd of CBS stating that Nixon had not admitted wrongdoing. It was termed "a masterpiece" by Conrad Black, one of his biographers. Black opined that "What was intended to be an unprecedented humiliation for any American president, Nixon converted into a virtual parliamentary acknowledgement of almost blameless insufficiency of legislative support to continue. He left while devoting half his address to a recitation of his accomplishments in office."

Post-presidency (1974–1994)

Pardon and illness

Further information: Pardon of Richard Nixon
President Ford announcing his decision to pardon Nixon, September 8, 1974, in the Oval Office

Following his resignation, the Nixons flew to their home La Casa Pacifica in San Clemente, California. According to his biographer, Jonathan Aitken, "Nixon was a soul in torment" after his resignation. Congress had funded Nixon's transition costs, including some salary expenses, though reducing the appropriation from $850,000 to $200,000. With some of his staff still with him, Nixon was at his desk by 7:00 a.m. with little to do. His former press secretary, Ron Ziegler, sat with him alone for hours each day.

Nixon's resignation had not put an end to the desire among many to see him punished. The Ford White House considered a pardon of Nixon, even though it would be unpopular in the country. Nixon, contacted by Ford emissaries, was initially reluctant to accept the pardon, but then agreed to do so. Ford insisted on a statement of contrition, but Nixon felt he had not committed any crimes and should not have to issue such a document. Ford eventually agreed and, on September 8, 1974, he granted Nixon a "full, free, and absolute pardon", which ended any possibility of an indictment. Nixon then released a statement:

I was wrong in not acting more decisively and more forthrightly in dealing with Watergate, particularly when it reached the stage of judicial proceedings and grew from a political scandal into a national tragedy. No words can describe the depth of my regret and pain at the anguish my mistakes over Watergate have caused the nation and the presidency, a nation I so deeply love, and an institution I so greatly respect.

In October 1974, Nixon fell ill with phlebitis. Told by his doctors that he could either be operated on or die, a reluctant Nixon chose surgery, and President Ford visited him in the hospital. Nixon was under subpoena for the trial of three of his former aides—Dean, Haldeman, and John Ehrlichman—and The Washington Post, disbelieving his illness, printed a cartoon showing Nixon with a cast on the "wrong foot". Judge John Sirica excused Nixon's presence despite the defendants' objections. Congress instructed Ford to retain Nixon's presidential papers—beginning a three-decade legal battle over the documents that was eventually won by the former president and his estate. Nixon was in the hospital when the 1974 midterm elections were held, and Watergate and the pardon were contributing factors to the Republican loss of 49 seats in the House and four in the Senate.

Return to public life

President Jimmy Carter and ex-presidents Gerald Ford and Nixon meet at the White House before former vice president Hubert Humphrey's funeral, 1978

In December 1974, Nixon began planning his comeback despite the considerable ill will against him in the country. He wrote in his diary, referring to himself and Pat,

So be it. We will see it through. We've had tough times before and we can take the tougher ones that we will have to go through now. That is perhaps what we were made for—to be able to take punishment beyond what anyone in this office has had before particularly after leaving office. This is a test of character and we must not fail the test.

By early 1975, Nixon's health was improving. He maintained an office in a Coast Guard station 300 yards (270 m) from his home, at first taking a golf cart and later walking the route each day; he mainly worked on his memoirs. He had hoped to wait before writing his memoirs; the fact that his assets were being eaten away by expenses and lawyer fees compelled him to begin work quickly. He was handicapped in this work by the end of his transition allowance in February, which compelled him to part with many of his staff, including Ziegler. In August of that year, he met with British talk-show host and producer David Frost, who paid him $600,000 (equivalent to $3.4 million in 2023) for a series of sit-down interviews, filmed and aired in 1977. They began on the topic of foreign policy, recounting the leaders he had known, but the most remembered section of the interviews was that on Watergate. Nixon admitted he had "let down the country" and that "I brought myself down. I gave them a sword and they stuck it in. And they twisted it with relish. And, I guess, if I'd been in their position, I'd have done the same thing." The interviews garnered 45–50 million viewers—becoming the most-watched program of its kind in television history.

The interviews helped improve Nixon's financial position—at one point in early 1975 he had only $500 in the bank—as did the sale of his Key Biscayne property to a trust set up by wealthy friends of Nixon, such as Bebe Rebozo. In February 1976, Nixon visited China at the personal invitation of Mao. Nixon had wanted to return to China but chose to wait until after Ford's own visit in 1975. Nixon remained neutral in the close 1976 primary battle between Ford and Reagan. Ford won, but was defeated by Georgia governor Jimmy Carter in the general election. The Carter administration had little use for Nixon and blocked his planned trip to Australia, causing the government of Prime Minister Malcolm Fraser to withhold its official invitation.

In 1976, Nixon was disbarred by the New York State Bar Association for obstruction of justice in the Watergate affair. He chose not to present any defense. In early 1978, he visited the United Kingdom; there, he was shunned by American diplomats, most ministers of the James Callaghan government, and two former prime ministers, Harold Macmillan and Edward Heath. He was welcomed, however, by the Leader of the Opposition, Margaret Thatcher, and former prime ministers Lord Home and Sir Harold Wilson. Nixon addressed the Oxford Union regarding Watergate:

felt that on this matter that I had not handled it properly, and they were right. I screwed it up and I paid the price.

Author and elder statesman

President Ronald Reagan meets with his three immediate predecessors, Gerald Ford, Jimmy Carter and Nixon, at the White House, October 1981; the three former presidents would represent the United States at the funeral of Egyptian president Anwar Sadat.

In 1978, Nixon published his memoirs, RN: The Memoirs of Richard Nixon, the first of nine books he was to author in his retirement. John A. Farrell deemed it one of the better presidential memoirs, candid and capturing its author's voice; he deemed its rise up the bestseller lists justified. Nixon visited the White House in 1979, invited by Carter for the state dinner for Chinese Vice Premier Deng Xiaoping. Carter had not wanted to invite Nixon, but Deng had said he would visit Nixon in California if the former president was not invited. Nixon had a private meeting with Deng and visited Beijing again in mid-1979.

On August 10, 1979, the Nixons purchased a 12‐room condominium occupying the seventh floor of 817 Fifth Avenue New York City after being rejected by two Manhattan co-ops. When the deposed Shah of Iran died in Egypt in July 1980, Nixon defied the State Department, which intended to send no U.S. representative, by attending the funeral. Though Nixon had no official credentials, as a former president he was seen as the American presence at its former ally's funeral. Nixon supported Ronald Reagan for president in 1980, making television appearances portraying himself as, in biographer Stephen Ambrose's words, "the senior statesman above the fray". He wrote guest articles for many publications both during the campaign and after Reagan's victory. After 18 months in the New York City townhouse, Nixon and his wife moved in 1981 to Saddle River, New Jersey.

Throughout the 1980s, Nixon maintained an ambitious schedule of speaking engagements and writing, traveled, and met with many foreign leaders, especially those of Third World countries. He joined former presidents Ford and Carter as representatives of the United States at the funeral of Egyptian president Anwar Sadat. On a trip to the Middle East, Nixon made his views known regarding Saudi Arabia and Libya, which attracted significant U.S. media attention; The Washington Post ran stories on Nixon's "rehabilitation". Nixon visited the Soviet Union in 1986 and on his return sent President Reagan a lengthy memorandum containing foreign policy suggestions and his personal impressions of Soviet general secretary Mikhail Gorbachev. Following this trip, Nixon was ranked in a Gallup poll as one of the ten most admired men in the world.

Nixon with President Bill Clinton in the residence of the White House, March 1993

In 1986, Nixon addressed a convention of newspaper publishers, impressing his audience with his tour d'horizon of the world. At the time, political pundit Elizabeth Drew wrote, "Even when he was wrong, Nixon still showed that he knew a great deal and had a capacious memory, as well as the capacity to speak with apparent authority, enough to impress people who had little regard for him in earlier times." Newsweek ran a story on "Nixon's comeback" with the headline "He's back".

On July 19, 1990, the Richard Nixon Library and Birthplace in Yorba Linda, California, opened as a private institution with the Nixons in attendance. They were joined by a large crowd of people, including Presidents Ford, Reagan, and George H. W. Bush, as well as their wives, Betty, Nancy, and Barbara. In January 1994, the former president founded the Nixon Center (today the Center for the National Interest), a Washington policy think tank and conference center.

Pat Nixon died on June 22, 1993, of emphysema and lung cancer. Her funeral services were held on the grounds of the Richard Nixon Library and Birthplace. Former president Nixon was distraught throughout the interment and delivered a tribute to her inside the library building.

Death and funeral

Main article: Death and state funeral of Richard Nixon
Five U.S. presidents (then-incumbent president Bill Clinton, George H. W. Bush, Ronald Reagan, Jimmy Carter and Gerald Ford) and their wives attending Nixon's funeral, April 27, 1994

Nixon suffered a severe stroke on April 18, 1994, while preparing to eat dinner in his home at Park Ridge, New Jersey. A blood clot resulting from the atrial fibrillation he had suffered for many years had formed in his upper heart, broken off, and traveled to his brain. He was taken to NewYork-Presbyterian Hospital in Manhattan, initially alert but unable to speak or to move his right arm or leg. Damage to the brain caused swelling (cerebral edema), and Nixon slipped into a deep coma. He died at 9:08 p.m. on April 22, 1994, with his daughters at his bedside. He was 81 years old.

Nixon's funeral took place on April 27, 1994, in Yorba Linda, California. Eulogists at the Nixon Library ceremony included President Bill Clinton, former secretary of state Henry Kissinger, Senate Minority Leader Bob Dole, California governor Pete Wilson, and the Reverend Billy Graham. Also in attendance were former presidents Ford, Carter, Reagan, George H. W. Bush, and their wives.

Richard Nixon was buried beside his wife Pat on the grounds of the Nixon Library. He was survived by his two daughters, Tricia and Julie, and four grandchildren. In keeping with his wishes, his funeral was not a full state funeral, though his body did lie in repose in the Nixon Library lobby from April 26 to the morning of the funeral service. Mourners waited in line for up to eight hours in chilly, wet weather to pay their respects. At its peak, the line to pass by Nixon's casket was three miles long with an estimated 42,000 people waiting.

John F. Stacks of Time magazine said of Nixon shortly after his death,

An outsize energy and determination drove him on to recover and rebuild after every self-created disaster that he faced. To reclaim a respected place in American public life after his resignation, he kept traveling and thinking and talking to the world's leaders ... and by the time Bill Clinton came to the White House , Nixon had virtually cemented his role as an elder statesman. Clinton, whose wife served on the staff of the committee that voted to impeach Nixon, met openly with him and regularly sought his advice.

Tom Wicker of The New York Times noted that Nixon had been equalled only by Franklin Roosevelt in being five times nominated on a major party ticket and, quoting Nixon's 1962 farewell speech, wrote,

Richard Nixon's jowly, beard-shadowed face, the ski-jump nose and the widow's peak, the arms upstretched in the V-sign, had been so often pictured and caricatured, his presence had become such a familiar one in the land, he had been so often in the heat of controversy, that it was hard to realize the nation really would not "have Nixon to kick around anymore".

Ambrose said of the reaction to Nixon's death, "To everyone's amazement, except his, he's our beloved elder statesman."

Upon Nixon's death, the news coverage mentioned Watergate and the resignation but much of the coverage was favorable to the former president. The Dallas Morning News stated, "History ultimately should show that despite his flaws, he was one of our most farsighted chief executives." This offended some; columnist Russell Baker complained of "a group conspiracy to grant him absolution". Cartoonist Jeff Koterba of the Omaha World-Herald depicted History before a blank canvas, his subject Nixon, as America looks on eagerly. The artist urges his audience to sit down; the work will take some time to complete, as "this portrait is a little more complicated than most". Hunter S. Thompson wrote a scathing piece denouncing Nixon for Rolling Stone, entitled "He Was a Crook" (which also appeared a month later in The Atlantic). In his article, Thompson described Nixon as "a political monster straight out of Grendel and a very dangerous enemy".

Legacy

Main article: List of awards and honors received by Richard Nixon
Richard Nixon's Presidential Library and Museum located in Yorba Linda, California
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The graves of Nixon and his wife Pat

Historian and political scientist James MacGregor Burns asked of Nixon, "How can one evaluate such an idiosyncratic president, so brilliant and so morally lacking?" Evaluations of his presidency have proven complex, contrasting his presidency's domestic and foreign policy successes with the acrimonious circumstances of his departure. According to Ambrose, "Nixon wanted to be judged by what he accomplished. What he will be remembered for is the nightmare he put the country through in his second term and for his resignation." Irwin Gellman, who chronicled Nixon's congressional career, suggests, "He was remarkable among his congressional peers, a success story in a troubled era, one who steered a sensible anti-Communist course against the excess of McCarthy." Aitken feels that "Nixon, both as a man and as a statesman, has been excessively maligned for his faults and inadequately recognised for his virtues. Yet even in a spirit of historical revisionism, no simple verdict is possible."

Nixon saw his policies on Vietnam, China, and the Soviet Union as central to his place in history. Nixon's onetime opponent George McGovern commented in 1983, "President Nixon probably had a more practical approach to the two superpowers, China and the Soviet Union, than any other president since World War II ... With the exception of his inexcusable continuation of the war in Vietnam, Nixon really will get high marks in history." Political scientist Jussi Hanhimäki disagrees, saying that Nixon's diplomacy was merely a continuation of the Cold War policy of containment by diplomatic, rather than military, means. Historian Christopher Andrew concludes that "Nixon was a great statesman on the world stage as well as a shabby practitioner of electoral politics in the domestic arena. While the criminal farce of Watergate was in the making, Nixon's inspirational statesmanship was establishing new working relationships both with Communist China and with the Soviet Union."

Nixon's stance on domestic affairs has been credited with the passage and enforcement of environmental and regulatory legislation. In a 2011 paper on Nixon and the environment, historian Paul Charles Milazzo points to Nixon's creation of the United States Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), and to his enforcement of legislation such as the 1973 Endangered Species Act, stating that "though unsought and unacknowledged, Richard Nixon's environmental legacy is secure". Nixon himself did not consider the environmental advances he made in office an important part of his legacy; some historians contend that his choices were driven more by political expediency than any strong environmentalism. Some historians say Nixon's Southern Strategy turned the Southern United States into a Republican stronghold, while others deem economic factors more important in the change. Throughout his career, Nixon moved his party away from the control of isolationists, and as a Congressman he was a persuasive advocate of containing Soviet communism.

Historian Keith W. Olson has written that Nixon left a legacy of fundamental mistrust of government, rooted in Vietnam and Watergate. During the impeachment of Bill Clinton in 1998, both sides tried to use Nixon and Watergate to their advantage: Republicans suggested that Clinton's misconduct was comparable to Nixon's, while Democrats contended that Nixon's actions had been far more serious than Clinton's. For a time, there was a decrease in the power of the presidency as Congress passed restrictive legislation in the wake of Watergate. Olson suggests that legislation in the aftermath of the September 11 attacks restored the president's power.

According to his biographer Herbert Parmet, "Nixon's role was to steer the Republican party along a middle course, somewhere between the competitive impulses of the Rockefellers, the Goldwaters, and the Reagans."

Personality and public image

Nixon's career was frequently dogged by his persona and the public's perception of it. Editorial cartoonists and comedians often exaggerated his appearance and mannerisms, to the point where the line between the human and the caricature became increasingly blurred. He was often portrayed with unshaven jowls, slumped shoulders, and a furrowed, sweaty brow.

Nixon with Elvis Presley in December 1970: "The President & The King"

Nixon had a complex personality, both very secretive and awkward, yet strikingly reflective about himself. He was inclined to distance himself from people and was formal in all aspects, wearing a coat and tie even when home alone. Nixon biographer Conrad Black described him as being "driven" though also "uneasy with himself in some ways". According to Black, Nixon

thought that he was doomed to be traduced, double-crossed, unjustly harassed, misunderstood, underappreciated, and subjected to the trials of Job, but that by the application of his mighty will, tenacity, and diligence, he would ultimately prevail.

1960 campaign button

Nixon sometimes drank alcohol to excess, especially during 1970. He also was prescribed sleeping pills. According to Ray Price, Nixon sometimes took them in together. Nixon also took dilantin, recommended by Jack Dreyfus. That medicine is usually prescribed to treat and prevent seizures, but in Nixon's case it was for depression. His periodic overindulgences, especially during stressful times such as during Apollo 13, concerned Price and others, including then-advisor Ehrlichman and long-time valet Manolo Sanchez. Author and former British politician David Owen deemed Nixon an alcoholic.

Biographer Elizabeth Drew summarized Nixon as a "smart, talented man, but most peculiar and haunted of presidents". In his account of the Nixon presidency, author Richard Reeves described Nixon as "a strange man of uncomfortable shyness, who functioned best alone with his thoughts". Nixon's presidency was doomed by his personality, Reeves argues:

He assumed the worst in people and he brought out the worst in them ... He clung to the idea of being "tough". He thought that was what had brought him to the edge of greatness. But that was what betrayed him. He could not open himself to other men and he could not open himself to greatness.

In October 1999, a volume of 1971 White House audio tapes was released which contained multiple statements by Nixon deemed derogatory toward Jews. In one conversation with H. R. Haldeman, Nixon said that Washington was "full of Jews" and that "most Jews are disloyal", making exceptions for some of his top aides. He then added, "But, Bob, generally speaking, you can't trust the bastards. They turn on you. Am I wrong or right?" Elsewhere on the 1971 recordings, Nixon denies being antisemitic, saying, "If anybody who's been in this chair ever had reason to be antisemitic, I did ... And I'm not, you know what I mean?"

Nixon believed that putting distance between himself and other people was necessary for him as he advanced in his political career and became president. Even Bebe Rebozo, by some accounts his closest friend, did not call him by his first name. Nixon said of this,

Even with close friends, I don't believe in letting your hair down, confiding this and that and the other thing—saying, "Gee, I couldn't sleep ..." I believe you should keep your troubles to yourself. That's just the way I am. Some people are different. Some people think it's good therapy to sit with a close friend and, you know, just spill your guts ... reveal their inner psyche—whether they were breast-fed or bottle-fed. Not me. No way.

When Nixon was told that most Americans felt they did not know him even at the end of his career, he replied, "Yeah, it's true. And it's not necessary for them to know."

Books

External videos
video icon Part One of Booknotes interview with Nixon on Seize the Moment, February 23, 1992
video icon Part Two of Booknotes interview, March 1, 1992
  • Nixon, Richard M. (1987). No More Vietnams, Arbor House Publishing. ISBN 978-0-87795-668-6.
  • Nixon, Richard M. (1988). 1999: Victory Without War, Simon & Schuster. ISBN 978-0-671-62712-6.
  • Nixon, Richard M. (1990). In the Arena: A Memoir of Victory, Defeat, and Renewal, Simon & Schuster. ISBN 978-0-671-72318-7.
  • Nixon, Richard M. (1992). Seize the Moment: America's Challenge in a One-Superpower World, Simon & Schuster. ISBN 978-0-671-74343-7.
  • Nixon, Richard M. (1994). Beyond Peace, Random House. ISBN 978-0-679-43323-1.

See also

Notes

  1. Black, pp. 583–585. In 1972, Nixon did more than double his percentage of the Jewish vote, from 17 percent to 35 percent. Merkley, p. 68.
  2. ^ Voluntary for employees
  3. See especially page 2 (after introductory material) in which a bar graph displays NHLBI funding for sickle cell research from FY 1972 through FY 2001, totaling $923 million for these thirty years, starting at $10 million for 1972, then about $15 million a year through 1976, about $20 million for 1977, etc.

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  253. The Washington Post, The Post Investigates.
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  342. ^ Greene.

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