Misplaced Pages

Lava lake: Difference between revisions

Article snapshot taken from Wikipedia with creative commons attribution-sharealike license. Give it a read and then ask your questions in the chat. We can research this topic together.
Browse history interactively← Previous editContent deleted Content addedVisualWikitext
Revision as of 03:27, 13 October 2014 edit186.37.203.236 (talk) Undid revision 624160688 by SummerPhD (talk)← Previous edit Latest revision as of 10:42, 4 January 2025 edit undo161.29.164.254 (talk)No edit summary 
(154 intermediate revisions by 86 users not shown)
Line 1: Line 1:
{{Distinguish2|]s; ]s of water that form in a ] or ]}} {{distinguish|text=]s, lakes of water that form in a volcanic crater or caldera}}
{{For|places named Lava Lake|Lava Lake (disambiguation){{!}}Lava Lake}}
], in a molten state]]
{{short description|Molten lava contained in a volcanic crater}}
]]]
]]] ] in a molten state. (])]]
]]] ], ].]]
]]] ] at ], ]).]]
]. The crater is about 250 m in diameter.]] ], ].]]
] volcano. This lava lake has since solidified, but two other lava lakes currently exist on Kilauea.]] ], ].]]
], east rift zone of ]. The crater is about {{convert|820|ft|abbr=on}} in diameter.]]
] volcano.]]


'''Lava lakes''' are large volumes of molten ], usually ]ic, contained in a volcanic vent, ], or broad depression. The term is used to describe both lava lakes that are wholly or partly molten and those that are solidified (sometimes referred to as ''frozen lava lakes'' in this case). '''Lava lakes''' are large volumes of molten ], usually ]ic, contained in a volcanic vent, ], or broad depression. The term is used to describe both lava lakes that are wholly or partly molten and those that are solidified (sometimes referred to as ''frozen lava lakes'').


==Formation== ==Formation==
Lava lakes can form in three ways:<ref>{{cite web|url=http://volcanoes.usgs.gov/images/pglossary/LavaLake.php |title=VHP Photo Glossary: Lava lake |publisher=Volcanoes.usgs.gov |date= |accessdate=2013-08-15}}</ref> Lava lakes can form in three ways:<ref>{{cite web|url=http://volcanoes.usgs.gov/images/pglossary/LavaLake.php |title=VHP Photo Glossary: Lava lake |publisher=Volcanoes.usgs.gov |access-date=2013-08-15}}</ref>
#From one or more vents in a crater that ]s enough lava to partially fill the crater *from one or more vents in a crater that ] enough lava to partially fill the crater; or
#When lava pours into a crater or broad depression and partially fills the crater *when lava pours into a crater or broad depression and partially fills the crater; or
#Atop a new vent that erupts lava continuously for a period of several weeks or more and slowly builds a crater progressively higher than the surrounding ground. *atop a new vent that erupts lava continuously for a period of several weeks or more and slowly builds a crater progressively higher than the surrounding ground.

===Behaviors===
Lava lakes occur in a variety of volcanic systems, ranging from the basaltic ] lake in Ethiopia and the ] volcano of ], Chile, to the unique ] lava lake at ], Antarctica. Lava lakes have been observed to exhibit a range of behaviours. A "constantly circulating, apparently steady-state" lava lake was observed during the ] of ], Hawai{{okina}}i.<ref>Swanson et al. (1979) "Ground deformation at Pu'u 'O'o. U.S. Geological Survey Chronological narrative of the 1969-71 Mauna Ulu eruption of Kilauea volcano". US Geological Survey Professional Paper 1056</ref> By contrast, a lava lake at the 1983–1984 ] eruption of Kilauea displayed cyclic behaviour with a period of 5–20 minutes; gas "pierced the surface" of the lake, and the lava rapidly drained back down the conduit before the onset of a new phase of lake activity.<ref>Wolfe et al. (1988). "Geologic observations and chronology of eruptive events". US Geological Survey Professional Paper 1463</ref>
The behaviour observed is influenced by the combined effects of pressure within the reservoir, ] and ] of gas bubbles within the conduit and, potentially, exsolution of bubbles within the ] reservoir. Superimposed upon this is the effect of bubbles rising through the liquid, and ] of bubbles within the conduit. The interactions of these effects can create either a steady-state recirculating lake, or a lake level that periodically rises and then falls.<ref>Witham and Llewellin (2006). "Stability of Lava Lakes". '+Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal Research'' vol. 158 p.321–332</ref>


==Notable examples== ==Notable examples==
Persistent lava lakes are a rare phenomenon. Only a few volcanoes have hosted persistent or near-persistent lava lakes during recent decades: Persistent lava lakes are a rare phenomenon. Only a few volcanoes have hosted persistent or near-persistent lava lakes during recent decades:
⚫ *],<ref name=erta>{{cite web|url=http://www.volcano.si.edu/world/volcano.cfm?vnum=0201-08= |title=Global Volcanism Program : Erta Ale |publisher=Volcano.si.edu |date= |accessdate=2013-08-15}}</ref> ],
⚫ *],<ref name=erebus>{{cite web|url=http://www.volcano.si.edu/world/volcano.cfm?vnum=1900-02= |title=Global Volcanism Program : Erebus |publisher=Volcano.si.edu |date= |accessdate=2013-08-15}}</ref> Antarctica (]),
⚫ *],<ref name=kil>{{cite gvp|vnum=1301-02-|name=Kīlauea}}</ref> ] (]),
⚫ *],<ref name=nyra>{{cite gvp|vnum=0203-03=|name=Nyiragongo}}</ref> ].


⚫ *],<ref name=erebus>{{cite web |url=http://www.volcano.si.edu/world/volcano.cfm?vnum=1900-02= |title=Global Volcanism Program : Erebus |publisher=Volcano.si.edu |access-date=2013-08-15 |archive-date=2006-07-08 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060708102822/http://www.volcano.si.edu/world/volcano.cfm?vnum=1900-02= |url-status=dead }}</ref> ], Antarctica
] has the distinction of having two persistent lava lakes: one in the ] vent cavity within the summit caldera, and another located within the ] cone located on the east rift zone of the volcano.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://volcanoes.usgs.gov/hvo/activity/kilaueastatus.php |title=HVO Kilauea Status |publisher=Volcanoes.usgs.gov |date= |accessdate=2013-08-15}}</ref>
⚫ *],<ref name=erta>{{cite web |url=http://www.volcano.si.edu/world/volcano.cfm?vnum=0201-08= |title=Global Volcanism Program : Erta Ale |publisher=Volcano.si.edu |access-date=2013-08-15 |archive-date=2013-02-17 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130217054354/http://www.volcano.si.edu/world/volcano.cfm?vnum=0201-08= |url-status=dead }}</ref> Ethiopia
⚫ *],<ref name=kil>{{cite gvp|vn=332010|name=Kīlauea}}</ref> ], ]
*]<ref>{{Cite web |title=Global Volcanism Program {{!}} Masaya |url=https://volcano.si.edu/volcano.cfm?vn=344100 |access-date=2024-10-23 |website=Smithsonian Institution {{!}} Global Volcanism Program |language=en}}</ref>
*], ], ]<ref>{{cite news |title=Remote Mount Michael volcano hosts persistent lava lake |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/science-environment-48852670 |website=BBC News |date=3 July 2019 |publisher=BBC News |access-date=3 July 2019}}</ref>
⚫ *],<ref name=nyra>{{cite gvp|vn=223030|name=Nyiragongo}}</ref> ]
*], ]<ref>{{Cite AV media |url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=AH19qdrdZDM |title=Mount Yasur Volcano, Tanna - Tourist Showcase Video |date=2024-05-05 |last=Extreme Pursuit |access-date=2024-10-23 |via=YouTube}}</ref>


The lava lakes at ] disappeared after a large eruption in December 2018.<ref>{{Cite web |date=17 April 2019 |year=2019 |title=Ambrym volcano (Vanuatu) - Smithsonian / USGS Weekly Volcanic Activity Report for 17 April-23 April 2019 (Continuing Activity) |url=https://www.volcanodiscovery.com/ambrym/news/166001/Ambrym-volcano-Vanuatu-Smithsonian-USGS-Weekly-Volcanic-Activity-Report-for-17-April-23-April-2019-C.html |access-date=3 April 2024 |website=Volcano Discovery}}</ref>
⚫ ] lava lake has usually been the largest and most voluminous in recent history, reaching 700 meters wide in 1982,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.volcano.si.edu/world/volcano.cfm?vnum=0203-03=&volpage=var |title=Global Volcanism Program : Nyiragongo |publisher=Volcano.si.edu |date= |accessdate=2013-08-15}}</ref> although ] is believed to have hosted an even larger lava lake at the time of the ], being 1000 meters wide in 1670.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://eps.mcgill.ca/~courses/c435/Gravity-papers/rymer%20et%20al%201998.pdf |title=Pit crater structure and processes governing persistent activity at Masaya Volcano, Nicaragua |publisher=Eps.mcgill.ca |accessdate=2013-08-15}}</ref>


For many years, ] had two persistent lava lakes: one in the ] vent cavity within the summit ], and another within the ] cone located on the east rift zone of the volcano.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://volcanoes.usgs.gov/hvo/activity/kilaueastatus.php |title=HVO Kilauea Status |publisher=Volcanoes.usgs.gov |access-date=2013-08-15 |archive-date=2012-03-08 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120308071721/http://volcanoes.usgs.gov/hvo/activity/kilaueastatus.php/ |url-status=dead }}</ref> In May 2018, both of these lava lakes disappeared as a result of ] in Kīlauea's east rift zone. The lava lake at Halemaʻumaʻu returned in December 2020, after Kīlauea's first eruption in over two years.<ref>{{cite web |title=USGS Volcanoes |url=https://twitter.com/USGSVolcanoes/status/1340964823228588032 |access-date=21 December 2020}}</ref> The lava lake solidified after the eruption ended in May 2021, but returned again when eruptive activity at Halemaʻumaʻu resumed on September 29, 2021. Following the 2021 eruption, three more occurred on January 5, 2023; June 7, 2023; and September 10, 2023. As of January 2024, Halemaʻumaʻu is not erupting and the lava lake is no longer active.
⚫ In addition to the aforementioned persistent lava lakes, a certain number of occurrences of temporary lava lakes (sometimes called ''lava ponds'' or ''lava pools'', depending on their size and nature<ref name=haroun94>{{Cite doi|10.1016/0377-0273(94)90015-9}}</ref>) have also been observed and are listed in the ].

⚫ Nyiragongo's lava lake has usually been the largest and most voluminous in recent history, reaching 700 meters wide in 1982,<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.volcano.si.edu/world/volcano.cfm?vnum=0203-03=&volpage=var |title=Global Volcanism Program : Nyiragongo |publisher=Volcano.si.edu |access-date=2013-08-15 |archive-date=2013-03-31 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130331072223/http://www.volcano.si.edu/world/volcano.cfm?vnum=0203-03=&volpage=var |url-status=dead }}</ref> although ] is believed to have hosted an even larger lava lake at the time of the ], being 1,000 meters wide in 1670.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://eps.mcgill.ca/~courses/c435/Gravity-papers/rymer%20et%20al%201998.pdf |title=Pit crater structure and processes governing persistent activity at Masaya Volcano, Nicaragua |publisher=Eps.mcgill.ca |access-date=2013-08-15 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304081839/http://eps.mcgill.ca/~courses/c435/Gravity-papers/rymer%20et%20al%201998.pdf |archive-date=2016-03-04 |url-status=dead }}</ref> The lava lake at Masaya came back in January 2016.<ref name=":0">{{Cite web|url=https://www.volcanodiscovery.com/masaya.html|title=Masaya|website=www.volcanodiscovery.com|access-date=2016-11-07}}</ref>

⚫ In addition to the aforementioned persistent lava lakes, a certain number of occurrences of temporary lava lakes (sometimes called ''lava ponds'' or ''lava pools'', depending on their size and nature<ref name=haroun94>{{Cite journal | last1 = Tazieff | first1 = H. | author-link = Haroun Tazieff| doi = 10.1016/0377-0273(94)90015-9 | title = Permanent lava lakes: Observed facts and induced mechanisms | journal = Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal Research | volume = 63 | pages = 3–11| year = 1994 | issue = 1–2 | bibcode = 1994JVGR...63....3T}}</ref>) have also been observed and are listed in the ].


==List of volcanoes having displayed past or present lava lake activity== ==List of volcanoes having displayed past or present lava lake activity==
Line 40: Line 52:
|- |-
|]<ref name=erebus /> || ], Antarctica |]<ref name=erebus /> || ], Antarctica
|- |-
|]<ref name=kil /> (two lava lakes in both ] and ] craters) || ] (]) |]<ref name=kil /> ] || ] (])
|- |-
|]<ref name=nyra/> (the largest one in the past century) || ] |]<ref name=nyra/> (the largest one in the past century) || ]
|- |-
|] || ], ]
⚫ |]<ref>{{cite gvp|vnum=0507-04=|name=Ambrum}}</ref> (two lava lakes in both Benbow and Marum craters since around 1991)<ref>http://www.volcano.si.edu/volcano.cfm?vn=257040</ref><ref>http://www.volcano.si.edu/volcano.cfm?vn=257040</ref> || ], ]
|-
⚫ |]<ref>{{cite gvp|vn=257040|name=Ambrym}}</ref> (two lava lakes in both Benbow and Marum craters since around 1991;<ref name="volcano.si.edu">{{Cite web |url=http://www.volcano.si.edu/volcano.cfm?vn=257040 |title=Ambrym|access-date=2014-09-03 |archive-date=2014-08-26 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140826044309/http://www.volcano.si.edu/volcano.cfm?vn=257040 |url-status=dead |publisher=volcano.si.edu}}</ref> following an earthquake in December 2018 both lakes are buried under collapsed craters) || ], ]
|- |-
! scope="row" colspan="2"| Recent intermittent lava lake activity ! scope="row" colspan="2"| Recent intermittent lava lake activity
|- |-
|]<ref>{{cite gvp|vnum=1404–10=|name=Masaya}}</ref> || ] |]<ref name=":0" /><ref>{{cite gvp|vn=344100|name=Masaya}}</ref> || ]
|- |-
|] || ], Vanuatu

⚫ |]<ref>{{cite gvp|vnum=1507–12=|name=Villarrica}}</ref> || ]
|- |-
⚫ |]<ref>{{cite gvp|vn=357120|name=Villarrica}}</ref> || ]
⚫ |]<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.volcano.si.edu/world/volcano.cfm?vnum=0303-01=&volpage=erupt |title=Global Volcanism Program : Karthala |publisher=Volcano.si.edu |date= |accessdate=2013-08-15}}</ref> || ], ]
|- |-
|] <ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.volcano.si.edu/world/volcano.cfm?vnum=0303-02=&volpage=erupt |title=Global Volcanism Program : Fournaise, Piton de la |doi=10.1029/2007GL031248 |publisher=Volcano.si.edu |date= |accessdate=2013-08-15}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://terreetvolcans.free.fr/fr/news.php?id1=561&t=10&n=id |title=Terre et Volcans News v4 |publisher=Terreetvolcans.free.fr |date= |accessdate=2013-08-15}}</ref> (small temporary lava pond in Dolomieu crater) || ] |]<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.volcano.si.edu/world/volcano.cfm?vnum=0303-01=&volpage=erupt |title=Global Volcanism Program : Karthala |publisher=Volcano.si.edu |access-date=2013-08-15 |archive-date=2012-10-18 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121018000114/http://www.volcano.si.edu/world/volcano.cfm?vnum=0303-01=&volpage=erupt |url-status=dead }}</ref> || ], ]
|- |-
|] <ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.volcano.si.edu/world/volcano.cfm?vnum=0202-12=&volpage=erupt |title=Global Volcanism Program : Lengai, Ol Doinyo |publisher=Volcano.si.edu |date= |accessdate=2013-08-15}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=djW31_TkXFI |title=Etnatao: Ol Doinyo Lengai Volcano Tanzania |publisher=YouTube |date=2010-02-11 |accessdate=2013-08-15}}</ref> (only occurrence of ] lava pond as it is the only active volcano in the world emitting ] lava) || ] |]<ref>{{cite journal |url=http://www.volcano.si.edu/world/volcano.cfm?vnum=0303-02=&volpage=erupt |title=Global Volcanism Program : Fournaise, Piton de la |doi=10.1029/2007GL031248 |publisher=Volcano.si.edu |access-date=2013-08-15 |bibcode=2007GeoRL..3421301M |journal= Geophysical Research Letters|archive-date=2013-03-31 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130331101410/http://www.volcano.si.edu/world/volcano.cfm?vnum=0303-02=&volpage=erupt |url-status=dead |last1=Michon |first1=Laurent |last2=Staudacher |first2=Thomas |last3=Ferrazzini |first3=Valérie |last4=Bachèlery |first4=Patrick |last5=Marti |first5=Joan |year=2007 |volume=34 |issue=21 |s2cid=55281591 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://terreetvolcans.free.fr/fr/news.php?id1=561&t=10&n=id |title=Terre et Volcans News v4 |publisher=Terreetvolcans.free.fr |access-date=2013-08-15}}</ref> (small temporary lava pond in Dolomieu crater) || ]
|-
|]<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.volcano.si.edu/world/volcano.cfm?vnum=0202-12=&volpage=erupt |title=Global Volcanism Program : Lengai, Ol Doinyo |publisher=Volcano.si.edu |access-date=2013-08-15 |archive-date=2012-10-14 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121014104053/http://www.volcano.si.edu/world/volcano.cfm?vnum=0202-12=&volpage=erupt |url-status=dead }}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=djW31_TkXFI |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/varchive/youtube/20211219/djW31_TkXFI |archive-date=2021-12-19 |url-status=live|title=Etnatao: Ol Doinyo Lengai Volcano Tanzania |publisher=YouTube |date=2010-02-11 |access-date=2013-08-15}}{{cbignore}}</ref> (only active volcano in the world emitting ] lava) || ]
|-
|]<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.rsn.ucr.ac.cr/actividad-volcanica/reportes-volcanicos/9000-inspeccion-del-interior-del-crater-activo-del-volcan-turrialba-del-29-de-junio-del-2017 |title=Inspección del interior del cráter activo del volcán Turrialba del 29 de junio del 2017 |date=4 July 2017 |publisher=rsn.ucr.ac.cr }}</ref> (small lake) || ]
|- |-
! scope="row" colspan="2"| Unconfirmed lava lake activity ! scope="row" colspan="2"| Unconfirmed lava lake activity
|- |-
|]<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.volcano.si.edu/world/volcano.cfm?vnum=1404-04=&volpage=var |title=Global Volcanism Program : Telica |publisher=Volcano.si.edu |date= |accessdate=2013-08-15}}</ref> (possibly in 1971 and 1999–2000) || ] |]<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.volcano.si.edu/world/volcano.cfm?vnum=1404-04=&volpage=var |title=Global Volcanism Program : Telica |publisher=Volcano.si.edu |access-date=2013-08-15 |archive-date=2013-03-31 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130331065310/http://www.volcano.si.edu/world/volcano.cfm?vnum=1404-04=&volpage=var |url-status=dead }}</ref> (possibly in 1971 and 1999–2000) || ]
|- |-
|]<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.volcano.si.edu/world/volcano.cfm?vnum=1502-08=&volpage=erupt |title=Global Volcanism Program : Tungurahua |publisher=Volcano.si.edu |date= |accessdate=2013-08-15}}</ref> (possibly in 1999) || ] |]<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.volcano.si.edu/world/volcano.cfm?vnum=1502-08=&volpage=erupt |title=Global Volcanism Program : Tungurahua |publisher=Volcano.si.edu |access-date=2013-08-15 |archive-date=2012-10-23 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121023013800/http://www.volcano.si.edu/world/volcano.cfm?vnum=1502-08=&volpage=erupt |url-status=dead }}</ref> (possibly in 1999) || ]
|- |-
|]<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.volcano.si.edu/world/volcano.cfm?vnum=0403-06=&volpage=erupt |title=Global Volcanism Program : Tofua |publisher=Volcano.si.edu |date= |accessdate=2013-08-15}}</ref> (possibly in 2004 and 2006) || ], ] |]<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.volcano.si.edu/world/volcano.cfm?vnum=0403-06=&volpage=erupt |title=Global Volcanism Program : Tofua |publisher=Volcano.si.edu |access-date=2013-08-15 |archive-date=2013-03-31 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130331072552/http://www.volcano.si.edu/world/volcano.cfm?vnum=0403-06=&volpage=erupt |url-status=dead }}</ref> (possibly in 2004 and 2006) || ], ]
|- |-
|]<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.activolcans.info/eruption-volcanique-du-volcan-Nabro-201204.html |title=Eruption volcanique, activité éruptive du volcan Nabro |publisher=Activolcans.info |date= |accessdate=2013-08-15}}</ref> (possibly in 2012) || ] |]<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.activolcans.info/eruption-volcanique-du-volcan-Nabro-201204.html |title=Eruption volcanique, activité éruptive du volcan Nabro |publisher=Activolcans.info |access-date=2013-08-15 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130328233838/http://activolcans.info/eruption-volcanique-du-volcan-Nabro-201204.html |archive-date=2013-03-28 |url-status=usurped }}</ref> (possibly in 2012) || ]
|- |-
! scope="row" colspan="2"| Lava lake activity suggested by satellite remote-sensing data ! scope="row" colspan="2"| Lava lake activity suggested by satellite remote-sensing data
|- |-
|]<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.volcano.si.edu/world/volcano.cfm?vnum=1900-09= |title=Global Volcanism Program : Michael |publisher=Volcano.si.edu |date= |accessdate=2013-08-15}}</ref> || ] |]<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.volcano.si.edu/world/volcano.cfm?vnum=1900-09= |title=Global Volcanism Program : Michael |publisher=Volcano.si.edu |access-date=2013-08-15 |archive-date=2013-03-26 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130326004335/http://www.volcano.si.edu/world/volcano.cfm?vnum=1900-09= |url-status=dead }}</ref> || ]
|-
|]<ref name="ResearchArticle">{{cite journal|url=http://www.higp.hawaii.edu/~wright/bv67.pdf|doi=10.1007/s00445-004-0382-6|title=First recorded eruption of Mount Belinda volcano (Montagu Island), South Sandwich Islands|year=2005|last1=Patrick|first1=Matthew R.|last2=Smellie|first2=John L.|last3=Harris|first3=Andrew J. L.|last4=Wright|first4=Robert|last5=Dean|first5=Ken|last6=Izbekov|first6=Pavel|last7=Garbeil|first7=Harold|last8=Pilger|first8=Eric|journal=Bulletin of Volcanology|volume=67|issue=5|pages=415–422|bibcode=2005BVol...67..415P|s2cid=54187857}}</ref> || ], South Sandwich Islands
|-
⚫ |]<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.volcano.si.edu/world/volcano.cfm?vnum=0304-01=&volpage=var#bgvn_3111 |title=Global Volcanism Program : Heard |publisher=Volcano.si.edu |access-date=2013-08-15 |archive-date=2013-03-31 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130331115059/http://www.volcano.si.edu/world/volcano.cfm?vnum=0304-01=&volpage=var#bgvn_3111 |url-status=dead }}</ref> || ]
|-
⚫ ! scope="row" colspan="2"| Past lava lake activity
|-
|]<ref name=kil /> ] crater (1983-2018, collapsed during the 2018 Puna eruption) || ] (])
|-
⚫ |]<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.volcano.si.edu/world/volcano.cfm?vnum=0404-04=&volpage=erupt |title=Global Volcanism Program : Savai'i |publisher=Volcano.si.edu |date=2013-01-03 |access-date=2013-08-15 |archive-date=2012-10-07 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121007004108/http://www.volcano.si.edu/world/volcano.cfm?vnum=0404-04=&volpage=erupt |url-status=dead }}</ref><ref name=haroun /> (during the 1905–1911 eruption) || ], ]
|-
|]<ref name=haroun>], ''Cratères en feu'', éd. Arthaud, 1951.</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.volcano.si.edu/world/volcano.cfm?vnum=0203-02= |title=Global Volcanism Program : Nyamuragira |publisher=Volcano.si.edu |access-date=2013-08-15 |archive-date=2010-05-25 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100525115454/http://www.volcano.si.edu/world/volcano.cfm?vnum=0203-02= |url-status=dead }}</ref> (lava lake located within the summit caldera, confirmed for the first time in 1921, drained in 1938, and temporary lava pond in the Kituro cone on the SW flank, during the 1948 eruption) || ]
|- |-
|]<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.geocaching.com/seek/cache_details.aspx?guid=dc34c23c-5c0d-470e-a980-5e03a60d40a8 |title=GC1QN4C Capelinhos Volcano ]) || ], ]
|]<ref name="ResearchArticle"></ref> || ], South Sandwich Islands
|- |-
|]<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.volcano.si.edu/world/volcano.cfm?vnum=1702-01=&volpage=erupt |title=Global Volcanism Program : Vestmannaeyjar |publisher=Volcano.si.edu |access-date=2013-08-15 |archive-date=2012-11-05 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121105051414/http://www.volcano.si.edu/world/volcano.cfm?vnum=1702-01=&volpage=erupt |url-status=dead }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://stories.inspiredbyiceland.com/story/658001 |title=Inspired by Iceland stories: Tell us the story of your visit to Iceland |publisher=Stories.inspiredbyiceland.com |date=2011-05-26 |access-date=2013-08-15 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://archive.today/20120715210251/http://stories.inspiredbyiceland.com/story/658001 |archive-date=2012-07-15 }}</ref><ref>Duncan C. Blanchard, ''From Raindrops to Volcanoes: Adventures With Sea Surface Meteorology'', Dover Publications, 1967.</ref> (in 1964, during the 1963–1967 eruption which led to the formation of the island) || ]
|]<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.volcano.si.edu/world/volcano.cfm?vnum=0304-01=&volpage=var#bgvn_3111 |title=Global Volcanism Program : Heard |publisher=Volcano.si.edu |date= |accessdate=2013-08-15}}</ref> || ]
|- |-
|],<ref name=haroun /><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.volcano.si.edu/world/volcano.cfm?vnum=1000-24=&volpage=erupt |title=Global Volcanism Program : Tolbachik |publisher=Volcano.si.edu |access-date=2013-08-15 |archive-date=2013-01-22 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130122075941/http://www.volcano.si.edu/world/volcano.cfm?vnum=1000-24=&volpage=erupt |url-status=dead }}</ref> part of the ] volcanic complex (last observation of lava lake activity in 1964) || ], Russia
⚫ ! scope="row" colspan="2"| Past lava lake activity (historical times)
|- |-
|]<ref>{{cite journal|doi=10.1029/2005GL022527|title=Etna 2004–2005: An archetype for geodynamically-controlled effusive eruptions|year=2005|last1=Burton|first1=Michael R.|journal=Geophysical Research Letters|volume=32|issue=9|bibcode=2005GeoRL..32.9303B|s2cid=130560874 |doi-access=}}</ref> (in 1974) || ], Italy
⚫ |]<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.volcano.si.edu/world/volcano.cfm?vnum=0404-04=&volpage=erupt |title=Global Volcanism Program : Savai'i |publisher=Volcano.si.edu |date=2013-01-03 |accessdate=2013-08-15}}</ref><ref name=haroun /> (during the 1905–1911 eruption) || ], ]
|- |-
|]<ref name=haroun>], ''Cratères en feu'', éd. Arthaud, 1951.</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.volcano.si.edu/world/volcano.cfm?vnum=0203-02= |title=Global Volcanism Program : Nyamuragira |publisher=Volcano.si.edu |date= |accessdate=2013-08-15}}</ref> (lava lake located within the summit caldera, confirmed for the first time in 1921, drained in 1938, and temporary lava pond in the Kituro cone on the SW flank, during the 1948 eruption) || ] |]<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.volcano.si.edu/world/volcano.cfm?vnum=0201-126&volpage=var |title=Global Volcanism Program : Ardoukôba |publisher=Volcano.si.edu |date=2013-01-03 |access-date=2013-08-15 |archive-date=2012-10-25 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121025011310/http://www.volcano.si.edu/world/volcano.cfm?vnum=0201-126&volpage=var |url-status=dead }}</ref> (in 1978) || ]
|- |-
|]<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.geocaching.com/seek/cache_details.aspx?guid=dc34c23c-5c0d-470e-a980-5e03a60d40a8 |title=GC1QN4C Capelinhos Volcano ]) || ], ] |]<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.eri.u-tokyo.ac.jp/VRC/kansoku/oshima_E.html |title=Izu-Oshima Volcano Observatory |access-date=2014-02-20}}</ref> (in 1986) || ], ]
|- |-
|]<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.volcano.si.edu/world/volcano.cfm?vnum=1702-01=&volpage=erupt |title=Global Volcanism Program : Vestmannaeyjar |publisher=Volcano.si.edu |date= |accessdate=2013-08-15}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://stories.inspiredbyiceland.com/story/658001 |title=Inspired by Iceland stories: Tell us the story of your visit to Iceland |publisher=Stories.inspiredbyiceland.com |date=2011-05-26 |accessdate=2013-08-15}}</ref><ref>Duncan C. Blanchard, ''From Raindrops to Volcanoes: Adventures With Sea Surface Meteorology'', Dover Publications, 1967.</ref> (in 1964, during the 1963–67 eruption which led to the formation of the island) || ] |]<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.volcano.si.edu/world/volcano.cfm?vnum=0101-04=&volpage=var |title=Global Volcanism Program : Stromboli |publisher=Volcano.si.edu |access-date=2013-08-15 |archive-date=2013-03-31 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130331070349/http://www.volcano.si.edu/world/volcano.cfm?vnum=0101-04=&volpage=var |url-status=dead }}</ref> (in 1986 and 1989) || ], Italy
|- |-
|],<ref name=haroun /><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.volcano.si.edu/world/volcano.cfm?vnum=1000-24=&volpage=erupt |title=Global Volcanism Program : Tolbachik |publisher=Volcano.si.edu |date= |accessdate=2013-08-15}}</ref> part of the ] volcanic complex (last observation of lava lake activity in 1964) || ], Russia |]<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.volcano.si.edu/world/volcano.cfm?vnum=1503-01=&volpage=var |title=Global Volcanism Program : Fernandina |publisher=Volcano.si.edu |access-date=2013-08-15 |archive-date=2012-10-16 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121016221426/http://www.volcano.si.edu/world/volcano.cfm?vnum=1503-01=&volpage=var |url-status=dead }}</ref> (in 1995) || ], ]
|- |-
|]<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.volcano.si.edu/world/volcano.cfm?vnum=0101-06=&volpage=var#cslp_7410 |title=Global Volcanism Program : Etna |doi=10.1029/2005GL022527.2005 |publisher=Volcano.si.edu |date= |accessdate=2013-08-15}}</ref> (in 1974) || ], Italy |]<ref>{{cite journal |title=Global Volcanism Program : Pacaya |doi=10.1029/2007GC001791 |bibcode=2008GGG.....9.2S02K |journal= Geochemistry, Geophysics, Geosystems|last1=Kutterolf |first1=S. |last2=Freundt |first2=A. |last3=Peréz |first3=W. |year=2008 |volume=9 |issue=2 |s2cid=3130048 |doi-access=free }}</ref> (in 2000 and 2001) || ]
|- |-
|]<ref>{{cite report|last1=Souther|first1=J. G.|author-link1=Jack Souther|title=The Late Cenozoic Mount Edziza Volcanic Complex, British Columbia|work=]|publisher=Canada Communication Group|series=Memoir 420|year=1992|pages=185, 267|isbn=0-660-14407-7|doi=10.4095/133497|doi-access=free}}</ref> (0.9 million years ago) || ], ]
|]<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.volcano.si.edu/world/volcano.cfm?vnum=0201-126&volpage=var |title=Global Volcanism Program : Ardoukôba|publisher=Volcano.si.edu |date=2013-01-03 |accessdate=2013-08-15}}</ref> (in 1978) || ]
|- |-
! scope="row" colspan="2"| Lava lake activity on other planetary bodies
|]<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.eri.u-tokyo.ac.jp/VRC/kansoku/oshima_E.html |title=Izu-Oshima Volcano Observatory |accessdate=2014-02-20}}</ref> (in 1986) || ], ]
|- |-
|]<ref name=Howell2007>{{cite journal | last=Howell |first=R. R. |author2=R. M. C. Lopes |title=The nature of the volcanic activity at Loki: Insights from Galileo NIMS and PPR data |journal=Icarus |volume=186 |issue= 2|pages=448–461 |date=2007 |doi =10.1016/j.icarus.2006.09.022 |bibcode=2007Icar..186..448H}}</ref> || ]
|]<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.volcano.si.edu/world/volcano.cfm?vnum=0101-04=&volpage=var |title=Global Volcanism Program : Stromboli |publisher=Volcano.si.edu |date= |accessdate=2013-08-15}}</ref> (in 1986 and 1989) || ], Italy
|- |-
|]<ref name="Cambridge University Press">{{cite book|last1=Davies|first1=Ashley Gerard|title=Volcanism on Io : a comparison with Earth|date=2007|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-0-521-85003-2|page=184}}</ref> || ]
|]<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.volcano.si.edu/world/volcano.cfm?vnum=1503-01=&volpage=var |title=Global Volcanism Program : Fernandina |publisher=Volcano.si.edu |date= |accessdate=2013-08-15}}</ref> (in 1995) || ], ]
|- |-
|]<ref name="Cambridge University Press"/> || ]
|]<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.volcano.si.edu/world/volcano.cfm?vnum=1402-11=&volpage=var |title=Global Volcanism Program : Pacaya |doi=10.1029/2007GC001791 |publisher=Volcano.si.edu |date= |accessdate=2013-08-15}}</ref> (in 2000 and 2001) || ]
|} |}


==See also== ==See also==
* ] – solidified lava lake in a pit crater
*] * {{annotated link|Types of volcanic eruptions}}


==References== ==References==
⚫ {{USGS|work=Volcano Hazards Program Photo Glossary|title=Lava lake|url=http://volcanoes.usgs.gov/images/pglossary/LavaLake.php}}
{{reflist}} {{reflist|30em}}
⚫ {{USGS|article=VHP Photo Glossary: Lava lake|url=http://volcanoes.usgs.gov/images/pglossary/LavaLake.php|author=the Volcano Hazards Program}}


==External links== ==External links==
{{Commons category|Lava lakes}} {{Commons category|Lava lakes}}
* *
* , video footage of lava lake in Vanuatu's ] * , video footage of lava lake in Vanuatu's ]


]
] ]

Latest revision as of 10:42, 4 January 2025

Not to be confused with crater lakes, lakes of water that form in a volcanic crater or caldera. For places named Lava Lake, see Lava Lake. Molten lava contained in a volcanic crater
Lava lake at Nyiragongo Volcano in a molten state. (Democratic Republic of the Congo)
Lava lake at Erta Ale Volcano, Ethiopia.
The lava lake of Halemaʻumaʻu at Kīlauea, Hawaiʻi, United States).
Lava lake in Marum crater, Ambrym, Vanuatu.
Satellite picture showing the lava lake of Mount Erebus, Antarctica.
Aerial view of a lava lake in Pu’u ’Ō’ō crater, east rift zone of Kīlauea. The crater is about 820 ft (250 m) in diameter.
Aerial view of a lava lake atop the Kūpaʻianahā vent on the east rift zone of Kīlauea volcano.

Lava lakes are large volumes of molten lava, usually basaltic, contained in a volcanic vent, crater, or broad depression. The term is used to describe both lava lakes that are wholly or partly molten and those that are solidified (sometimes referred to as frozen lava lakes).

Formation

Lava lakes can form in three ways:

  • from one or more vents in a crater that erupts enough lava to partially fill the crater; or
  • when lava pours into a crater or broad depression and partially fills the crater; or
  • atop a new vent that erupts lava continuously for a period of several weeks or more and slowly builds a crater progressively higher than the surrounding ground.

Behaviors

Lava lakes occur in a variety of volcanic systems, ranging from the basaltic Erta Ale lake in Ethiopia and the basaltic andesite volcano of Villarrica, Chile, to the unique phonolitic lava lake at Mt. Erebus, Antarctica. Lava lakes have been observed to exhibit a range of behaviours. A "constantly circulating, apparently steady-state" lava lake was observed during the 1969–1971 Mauna Ulu eruption of Kīlauea, Hawaiʻi. By contrast, a lava lake at the 1983–1984 Puʻu ʻŌʻō eruption of Kilauea displayed cyclic behaviour with a period of 5–20 minutes; gas "pierced the surface" of the lake, and the lava rapidly drained back down the conduit before the onset of a new phase of lake activity. The behaviour observed is influenced by the combined effects of pressure within the reservoir, exsolution and decompression of gas bubbles within the conduit and, potentially, exsolution of bubbles within the magma reservoir. Superimposed upon this is the effect of bubbles rising through the liquid, and coalescence of bubbles within the conduit. The interactions of these effects can create either a steady-state recirculating lake, or a lake level that periodically rises and then falls.

Notable examples

Persistent lava lakes are a rare phenomenon. Only a few volcanoes have hosted persistent or near-persistent lava lakes during recent decades:

The lava lakes at Ambrym volcano disappeared after a large eruption in December 2018.

For many years, Kīlauea had two persistent lava lakes: one in the Halemaʻumaʻu vent cavity within the summit caldera, and another within the Puʻu ʻŌʻō cone located on the east rift zone of the volcano. In May 2018, both of these lava lakes disappeared as a result of increased activity in Kīlauea's east rift zone. The lava lake at Halemaʻumaʻu returned in December 2020, after Kīlauea's first eruption in over two years. The lava lake solidified after the eruption ended in May 2021, but returned again when eruptive activity at Halemaʻumaʻu resumed on September 29, 2021. Following the 2021 eruption, three more occurred on January 5, 2023; June 7, 2023; and September 10, 2023. As of January 2024, Halemaʻumaʻu is not erupting and the lava lake is no longer active.

Nyiragongo's lava lake has usually been the largest and most voluminous in recent history, reaching 700 meters wide in 1982, although Masaya is believed to have hosted an even larger lava lake at the time of the Spanish conquest, being 1,000 meters wide in 1670. The lava lake at Masaya came back in January 2016.

In addition to the aforementioned persistent lava lakes, a certain number of occurrences of temporary lava lakes (sometimes called lava ponds or lava pools, depending on their size and nature) have also been observed and are listed in the following table.

List of volcanoes having displayed past or present lava lake activity

This list is incomplete; you can help by adding missing items. (May 2012)
Volcano Location
Persistent or near-persistent lava lakes during recent decades
Erta Ale Ethiopia
Mount Erebus Ross Island, Antarctica
Kīlauea Halemaʻumaʻu Hawaiʻi (Big Island)
Nyiragongo (the largest one in the past century) Democratic Republic of the Congo
Mount Michael Saunders Island, South Sandwich Islands
Ambrym (two lava lakes in both Benbow and Marum craters since around 1991; following an earthquake in December 2018 both lakes are buried under collapsed craters) Ambrym Island, Vanuatu
Recent intermittent lava lake activity
Masaya Nicaragua
Mount Yasur Tanna Island, Vanuatu
Villarrica Chile
Karthala Grande Comore, Comoros
Piton de la Fournaise (small temporary lava pond in Dolomieu crater) Réunion Island
Ol Doinyo Lengai (only active volcano in the world emitting carbonatite lava) Tanzania
Turrialba (small lake) Costa Rica
Unconfirmed lava lake activity
Telica (possibly in 1971 and 1999–2000) Nicaragua
Tungurahua (possibly in 1999) Ecuador
Tofua (possibly in 2004 and 2006) Tofua Island, Tonga
Nabro (possibly in 2012) Eritrea
Lava lake activity suggested by satellite remote-sensing data
Mount Michael Saunders Island, South Sandwich Islands
Mount Belinda Montagu Island, South Sandwich Islands
Mawson Peak Heard Island
Past lava lake activity
Kīlauea Puʻu ʻŌʻō crater (1983-2018, collapsed during the 2018 Puna eruption) Hawaiʻi (Big Island)
Mount Matavanu (during the 1905–1911 eruption) Savai'i Island, Samoa
Nyamuragira (lava lake located within the summit caldera, confirmed for the first time in 1921, drained in 1938, and temporary lava pond in the Kituro cone on the SW flank, during the 1948 eruption) Democratic Republic of the Congo
Capelinhos (in 1958, a Surtseyan eruption) Faial Island, Azores
Surtsey (in 1964, during the 1963–1967 eruption which led to the formation of the island) Iceland
Tolbachik, part of the Klyuchevskaya volcanic complex (last observation of lava lake activity in 1964) Kamchatka, Russia
Etna (in 1974) Sicily, Italy
Ardoukôba (in 1978) Djibouti
Mount Mihara (in 1986) Izu Ōshima, Japan
Stromboli (in 1986 and 1989) Aeolian Islands, Italy
La Cumbre (in 1995) Fernandina Island, Galápagos
Pacaya (in 2000 and 2001) Guatemala
Mount Edziza (0.9 million years ago) British Columbia, Canada
Lava lake activity on other planetary bodies
Loki Patera Io
Janus Patera Io
Pele Io

See also

References

Public Domain This article incorporates public domain material from "Lava lake". Volcano Hazards Program Photo Glossary. United States Geological Survey.

  1. "VHP Photo Glossary: Lava lake". Volcanoes.usgs.gov. Retrieved 2013-08-15.
  2. Swanson et al. (1979) "Ground deformation at Pu'u 'O'o. U.S. Geological Survey Chronological narrative of the 1969-71 Mauna Ulu eruption of Kilauea volcano". US Geological Survey Professional Paper 1056
  3. Wolfe et al. (1988). "Geologic observations and chronology of eruptive events". US Geological Survey Professional Paper 1463
  4. Witham and Llewellin (2006). "Stability of Lava Lakes". '+Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal Research vol. 158 p.321–332
  5. ^ "Global Volcanism Program : Erebus". Volcano.si.edu. Archived from the original on 2006-07-08. Retrieved 2013-08-15.
  6. ^ "Global Volcanism Program : Erta Ale". Volcano.si.edu. Archived from the original on 2013-02-17. Retrieved 2013-08-15.
  7. ^ "Kīlauea". Global Volcanism Program. Smithsonian Institution.
  8. "Global Volcanism Program | Masaya". Smithsonian Institution | Global Volcanism Program. Retrieved 2024-10-23.
  9. "Remote Mount Michael volcano hosts persistent lava lake". BBC News. BBC News. 3 July 2019. Retrieved 3 July 2019.
  10. ^ "Nyiragongo". Global Volcanism Program. Smithsonian Institution.
  11. Extreme Pursuit (2024-05-05). Mount Yasur Volcano, Tanna - Tourist Showcase Video. Retrieved 2024-10-23 – via YouTube.
  12. "Ambrym volcano (Vanuatu) - Smithsonian / USGS Weekly Volcanic Activity Report for 17 April-23 April 2019 (Continuing Activity)". Volcano Discovery. 17 April 2019. Retrieved 3 April 2024.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: date and year (link)
  13. "HVO Kilauea Status". Volcanoes.usgs.gov. Archived from the original on 2012-03-08. Retrieved 2013-08-15.
  14. "USGS Volcanoes". Retrieved 21 December 2020.
  15. "Global Volcanism Program : Nyiragongo". Volcano.si.edu. Archived from the original on 2013-03-31. Retrieved 2013-08-15.
  16. "Pit crater structure and processes governing persistent activity at Masaya Volcano, Nicaragua" (PDF). Eps.mcgill.ca. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2016-03-04. Retrieved 2013-08-15.
  17. ^ "Masaya". www.volcanodiscovery.com. Retrieved 2016-11-07.
  18. Tazieff, H. (1994). "Permanent lava lakes: Observed facts and induced mechanisms". Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal Research. 63 (1–2): 3–11. Bibcode:1994JVGR...63....3T. doi:10.1016/0377-0273(94)90015-9.
  19. "Ambrym". Global Volcanism Program. Smithsonian Institution.
  20. "Ambrym". volcano.si.edu. Archived from the original on 2014-08-26. Retrieved 2014-09-03.
  21. "Masaya". Global Volcanism Program. Smithsonian Institution.
  22. "Villarrica". Global Volcanism Program. Smithsonian Institution.
  23. "Global Volcanism Program : Karthala". Volcano.si.edu. Archived from the original on 2012-10-18. Retrieved 2013-08-15.
  24. Michon, Laurent; Staudacher, Thomas; Ferrazzini, Valérie; Bachèlery, Patrick; Marti, Joan (2007). "Global Volcanism Program : Fournaise, Piton de la". Geophysical Research Letters. 34 (21). Volcano.si.edu. Bibcode:2007GeoRL..3421301M. doi:10.1029/2007GL031248. S2CID 55281591. Archived from the original on 2013-03-31. Retrieved 2013-08-15.
  25. "Terre et Volcans News v4". Terreetvolcans.free.fr. Retrieved 2013-08-15.
  26. "Global Volcanism Program : Lengai, Ol Doinyo". Volcano.si.edu. Archived from the original on 2012-10-14. Retrieved 2013-08-15.
  27. "Etnatao: Ol Doinyo Lengai Volcano Tanzania". YouTube. 2010-02-11. Archived from the original on 2021-12-19. Retrieved 2013-08-15.
  28. "Inspección del interior del cráter activo del volcán Turrialba del 29 de junio del 2017". rsn.ucr.ac.cr. 4 July 2017.
  29. "Global Volcanism Program : Telica". Volcano.si.edu. Archived from the original on 2013-03-31. Retrieved 2013-08-15.
  30. "Global Volcanism Program : Tungurahua". Volcano.si.edu. Archived from the original on 2012-10-23. Retrieved 2013-08-15.
  31. "Global Volcanism Program : Tofua". Volcano.si.edu. Archived from the original on 2013-03-31. Retrieved 2013-08-15.
  32. "Eruption volcanique, activité éruptive du volcan Nabro". Activolcans.info. Archived from the original on 2013-03-28. Retrieved 2013-08-15.
  33. "Global Volcanism Program : Michael". Volcano.si.edu. Archived from the original on 2013-03-26. Retrieved 2013-08-15.
  34. Patrick, Matthew R.; Smellie, John L.; Harris, Andrew J. L.; Wright, Robert; Dean, Ken; Izbekov, Pavel; Garbeil, Harold; Pilger, Eric (2005). "First recorded eruption of Mount Belinda volcano (Montagu Island), South Sandwich Islands" (PDF). Bulletin of Volcanology. 67 (5): 415–422. Bibcode:2005BVol...67..415P. doi:10.1007/s00445-004-0382-6. S2CID 54187857.
  35. "Global Volcanism Program : Heard". Volcano.si.edu. Archived from the original on 2013-03-31. Retrieved 2013-08-15.
  36. "Global Volcanism Program : Savai'i". Volcano.si.edu. 2013-01-03. Archived from the original on 2012-10-07. Retrieved 2013-08-15.
  37. ^ Tazieff, Haroun, Cratères en feu, éd. Arthaud, 1951.
  38. "Global Volcanism Program : Nyamuragira". Volcano.si.edu. Archived from the original on 2010-05-25. Retrieved 2013-08-15.
  39. "GC1QN4C Capelinhos Volcano [Faial] (Earthcache) in Arquipélago dos Açores, Portugal created by almeidara". Geocaching.com. Retrieved 2013-08-15.
  40. "Fayal". volcano.si.edu. Archived from the original on 2014-04-23. Retrieved 2014-04-21.
  41. "Global Volcanism Program : Vestmannaeyjar". Volcano.si.edu. Archived from the original on 2012-11-05. Retrieved 2013-08-15.
  42. "Inspired by Iceland stories: Tell us the story of your visit to Iceland". Stories.inspiredbyiceland.com. 2011-05-26. Archived from the original on 2012-07-15. Retrieved 2013-08-15.
  43. Duncan C. Blanchard, From Raindrops to Volcanoes: Adventures With Sea Surface Meteorology, Dover Publications, 1967.
  44. "Global Volcanism Program : Tolbachik". Volcano.si.edu. Archived from the original on 2013-01-22. Retrieved 2013-08-15.
  45. Burton, Michael R. (2005). "Etna 2004–2005: An archetype for geodynamically-controlled effusive eruptions". Geophysical Research Letters. 32 (9). Bibcode:2005GeoRL..32.9303B. doi:10.1029/2005GL022527. S2CID 130560874.
  46. "Global Volcanism Program : Ardoukôba". Volcano.si.edu. 2013-01-03. Archived from the original on 2012-10-25. Retrieved 2013-08-15.
  47. "Izu-Oshima Volcano Observatory". Retrieved 2014-02-20.
  48. "Global Volcanism Program : Stromboli". Volcano.si.edu. Archived from the original on 2013-03-31. Retrieved 2013-08-15.
  49. "Global Volcanism Program : Fernandina". Volcano.si.edu. Archived from the original on 2012-10-16. Retrieved 2013-08-15.
  50. Kutterolf, S.; Freundt, A.; Peréz, W. (2008). "Global Volcanism Program : Pacaya". Geochemistry, Geophysics, Geosystems. 9 (2). Bibcode:2008GGG.....9.2S02K. doi:10.1029/2007GC001791. S2CID 3130048.
  51. Souther, J. G. (1992). The Late Cenozoic Mount Edziza Volcanic Complex, British Columbia. Geological Survey of Canada (Report). Memoir 420. Canada Communication Group. pp. 185, 267. doi:10.4095/133497. ISBN 0-660-14407-7.
  52. Howell, R. R.; R. M. C. Lopes (2007). "The nature of the volcanic activity at Loki: Insights from Galileo NIMS and PPR data". Icarus. 186 (2): 448–461. Bibcode:2007Icar..186..448H. doi:10.1016/j.icarus.2006.09.022.
  53. ^ Davies, Ashley Gerard (2007). Volcanism on Io : a comparison with Earth. Cambridge University Press. p. 184. ISBN 978-0-521-85003-2.

External links

Categories: