Misplaced Pages

Hindu astrology: Difference between revisions

Article snapshot taken from Wikipedia with creative commons attribution-sharealike license. Give it a read and then ask your questions in the chat. We can research this topic together.
Browse history interactively← Previous editContent deleted Content addedVisualWikitext
Revision as of 12:14, 19 September 2014 editAmrit Ghimire Ranjit (talk | contribs)Extended confirmed users894 edits →History← Previous edit Latest revision as of 15:33, 13 January 2025 edit undoMohit wikipedi1a (talk | contribs)7 editsm →Etymology: →hindu astrology content changesTag: Visual edit 
(898 intermediate revisions by more than 100 users not shown)
Line 1: Line 1:
{{astrology}} {{Short description|Indian form of astrology}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=June 2015}}
{{Use Indian English |date= October 2018}}
{{Hinduism}}
{{Astrology sidebar}}


'''Hindu astrology''', also called '''Indian astrology''', '''Jyotisha''' ({{langx|sa|ज्योतिष|jyotiṣa|translit-script=iast}}; {{etymology||jyót|light, heavenly body}}) More recently, Vedic astrology has emerged as the traditional Hindu astrology system. Vedic astrology is among the six auxiliary disciplines in ], closely linked to the study of the ].
'''Jyotisha''' (or '''Jyotish''' from ] ''{{IAST|jyotiṣa}}'', from ''{{IAST|jyótis-}}'' "light, heavenly body") is the traditional ] system of ] and ]. It is also known as '''Hindu astrology''', '''Indian astrology''', and more recently '''Vedic astrology'''. The term ''Hindu astrology'' has been in use as the English equivalent of ''Jyotiṣa'' since the early 19th century, whereas''Vedic astrology'' is a relatively recent term, entering common usage in the 1980s with ] publications on ] or ]. '']'' is one of the earliest texts about astronomy within the Vedas.<ref>{{cite book |title=Vedic Cosmography and Astronomy |page=9 - 240 |first=Richard L. |last=Thompson |year = 2004}}<!--page range too wide--></ref><ref>{{cite book |title=Āryabhaṭa I and his contributions to mathematics |year=1988 |first=Parmeshwar |last=Jha |page=282}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |title=Mathematical Achievements of Pre-Modern Indian Mathematicians |year=2012 |first=T.K. |last=Puttaswamy |page=1}}</ref> However, historical documentation shows that ] in the ] came from Hellenistic influences, post-dating the ].<ref>Pingree(1981), p.67ff, 81ff, 101ff</ref>


The '']'' is one of the earliest texts about astronomy within the ].<ref>{{cite book |title=Vedic Cosmography and Astronomy |pages=9–240 |first=Richard L. |last=Thompson |date = 2004}}<!--page range too wide--></ref><ref>{{cite book |title=Āryabhaṭa I and his contributions to mathematics |date=1988 |first=Parmeshwar |last=Jha |page=282}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |title=Mathematical Achievements of Pre-Modern Indian Mathematicians |date=2012 |first=T. K. |last=Puttaswamy |page=1}}</ref>{{sfn|Witzel|2001}} Some scholars believe that the ] practiced in the ] came from ] influences.{{sfn|Pingree|1981|pp=67ff, 81ff, 101ff}}{{sfn|Samuel|2010|p=81}} However, this is a point of intense debate, and other scholars believe that Jyotisha developed independently, although it may have interacted with ].<ref>{{Citation|last=Tripathi|first=Vijaya Narayan|title=Astrology in India|date=2008|url=https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4020-4425-0_9749|encyclopedia=Encyclopaedia of the History of Science, Technology, and Medicine in Non-Western Cultures|pages=264–267|editor-last=Selin|editor-first=Helaine|place=Dordrecht|publisher=Springer Netherlands|language=en|doi=10.1007/978-1-4020-4425-0_9749|isbn=978-1-4020-4425-0|access-date=2020-11-05|archive-date=7 March 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230307164157/https://link.springer.com/referenceworkentry/10.1007/978-1-4020-4425-0_9749|url-status=live}}</ref>
Jyotisha has been divided into three main branches:<ref>''{{IAST|triskandham jyautiṣam horā ganitam samhiteti ca}}'' ] 1.2</ref>
* '''''Siddhānta''''': ].
* '''''Saṁhitā''''': ], predicting important events related to countries such as war, earthquakes, political events, financial positions, ], house and construction related matters (]), animals, portents, omens, and so on.
* '''''Horā''''': ] in detail.


The ] is that ] is a ] and has consistently failed experimental and theoretical verification.<ref name="Thagard">{{cite journal|last=Thagard|first=Paul R.|title=Why Astrology is a Pseudoscience|journal=Proceedings of the Biennial Meeting of the Philosophy of Science Association|year=1978|volume=1|issue=1 |pages=223–234|doi=10.1086/psaprocbienmeetp.1978.1.192639|s2cid=147050929|url=http://www.helsinki.fi/teoreettinenfilosofia/oppimateriaali/Sintonen/Paul_R._Thagard_-_Why_Astrology_Is_A_Pseudoscience.pdf|access-date=13 June 2017|archive-date=28 August 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170828205710/http://www.helsinki.fi/teoreettinenfilosofia/oppimateriaali/Sintonen/Paul_R._Thagard_-_Why_Astrology_Is_A_Pseudoscience.pdf|url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="SandPSandAstroSoc">{{cite encyclopedia |author1=Sven Ove Hansson |author2=Edward N. Zalta |title=Science and Pseudo-Science |url=http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/pseudo-science/ |encyclopedia=Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy |access-date=6 July 2012 |archive-date=5 September 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150905091332/http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/pseudo-science/ |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name="astrosociety.org">{{cite web |title=Astronomical Pseudo-Science: A Skeptic's Resource List |publisher=Astronomical Society of the Pacific |url=http://www.astrosociety.org/education/resources/pseudobib.html |access-date=13 June 2017 |archive-date=30 December 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111230053308/http://www.astrosociety.org/education/resources/pseudobib.html |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name="Hartmann">{{cite journal |last1=Hartmann |first1=P. |last2=Reuter |first2=M. |last3=Nyborga |first3=H. |title=The relationship between date of birth and individual differences in personality and general intelligence: A large-scale study |journal=Personality and Individual Differences |date=May 2006 |volume=40 |issue=7 | pages=1349–1362 |doi=10.1016/j.paid.2005.11.017 |quote=To optimise the chances of finding even remote relationships between date of birth and individual differences in personality and intelligence we further applied two different strategies. The first one was based on the common chronological concept of time (e.g. month of birth and season of birth). The second strategy was based on the (pseudo-scientific) concept of astrology (e.g. Sun Signs, The Elements, and astrological gender), as discussed in the book ''Astrology: Science or superstition?'' by Eysenck and Nias (1982).}}</ref><ref name="Narlikar-CUP" />
Following a judgement of the ] in 2001, which favoured astrology, some Indian universities offer advanced degrees in astrology.


==Etymology==
Astrology is rejected by the scientific community as ].
Jyotisha, states Monier-Williams, is rooted in the word ''Jyotish,'' which means light, such as that of the ] or the ] or a heavenly body. The term ''Jyotisha'' includes the study of ], astrology, and the science of timekeeping using the movements of astronomical bodies.<ref name=monierwilliamsnijyotisa>{{cite book|author=Monier Monier-Williams|title=A Sanskrit–English Dictionary|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=_3NWAAAAcAAJ&pg=PA353|year=1923|publisher=]|page=353|access-date=27 December 2020|archive-date=7 March 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230307164257/https://books.google.com/books?id=_3NWAAAAcAAJ&pg=PA353|url-status=live}}</ref><ref name=jyotisa_m.williams2> {{access-date|28 November 2024}}</ref><ref name=jameslochtefeldsca326>James Lochtefeld (2002), "Jyotisha" in The Illustrated Encyclopedia of Hinduism, Vol. 1: A–M, Rosen Publishing, {{ISBN|0-8239-2287-1}}, pages 326–327</ref> It aimed to keep time, maintain calendars, and predict auspicious times for Vedic rituals.<ref name=monierwilliamsnijyotisa/><ref name=jyotisa_m.williams2/><ref name=jameslochtefeldsca326/>


==History== ==History and core principles{{anchor|History}}==
{{Further|Hindu chronology}} {{Further|Indian astronomy}}
Jyotiṣa is one of the ], the six auxiliary disciplines used to support Vedic rituals.<ref name=Flood>Flood, Gavin. Yano, Michio. 2003. ''The Blackwell Companion to Hinduism.'' Malden: Blackwell.</ref>{{rp|376}} Early jyotiṣa is concerned with the preparation of a calendar to fix the date of sacrificial rituals.<ref name=Flood />{{rp|377}} Nothing is written on planets.<ref name=Flood />{{rp|377}} There are mentions of ] causing "demons" in the ] and ], the Chāndogya mentioning ].<ref name=Flood />{{rp|382}} In fact the term ], which is now taken to mean ], originally meant demon.<ref name=Flood/>{{rp|381}} The Ṛgveda also mentions an eclipse causing demon, ], however the specific term of "graha" becomes applied to Svarbhānu in the later ] and ].<ref name=Flood/>{{rp|382}} ] is one of the ], the six auxiliary disciplines used to support Vedic rituals.<ref name=Flood>Flood, Gavin. Yano, Michio. 2003. ''The Blackwell Companion to Hinduism.'' Malden: Blackwell.</ref>{{rp|376}} Early jyotiṣa is concerned with the preparation of a calendar to determine dates for sacrificial rituals,<ref name=Flood />{{rp|377}} with nothing written regarding planets.<ref name=Flood />{{rp|377}} There are mentions of ]-causing "demons" in the ] and ], the latter mentioning ] (a shadow entity believed responsible for eclipses and meteors).<ref name=Flood />{{rp|382}} Originally, the term ], which we now understand to refer to the ], meant demon.<ref name=Flood/>{{rp|381}} The Ṛigveda also mentions an eclipse-causing demon, ]. However, the specific term ''graha'' was not applied to Svarbhānu until the later '']'' and '']''.<ref name=Flood/>{{rp|382}}


The foundation of Hindu astrology is the notion of ] of the ], (scriptures), which is the connection between the ] and the macrocosm. Practice relies primarily on the ], which is different from the ] used in ] in that an '']'' adjustment is made for the ] of the ]. Hindu astrology includes several nuanced sub-systems of interpretation and prediction with elements not found in Hellenistic astrology, such as its system of ]s ('']''). It was only after the transmission of Hellenistic astrology that the order of planets in India was fixed in that of the seven-day week.<ref>Flood, p.</ref><ref name=Flood />{{rp|383}} Hellenistic astrology and astronomy also transmitted the twelve zodiacal signs beginning with Aries and the twelve astrological places beginning with the ascendant.<ref name=Flood />{{rp|384}} The first evidence of the introduction of Greek astrology to India is the ] which dates to the early centuries CE.<ref name=Flood />{{rp|383}} The '']'' ("Sayings of the Greeks") was translated from Greek to Sanskrit by ] during the 2nd century CE, under the patronage of the ] ] king ], and is considered the first Indian astrological treatise in the ] language.<ref>Mc Evilley "The shape of ancient thought", p385 ("The Yavanajātaka is the earliest surviving Sanskrit text in horoscopy, and constitute the basis of all later Indian developments in horoscopy", himself quoting David Pingree "The Yavanajātaka of Sphujidhvaja" p5)</ref> However the only version that survives is the later verse version of Sphujidhvaja which dates to AD 270.<ref name=Flood />{{rp|383}} The first Indian astronomical text to define the weekday was the ] of ] (born AD 476).<ref name=Flood />{{rp|383}} The foundation of Hindu astrology is the notion of ] of the ] (scriptures), which is the connection between the ] and the macrocosm. The practice relies primarily on the ], which differs from the ] used in ] in that an '']'' adjustment is made for the ] of the ]. Hindu astrology includes several nuanced sub-systems of interpretation and prediction with elements not found in Hellenistic astrology, such as its system of ]s ('']''). It was only after the transmission of Hellenistic astrology that the order of planets in India was fixed in that of the seven-day week.<ref name=Flood />{{rp|383}}<ref>Flood, p.
</ref> Hellenistic astrology and astronomy also transmitted the twelve ] beginning with Aries and the twelve astrological places beginning with the ascendant.<ref name=Flood />{{rp|384}} The first evidence of the introduction of Greek astrology to India is the '']'' which dates to the early centuries CE.<ref name=Flood />{{rp|383}} The ''Yavanajātaka'' ({{abbr|lit.|literally}} "Sayings of the Greeks") was translated from Greek to Sanskrit by ] during the 2nd century CE, and is considered the first Indian astrological treatise in the ] language.<ref>Mc Evilley "The shape of ancient thought", p. 385 ("The Yavanajātaka is the earliest surviving Sanskrit text in horoscopy, and constitute the basis of all later Indian developments in horoscopy", himself quoting David Pingree "The Yavanajātaka of Sphujidhvaja" p. 5)</ref> However the only version that survives is the verse version of Sphujidhvaja which dates to AD 270.<ref name=Flood />{{rp|383}} The first Indian astronomical text to define the weekday was the '']'' of ] (born AD 476).<ref name=Flood />{{rp|383}}


According to Michio Yano, Indian astronomers must have been occupied with the task of Indianizing and Sanskritizing Greek astronomy during the 300 or so years between the first ''Yavanajataka'' and the ''Āryabhaṭīya''.<ref name=Flood />{{rp|388}} The astronomical texts of these 300 years are lost.<ref name=Flood />{{rp|388}} The later ''Pañcasiddhāntikā'' of ] summarizes the five known Indian astronomical schools of the sixth century.<ref name=Flood />{{rp|388}} It is interesting to note that Indian astronomy preserved some of the older pre-Ptolemaic elements of Greek astronomy.<ref name=Flood />{{rp|389}} In the 300 years between the first Yavanajataka and the Āryabhaṭīya, Indian astronomers likely focused on Indianizing and Sanskritizing Greek astronomy, according to Michio Yano<ref name=Flood />{{rp|388}} We no longer have the astronomical texts from these 300 years. <ref name=Flood />{{rp|388}} The later ''Pañcasiddhāntikā'' of ] summarizes the five known Indian astronomical schools of the sixth century.<ref name=Flood />{{rp|388}} Indian astronomy preserved some of the older pre-Ptolemaic elements of Greek astronomy.<ref name=Flood />{{rp|389}}{{Sfn|Ohashi|1999|pp=719–721}}{{Sfn|Pingree|1973|pp=2–3}}<ref>{{cite book|author=Erik Gregersen|title=The Britannica Guide to the History of Mathematics|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=qZ3zVmLUcjcC|year=2011|publisher=]|isbn=978-1-61530-127-0|page=187|access-date=27 December 2020|archive-date=7 March 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230307164249/https://books.google.com/books?id=qZ3zVmLUcjcC|url-status=live}}</ref><ref name=jameslochtefeldsca326/>


The main texts upon which classical Indian astrology is based are early medieval compilations, notably the '']'', and '']'' by {{IAST|Kalyāṇavarma}}. The main texts upon which classical Indian astrology is based are early medieval compilations, notably the '']'', and '']'' by {{IAST|Kalyāṇavarma}}.
The ''Horāshastra'' is a composite work of 71 chapters, of which the first part (chapters 1–51) dates to the 7th to early 8th centuries and the second part (chapters 52–71) to the later 8th century. The ''Sārāvalī'' likewise dates to around 800 CE.<ref>David Pingree, ''{{IAST|Jyotiḥśāstra}}'' (J. Gonda (Ed.) ''A History of Indian Literature'', Vol VI Fasc 4), p.81</ref> English translations of these texts were published by N.N. Krishna Rau and V.B. Choudhari in 1963 and 1961, respectively. The ''Horāshastra'' is a composite work of 71 chapters, of which the first part (chapters 1–51) dates to the 7th to early 8th centuries and the second part (chapters 52–71) to the late 8th century.{{Citation needed|reason=Reliable source needed for the dating|date=June 2018}} The ''Sārāvalī'' likewise dates to around 800 CE.<ref>David Pingree, ''{{IAST|Jyotiḥśāstra}}'' (J. Gonda (Ed.) ''A History of Indian Literature'', Vol VI Fasc 4), p. 81</ref> N. N. Krishna Rau and V. B. Choudhari published English translations of these texts in 1963 and 1961, respectively.


== Modern Hindu astrology==
==Elements==
]
There are sixteen ] ({{lang-sa|{{IAST|varga}}}}, 'part, division'), or divisional, charts used in Hindu astrology:<ref name=Sutton>Sutton, Komilla (1999). ''The Essentials of Vedic Astrology'', The Wessex Astrologer Ltd, England {{Verify credibility|date=December 2009}}</ref>{{rp|61–64}}
] remains an important facet of ] in the contemporary lives of many ]s. In ], newborns are traditionally named based on their ''jyotiṣa'' charts (]), and astrological concepts are pervasive in the organization of the calendar and holidays and in making major decisions such as those about marriage, opening a new business, or moving into a new home. Many Hindus believe that heavenly bodies, including the planets, have an influence throughout the life of a human being, and these planetary influences are the "fruit of ]". The ], planetary deities, are considered subordinate to ] (the Hindu concept of a supreme being) in the administration of justice. Thus, it is believed that these planets can influence earthly life.<ref name=Karma>Karma, an anthropological inquiry, pg. 134, at </ref>

===Astrology as a science===
{{see also|Astrology and science}}

The scientific community has rejected astrology as having no explanatory power for describing the universe. ] of astrology has been conducted, and no evidence has been found to support any of the premises or purported effects outlined in astrological traditions.<ref name="Zarka">{{cite journal |last=Zarka |first=Philippe |title=Astronomy and astrology |journal=Proceedings of the International Astronomical Union |date=2011 |volume=5 |issue=S260 |pages=420–425 |doi=10.1017/S1743921311002602 |bibcode=2011IAUS..260..420Z |url=https://zenodo.org/record/890932 |doi-access=free |access-date=12 September 2019 |archive-date=18 August 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200818112236/https://zenodo.org/record/890932 |url-status=live }}</ref>{{rp|424}} There is no mechanism proposed by astrologers through which the positions and motions of stars and planets could affect people and events on Earth. In spite of its status as a ], in certain religious, political, and legal contexts, astrology retains a position among the ]s in modern ].<ref>"In countries such as India, where only a small intellectual elite has been trained in Western physics, astrology manages to retain here and there its position among the sciences." David Pingree and Robert Gilbert, "Astrology; Astrology In India; Astrology in modern times" ] 2008</ref>

India's ] and ] decided to introduce "Jyotir Vigyan" (i.e. ''{{IAST|jyotir vijñāna}}'') or "Vedic astrology" as a discipline of study in Indian universities, stating that "vedic astrology is not only one of the main subjects of our traditional and classical knowledge but this is the discipline, which lets us know the events happening in human life and in universe on time scale"<ref name=supremecourt>Supreme Court questions 'Jyotir Vigyan', ''Times of India'', 3 September 2001 </ref> in spite of the complete lack of evidence that astrology actually does allow for such accurate predictions.<ref>{{Cite web|date=May 3, 2001|title=Heavens, it's not Science|url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/Heavens-its-not-Science/articleshow/40247321.cms|access-date=2020-11-11|website=The Times of India|language=en|archive-date=11 November 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201111152900/https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/Heavens-its-not-Science/articleshow/40247321.cms|url-status=live}}</ref> The decision was backed by a 2001 judgment of the ], and some Indian universities offer advanced degrees in astrology.<ref>Mohan Rao, Female foeticide: where do we go? ] Oct-Dec2001-9(4), {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090627172315/http://www.issuesinmedicalethics.org/094co123.html |date=27 June 2009 }}</ref><ref>T. Jayaraman, A judicial blow, ''Frontline'' Volume 18 – Issue 12, Jun. 09 – 22, 2001 </ref>
This was met with widespread protests from the scientific community in India and Indian scientists working abroad.<ref>T. Jayaraman, A judicial blow, ''Frontline'' Volume 18 – Issue 12, June 09 – 22, 2001 {{usurped|}}</ref> A petition sent to the ] stated that the introduction of astrology to university curricula is "a giant leap backwards, undermining whatever scientific credibility the country has achieved so far".<ref name=supremecourt />

In 2004, the Supreme Court dismissed the petition,<ref> {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211203041837/http://www.frontline.in/static/html/fl2112/stories/20040618001904800.htm |date=3 December 2021 }}, Ram Ramachandran, Frontline Volume 21, Issue 12, Jun. 05 - 18, 2004</ref><ref>, ], Thursday, May 06, 2004</ref> concluding that the teaching of astrology did not qualify as the promotion of religion.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Supreme Court: Bhargava v. University Grants Commission, Case No.: Appeal (civil) 5886 of 2002|url=http://judis.nic.in/supremecourt/qrydisp.asp?tfnm=26188|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20050312205612/http://judis.nic.in/supremecourt/qrydisp.asp?tfnm=26188|archive-date=12 March 2005|url-status=dead}}</ref><ref name="Univ-1">{{Cite news|date=5 May 2004|title=Introduction of Vedic astrology courses in universities upheld|newspaper=]|url=http://www.hindu.com/2004/05/06/stories/2004050602931400.htm|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20040923190435/http://www.hindu.com/2004/05/06/stories/2004050602931400.htm|archive-date=23 September 2004|url-status=dead}}</ref> In February 2011, the Bombay High Court referred to the 2004 Supreme Court ruling when it dismissed a case which had challenged astrology's status as a science.<ref name="Bombay-HC">{{Cite news|title=Astrology is a science: Bombay HC|date=3 February 2011 |newspaper=The Times of India|url=http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/india/Astrology-is-a-science-Bombay-HC/articleshow/7418795.cms|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110206024139/http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/india/Astrology-is-a-science-Bombay-HC/articleshow/7418795.cms|archive-date=6 February 2011|url-status=live}}</ref> {{As of|2014|post=,}} despite continuing complaints by scientists,<ref>{{Cite news|title=Integrate Indian medicine with modern science|date=26 October 2003|newspaper=] |url=http://www.hindu.com/2003/10/27/stories/2003102707090400.htm|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20031113211344/http://www.hindu.com/2003/10/27/stories/2003102707090400.htm|archive-date=13 November 2003|url-status=dead}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Narlikar|first=Jayant V.|date=2013|title=An Indian Test of Indian Astrology|journal=Skeptical Inquirer|volume=37|issue=2|url=http://www.csicop.org/si/show/an_indian_test_of_indian_astrology|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130723193119/http://www.csicop.org/si/show/an_indian_test_of_indian_astrology|archive-date=23 July 2013|url-status=live}}</ref> astrology continues to be taught at various universities in India,<ref name="Univ-1" /><ref>{{Cite news|date=13 February 2014|title=People seek astrological advise from Banaras Hindu University experts to tackle health issues|newspaper=The Times of India|url=http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/varanasi/People-seek-astrological-advise-from-Banaras-Hindu-University-experts-to-tackle-health-issues/articleshow/30334332.cms|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140322203108/http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/varanasi/People-seek-astrological-advise-from-Banaras-Hindu-University-experts-to-tackle-health-issues/articleshow/30334332.cms|archive-date=22 March 2014|url-status=live}}</ref> and there is a movement in progress to establish a national Vedic University to teach astrology together with the study of ], ], and ].<ref>{{Cite news|title=Set-up Vedic university to promote astrology |date=9 February 2013 |newspaper=The Times of India |url=http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/allahabad/Set-up-Vedic-university-to-promote-astrology/articleshow/18411238.cms |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130209135849/http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/allahabad/Set-up-Vedic-university-to-promote-astrology/articleshow/18411238.cms |archive-date=9 February 2013 |url-status=live |df=dmy-all }}</ref>

Skeptics have thoroughly debunked the claims made by Indian astrologers.. For example, although the planet Saturn is in the constellation ] roughly every 30 years (e.g. 1909, 1939, 1968), the astrologer ] claimed that "when Saturn was in Aries in 1939 England had to declare war against Germany", ignoring all the other dates.<ref name=CSICOP>{{cite journal|last=Narlikar|first=Jayant V.|title=An Indian Test of Indian Astrology|date=March–April 2013|volume=37|journal=]|issue=2|url=http://www.csicop.org/si/show/an_indian_test_of_indian_astrology|access-date=1 August 2013|archive-date=4 October 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131004114028/http://www.csicop.org/si/show/an_indian_test_of_indian_astrology/|url-status=live}}</ref> Astrologers regularly fail in attempts to predict election results in India, and fail to predict major events such as the assassination of ]. Predictions by the head of the Indian Astrologers Federation about war between India and Pakistan in 1982 also failed.<ref name=CSICOP />

In 2000, when several planets happened to be close to one another, astrologers predicted that there would be catastrophes, ]s and ]s. This caused an entire sea-side village in the Indian state of ] to panic and abandon their houses. The predicted events did not occur and the vacant houses were burgled.<ref name=Narlikar-CUP>{{cite book|last1=Narlikar|first1=Jayant V.|editor1-first=Jay|editor1-last=Pasachoff|editor2-first=John|editor2-last=Percy|title=Teaching and Learning Astronomy: Effective Strategies for Educators Worldwide|chapter=Astronomy, pseudoscience and rational thinking|date=2009|publisher=Cambridge University Press|pages=164–165|isbn=9780521115391|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=mdzQ4uCnYfkC&pg=PA165|access-date=19 July 2015|archive-date=7 March 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230307164247/https://books.google.com/books?id=mdzQ4uCnYfkC&pg=PA165|url-status=live}}</ref>

==Texts==
{{Quote box
|quote = '''Time keeping'''
<poem>
minus one,
multiplied by twelve,
multiplied by two,
added to the elapsed ,
increased by two for every sixty ,
is the quantity of half-months (]).
</poem>
|source = — Rigveda Jyotisha-vedanga 4<br />Translator: Kim Plofker{{Sfn|Plofker|2009|p=36}}
|bgcolor=#FFE0BB
|align = right
}}
The ancient extant text on Jyotisha is the '']'', which exists in two editions, one linked to the ] and other to ].{{Sfn|Ohashi|1999|p=719}} The Rigveda version consists of 36 verses, while the Yajurveda recension has 43 verses of which 29 verses are borrowed from the Rigveda.{{Sfn|Plofker|2009|pp=35–36}}{{Sfn|Pingree|1973|p=1}} The Rigveda version is variously attributed to sage Lagadha and sometimes to sage Shuci.{{Sfn|Pingree|1973|p=1}} The Yajurveda version does not attribute credit to any specific sage, has endured into the modern era with a commentary by Somakara, and is considered the more studied version.

The Jyotisha text ''Brahma-siddhanta'', probably composed in the 5th century CE, discusses how to use the movement of planets, sun and moon to keep time and calendar.{{Sfn|Plofker|2009|pp=67–68}} This text also lists ] and mathematical formulae to support its theory of orbits, predict planetary positions and calculate relative mean positions of celestial nodes and apsides.{{Sfn|Plofker|2009|pp=67–68}} The text is notable for presenting very large integers, such as the lifetime of the current universe being 4.32 billion years.{{Sfn|Plofker|2009|pp=68–71}}

The ancient Hindu texts on Jyotisha only discuss timekeeping and never mention astrology or prophecy.<ref>{{cite book|author=C. K. Raju|title=Cultural Foundations of Mathematics|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=jza_cNJM6fAC|year=2007|publisher=Pearson|isbn=978-81-317-0871-2|page=205|access-date=27 December 2020|archive-date=7 March 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230307164246/https://books.google.com/books?id=jza_cNJM6fAC|url-status=live}}</ref> These ancient texts predominantly cover astronomy, but at a rudimentary level.<ref name="mullerhaslp210">{{cite book|author=Friedrich Max Müller|title=A History of Ancient Sanskrit Literature|url=https://archive.org/details/historyofancient00mlle|year=1860|publisher=]|pages=–215}}</ref> Technical horoscopes and astrology ideas in India came from Greece and developed in the early centuries of the 1st millennium CE.<ref>{{cite book|author=Nicholas Campion|title=Astrology and Cosmology in the World's Religions|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=MxSr1NT3BLoC|year=2012|publisher=]|isbn=978-0-8147-0842-2|pages=110–111|access-date=27 December 2020|archive-date=7 March 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230307164254/https://books.google.com/books?id=MxSr1NT3BLoC|url-status=live}}</ref>{{Sfn|Ohashi|1999|pp=719–721}}{{Sfn|Pingree|1973|pp=2–3}} Later medieval era texts such as the ''Yavana-jataka'' and the '']'' texts are more astrology-related.{{Sfn|Plofker|2009|pp=116–120, 259–261}}

==Discussion==
The field of Jyotisha deals with ascertaining time, particularly forecasting auspicious days and times for Vedic rituals.<ref name=jameslochtefeldsca326/> The field of Vedanga structured time into ''Yuga,'' which was a 5-year interval,{{Sfn|Plofker|2009|p=36}} divided into multiple lunisolar intervals such as 60 solar months, 61 savana months, 62 synodic months and 67 sidereal months.{{Sfn|Ohashi|1999|p=719}} A Vedic Yuga had 1,860 ''tithis'' ({{lang|sa|तिथि}}, dates), and it defined a ''savana''-day (civil day) from one sunrise to another.{{Sfn|Ohashi|1993|pp=185–251}}

The Rigvedic version of Jyotisha may be a later insertion into the Veda, states ], possibly between 513 and 326 BCE, when the Indus Valley was occupied by the Achaemenid from ].{{Sfn|Pingree|1973|p=3}} The mathematics and devices for timekeeping mentioned in these ancient Sanskrit texts, proposes Pingree, such as the ], may also have arrived in India from Mesopotamia. However, Yukio Ohashi considers this proposal as incorrect,{{Sfn|Ohashi|1999|pp=719–721}} suggesting instead that the Vedic timekeeping efforts, for forecasting appropriate time for rituals, must have begun much earlier and the influence may have flowed from India to Mesopotamia.{{Sfn|Ohashi|1993|pp=185–251}} Ohashi states that it is incorrect to assume that the number of civil days in a year equals 365 in both the Hindu and Egyptian–Persian years.{{Sfn|Ohashi|1999|pp=719–720}} Further, adds Ohashi, the Mesopotamian formula is different from the Indian formula for calculating time, each can only work for their respective latitude, and either would make major errors in predicting time and calendar in the other region.<ref>{{cite book|author=Yukio Ohashi|editor=S.M. Ansari|title=History of Oriental Astronomy|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=8X0iCQAAQBAJ|year=2013|publisher=]|isbn=978-94-015-9862-0|pages=75–82}}</ref> According to Asko Parpola, the Jyotisha and luni-solar calendar discoveries in ancient India, and similar discoveries in ] in "great likelihood result from convergent parallel development", and not from diffusion from Mesopotamia.<ref>] (2013), "Beginnings of Indian Astronomy, with Reference to a Parallel Development in China", ''History of Science in South Asia'', Vol. 1, pages 21–25</ref>


Kim Plofker states that while a flow of timekeeping ideas from either side is plausible, each may have instead developed independently, because the loan-words typically seen when ideas migrate are missing on both sides as far as words for various time intervals and techniques.{{Sfn|Plofker|2009|pp=41–42}}<ref>{{cite journal | last=Sarma | first=Nataraja | title=Diffusion of astronomy in the ancient world | journal=Endeavour | publisher=] | volume=24 | issue=4 | year=2000 | pages=157–164 | doi=10.1016/s0160-9327(00)01327-2 | pmid=11196987 }}</ref> Further, adds Plofker, and other scholars, that the discussion of timekeeping concepts is found in the Sanskrit verses of the ''Shatapatha Brahmana'', a 2nd millennium BCE text.{{Sfn|Plofker|2009|pp=41–42}}<ref>{{cite book|author=Helaine Selin| title=Astronomy Across Cultures: The History of Non-Western Astronomy| url=https://books.google.com/books?id=vRHvCAAAQBAJ |year=2012 |publisher=Springer Science| isbn=978-94-011-4179-6 |pages=320–321}}</ref> Water clocks and sun dials are mentioned in many ancient Hindu texts such as the ].<ref>{{cite journal | last=Hinuber | first=Oskar V. | title=Probleme der Technikgeschichte im alten Indien | journal=Saeculum | publisher=] | volume=29 | issue=3 | year=1978 | pages=215–230 | doi=10.7788/saeculum.1978.29.3.215 | s2cid=171007726 | language=de}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|author1=Kauṭilya|translator1-first=Patrick|translator1-last=Olivelle |title=King, Governance, and Law in Ancient India: Kautilya's Arthasastra|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=6MlgU0oQb4sC |year=2013 |publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=978-0-19-989182-5|pages=473 with note 1.7.8}}</ref> Plofker suggests that the arrival of Greek astrology ideas in India may have led to a roundabout integration of Mesopotamian and Indian Jyotisha-based systems.<ref>{{cite book| author=Kim Plofker| editor=Micah Ross| title=From the Banks of the Euphrates: Studies in Honor of Alice Louise Slotsky| url=https://books.google.com/books?id=edVOGJKa7XUC| year=2008| publisher=]|isbn=978-1-57506-144-3| pages=193–203}}</ref>
===Rāśi – zodiacal signs===
Around 2500 BC many extant texts were written by sages such ] and ]. Each sign was divided in three more strata called "charna" similar to decanates of Western astrology.


The Jyotisha texts present mathematical formulae to predict the length of daytime, sunrise and moon cycles.{{Sfn|Ohashi|1993|pp=185–251}}{{Sfn|Plofker|2009|pp=35–40}}{{Sfn|Winternitz|1963|p=269}} For example,
The Nirayana, or ], is an imaginary belt of 360 degrees, which, like the Sāyana, or ], is divided into 12 equal parts. Each twelfth part (of 30 degrees) is called a sign or '''rāśi''' (]: 'part'). Vedic (Jyotiṣa) and Western ]s differ in the method of measurement. While synchronically, the two systems are identical, Jyotiṣa uses primarily the sidereal zodiac (in which stars are considered to be the fixed background against which the motion of the planets is measured), whereas most ] uses the ] (the motion of the planets is measured against the position of the Sun on the ]). This difference becomes noticeable over time. After two ], as a result of the ], the origin of the ] has shifted by about 22 degrees. As a result the placement of planets in the Jyotiṣa system is consistent with the actual zodiac, while in western astrology the planets fall into the following sign, as compared to their placement in the sidereal zodiac, about two thirds of the time.


:The length of daytime = <math>\left(12 + \frac{2}{61}n \right)</math> ''muhurtas''{{Sfn|Plofker|2009|p=37}}
:where ''n'' is the number of days after or before the winter solstice, and one ''muhurta'' equals {{frac|1|30}} of a day (48 minutes).{{Sfn|Ohashi|1999|p=720}}

<blockquote style="background-color:none;margin-right:5em;margin-left:0em;border-left:solid 6px #FFE0BB;padding:1.0em">
'''Water clock'''<br />A ''prastha'' of water the increase in day, decrease in night in the northern motion; vice versa in the southern. a six-muhurta in a half year.

— Yajurveda Jyotisha-vedanga 8, Translator: Kim Plofker{{Sfn|Plofker|2009|p=37}}
</blockquote>

==Elements==
There are sixteen ] ({{langx|sa|{{IAST|varga}}}}, 'part, division'), or divisional, charts used in Hindu astrology:<ref name=Sutton>Sutton, Komilla (1999). ''The Essentials of Vedic Astrology'', The Wessex Astrologer Ltd, England</ref>{{Unreliable source?|date=December 2009}}{{rp|61–64}}

===Zodiac===
{{See also|Astronomical basis of the Hindu calendar#sauramana}}
The Nirayana, or ], is an imaginary belt of 360 degrees, which, like the Sāyana, or ], is divided into 12 equal parts. Each part (of 30 degrees) is called a sign or ''rāśi'' (]: 'part'). Vedic (Jyotiṣa) and Western ]s differ in the method of measurement. While synchronically, the two systems are identical, Jyotiṣa primarily uses the sidereal zodiac (in which stars are considered to be the fixed background against which the motion of the planets is measured), whereas most ] uses the ] (the motion of the planets is measured against the position of the Sun on the ]). After two ], as a result of the ], the origin of the ] has shifted by about 30 degrees. As a result, the placement of planets in the Jyotiṣa system is roughly aligned with the constellations, while tropical astrology is based on the solstices and equinoxes.
<div style="overflow:auto">
{| class="wikitable" {| class="wikitable"
!English
! Number
! ]<ref name="Dalal2010">{{cite book|last=Dalal|first=Roshen|title=Hinduism: An Alphabetical Guide|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=DH0vmD8ghdMC&pg=PA89|year=2010|publisher=Penguin Books India|isbn=978-0-14-341421-6|page=89|access-date=11 October 2016|archive-date=7 March 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230307164318/https://books.google.com/books?id=DH0vmD8ghdMC&pg=PA89|url-status=live}}</ref>
! Sanskrit
! Starting
! ]
! Representation
! Sanskrit gloss
! ]
! English name
! Greek
! Gloss
! ]
! Quality ! Quality
! Ruling Planet ! Ruling body
|- |-
|]
| 1
|{{langx|sa|मेष|{{IAST|meṣa}}|label=none}}
|मेष
| 0°
| ''{{IAST|Meṣa}}''
| ram | ram
| ] | ]
| movable (chara)
| {{lang|grc|Κριός}}
| ]
| ram
| ]
| Cara (Movable)
| Mars
|- |-
|]
| 2
| वृषभ |{{langx|sa|वृषभ|{{IAST|vṛṣabha}}|label=none}}
| 30°
| ''{{IAST|Vṛṣabha}}''
| bull | bull
| ] | ]
| fixed (sthira)
| {{lang|grc|Ταῦρος}}
| ]
| bull
| ]
| Sthira (Fixed)
| Venus
|- |-
|]
| 3
| मिथुन |{{langx|sa|मिथुन|{{IAST|mithuna}}|label=none}}
| 60°
| ''{{IAST|Mithuna}}''
| twins | twins
| ] | ]
| dual (dvisvabhava)
| {{lang|grc|Δίδυμοι}}
| ]
| twins
| ]
| Dvisvabhava (Dual)
| Mercury
|- |-
|]
| 4
|{{langx|sa|कर्क|{{IAST|karka}}|label=none}}
| कर्कट
|90°
| ''{{IAST|Karkaṭa}}''
| crab | crab
| ] | ]
| movable
| {{lang|grc|Καρκίνος}}
| ]
| crab
| ]
| Cara (Movable)
| Moon
|- |-
|]
| 5
|सिंह |{{langx|sa|सिंह|{{IAST|siṃha}}|label=none}}
| 120°
| ''{{IAST|Siṃha}}''
| lion | lion
| fire
| ]
| fixed
| {{lang|grc|Λέων}}
| lion | ]
| ]
| Sthira (Fixed)
| Sun
|- |-
|]
| 6
|कन्या |{{langx|sa|कन्या|{{IAST|kanyā}}|label=none}}
| 150°
| ''{{IAST|Kanyā}}''
| girl | virgin girl
| earth
| ]
| dual
| {{lang|grc|Παρθένος}}
| virgin
| ]
| Dvisvabhava (Dual)
| Mercury | Mercury
|- |-
|]
| 7
| तुला |{{langx|sa|तुला|{{IAST|tulā}}|label=none}}
|180°
| ''{{IAST|Tulā}}''
| balance | balance
| air
| ]
| movable
| {{lang|grc|Ζυγός}}
| balance
| ]
| Cara (Movable)
| Venus | Venus
|- |-
|]
| 8
| वृश्चिक |{{langx|sa|वृश्चिक|{{IAST|vṛścika}}|label=none}}
| 210°
| ''{{IAST|Vṛścika}}''
| scorpion | scorpion
| water
| ]
| fixed
| {{lang|grc|Σκoρπιός}}
| Mars, ]
| scorpion
| ]
| Sthira (Fixed)
| Mars
|- |-
|]
| 9
|धनुष |{{langx|sa|धनुष|{{IAST|dhanuṣa}}|label=none}}
| 240°
| ''{{IAST|Dhanus}}''
| bow | bow and arrow
| fire
| ]
| dual
| {{lang|grc|Τοξότης}}
| ]
| archer
| ]
| Dvisvabhava (Dual)
| Jupiter
|- |-
|]
| 10
|{{langx|sa|मकर|{{IAST|makara}}|label=none}}
| मकर
| 270°
| ''{{IAST|Makara}}''
| crocodile
| sea-monster
| earth
| ]
| movable
| {{lang|grc|Αἰγόκερως}}
| ]
| goat-horned
| ]
| Cara (Movable)
| Saturn
|- |-
|]
| 11
| कुम्भ |{{langx|sa|कुम्भ|{{IAST|kumbha}}|label=none}}
| 300°
| ''{{IAST|Kumbha}}''
| water-bearer
| pitcher
| air
| ]
| fixed
| {{lang|grc|Ὑδροχόος}}
| Saturn, ]
| water-pourer
| ]
| Sthira (Fixed)
| Saturn
|- |-
|]
| 12
| मीन |{{langx|sa|मीन|{{IAST|mīna}}|label=none}}
| 330°
| ''{{IAST|Mīna}}''
| fish
| ]
| {{lang|grc|Ἰχθεῖς}}
| fishes | fishes
| ] | water
| dual
| Dvisvabhava (Dual)
| Jupiter | Jupiter
|} |}
Unlike Western astrology, Hindu astrology usually disregards ] (which rules Aquarius), ] (which rules Pisces), and ] (which rules Scorpio).
</div>


=== Nakṣatras - lunar mansions === ===Nakṣhatras, or lunar mansions===
] {{See also|Astronomical basis of the Hindu calendar#nakshatra}}]


A ] or ] is one of the 27 divisions of the sky, identified by the prominent star(s) in them, used in Hindu astrology.<ref name=Sutton />{{rp|168}} The '']s'' or ]s are 27 equal divisions of the night sky used in Hindu astrology, each identified by its prominent star(s).<ref name=Sutton />{{rp|168}}


Historical (medieval) Hindu astrology enumerated either 27 or 28 nakṣatras. Today, popular usage{{Clarify|date=October 2011}} favours a rigid system of 27 nakṣatras covering 13°20’ of the ] each. The missing 28th nakshatra is ''Abhijeeta''. Each nakṣatra is divided into quarters or ''padas'' of 3°20. Of the greatest importance is the Abhiśeka Nakṣatra which is the King amongst all the Nakṣatras and worshipping and propitiating this Nakṣatra has the power to remedy all the other Nakṣatras. are in general the high-water mark of all realistic predictive astrology work and go a long way in mitigating Karma. Historical (medieval) Hindu astrology enumerated either 27 or 28 nakṣatras. In modern astrology, a rigid system of 27 nakṣatras is generally used, each covering 13°&nbsp;20&prime; of the ]. The missing 28th nakshatra is ''Abhijeeta''. Each nakṣatra is divided into equal quarters or ''padas'' of 3°&nbsp;20&prime;. Of greatest importance is the Abhiśeka Nakṣatra, which is held as king over the other nakṣatras. Worshipping and gaining favour over this nakṣhatra is said to give power to remedy all the other nakṣatras, and is of concern in predictive astrology and mitigating Karma.{{Citation needed|date=December 2021}}


The junction of two Râshis as well as Nakshatras is known as Gandanta.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Defouw |first1=Hart |last2=Svoboda |first2=Robert E. |title=Light on Relationships: The Synatry of Indian Astrology |date=1 October 2000 |publisher=Weiser Books |isbn=978-1-57863-148-3 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=cQqP0LLIRR8C&dq=Gandanta&pg=PA172 |access-date=1 December 2021 |language=en |archive-date=7 March 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230307164240/https://www.google.co.in/books/edition/Light_on_Relationships/cQqP0LLIRR8C?hl=en&gbpv=1&dq=Gandanta&pg=PA172 |url-status=live }}</ref>
===Daśā-s – planetary periods===


===Daśās – planetary periods===
The word ] (]: दशा, ],''{{IAST|daśā}}'', 'planetary period') means 'state of being' and therefore the Daśā governs to a large extent the state of being of a person. The Daśā system shows which planets may be said to have become particularly active during the period of the Daśā. The ruling planet (the Daśānātha or 'lord of the Daśā') eclipses the mind of the native, compelling him or her to act as per the nature of the planet.
The word ] (]: दशा, ],''{{IAST|daśā}}'', 'planetary period') means 'state of being' and it is believed that the ''daśā'' largely governs the state of being of a person. The Daśā system shows which planets may be said to have become particularly active during the period of the Daśā. The ruling planet (the Daśānātha or 'lord of the Daśā') eclipses the mind of the person, compelling him or her to act per the nature of the planet.


There are several dasha systems, each with its own utility and area of application. There are Daśās of Grahas (planets) as well as Daśās of the Rāśis (signs). The primary system used by astrologers is the Viṁśottarī Daśā system, which has been considered universally applicable in the Kaliyuga to all horoscopes. There are several ''dasha'' systems, each with its own utility and area of application. There are Daśās of ''grahas'' (planets) as well as Daśās of the Rāśis (zodiac signs). The primary system used by astrologers is the Viṁśottarī Daśā system, which has been considered universally applicable in the '']'' to all horoscopes.


The first Mahā-Daśā is determined by the position of the natal Moon in a given Nakṣatra. The lord of the Nakṣatra governs the Daśā. Each Mahā-Dāśā is divided into sub-periods called ''bhuktis'', or ''antar-daśās'', which are proportional divisions of the maha-dasa. Further proportional sub-divisions can be made (but error margin based on accuracy of the birth-time grows exponentially). The next sub-division is called ''pratyantar-daśā'', which can in turn be divided into ''sookshma-antardasa'', which can in turn be divided into ''praana-antardaśā'', which can be sub-divided into ''deha-antardaśā''. Such sub-divisions also exist in all other Daśā systems, some of which have been named above. The first Mahā-Daśā is determined by the position of the natal Moon in a given Nakṣatra. The lord of the Nakṣatra governs the Daśā. Each Mahā-Dāśā is divided into sub-periods called ''bhuktis'', or ''antar-daśās'', which are proportional divisions of the maha-dasa. Further proportional sub-divisions can be made, but error margins based on accuracy of the birth time grow exponentially. The next sub-division is called ''pratyantar-daśā'', which can in turn be divided into ''sookshma-antardasa'', which can in turn be divided into ''praana-antardaśā'', which can be sub-divided into ''deha-antardaśā''. Such sub-divisions also exist in all other Daśā systems.


=== Grahas – planets === ===Heavenly bodies===
The ] ({{langx|sa|नवग्रह|{{IAST|navagraha}}|nine planets}})<ref>''Sanskrit–English Dictionary'' by Monier-Williams, c. 1899</ref> are the nine celestial bodies used in Hindu astrology:<ref name=Sutton />{{rp|38–51}}
* Surya (Sun)
* Chandra (Moon)
* Budha (Mercury)
* Shukra (Venus)
* Mangala (Mars)
* Bṛhaspati or Guru (Jupiter)
* Shani (Saturn)
* ] (North node of the Moon)
* ] (South node of the Moon)


The navagraha are said to be forces that capture or eclipse the mind and the decision making of human beings. When the ''grahas'' are active in their ''daśās'', or periodicities they are said to be particularly empowered to direct the affairs of people and events.
Nine grahas (]) are used.<ref name=Sutton />{{rp|38–51}} from '''Grah''' (]: ग्रह, ]: ''{{IAST|graha}}, 'seizing, laying hold of, holding')<ref>Sanskrit-English Dictionary by Monier-Williams, (c) 1899</ref>


Planets are held to signify major details,<ref>{{cite book |last1=Raman |first1=Bangalore V. |title=Studies in Jaimini Astrology |date=15 October 2003 |publisher=Motilal Banarsidass Publishers |isbn=978-81-208-1397-7 |pages=6 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=gW2DIFHrxfgC&pg=PA7 |language=en |quote=Each planet is supposed to be the karaka or indicator of certain events in life |access-date=25 November 2021 |archive-date=7 March 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230307164248/https://books.google.com/books?id=gW2DIFHrxfgC&pg=PA7 |url-status=live }}</ref> such as profession, marriage and longevity.<ref name=bphs>{{Cite book|last=Santhanam|first=R.|url=http://archive.org/details/BPHSEnglish|title=Brihat Parashara Hora Shastra (vol. 1)|publisher=Ranjan Publications|year=1984|pages=319}}</ref> Of these indicators, known as Karakas, ] considers Atmakaraka most important, signifying broad contours of a person's life.{{r|bphs|p=316}}
The Nine Planets of Vedic Astrology or Jyotiṣa are the forces that capture or eclipse the mind and the decision making of the human being-thus the term 'Graha'. When the Grahas are active in their Daśās or periodicities they are particularly empowered to direct the affairs of the person or the inanimate being as the case may be. Even otherwise, Grahas are always busy capturing us in some way or other, for better or for worse.

Rahu and Ketu correspond to the points where the moon crosses the ecliptic plane (known as the ascending and descending nodes of the moon). Classically known in Indian and Western astrology as the "head and tail of the dragon", these planets are represented as a serpent-bodied demon beheaded by the ] of ] after attempting to swallow the sun. They are primarily used to calculate the dates of eclipses. They are described as "shadow planets" because they are not visible in the night sky. Rahu and Ketu have an orbital cycle of 18 years and they are always retrograde in motion and 180 degrees from each other.


===Gocharas – transits=== ===Gocharas – transits===
A natal chart shows the position of the ''grahas'' at the moment of birth. Since that moment, the ''grahas'' have continued to move around the zodiac, interacting with the natal chart grahas. This period of interaction is called ''gochara'' (]: ''{{IAST|gochara}}'', 'transit').<ref name=Sutton />{{rp|227}}


The study of transits is based on the transit of the Moon (Chandra), which spans roughly two days, and also on the movement of Mercury (Budha) and Venus (Śukra) across the celestial sphere, which is relatively fast as viewed from Earth. The movement of the slower planets – Jupiter (Guru), Saturn (Śani) and Rāhu–Ketu — is always of considerable importance. Astrologers study the transit of the Daśā lord from various reference points in the horoscope.
The natal chart shows the position of the grahas at the moment of birth. Since that moment, the grahas have continued to move around the zodiac, interacting with the natal chart grahas. This period of interaction is called '''Gochara''' (]: ''{{IAST|gochara}}'', 'transit').<ref name=Sutton />{{rp|227}}

The study of transits is based not only on the transit of the Moon/ Cañdra, which spans roughly two days, but also the movement of the slightly faster planets such as Mercury/Budha and Venus/ Śukra. The movement of the slower planets Guru, Śani and Rāhu-Ketu is always of considerable import. Astrologers must study the transit of the Daśā lord and must also study transits from various reference points in the horoscope.


====Yogas – planetary combinations==== ====Yogas – planetary combinations====
In Hindu astronomy, ] (]: ''{{IAST|yoga}}'', 'union') is a combination of planets placed in a specific relationship to each other.<ref name=Sutton />{{rp|265}}
{{Cleanup-section|date=May 2013|reason=grammar and punctuation}}

] (]: ''{{IAST|yoga}}'', 'union') is a combination of planets placed in a specific relationship to each other.<ref name=Sutton />{{rp|265}}


It is usually advisable to study the underlying theme behind the Yogas rather than attempting to memorize them. ] are givers of fame, status and authority and are formed typically by the association of lord of Keṅdras/ quadrants when reckoned from the Lagna/ ascendant and lords of the Tṛkoṇa/ trines. The ] are culminations of the blessings of Viṣṇu and Lakṣmī. Some planets such as Mars for Leo Lagna do not need another Graha so as to create Rājayoga but is capable of suo-moto giving Rājayoga due to its lordship of the 4th Bhāva and the 9th Bhāva from the Lagna, the two being a Keṅdra and Tṛkoṇa Bhāva respectively. ] are perceived as givers of fame, status and authority, and are typically formed by the association of the Lord of Keṅdras ('quadrants'), when reckoned from the ] ('ascendant'), and the Lords of the ] ('trines', 120 degrees—first, fifth and ninth houses). The Rāja yogas are culminations of the blessings of Viṣṇu and Lakṣmī. Some planets, such as Mars for Leo Lagna, do not need another ''graha'' (or ], 'planet') to create ''Rājayoga'', but are capable of giving ''Rājayoga'' by themselves due to their own lordship of the 4th ] ('astrological house') and the 9th Bhāva from the Lagna, the two being a Keṅdra ('angular house'—first, fourth, seventh and tenth houses) and Trikona Bhāva respectively.


] are formed due to the association of wealth giving planets such as the Dhaneśa or the 2nd Lord and the Lābheśa or the 11th Lord from the Lagna. Dhana Yogas are also formed due to the auspicious placement of the Dārāpada/ A7 when reckoned from the Ārūḍha Lagna (AL). The combination of the Lagneśa and the Bhāgyeśa also leads to wealth through the Lakṣmī Yoga. ] are formed by the association of wealth-giving planets such as the Dhaneśa or the 2nd Lord and the Lābheśa or the 11th Lord from the Lagna. Dhana Yogas are also formed due to the auspicious placement of the Dārāpada (from ''dara'', 'spouse' and ''pada'', 'foot'—one of the four divisions—3 degrees and 20 minutes—of a ] in the 7th house), when reckoned from the Ārūḍha Lagna (AL). The combination of the Lagneśa and the Bhāgyeśa also leads to wealth through the Lakṣmī Yoga.


] are formed due to the placement of four or more Grahas excluding the Sun in a Keṅdra Bhāva from the Lagna. ] are formed due to the placement of four or more ''grahas'', excluding the Sun, in a Keṅdra Bhāva from the Lagna.


There are some overarching Yogas in Jyotiṣa such as Amāvasyā Doṣa, Kāla Sarpa Yoga-Kāla Amṛta Yoga and Graha Mālika Yoga which can take precedence over planetary placements in the horoscope. There are some overarching yogas in Jyotiṣa such as Amāvasyā Doṣa, Kāla Sarpa Yoga-Kāla Amṛta Yoga and Graha Mālika Yoga that can take precedence over Yamaha yogar planetary placements in the horoscope.


===Bhāvas – houses=== ===Bhāvas – houses===
The Hindu Jātaka or Janam Kundali or ], is the ] Chakra (]: 'division' 'wheel'), the complete 360° circle of life, divided into houses, and represents a way of enacting the influences in the wheel. Each house has associated kāraka (]: 'significator') planets that can alter the interpretation of a particular house.<ref name=Sutton />{{rp|93–167}} Each Bhāva spans an arc of 30° with twelve Bhāvas in any chart of the horoscope. These are a crucial part of any horoscopic study since the Bhāvas, understood as 'state of being', personalize the Rāśis/ Râshis to the native and each Rāśi/ Râshi apart from indicating its true nature reveals its impact on the person based on the Bhāva occupied. The best way to study the various facets of Jyotiṣa is to see their role in chart evaluation of actual persons and how these are construed.


===Dṛiṣṭis===
The Hindu Jātaka, or ], is the ''']''' (]: 'division') '''Cakra''' (]: 'wheel'), the complete 360° circle of life, divided into houses, and represents our way of enacting the influences in the wheel. Each house has associated kāraka (]: 'significator') planets that can alter the interpretation of a particular house.<ref name=Sutton />{{rp|93–167}}Each Bhāva spans an arc of 30 degrees and therefore there are twelve Bhāvas in any chart of the horoscope. These are a crucial part of any horoscopic study since the Bhāvas, understood as 'state of being' personalize the Rāśis/ Rashis to the native and each Rāśi/ Rashi apart from indicating its true nature reveals its impact on the person based on the Bhāva occupied. The best way to study the various facets of Jyotiṣa is to see their role in chart evaluation of actual persons and how these are construed.
] (]: ''{{IAST|Dṛṣṭi}}'', 'sight') is an aspect to an entire house. ''Grahas'' cast only forward aspects, with the furthest aspect being considered the strongest. For example, Jupiter aspects the 5th, 7th and 9th house from its position, Mars aspects the 4th, 7th, and 8th houses from its position, and its 8th house.<ref name=Sutton />{{rp|26–27}}


The principle of Drishti (aspect) was devised on the basis of the aspect of an army of planets as deity and demon in a war field.<ref name="ReferenceA">Sanat Kumar Jain, ''Astrology a science or myth'', Atlantic Publishers, New Delhi.</ref><ref>Sanat Kumar Jain, "Jyotish Kitna Sahi Kitna Galat" (Hindi).</ref> Thus the Sun, a deity king with only one full aspect, is more powerful than the demon king Saturn, which has three full aspects.
===Dṛṣṭis – aspects===

] (]: ''{{IAST|Dṛṣṭi}}'', 'sight') is an aspect to an entire house. Grahas cast only forward aspects, with the furthest aspect being considered the strongest. For example, Mars aspects the 4th, 7th, and 8th houses from its position, and its 8th house aspect is considered more powerful than its 7th aspect, which is in turn more powerful than its 4th aspect.<ref name=Sutton />{{rp|26–27}}.

The principle of Dristi (aspect) was devised on the basis of the aspect of an army of planets as deity and demon in a war field.<ref name="ReferenceA">Sanat Kumar Jain, 'Astrology a science or myth', Atlantic Publishers, New Delhi.</ref><ref>Sanat Kumar Jain, "Jyotish Kitna Sahi Kitna Galat' (Hindi).</ref> Thus the Sun, a Deity King with only one full aspect, is more powerful then the Demon King Saturn, which has three full aspects.


Aspects can be cast both by the planets (Graha Dṛṣṭi) and by the signs (Rāśi Dṛṣṭi). Planetary aspects are a function of desire, while sign aspects are a function of awareness and cognizance. Aspects can be cast both by the planets (Graha Dṛṣṭi) and by the signs (Rāśi Dṛṣṭi). Planetary aspects are a function of desire, while sign aspects are a function of awareness and cognizance.


There are some higher aspects of Graha Dṛṣṭi (planetary aspects) that are not limited to the Viśeṣa Dṛṣṭi or the special aspects. Rāśi Dṛṣṭi works based on the following formulaic structure: all movable signs aspect fixed signs except the one adjacent, and all dual and mutable signs aspect each other without exception. There are some higher aspects of Graha Dṛṣṭi (planetary aspects) that are not limited to the Viśeṣa Dṛṣṭi or the special aspects. Rāśi Dṛṣṭi works based on the following formulaic structure: all movable signs aspect fixed signs except the one adjacent, and all dual and mutable signs aspect each other without exception.

== Science ==
{{main|Astrology and science}}
Astrology has been rejected by the scientific community as having no explanatory power for describing the universe. ] of astrology has been conducted, and no evidence has been found to support any of the premises or purported effects outlined in astrological traditions.<ref name="Zarka">{{cite journal |last=Zarka |first=Philippe |title=Astronomy and astrology |journal=Proceedings of the International Astronomical Union |year=2011 |volume=5 |issue=S260 |pages=420–425 |doi=10.1017/S1743921311002602}}</ref>{{rp|424}} There is no proposed mechanism of action by which the positions and motions of stars and planets could affect people and events on Earth that does not contradict well understood, basic aspects of biology and physics.<ref name=AsquithNSF>{{cite book|first=ed. by Peter D. Asquith|title=Proceedings of the Biennial Meeting of the Philosophy of Science Association, vol. 1|year=1978|publisher=Reidel u.a.|location=Dordrecht u.a.|isbn=978-0-917586-05-7|url=http://www.cavehill.uwi.edu/bnccde/PH29A/thagard.html}}
* {{cite web|title=Chapter 7: Science and Technology: Public Attitudes and Understanding|url=http://www.nsf.gov/statistics/seind06/c7/c7s2.htm#c7s2l3|work=science and engineering indicators 2006|publisher=National Science Foundation|accessdate=28 July 2012|quote=About three-fourths of Americans hold at least one pseudoscientific belief; i.e., they believed in at least 1 of the 10 survey items" ..." Those 10 items were extrasensory perception (ESP), that houses can be haunted, ghosts/that spirits of dead people can come back in certain places/situations, telepathy/communication between minds without using traditional senses, clairvoyance/the power of the mind to know the past and predict the future, astrology/that the position of the stars and planets can affect people's lives, that people can communicate mentally with someone who has died, witches, reincarnation/the rebirth of the soul in a new body after death, and channeling/allowing a "spirit-being" to temporarily assume control of a body.}}</ref><ref name= Vishveshwara>{{cite book|last=Vishveshwara|first=edited by S.K. Biswas, D.C.V. Mallik, C.V.|title=Cosmic perspectives : essays dedicated to the memory of M.K.V. Bappu|year=1989|publisher=Cambridge University Press|location=Cambridge |isbn=0-521-34354-2|edition=1. publ.}}</ref>{{rp|249}}

Astrologers in Indian astrology make grand claims without taking adequate controls into consideration. Saturn was in Aries in 1909, 1939 and 1968, yet the astrologer ] claimed that "when Saturn was in Aries in 1939 England had to declare war against Germany", ignoring the two other dates.<ref name=CSICOP>{{cite journal|last=V. Narlikar|first=Jayant|title=An Indian Test of Indian Astrology|date=March–April 2013|volume=37.2|journal=]|url=http://www.csicop.org/si/show/an_indian_test_of_indian_astrology}}</ref> Astrologers regularly fail in attempts to predict election results in India, and fail to predict major events such as the assassination of ]. Predictions by the head of the Indian Astrologers Federation about war between India and Pakistan in 1982 also failed.<ref name=CSICOP />

===Testing astrology===
In one test, 27 Indian astrologers, with the appropriate horoscopes, failed to determine the intelligence difference between 100 mentally bright and 100 mentally handicapped children at a rate higher than that determined by chance alone in a ] test. The astrologers had, on average, 14 years experience. A team of astrologers from one astrologers institute also performed at chance expectation. The president of the Maharashtra Astro­logical Society claimed to be able to predict sex and intelligence 60 per cent of the time each, but he performed no better than chance in double blind conditions.<ref name=CSICOP />


==See also== ==See also==
{{Portal|Astrology}} {{Portal|India|Hinduism}}
{{columns-list|colwidth=20em|
* ]
* ] * ]
* ] * ]
* ]
* ] * ]
* ] * ]
* ] * ]
* ]
* ]
* ]
* ] * ]
* ] * ]
* ] * ]
* ] * ]
* ] * ]
}}


==References== == References ==
{{Reflist|3}} {{reflist|2}}


==Bibliography== == Bibliography ==
{{refbegin|2}}
{{Further|Jyotiṣa bibliography}}
<!-- O -->
* {{cite book|last1=Ohashi|first1=Yukio|editor1-last=Andersen|editor1-first=Johannes|title=Highlights of Astronomy, Volume 11B|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=gQYscrT0fgQC|year=1999|publisher=Springer Science|isbn=978-0-7923-5556-4|access-date=27 December 2020|archive-date=11 January 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230111163620/https://books.google.com/books?id=gQYscrT0fgQC|url-status=live}}
* {{cite journal |last1=Ohashi |first1=Yukio |title=Development of Astronomical Observations in Vedic and post-Vedic India |year=1993 |journal=Indian Journal of History of Science |volume=28 |number=3}}
<!-- P -->
* {{cite book |last=Plofker |first=Kim|author-link=Kim Plofker|title=Mathematics in India|title-link= Mathematics in India (book) |year=2009 |publisher=] |isbn=978-0-691-12067-6 }}
* {{cite journal |last=Pingree |first=David | title=The Mesopotamian Origin of Early Indian Mathematical Astronomy | journal=Journal for the History of Astronomy | publisher=SAGE | volume=4 | issue=1 | year=1973 | pages=1–12 | doi=10.1177/002182867300400102 | bibcode=1973JHA.....4....1P | s2cid=125228353 }}
* {{cite book |last=Pingree |first=David |title=Jyotihśāstra: Astral and Mathematical Literature |publisher=] |year=1981 |isbn=978-3447021654}}
<!-- R -->
* {{cite book |last=Raman |first= BV |title=Planetary Influences on Human Affairs |publisher=] |year=1992 |isbn=978-8185273907 }}
<!-- S -->
* {{Cite book |last=Samuel |first=Samuel |year=2010 |title=The Origins of Yoga and Tantra |publisher=Cambridge University Press}}
<!-- W -->
* {{cite book |last1=Winternitz |first1=Maurice | author-link=Moriz Winternitz |title=History of Indian Literature |volume=1 |year=1963 |publisher=] |isbn=978-81-208-0056-4}}
* {{Cite journal |last=Witzel |first=Michael |title=Autochthonous Aryans? The Evidence from Old Indian and Iranian Texts |journal=Electronic Journal of Vedic Studies |date=25 May 2001 |issue=3 |volume=7 |url=http://www.people.fas.harvard.edu/~witzel/EJVS-7-3.htm |access-date=12 July 2020 |archive-date=27 May 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180527150828/http://www.people.fas.harvard.edu/~witzel/EJVS-7-3.htm |url-status=live }}
{{refend}}


== Further reading ==
*Kim Plofker, "South Asian mathematics; The role of astronomy and astrology", ] (online edition, 2008)
{{refbegin}}
*] and Robert Gilbert, "Astrology; Astrology In India; Astrology in modern times", ] (online edition, 2008)
* Burgess, Ebenezer (1866). "On the Origin of the Lunar Division of the Zodiac represented in the Nakshatra System of the Hindus". ''Journal of the American Oriental Society''.
* ] (1911)
*Chandra, Satish (2002). "Religion and State in India and Search for Rationality". ''Social Scientist''
*], "Astronomy and Astrology in India and Iran", ''Isis – Journal of The ]'' (1963), 229–246.
*{{cite EB1911 |last=Fleet |first=John F. |wstitle=Hindu Chronology |volume=13 |pages=491–501}}
*David Pingree, ''{{IAST|Jyotiḥśāstra}}'' in J. Gonda (ed.) ''A History of Indian Literature'', Vol VI, Fasc 4, Otto Harrassowitz, Wiesbaden (1981).
*Jain, Sanat K. "Astrology a science or myth", New Delhi, Atlasntic Publishers 2005 - highlighting how every principle like sign lord, aspect, friendship-enmity, exalted-debilitated, Mool trikon, dasha, Rahu-Ketu, etc. were framed on the basis of the ancient concept that Sun is nearer than the Moon from the Earth, etc.
*Ebenezer Burgess, "On the Origin of the Lunar Division of the Zodiac represented in the Nakshatra System of the Hindus", ''Journal of the American Oriental Society'' (1866).
*], "On the Views of Biot and Weber Respecting the Relations of the Hindu and Chinese Systems of Asterisms"", ''Journal of the American Oriental Society'' (1866). * ] (1963). "Astronomy and Astrology in India and Iran". ''Isis – Journal of The ]''. pp.&nbsp;229–246.
* Pingree, David (1981). ''{{IAST|Jyotiḥśāstra}}'' in J. Gonda (ed.) ''A History of Indian Literature''. Vol VI. Fasc 4. Wiesbaden: Otto Harrassowitz.
*Satish Chandra, "Religion and State in India and Search for Rationality", ''Social Scientist'' (2002).
* Pingree, David and Gilbert, Robert (2008). "Astrology; Astrology In India; Astrology in modern times". '']''. online ed.
*Sanat Kumar Jain, "Astrology a science or myth" highlighting how every principle like signlord, aspect, friendship-enmity, exalted-debilitated, Mool trikon, dasha, Rahu-Ketu, etc. were framed on the basis of the ancient concept that Sun is nearer than the Moon from the Earth, etc.
*Plofker, Kim. (2008). "South Asian mathematics; The role of astronomy and astrology". ''Encyclopædia Britannica'', online ed.
*] (1866). "On the Views of Biot and Weber Respecting the Relations of the Hindu and Chinese Systems of Asterisms", ''Journal of the American Oriental Society''
{{refend}}


; Popular treatments:
==External links==
{{refbegin}}
<!--NO COMMERCIAL LINK PLEASE-->
*Frawley, David (2000). ''Astrology of the Seers: A Guide to Vedic (Hindu) Astrology''. Twin Lakes Wisconsin: Lotus Press. {{ISBN|0-914955-89-6}}
*Frawley, David (2005). ''Ayurvedic Astrology: Self-Healing Through the Stars''. Twin Lakes Wisconsin: Lotus Press. {{ISBN|0-940985-88-8}}
*Sutton, Komilla (1999). ''The Essentials of Vedic Astrology''. The Wessex Astrologer, Ltd.: Great Britain. {{ISBN|1902405064}}
{{refend}}

== External links ==
<!--NO COMMERCIAL LINKS PLEASE-->
<!--===========================({{NoMoreLinks}})===============================--> <!--===========================({{NoMoreLinks}})===============================-->
<!--| DO NOT ADD MORE LINKS TO THIS ARTICLE. WIKIPEDIA IS NOT A COLLECTION OF |--> <!--| DO NOT ADD MORE LINKS TO THIS ARTICLE. WIKIPEDIA IS NOT A COLLECTION OF |-->
Line 283: Line 331:
<!--| See ] and ] for details |--> <!--| See ] and ] for details |-->
<!--===========================({{NoMoreLinks}})===============================--> <!--===========================({{NoMoreLinks}})===============================-->
{{Use dmy dates|date=February 2011}}

*{{dmoz|Society/Religion_and_Spirituality/Divination/Astrology/Vedic}}


{{Jyotish Vidya}} {{Jyotish Vidya}}
{{Astrology-footer}} {{Astrology-footer}}
{{Pseudoscience}}
{{Superstitions}}
{{Authority control}}


{{DEFAULTSORT:Hindu Astrology}} {{DEFAULTSORT:Hindu Astrology}}
] ]
] ]
] ]
] ]
]
] ]
] ]
]

Latest revision as of 15:33, 13 January 2025

Indian form of astrology

Part of a series on
Hinduism
OriginsHistorical

Traditional

Sampradaya (Traditions)
Major Sampradaya (Traditions)
Other Sampradaya (Traditions)
Deities
Absolute Reality / Unifying Force
Trimurti
Tridevi
Other major Devas / Devis
Vedic Deities:
Post-Vedic:
Devatas
Concepts
Worldview
Ontology
Supreme reality
God
Puruṣārtha (Meaning of life)
Āśrama (Stages of life)
Three paths to liberation
Liberation
Mokṣa-related topics:
Mind
Ethics
Epistemology
Practices
Worship, sacrifice, and charity
Meditation
Yoga
Arts
Rites of passage
Festivals
Philosophical schools
Six Astika schools
Other schools
Gurus, Rishi, Philosophers
Ancient
Medieval
Modern
Texts
Sources and classification of scripture
Scriptures
Vedas
Divisions
Upanishads
Rigveda:
Yajurveda:
Samaveda:
Atharvaveda:
Vedangas
Other scriptures
Itihasas
Puranas
Upavedas
Shastras, sutras, and samhitas
Stotras, stutis and Bhashya
Tamil literature
Other texts
Hindu Culture & Society
Society
Hindu Art
Hindu Architecture
Hindu Music
Food & Diet Customs
Time Keeping Practices
Hindu Pilgrimage
Other society-related topics:
Other topics
Hinduism by country
Hinduism & Other Religions
Other Related Links (Templates)
Astrology
Background
Traditions
Branches
Astrological signs
Symbols

Hindu astrology, also called Indian astrology, Jyotisha (Sanskrit: ज्योतिष, romanized: jyotiṣa; from jyót 'light, heavenly body') More recently, Vedic astrology has emerged as the traditional Hindu astrology system. Vedic astrology is among the six auxiliary disciplines in Hinduism, closely linked to the study of the Vedas.

The Vedanga Jyotisha is one of the earliest texts about astronomy within the Vedas. Some scholars believe that the horoscopic astrology practiced in the Indian subcontinent came from Hellenistic influences. However, this is a point of intense debate, and other scholars believe that Jyotisha developed independently, although it may have interacted with Greek astrology.

The scientific consensus is that astrology is a pseudoscience and has consistently failed experimental and theoretical verification.

Etymology

Jyotisha, states Monier-Williams, is rooted in the word Jyotish, which means light, such as that of the sun or the moon or a heavenly body. The term Jyotisha includes the study of astronomy, astrology, and the science of timekeeping using the movements of astronomical bodies. It aimed to keep time, maintain calendars, and predict auspicious times for Vedic rituals.

History and core principles

Further information: Indian astronomy

Jyotiṣa is one of the Vedāṅga, the six auxiliary disciplines used to support Vedic rituals. Early jyotiṣa is concerned with the preparation of a calendar to determine dates for sacrificial rituals, with nothing written regarding planets. There are mentions of eclipse-causing "demons" in the Atharvaveda and Chāndogya Upaniṣad, the latter mentioning Rāhu (a shadow entity believed responsible for eclipses and meteors). Originally, the term graha, which we now understand to refer to the planet, meant demon. The Ṛigveda also mentions an eclipse-causing demon, Svarbhānu. However, the specific term graha was not applied to Svarbhānu until the later Mahābhārata and Rāmāyaṇa.

The foundation of Hindu astrology is the notion of bandhu of the Vedas (scriptures), which is the connection between the microcosm and the macrocosm. The practice relies primarily on the sidereal zodiac, which differs from the tropical zodiac used in Western (Hellenistic) astrology in that an ayanāṃśa adjustment is made for the gradual precession of the vernal equinox. Hindu astrology includes several nuanced sub-systems of interpretation and prediction with elements not found in Hellenistic astrology, such as its system of lunar mansions (Nakṣatra). It was only after the transmission of Hellenistic astrology that the order of planets in India was fixed in that of the seven-day week. Hellenistic astrology and astronomy also transmitted the twelve zodiacal signs beginning with Aries and the twelve astrological places beginning with the ascendant. The first evidence of the introduction of Greek astrology to India is the Yavanajātaka which dates to the early centuries CE. The Yavanajātaka (lit. "Sayings of the Greeks") was translated from Greek to Sanskrit by Yavaneśvara during the 2nd century CE, and is considered the first Indian astrological treatise in the Sanskrit language. However the only version that survives is the verse version of Sphujidhvaja which dates to AD 270. The first Indian astronomical text to define the weekday was the Āryabhaṭīya of Āryabhaṭa (born AD 476).

In the 300 years between the first Yavanajataka and the Āryabhaṭīya, Indian astronomers likely focused on Indianizing and Sanskritizing Greek astronomy, according to Michio Yano We no longer have the astronomical texts from these 300 years. The later Pañcasiddhāntikā of Varāhamihira summarizes the five known Indian astronomical schools of the sixth century. Indian astronomy preserved some of the older pre-Ptolemaic elements of Greek astronomy.

The main texts upon which classical Indian astrology is based are early medieval compilations, notably the Bṛhat Parāśara Horāśāstra, and Sārāvalī by Kalyāṇavarma. The Horāshastra is a composite work of 71 chapters, of which the first part (chapters 1–51) dates to the 7th to early 8th centuries and the second part (chapters 52–71) to the late 8th century. The Sārāvalī likewise dates to around 800 CE. N. N. Krishna Rau and V. B. Choudhari published English translations of these texts in 1963 and 1961, respectively.

Modern Hindu astrology

Nomenclature of the last two centuries

Astrology remains an important facet of folk belief in the contemporary lives of many Hindus. In Hindu culture, newborns are traditionally named based on their jyotiṣa charts (Kundali), and astrological concepts are pervasive in the organization of the calendar and holidays and in making major decisions such as those about marriage, opening a new business, or moving into a new home. Many Hindus believe that heavenly bodies, including the planets, have an influence throughout the life of a human being, and these planetary influences are the "fruit of karma". The Navagraha, planetary deities, are considered subordinate to Ishvara (the Hindu concept of a supreme being) in the administration of justice. Thus, it is believed that these planets can influence earthly life.

Astrology as a science

See also: Astrology and science

The scientific community has rejected astrology as having no explanatory power for describing the universe. Scientific testing of astrology has been conducted, and no evidence has been found to support any of the premises or purported effects outlined in astrological traditions. There is no mechanism proposed by astrologers through which the positions and motions of stars and planets could affect people and events on Earth. In spite of its status as a pseudoscience, in certain religious, political, and legal contexts, astrology retains a position among the sciences in modern India.

India's University Grants Commission and Ministry of Human Resource Development decided to introduce "Jyotir Vigyan" (i.e. jyotir vijñāna) or "Vedic astrology" as a discipline of study in Indian universities, stating that "vedic astrology is not only one of the main subjects of our traditional and classical knowledge but this is the discipline, which lets us know the events happening in human life and in universe on time scale" in spite of the complete lack of evidence that astrology actually does allow for such accurate predictions. The decision was backed by a 2001 judgment of the Andhra Pradesh High Court, and some Indian universities offer advanced degrees in astrology. This was met with widespread protests from the scientific community in India and Indian scientists working abroad. A petition sent to the Supreme Court of India stated that the introduction of astrology to university curricula is "a giant leap backwards, undermining whatever scientific credibility the country has achieved so far".

In 2004, the Supreme Court dismissed the petition, concluding that the teaching of astrology did not qualify as the promotion of religion. In February 2011, the Bombay High Court referred to the 2004 Supreme Court ruling when it dismissed a case which had challenged astrology's status as a science. As of 2014, despite continuing complaints by scientists, astrology continues to be taught at various universities in India, and there is a movement in progress to establish a national Vedic University to teach astrology together with the study of tantra, mantra, and yoga.

Skeptics have thoroughly debunked the claims made by Indian astrologers.. For example, although the planet Saturn is in the constellation Aries roughly every 30 years (e.g. 1909, 1939, 1968), the astrologer Bangalore Venkata Raman claimed that "when Saturn was in Aries in 1939 England had to declare war against Germany", ignoring all the other dates. Astrologers regularly fail in attempts to predict election results in India, and fail to predict major events such as the assassination of Indira Gandhi. Predictions by the head of the Indian Astrologers Federation about war between India and Pakistan in 1982 also failed.

In 2000, when several planets happened to be close to one another, astrologers predicted that there would be catastrophes, volcanic eruptions and tidal waves. This caused an entire sea-side village in the Indian state of Gujarat to panic and abandon their houses. The predicted events did not occur and the vacant houses were burgled.

Texts

Time keeping

minus one,
multiplied by twelve,
multiplied by two,
added to the elapsed ,
increased by two for every sixty ,
is the quantity of half-months (syzygies).

— Rigveda Jyotisha-vedanga 4
Translator: Kim Plofker

The ancient extant text on Jyotisha is the Vedanga-Jyotisha, which exists in two editions, one linked to the Rigveda and other to Yajurveda. The Rigveda version consists of 36 verses, while the Yajurveda recension has 43 verses of which 29 verses are borrowed from the Rigveda. The Rigveda version is variously attributed to sage Lagadha and sometimes to sage Shuci. The Yajurveda version does not attribute credit to any specific sage, has endured into the modern era with a commentary by Somakara, and is considered the more studied version.

The Jyotisha text Brahma-siddhanta, probably composed in the 5th century CE, discusses how to use the movement of planets, sun and moon to keep time and calendar. This text also lists trigonometry and mathematical formulae to support its theory of orbits, predict planetary positions and calculate relative mean positions of celestial nodes and apsides. The text is notable for presenting very large integers, such as the lifetime of the current universe being 4.32 billion years.

The ancient Hindu texts on Jyotisha only discuss timekeeping and never mention astrology or prophecy. These ancient texts predominantly cover astronomy, but at a rudimentary level. Technical horoscopes and astrology ideas in India came from Greece and developed in the early centuries of the 1st millennium CE. Later medieval era texts such as the Yavana-jataka and the Siddhanta texts are more astrology-related.

Discussion

The field of Jyotisha deals with ascertaining time, particularly forecasting auspicious days and times for Vedic rituals. The field of Vedanga structured time into Yuga, which was a 5-year interval, divided into multiple lunisolar intervals such as 60 solar months, 61 savana months, 62 synodic months and 67 sidereal months. A Vedic Yuga had 1,860 tithis (तिथि, dates), and it defined a savana-day (civil day) from one sunrise to another.

The Rigvedic version of Jyotisha may be a later insertion into the Veda, states David Pingree, possibly between 513 and 326 BCE, when the Indus Valley was occupied by the Achaemenid from Mesopotamia. The mathematics and devices for timekeeping mentioned in these ancient Sanskrit texts, proposes Pingree, such as the water clock, may also have arrived in India from Mesopotamia. However, Yukio Ohashi considers this proposal as incorrect, suggesting instead that the Vedic timekeeping efforts, for forecasting appropriate time for rituals, must have begun much earlier and the influence may have flowed from India to Mesopotamia. Ohashi states that it is incorrect to assume that the number of civil days in a year equals 365 in both the Hindu and Egyptian–Persian years. Further, adds Ohashi, the Mesopotamian formula is different from the Indian formula for calculating time, each can only work for their respective latitude, and either would make major errors in predicting time and calendar in the other region. According to Asko Parpola, the Jyotisha and luni-solar calendar discoveries in ancient India, and similar discoveries in China in "great likelihood result from convergent parallel development", and not from diffusion from Mesopotamia.

Kim Plofker states that while a flow of timekeeping ideas from either side is plausible, each may have instead developed independently, because the loan-words typically seen when ideas migrate are missing on both sides as far as words for various time intervals and techniques. Further, adds Plofker, and other scholars, that the discussion of timekeeping concepts is found in the Sanskrit verses of the Shatapatha Brahmana, a 2nd millennium BCE text. Water clocks and sun dials are mentioned in many ancient Hindu texts such as the Arthashastra. Plofker suggests that the arrival of Greek astrology ideas in India may have led to a roundabout integration of Mesopotamian and Indian Jyotisha-based systems.

The Jyotisha texts present mathematical formulae to predict the length of daytime, sunrise and moon cycles. For example,

The length of daytime = ( 12 + 2 61 n ) {\displaystyle \left(12+{\frac {2}{61}}n\right)} muhurtas
where n is the number of days after or before the winter solstice, and one muhurta equals 1⁄30 of a day (48 minutes).

Water clock
A prastha of water the increase in day, decrease in night in the northern motion; vice versa in the southern. a six-muhurta in a half year.

— Yajurveda Jyotisha-vedanga 8, Translator: Kim Plofker

Elements

There are sixteen Varga (Sanskrit: varga, 'part, division'), or divisional, charts used in Hindu astrology:

Zodiac

See also: Astronomical basis of the Hindu calendar § sauramana

The Nirayana, or sidereal zodiac, is an imaginary belt of 360 degrees, which, like the Sāyana, or tropical zodiac, is divided into 12 equal parts. Each part (of 30 degrees) is called a sign or rāśi (Sanskrit: 'part'). Vedic (Jyotiṣa) and Western zodiacs differ in the method of measurement. While synchronically, the two systems are identical, Jyotiṣa primarily uses the sidereal zodiac (in which stars are considered to be the fixed background against which the motion of the planets is measured), whereas most Western astrology uses the tropical zodiac (the motion of the planets is measured against the position of the Sun on the spring equinox). After two millennia, as a result of the precession of the equinoxes, the origin of the ecliptic longitude has shifted by about 30 degrees. As a result, the placement of planets in the Jyotiṣa system is roughly aligned with the constellations, while tropical astrology is based on the solstices and equinoxes.

English Sanskrit Starting Representation Element Quality Ruling body
Aries मेष, meṣa 0° ram fire movable (chara) Mars
Taurus वृषभ, vṛṣabha 30° bull earth fixed (sthira) Venus
Gemini मिथुन, mithuna 60° twins air dual (dvisvabhava) Mercury
Cancer कर्क, karka 90° crab water movable Moon
Leo सिंह, siṃha 120° lion fire fixed Sun
Virgo कन्या, kanyā 150° virgin girl earth dual Mercury
Libra तुला, tulā 180° balance air movable Venus
Scorpio वृश्चिक, vṛścika 210° scorpion water fixed Mars, Ketu
Sagittarius धनुष, dhanuṣa 240° bow and arrow fire dual Jupiter
Capricorn मकर, makara 270° crocodile earth movable Saturn
Aquarius कुम्भ, kumbha 300° water-bearer air fixed Saturn, Rahu
Pisces मीन, mīna 330° fishes water dual Jupiter

Unlike Western astrology, Hindu astrology usually disregards Uranus (which rules Aquarius), Neptune (which rules Pisces), and Pluto (which rules Scorpio).

Nakṣhatras, or lunar mansions

See also: Astronomical basis of the Hindu calendar § nakshatra
Nakshatras

The nakshatras or lunar mansions are 27 equal divisions of the night sky used in Hindu astrology, each identified by its prominent star(s).

Historical (medieval) Hindu astrology enumerated either 27 or 28 nakṣatras. In modern astrology, a rigid system of 27 nakṣatras is generally used, each covering 13° 20′ of the ecliptic. The missing 28th nakshatra is Abhijeeta. Each nakṣatra is divided into equal quarters or padas of 3° 20′. Of greatest importance is the Abhiśeka Nakṣatra, which is held as king over the other nakṣatras. Worshipping and gaining favour over this nakṣhatra is said to give power to remedy all the other nakṣatras, and is of concern in predictive astrology and mitigating Karma.

The junction of two Râshis as well as Nakshatras is known as Gandanta.

Daśās – planetary periods

The word dasha (Devanāgarī: दशा, Sanskrit,daśā, 'planetary period') means 'state of being' and it is believed that the daśā largely governs the state of being of a person. The Daśā system shows which planets may be said to have become particularly active during the period of the Daśā. The ruling planet (the Daśānātha or 'lord of the Daśā') eclipses the mind of the person, compelling him or her to act per the nature of the planet.

There are several dasha systems, each with its own utility and area of application. There are Daśās of grahas (planets) as well as Daśās of the Rāśis (zodiac signs). The primary system used by astrologers is the Viṁśottarī Daśā system, which has been considered universally applicable in the Kali Yuga to all horoscopes.

The first Mahā-Daśā is determined by the position of the natal Moon in a given Nakṣatra. The lord of the Nakṣatra governs the Daśā. Each Mahā-Dāśā is divided into sub-periods called bhuktis, or antar-daśās, which are proportional divisions of the maha-dasa. Further proportional sub-divisions can be made, but error margins based on accuracy of the birth time grow exponentially. The next sub-division is called pratyantar-daśā, which can in turn be divided into sookshma-antardasa, which can in turn be divided into praana-antardaśā, which can be sub-divided into deha-antardaśā. Such sub-divisions also exist in all other Daśā systems.

Heavenly bodies

The navagraha (Sanskrit: नवग्रह, romanized: navagraha, lit. 'nine planets') are the nine celestial bodies used in Hindu astrology:

  • Surya (Sun)
  • Chandra (Moon)
  • Budha (Mercury)
  • Shukra (Venus)
  • Mangala (Mars)
  • Bṛhaspati or Guru (Jupiter)
  • Shani (Saturn)
  • Rahu (North node of the Moon)
  • Ketu (South node of the Moon)

The navagraha are said to be forces that capture or eclipse the mind and the decision making of human beings. When the grahas are active in their daśās, or periodicities they are said to be particularly empowered to direct the affairs of people and events.

Planets are held to signify major details, such as profession, marriage and longevity. Of these indicators, known as Karakas, Parashara considers Atmakaraka most important, signifying broad contours of a person's life.

Rahu and Ketu correspond to the points where the moon crosses the ecliptic plane (known as the ascending and descending nodes of the moon). Classically known in Indian and Western astrology as the "head and tail of the dragon", these planets are represented as a serpent-bodied demon beheaded by the Sudarshan Chakra of Vishnu after attempting to swallow the sun. They are primarily used to calculate the dates of eclipses. They are described as "shadow planets" because they are not visible in the night sky. Rahu and Ketu have an orbital cycle of 18 years and they are always retrograde in motion and 180 degrees from each other.

Gocharas – transits

A natal chart shows the position of the grahas at the moment of birth. Since that moment, the grahas have continued to move around the zodiac, interacting with the natal chart grahas. This period of interaction is called gochara (Sanskrit: gochara, 'transit').

The study of transits is based on the transit of the Moon (Chandra), which spans roughly two days, and also on the movement of Mercury (Budha) and Venus (Śukra) across the celestial sphere, which is relatively fast as viewed from Earth. The movement of the slower planets – Jupiter (Guru), Saturn (Śani) and Rāhu–Ketu — is always of considerable importance. Astrologers study the transit of the Daśā lord from various reference points in the horoscope.

Yogas – planetary combinations

In Hindu astronomy, yoga (Sanskrit: yoga, 'union') is a combination of planets placed in a specific relationship to each other.

Rāja yogas are perceived as givers of fame, status and authority, and are typically formed by the association of the Lord of Keṅdras ('quadrants'), when reckoned from the Lagna ('ascendant'), and the Lords of the Trikona ('trines', 120 degrees—first, fifth and ninth houses). The Rāja yogas are culminations of the blessings of Viṣṇu and Lakṣmī. Some planets, such as Mars for Leo Lagna, do not need another graha (or Navagraha, 'planet') to create Rājayoga, but are capable of giving Rājayoga by themselves due to their own lordship of the 4th Bhāva ('astrological house') and the 9th Bhāva from the Lagna, the two being a Keṅdra ('angular house'—first, fourth, seventh and tenth houses) and Trikona Bhāva respectively.

Dhana Yogas are formed by the association of wealth-giving planets such as the Dhaneśa or the 2nd Lord and the Lābheśa or the 11th Lord from the Lagna. Dhana Yogas are also formed due to the auspicious placement of the Dārāpada (from dara, 'spouse' and pada, 'foot'—one of the four divisions—3 degrees and 20 minutes—of a Nakshatra in the 7th house), when reckoned from the Ārūḍha Lagna (AL). The combination of the Lagneśa and the Bhāgyeśa also leads to wealth through the Lakṣmī Yoga.

Sanyāsa Yogas are formed due to the placement of four or more grahas, excluding the Sun, in a Keṅdra Bhāva from the Lagna.

There are some overarching yogas in Jyotiṣa such as Amāvasyā Doṣa, Kāla Sarpa Yoga-Kāla Amṛta Yoga and Graha Mālika Yoga that can take precedence over Yamaha yogar planetary placements in the horoscope.

Bhāvas – houses

The Hindu Jātaka or Janam Kundali or birth chart, is the Bhāva Chakra (Sanskrit: 'division' 'wheel'), the complete 360° circle of life, divided into houses, and represents a way of enacting the influences in the wheel. Each house has associated kāraka (Sanskrit: 'significator') planets that can alter the interpretation of a particular house. Each Bhāva spans an arc of 30° with twelve Bhāvas in any chart of the horoscope. These are a crucial part of any horoscopic study since the Bhāvas, understood as 'state of being', personalize the Rāśis/ Râshis to the native and each Rāśi/ Râshi apart from indicating its true nature reveals its impact on the person based on the Bhāva occupied. The best way to study the various facets of Jyotiṣa is to see their role in chart evaluation of actual persons and how these are construed.

Dṛiṣṭis

Drishti (Sanskrit: Dṛṣṭi, 'sight') is an aspect to an entire house. Grahas cast only forward aspects, with the furthest aspect being considered the strongest. For example, Jupiter aspects the 5th, 7th and 9th house from its position, Mars aspects the 4th, 7th, and 8th houses from its position, and its 8th house.

The principle of Drishti (aspect) was devised on the basis of the aspect of an army of planets as deity and demon in a war field. Thus the Sun, a deity king with only one full aspect, is more powerful than the demon king Saturn, which has three full aspects.

Aspects can be cast both by the planets (Graha Dṛṣṭi) and by the signs (Rāśi Dṛṣṭi). Planetary aspects are a function of desire, while sign aspects are a function of awareness and cognizance.

There are some higher aspects of Graha Dṛṣṭi (planetary aspects) that are not limited to the Viśeṣa Dṛṣṭi or the special aspects. Rāśi Dṛṣṭi works based on the following formulaic structure: all movable signs aspect fixed signs except the one adjacent, and all dual and mutable signs aspect each other without exception.

See also

References

  1. Thompson, Richard L. (2004). Vedic Cosmography and Astronomy. pp. 9–240.
  2. Jha, Parmeshwar (1988). Āryabhaṭa I and his contributions to mathematics. p. 282.
  3. Puttaswamy, T. K. (2012). Mathematical Achievements of Pre-Modern Indian Mathematicians. p. 1.
  4. Witzel 2001.
  5. Pingree 1981, pp. 67ff, 81ff, 101ff.
  6. Samuel 2010, p. 81.
  7. Tripathi, Vijaya Narayan (2008), "Astrology in India", in Selin, Helaine (ed.), Encyclopaedia of the History of Science, Technology, and Medicine in Non-Western Cultures, Dordrecht: Springer Netherlands, pp. 264–267, doi:10.1007/978-1-4020-4425-0_9749, ISBN 978-1-4020-4425-0, archived from the original on 7 March 2023, retrieved 5 November 2020
  8. Thagard, Paul R. (1978). "Why Astrology is a Pseudoscience" (PDF). Proceedings of the Biennial Meeting of the Philosophy of Science Association. 1 (1): 223–234. doi:10.1086/psaprocbienmeetp.1978.1.192639. S2CID 147050929. Archived (PDF) from the original on 28 August 2017. Retrieved 13 June 2017.
  9. Sven Ove Hansson; Edward N. Zalta. "Science and Pseudo-Science". Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Archived from the original on 5 September 2015. Retrieved 6 July 2012.
  10. "Astronomical Pseudo-Science: A Skeptic's Resource List". Astronomical Society of the Pacific. Archived from the original on 30 December 2011. Retrieved 13 June 2017.
  11. Hartmann, P.; Reuter, M.; Nyborga, H. (May 2006). "The relationship between date of birth and individual differences in personality and general intelligence: A large-scale study". Personality and Individual Differences. 40 (7): 1349–1362. doi:10.1016/j.paid.2005.11.017. To optimise the chances of finding even remote relationships between date of birth and individual differences in personality and intelligence we further applied two different strategies. The first one was based on the common chronological concept of time (e.g. month of birth and season of birth). The second strategy was based on the (pseudo-scientific) concept of astrology (e.g. Sun Signs, The Elements, and astrological gender), as discussed in the book Astrology: Science or superstition? by Eysenck and Nias (1982).
  12. ^ Narlikar, Jayant V. (2009). "Astronomy, pseudoscience and rational thinking". In Pasachoff, Jay; Percy, John (eds.). Teaching and Learning Astronomy: Effective Strategies for Educators Worldwide. Cambridge University Press. pp. 164–165. ISBN 9780521115391. Archived from the original on 7 March 2023. Retrieved 19 July 2015.
  13. ^ Monier Monier-Williams (1923). A Sanskrit–English Dictionary. Oxford University Press. p. 353. Archived from the original on 7 March 2023. Retrieved 27 December 2020.
  14. ^ Jyotisa. Monier-Williams, 1923. Retrieved 28 November 2024.
  15. ^ James Lochtefeld (2002), "Jyotisha" in The Illustrated Encyclopedia of Hinduism, Vol. 1: A–M, Rosen Publishing, ISBN 0-8239-2287-1, pages 326–327
  16. ^ Flood, Gavin. Yano, Michio. 2003. The Blackwell Companion to Hinduism. Malden: Blackwell.
  17. Flood, p. 382
  18. Mc Evilley "The shape of ancient thought", p. 385 ("The Yavanajātaka is the earliest surviving Sanskrit text in horoscopy, and constitute the basis of all later Indian developments in horoscopy", himself quoting David Pingree "The Yavanajātaka of Sphujidhvaja" p. 5)
  19. ^ Ohashi 1999, pp. 719–721.
  20. ^ Pingree 1973, pp. 2–3.
  21. Erik Gregersen (2011). The Britannica Guide to the History of Mathematics. The Rosen Publishing Group. p. 187. ISBN 978-1-61530-127-0. Archived from the original on 7 March 2023. Retrieved 27 December 2020.
  22. David Pingree, Jyotiḥśāstra (J. Gonda (Ed.) A History of Indian Literature, Vol VI Fasc 4), p. 81
  23. Karma, an anthropological inquiry, pg. 134, at Google Books
  24. Zarka, Philippe (2011). "Astronomy and astrology". Proceedings of the International Astronomical Union. 5 (S260): 420–425. Bibcode:2011IAUS..260..420Z. doi:10.1017/S1743921311002602. Archived from the original on 18 August 2020. Retrieved 12 September 2019.
  25. "In countries such as India, where only a small intellectual elite has been trained in Western physics, astrology manages to retain here and there its position among the sciences." David Pingree and Robert Gilbert, "Astrology; Astrology In India; Astrology in modern times" Encyclopædia Britannica 2008
  26. ^ Supreme Court questions 'Jyotir Vigyan', Times of India, 3 September 2001 timesofindia.indiatimes.com
  27. "Heavens, it's not Science". The Times of India. 3 May 2001. Archived from the original on 11 November 2020. Retrieved 11 November 2020.
  28. Mohan Rao, Female foeticide: where do we go? Indian Journal of Medical Ethics Oct-Dec2001-9(4), issuesinmedicalethics.org Archived 27 June 2009 at the Wayback Machine
  29. T. Jayaraman, A judicial blow, Frontline Volume 18 – Issue 12, Jun. 09 – 22, 2001 hinduonnet.com
  30. T. Jayaraman, A judicial blow, Frontline Volume 18 – Issue 12, June 09 – 22, 2001 hinduonnet.com
  31. Astrology On A Pedestal Archived 3 December 2021 at the Wayback Machine, Ram Ramachandran, Frontline Volume 21, Issue 12, Jun. 05 - 18, 2004
  32. Introduction of Vedic astrology courses in varsities upheld, The Hindu, Thursday, May 06, 2004
  33. "Supreme Court: Bhargava v. University Grants Commission, Case No.: Appeal (civil) 5886 of 2002". Archived from the original on 12 March 2005.
  34. ^ "Introduction of Vedic astrology courses in universities upheld". The Hindu. 5 May 2004. Archived from the original on 23 September 2004.
  35. "Astrology is a science: Bombay HC". The Times of India. 3 February 2011. Archived from the original on 6 February 2011.
  36. "Integrate Indian medicine with modern science". The Hindu. 26 October 2003. Archived from the original on 13 November 2003.
  37. Narlikar, Jayant V. (2013). "An Indian Test of Indian Astrology". Skeptical Inquirer. 37 (2). Archived from the original on 23 July 2013.
  38. "People seek astrological advise from Banaras Hindu University experts to tackle health issues". The Times of India. 13 February 2014. Archived from the original on 22 March 2014.
  39. "Set-up Vedic university to promote astrology". The Times of India. 9 February 2013. Archived from the original on 9 February 2013.
  40. ^ Narlikar, Jayant V. (March–April 2013). "An Indian Test of Indian Astrology". Skeptical Inquirer. 37 (2). Archived from the original on 4 October 2013. Retrieved 1 August 2013.
  41. ^ Plofker 2009, p. 36.
  42. ^ Ohashi 1999, p. 719.
  43. Plofker 2009, pp. 35–36.
  44. ^ Pingree 1973, p. 1.
  45. ^ Plofker 2009, pp. 67–68.
  46. Plofker 2009, pp. 68–71.
  47. C. K. Raju (2007). Cultural Foundations of Mathematics. Pearson. p. 205. ISBN 978-81-317-0871-2. Archived from the original on 7 March 2023. Retrieved 27 December 2020.
  48. Friedrich Max Müller (1860). A History of Ancient Sanskrit Literature. Williams and Norgate. pp. 210–215.
  49. Nicholas Campion (2012). Astrology and Cosmology in the World's Religions. New York University Press. pp. 110–111. ISBN 978-0-8147-0842-2. Archived from the original on 7 March 2023. Retrieved 27 December 2020.
  50. Plofker 2009, pp. 116–120, 259–261.
  51. ^ Ohashi 1993, pp. 185–251.
  52. Pingree 1973, p. 3.
  53. Ohashi 1999, pp. 719–720.
  54. Yukio Ohashi (2013). S.M. Ansari (ed.). History of Oriental Astronomy. Springer Science. pp. 75–82. ISBN 978-94-015-9862-0.
  55. Asko Parpola (2013), "Beginnings of Indian Astronomy, with Reference to a Parallel Development in China", History of Science in South Asia, Vol. 1, pages 21–25
  56. ^ Plofker 2009, pp. 41–42.
  57. Sarma, Nataraja (2000). "Diffusion of astronomy in the ancient world". Endeavour. 24 (4). Elsevier: 157–164. doi:10.1016/s0160-9327(00)01327-2. PMID 11196987.
  58. Helaine Selin (2012). Astronomy Across Cultures: The History of Non-Western Astronomy. Springer Science. pp. 320–321. ISBN 978-94-011-4179-6.
  59. Hinuber, Oskar V. (1978). "Probleme der Technikgeschichte im alten Indien". Saeculum (in German). 29 (3). Bohlau Verlag: 215–230. doi:10.7788/saeculum.1978.29.3.215. S2CID 171007726.
  60. Kauṭilya (2013). King, Governance, and Law in Ancient India: Kautilya's Arthasastra. Translated by Olivelle, Patrick. Oxford University Press. pp. 473 with note 1.7.8. ISBN 978-0-19-989182-5.
  61. Kim Plofker (2008). Micah Ross (ed.). From the Banks of the Euphrates: Studies in Honor of Alice Louise Slotsky. Eisenbrauns. pp. 193–203. ISBN 978-1-57506-144-3.
  62. Plofker 2009, pp. 35–40.
  63. Winternitz 1963, p. 269.
  64. ^ Plofker 2009, p. 37.
  65. Ohashi 1999, p. 720.
  66. ^ Sutton, Komilla (1999). The Essentials of Vedic Astrology, The Wessex Astrologer Ltd, England
  67. Dalal, Roshen (2010). Hinduism: An Alphabetical Guide. Penguin Books India. p. 89. ISBN 978-0-14-341421-6. Archived from the original on 7 March 2023. Retrieved 11 October 2016.
  68. Defouw, Hart; Svoboda, Robert E. (1 October 2000). Light on Relationships: The Synatry of Indian Astrology. Weiser Books. ISBN 978-1-57863-148-3. Archived from the original on 7 March 2023. Retrieved 1 December 2021.
  69. Sanskrit–English Dictionary by Monier-Williams, c. 1899
  70. Raman, Bangalore V. (15 October 2003). Studies in Jaimini Astrology. Motilal Banarsidass Publishers. p. 6. ISBN 978-81-208-1397-7. Archived from the original on 7 March 2023. Retrieved 25 November 2021. Each planet is supposed to be the karaka or indicator of certain events in life
  71. ^ Santhanam, R. (1984). Brihat Parashara Hora Shastra (vol. 1). Ranjan Publications. p. 319.
  72. Sanat Kumar Jain, Astrology a science or myth, Atlantic Publishers, New Delhi.
  73. Sanat Kumar Jain, "Jyotish Kitna Sahi Kitna Galat" (Hindi).

Bibliography

Further reading

  • Burgess, Ebenezer (1866). "On the Origin of the Lunar Division of the Zodiac represented in the Nakshatra System of the Hindus". Journal of the American Oriental Society.
  • Chandra, Satish (2002). "Religion and State in India and Search for Rationality". Social Scientist
  • Fleet, John F. (1911). "Hindu Chronology" . In Chisholm, Hugh (ed.). Encyclopædia Britannica. Vol. 13 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. pp. 491–501.
  • Jain, Sanat K. "Astrology a science or myth", New Delhi, Atlasntic Publishers 2005 - highlighting how every principle like sign lord, aspect, friendship-enmity, exalted-debilitated, Mool trikon, dasha, Rahu-Ketu, etc. were framed on the basis of the ancient concept that Sun is nearer than the Moon from the Earth, etc.
  • Pingree, David (1963). "Astronomy and Astrology in India and Iran". Isis – Journal of The History of Science Society. pp. 229–246.
  • Pingree, David (1981). Jyotiḥśāstra in J. Gonda (ed.) A History of Indian Literature. Vol VI. Fasc 4. Wiesbaden: Otto Harrassowitz.
  • Pingree, David and Gilbert, Robert (2008). "Astrology; Astrology In India; Astrology in modern times". Encyclopædia Britannica. online ed.
  • Plofker, Kim. (2008). "South Asian mathematics; The role of astronomy and astrology". Encyclopædia Britannica, online ed.
  • Whitney, William D. (1866). "On the Views of Biot and Weber Respecting the Relations of the Hindu and Chinese Systems of Asterisms", Journal of the American Oriental Society
Popular treatments
  • Frawley, David (2000). Astrology of the Seers: A Guide to Vedic (Hindu) Astrology. Twin Lakes Wisconsin: Lotus Press. ISBN 0-914955-89-6
  • Frawley, David (2005). Ayurvedic Astrology: Self-Healing Through the Stars. Twin Lakes Wisconsin: Lotus Press. ISBN 0-940985-88-8
  • Sutton, Komilla (1999). The Essentials of Vedic Astrology. The Wessex Astrologer, Ltd.: Great Britain. ISBN 1902405064

External links

Hindu astrology
Nakshatras
Rāśi
Navagraha
Other concepts
Yogas
Scriptures
Ancient Rishis/Astrologers
Astrology
History of
astrology
Astrologers
Traditions,
types,
branches and
systems
Astrology by tradition
Babylonian astrology
Burmese zodiac
Early Irish astrology
Chinese astrology
Christian views on astrology
Magi
Cosmobiology
Astrology in Hellenistic Egypt
Hamburg School of Astrology
Hellenistic astrology
Hindu astrology
Nadi astrology
Jewish astrology
Jewish views on astrology
Hebrew astronomy
Maya calendar
Astrology in the medieval Islamic world
Astrology in Sri Lanka
Tibetan astrology
Western astrology
Astrology by type
Agricultural astrology
Astrometeorology
Electional astrology
Esoteric astrology
Classical planets in Western alchemy
Geomancy and astrology
Tarot card reading
Financial astrology
Heliocentric astrology
Horary astrology
Horoscopic astrology
Judicial astrology
Karmic astrology
Katarchic astrology
Locational astrology
Astrocartography
Medical astrology
Mundane astrology
Natal astrology
Horoscope
Psychological astrology
Sidereal and tropical astrology
Sun sign astrology
Synoptical astrology
Related topics
Pseudoscience
List of topics characterized as pseudoscience
Terminology
Topics
characterized as
pseudoscience
Medicine
Social science
Physics
Other
Promoters of
pseudoscience
Related topics
Resources
Superstition
Main topics
Lists
Africa
Americas
Asia
Europe
General
Related
Categories: