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{{short description|American woman, convicted and posthumously pardoned for witchcraft}}
{{featured article}} {{featured article}}
{{Infobox person {{Infobox person
| name = Grace White Sherwood | name = Grace White Sherwood
| image = File:GraceSherwoodCloseB.jpg | image =
| alt =
| alt = Bronze statue of Colonial American woman with a basket of rosemary and a raccoon
| caption =
| caption = Statue of Grace Sherwood in Virginia Beach, Virginia, near the site of her trial
| birth_date = 1660 | birth_date = 1660
| birth_place = {{nowrap|likely ] area}} | birth_place = {{nowrap|likely ], ],<br>]}}
| death_date = {{Death year and age|1740|1660}} | death_date = {{Death year and age|1740|1660}}
| death_place = likely Pungo | death_place = likely Pungo
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| other_names = The Witch of Pungo | other_names = The Witch of Pungo
| criminal_charge = ] | criminal_charge = ]
| criminal_status = Posthumously ]ed | criminal_status = Posthumously granted an informal ]
| occupation = {{flatlist| | occupation = {{flatlist|
* Farmer * Farmer
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}} }}
}} }}
'''Grace White Sherwood''' (1660–1740), called the '''Witch of Pungo''', is the last person known to have been convicted of ] in ].


'''Grace White Sherwood''' (c. 1660&nbsp;– c. 1740), known as the '''Witch of Pungo''', is the last person known to have been convicted of ] in ]. A farmer, healer, and midwife, her neighbors accused her of transforming herself into a cat, damaging crops and causing the death of livestock. She was charged with witchcraft several times; at her eventual trial in 1706, Sherwood was accused of bewitching Elizabeth Hill, causing Hill to ]. The court ordered that Sherwood's guilt or innocence be determined by ] her in water. If she sank, she was innocent; if she did not, she was guilty. Sherwood floated to the surface and may have subsequently spent up to eight years in jail before being released. A farmer, healer, and midwife, she was accused by her neighbors of ] into a cat, damaging crops, and causing the death of livestock. She was charged with witchcraft several times. The court ordered that Sherwood's guilt or innocence be determined by ] her in water. If she sank, she was innocent; if she did not, she was guilty. Sherwood floated to the surface and may have spent almost eight years in jail before being released.


Sherwood lived in ], ]{{efn|] before 1691}} (today part of ]), and married James Sherwood, a ], in 1680. The couple had three sons: John, James, and Richard. The elder James died in 1701; Grace Sherwood inherited his property and never remarried. Sherwood lived in ], ]{{efn|] before 1691}} (today part of ]), and married James Sherwood, a ], in 1680. The couple had three sons: John, James, and Richard. Her first case was in 1697; she was accused of casting a ] on a bull, resulting in its death, but the matter was dismissed by the agreement of both parties. The following year she was accused of witchcraft by two neighbors; she supposedly bewitched the hogs and cotton crop of one of them. Sherwood sued for ] after each accusation, but her lawsuits were unsuccessful and her husband had to pay court costs. In 1706 she was convicted of witchcraft and was incarcerated. Freed from prison by 1714, she recovered her property from Princess Anne County (her husband had died in 1701). She did not remarry, and lived on her farm until her death in 1740 at the age of about 80.


On July 10, 2006, the 300th anniversary of Sherwood's conviction, ] ] granted an informal ] to "officially restore good name",{{sfnp|Barisic|2006}} recognizing that she was wrongfully convicted. A statue depicting her was erected near ] on Independence Boulevard in Virginia Beach, close to the site of the colonial courthouse where she was tried. She is sculpted alongside a ], representing her love of animals, and carrying a basket containing ] and ], in recognition of her knowledge of ].
Sherwood's first case was in 1697; she was accused of casting a spell on a bull, resulting in its death, but the matter was dismissed by the agreement of both parties. The following year she was accused of witchcraft by two neighbors; she supposedly bewitched the hogs and cotton crop of one of them. Sherwood sued for slander after each accusation but her lawsuits were unsuccessful and her husband had to pay court costs. In 1706 she was convicted of witchcraft and was incarcerated. Freed from prison by 1714, she recovered her property from Princess Anne County, after which she lived on her farm until her death in 1740 at the age of about 80.

On July 10, 2006, the 300th anniversary of Sherwood's conviction, ] ] restored her good name, recognizing that her case was a ]. A statue depicting her was erected near ] on Independence Boulevard in Virginia Beach, close to the site of the colonial courthouse where she was tried. She is sculpted alongside a ], representing her love of animals, and carrying a basket containing ] and ], in recognition of her knowledge of herbal healing.


== Family background == == Family background ==
Sherwood was born in 1660{{sfnp|Old Donation Episcopal Church|2010}} to John and Susan White. John White was a carpenter and farmer{{sfnp|Chewning|2006|pp=83–90}} of Scottish descent; it is uncertain whether he was born in America. Susan was English by birth;{{sfnp|Nash|Sheets|2012|pp=40–44}} their daughter Grace was born in Virginia, probably in Pungo.{{sfnp|Witkowski|2012}}{{sfnp|Campbell|1934}} Sherwood was born in 1660 to John and Susan White.{{sfnp|Old Donation Episcopal Church|2010}} John White was a carpenter and farmer of Scottish descent; it is uncertain whether he was born in America.{{sfnp|Chewning|2006|pp=83–90}} Susan was English by birth; their daughter Grace was born in Virginia, probably in Pungo.{{sfnp|Nash|Sheets|2012|pp=40–44}}{{sfnp|Witkowski|2012}}{{sfnp|Campbell|1934}}


Grace White married a respected small-farm landowner, James Sherwood, in April 1680, and they were wed in the ].{{sfnp|Old Donation Episcopal Church|2010}}{{sfnp|Campbell|1934}}{{sfnp|James|1894 Oct|pp=96–101}} The couple had three sons: John, James, and Richard.{{sfnp|Chewning|2006|p=83}} John White gave the Sherwoods {{convert|50|acre|ha}} of land when they married, and on his death in 1681 left them the remainder of his {{convert|145|acre|ha}} farm.{{sfnp|Chewning|2006|p=83}} The Sherwood family was poor, and lived in an area inhabited by small landowners or those with no land at all.{{sfnp|Campbell|1934}}{{sfnp|Hume|2005|pp=86–89}}{{sfnp|Newman|2009|pp=42–43}} In addition to farming, Grace Sherwood grew her own herbs, which she used to heal both people and animals. She also acted as a midwife.{{sfnp|Virginia Historical Society|2006}} When James died in 1701, Grace inherited his property.{{sfnp|Department of Public Libraries|2006|pp=27–30}}{{sfnp|Chewning|2006|p=85}} She did not remarry.{{sfnp|Witkowski|2012}} In April 1680 Grace White married a respected small-farm landowner, James Sherwood, in the ].{{sfnp|Old Donation Episcopal Church|2010}}{{sfnp|Campbell|1934}}{{sfnp|James|1894 Oct|pp=96–101}} The couple had three sons: John, James, and Richard.{{sfnp|Chewning|2006|p=83}} John White gave the Sherwoods {{convert|50|acre|ha}} of land when they married, and on his death in 1681 left them the remainder of his {{convert|145|acre|ha}} farm.{{sfnp|Chewning|2006|p=83}} The Sherwood family was poor, and lived in an area inhabited by small landowners or those with no land at all.{{sfnp|Campbell|1934}}{{sfnp|Hume|2005|pp=86–89}}{{sfnp|Newman|2009|pp=42–43}} In addition to farming, Grace Sherwood grew her own herbs, which she used to heal both people and animals. She also acted as a ].{{sfnp|Virginia Historical Society|2006}} When James died in 1701, Grace inherited his property.{{sfnp|Department of Public Libraries|2006|pp=27–30}}{{sfnp|Chewning|2006|p=85}} She did not remarry.{{sfnp|Witkowski|2012}}


No drawings or paintings of Sherwood exist, but contemporary accounts describe her as attractive and tall and possessing a sense of humor. Sherwood grew medicinal herbs and wore trousers instead of a dress while working on her farm; both traits were atypical of ladies of that era. This combination of clothing and good looks was said to attract men and upset their wives.{{sfnp|Chewning|2006|pp=83–90}}{{sfnp|USA Today|2006}} Sherwood biographer and advocate Belinda Nash suggests that Sherwood's neighbors may have been jealous of Sherwood and that the witchcraft tales may have been conjured up in an effort to remove her from and gain her property.{{sfnp|Old Donation Episcopal Church|2010}}{{sfnp|USA Today|2006}} Sherwood was required to go to court at least a dozen times, in order to defend against accusations of witchcraft or to sue accusers for slander.{{sfnp|USA Today|2006}} No drawings or paintings of Sherwood exist, but contemporary accounts describe her as attractive and tall and possessing a sense of humor. Sherwood wore trousers instead of a dress while working on her farm. This was unusual for the time, as was her herb growing. The combination of clothing and good looks was said to attract men and upset their wives.{{sfnp|Chewning|2006|pp=83–90}}{{sfnp|USA Today|2006}} Sherwood biographer and advocate ] suggests that Sherwood's neighbors may have been jealous of Sherwood, and that the witchcraft tales may have been conjured up in an effort to remove her from, and subsequently get, her property.{{sfnp|Old Donation Episcopal Church|2010}}{{sfnp|USA Today|2006}} Sherwood was a party to at least a dozen lawsuits, in which she had to defend against accusations of witchcraft, or in which she sued her accusers for slander.{{sfnp|USA Today|2006}}


== Witchcraft and Virginia == == Witchcraft and Virginia ==
{{further|Witch trials in the early modern period}} {{further|Witch trials in Virginia}}
The existence of witches and demonic forces was taken for granted by the American colonists—] was considered the work of the ].{{sfnp|Newman|2009|pp=1–8}}{{sfnp|Hill|1972|p=87}}{{sfnp|Davis|1957|pp=131–149}} Colonists believed that witches could be identified by their strange behavior.{{sfnp|Virginia Beach.com|2013}} As early as 1626, nineteen years after the founding of the ], a ] in Virginia sat to consider whether Goodwife Joan Wright was a witch—she had supposedly predicted the deaths of three women and had caused illness as revenge for not hiring her as midwife. No record of the outcome is extant.{{sfnp|Davis|1957|pp=138–139}}


]
]
The existence of witches and demonic forces was taken for granted by the American colonists—] was considered the work of the ].{{sfnp|Newman|2009|pp=1–8}}{{sfnp|Hill|1972|p=87}}{{sfnp|Davis|1957|pp=131–149}} Strange behaviors supposedly identified witches to the colonists.{{sfnp|Virginia Beach.com|2013}} As early as 1626, nineteen years after the founding of the ], a grand jury sat to consider whether Goodwife Joan Wright was a witch—she had supposedly predicted the deaths of three women and had caused illness as revenge for not hiring her as midwife. No record of the outcome is extant.{{sfnp|Davis|1957|pp=138–139}} Nevertheless, Virginia did not experience the type of ] evidenced by the ] in 1692–1693, where 19&nbsp;people were executed on allegations of sorcery, several years before the first accusations against Sherwood.{{sfnp|USA Today|2006}} Ecclesiastical influence in Virginian courts was much less than in those of New England—Virginia's clergy participated little in witchcraft accusations and trials, unlike their New England counterparts.{{sfnp|Newman|2009|pp=56–57, 65–74}} New England's Puritans had settled in towns, and community pressure helped contribute to witchcraft convictions. There were few such towns in Virginia, where the population mostly lived on farms and plantations, scattered over a large area.{{sfnp|Newman|2009|pp=56–57}}


Nevertheless, Virginia did not experience events of ] such as the ] in 1692–1693, in which 19&nbsp;people were executed on allegations of sorcery, some years before the first accusations against Sherwood.{{sfnp|USA Today|2006}} Ecclesiastical influence in the courtroom was much less a factor in Virginia, where the clergy rarely participated in witchcraft trials, than in New England, where ministers took an active part.{{sfnp|Newman|2009|pp=56–57, 65–74}} People's fears of witchcraft in Virginia were not based on their religious beliefs as much as they were rooted in ], although the two often intermingled.{{sfnp|Newman|2009|p=37}} ] had settled in towns, and community pressure helped contribute to witchcraft convictions. There were few such towns in Virginia, where the population mostly lived on farms and plantations, connected by water transport and scattered over a large area.{{sfnp|Newman|2009|pp=56–57}}
Virginia's lay and religious leaders sought to prosecute offenses such as gossip, slander, and fornication, which they felt were a threat to social stability in the new colony. They wished to avoid witchcraft prosecutions, which were divisive.{{sfnp|Newman|2009|p=ii}} Virginia courts were reluctant to hear accusations of witchcraft and were even more reluctant to convict. Unlike the Salem witch trial courts, where the accused had to prove her innocence, in Virginia courts the accuser carried the ].{{sfnp|Newman|2009|pp=58–59}} Further, Virginia courts generally ignored evidence said to have been obtained by ] means, whereas the New England courts were known to convict people based solely on it.{{sfnp|Newman|2009|pp=2–3, 10–11}} Virginia required proof of guilt through either searches for ] or ]. Judges and magistrates would dismiss unsubstantiated cases of witchcraft and allow the accusers, who found themselves "under an ill tongue", to be sued for slander.{{sfnp|Department of Public Libraries|2006|pp=27–30}}{{sfnp|Newman|2009|p=78}}{{sfnp|Good Luck Horseshoe|1909|pp=247248}} Frances Pollard of the ] states: "It was pretty clear that Virginia early on tried to discourage these charges being brought of witchcraft because they were so troublesome."{{sfnp|USA Today|2006}} People's fears of witchcraft in Virginia were not based on their religious beliefs as much as they were rooted in ], although the two often intermingled.{{sfnp|Newman|2009|p=37}} The southeastern corner of Virginia around present-day ] and Virginia Beach (where Pungo is located), saw more accusations of witchcraft than other areas. According to Leslie M. Newman, this may have been due to local poverty as there was no cultural elite to restrain such prosecutions.{{sfnp|Newman|2009|pp=42–43}}


Virginia's lay and religious leaders were more interested in prosecuting offenses such as gossip, slander, and fornication, seeing them as threats to social stability. They wished to avoid witchcraft prosecutions, which were divisive.{{sfnp|Newman|2009|p=ii}} Virginia courts were reluctant to hear accusations of witchcraft and were even more reluctant to convict. Unlike the Salem witch trial courts, where the accused had to prove her innocence, in Virginia courts the accuser carried the ].{{sfnp|Newman|2009|pp=58–59}}
Although few Virginia records survive from that era,{{sfnp|Hume|2005|pp=86–89}} 19&nbsp;known witchcraft cases were brought there during the 17th&nbsp;century, all but one of which ended in acquittal.{{sfnp|USA Today|2006}}{{sfnp|Newman|2009|pp=2, 11}} The one conviction was a 1656 case of a man convicted of witchcraft and sentenced to 10 ] and banishment from the county.{{sfnp|Burr|1914|pp=435–442}}{{sfnp|Seltzer|2013}}{{sfnp|The William and Mary Quarterly|1893|pp=127–129}} There were no executions for witchcraft in Virginia.{{sfnp|USA Today|2006}} Nonetheless, as late as in 1736, Virginia's ] were reminded that witchcraft was still a crime, and that first offenders could expect to be ] and jailed for up to a year.{{sfnp|Hume|2005|pp=86–89}} In 1745, John Craig, a Presbyterian minister in ], made assertions of witchcraft after his child and several of his animals died, and was in response accused of using evil arts to divine who was responsible. Neither he nor those who accused him brought their claims to court to face "unsympathetic magistrates", though prosecution for witchcraft was still possible in Virginia.{{sfnp|Butler|1979|p=338}} The last Virginia witchcraft trial took place in 1802 in ], which is now in ]. In that case, a couple claimed that a woman was a witch, an accusation ruled slanderous.{{sfnp|Barisic|2006}}

Further, Virginia courts generally ignored evidence said to have been obtained by ] means, whereas the New England courts were known to convict people based solely on it.{{sfnp|Newman|2009|pp=2–3, 10–11}} Virginia required proof of guilt through either searches for ] or ]. Judges and magistrates would dismiss unsubstantiated cases of witchcraft and allow the accusers, who found themselves "under an ill tongue", to be sued for slander.{{sfnp|Department of Public Libraries|2006|pp=27–30}}{{sfnp|Newman|2009|p=78}}{{sfnp|Good Luck Horseshoe|1909|pp=247248}} Frances Pollard of the ] states: "It was pretty clear that Virginia early on tried to discourage these charges being brought of witchcraft because they were so troublesome."{{sfnp|USA Today|2006}}

The ] of Virginia, around present-day ] and Virginia Beach (where Pungo is located), saw more accusations of witchcraft than other areas. According to Leslie M. Newman, this may have been due to local poverty as there was no cultural elite to restrain such prosecutions.{{sfnp|Newman|2009|pp=42–43}}

Although few Virginia records survive from that era, 19&nbsp;known witchcraft cases were brought in the colony during the 17th&nbsp;century, all but one of which ended in acquittal.{{sfnp|Hume|2005|pp=86–89}}{{sfnp|USA Today|2006}}{{sfnp|Newman|2009|pp=2, 11}} The one conviction was a 1656 case of a man convicted of witchcraft and sentenced to 10 ] and banishment from the county.{{sfnp|Burr|1914|pp=435–442}}{{sfnp|Seltzer|2013}}{{sfnp|The William and Mary Quarterly|1893|pp=127–129}} There were no executions for witchcraft in Virginia.{{sfnp|USA Today|2006}} Nonetheless, as late as in 1736, Virginia's ] were reminded that witchcraft was still a crime, and that first offenders could expect to be ] and jailed for up to a year.{{sfnp|Hume|2005|pp=86–89}}

In 1745, John Craig, a Presbyterian minister in ], made assertions of witchcraft after his child and several of his animals died, and was in response accused of using evil arts to ] who was responsible. Neither he nor those who accused him brought their claims to court to face "unsympathetic magistrates", though prosecution for witchcraft was still possible in Virginia.{{sfnp|Butler|1979|p=338}} The last Virginia witchcraft trial took place in 1802 in ], which is now in ]. In that case, a couple claimed that a woman was a witch, an accusation ruled slanderous.{{sfnp|USA Today|2006}}


The trial by ducking (immersing the accused, bound, in water, to see if she would float) appears to have been used only once in Virginia, to try Sherwood.{{sfnp|USA Today|2006}}{{sfnp|Barisic|2006}} It was believed that, as water was considered pure, it would reject witches, causing them to float, whereas the innocent would sink.{{sfnp|Barisic|2006}} The trial by ducking (immersing the accused, bound, in water, to see if she would float) appears to have been used only once in Virginia, to try Sherwood.{{sfnp|USA Today|2006}}{{sfnp|Barisic|2006}} It was believed that, as water was considered pure, it would reject witches, causing them to float, whereas the innocent would sink.{{sfnp|Barisic|2006}}
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=== Initial claims of witchcraft === === Initial claims of witchcraft ===
Sherwood was first charged with witchcraft in a court case held in early 1697, in which Richard Capps alleged that she had used a spell to cause the death of his bull. The court made no decision on this charge;{{sfnp|Old Donation Episcopal Church|2010}} the Sherwoods then filed a defamation suit against Capps that was discontinued when the parties came to an agreement.{{sfnp|Yarsinske|2002|pp=61–62}} In 1698, Sherwood was accused by her neighbor John Gisburne of enchanting his pigs and cotton crop. No court action followed this accusation, and another action for defamation by the Sherwoods also failed. In the same year Elizabeth Barnes alleged that Sherwood had assumed the form of a black cat, entered Barnes' home, jumped over her bed, drove and whipped her, and left via the keyhole. Again the allegation was unresolved, and again the subsequent defamation action was lost. For each of the failed actions Sherwood and her husband had to pay court related costs.{{sfnp|Old Donation Episcopal Church|2010}}{{sfnp|Department of Public Libraries|2006|pp=27–30}}{{sfnp|Yarsinske|2002|pp=61–62}}{{sfnp|Nash|Sheets|2012|p=108}} The first accusation against Sherwood came to court in early 1697. Richard Capps alleged that she had used a spell to cause the death of his bull. The court made no decision,{{sfnp|Old Donation Episcopal Church|2010}} and the Sherwoods filed a defamation suit against Capps that was resolved by a settlement.{{sfnp|Yarsinske|2002|pp=61–62}} In 1698, Sherwood was accused by her neighbor John Gisburne of enchanting his pigs and cotton crop. No court action followed this accusation, and another suit for defamation by the Sherwoods failed. In the same year Elizabeth Barnes alleged that Sherwood had assumed the form of a ], entered Barnes' home, jumped over her bed, drove and whipped her, and left via the keyhole. Again the allegation was unresolved, and again the subsequent defamation action was lost. For each of the failed actions, Sherwood and her husband had to pay court-related costs.{{sfnp|Old Donation Episcopal Church|2010}}{{sfnp|Department of Public Libraries|2006|pp=27–30}}{{sfnp|Yarsinske|2002|pp=61–62}}{{sfnp|Nash|Sheets|2012|p=108}}


According to Richard Beale Davis in his journal article on witchcraft in Virginia, by this time "Princess Anne County had obviously grown tired of Mrs. Sherwood as a general nuisance".{{sfnp|Davis|1957|p=146}} In 1705, Sherwood was involved in a fight with her neighbor, Elizabeth Hill.{{sfnp|James|1895 Jan|pp=190–192}} Sherwood sued Hill and her husband for assault and battery, and on December 7, 1705, was awarded damages of twenty shillings (1 ]).{{sfnp|Witkowski|2012}}{{sfnp|James|1895 Jan}} On January 3, 1706, the Hills accused Grace Sherwood of witchcraft, although she failed to answer the charge in court.{{sfnp|James|1895 Apr|pp=242–245}} On February 7, 1706, the court ordered her to appear on a charge of having bewitched Elizabeth Hill, causing a miscarriage.{{sfnp|Burr|1914|pp=435–442}} According to ] in his journal article on witchcraft in Virginia, by this time "Princess Anne County had obviously grown tired of Mrs. Sherwood as a general nuisance".{{sfnp|Davis|1957|p=146}} In 1705, Sherwood was involved in a fight with her neighbor, Elizabeth Hill.{{sfnp|James|1895 Jan|pp=190–192}} Sherwood sued Hill and her husband for assault and battery, and on December 7, 1705, was awarded damages of twenty shillings (one ]).{{sfnp|Witkowski|2012}}{{sfnp|James|1895 Jan}}


=== Trial by water === === Trial by water ===
] ]
Proceedings resumed in March 1706; the Princess Anne County justices sought to empanel two juries, both made up of women. The first was ordered to search Sherwood's home for waxen or baked figures that might indicate she was a witch. The second was ordered to look for "demon suckling teats" by examining her.{{sfnp|Hume|2005|pp=86–89}}{{sfnp|Newman|2009|pp=48–49}} In both instances, reluctance on the part of the local residents made it difficult to form a jury and both juries refused to carry out the search.{{sfnp|Burr|1914|pp=435–442}}{{sfnp|Davis|1957|p=146}} On March 7, 1706, Sherwood was examined by a jury of 12 "ancient and knowing women" appointed to look for markings on her body that might be brands of the Devil.{{sfnp|James|1895 Jul|pages=18–22}} They discovered two "marks not like theirs or like those of any other woman."{{sfnp|James|1895 Jul|pages=18–22}} The forewoman of this jury was the same Elizabeth Barnes who had previously accused Sherwood of witchcraft.{{sfnp|Campbell|1934}} On January 3, 1706, the Hills accused Grace Sherwood of witchcraft. She failed to answer the charge in court, and on February 7, 1706, the court ordered her to appear on a charge of having bewitched Elizabeth Hill, causing a miscarriage.{{sfnp|James|1895 Apr|pp=242–245}}{{sfnp|Burr|1914|pp=435–442}} In March 1706 the Princess Anne County justices sought to empanel two juries, both made up of women. The first was ordered to search Sherwood's home for waxen or baked figures that might indicate she was a witch. The second was ordered to look for "demon suckling teats" by examining her.{{sfnp|Hume|2005|pp=86–89}}{{sfnp|Newman|2009|pp=48–49}} In both instances, reluctance on the part of the local residents made it difficult to form a jury and both juries refused to carry out the searches.{{sfnp|Burr|1914|pp=435–442}}{{sfnp|Davis|1957|p=146}} On March 7, 1706, Sherwood was examined by a jury of 12 "ancient and knowing women" appointed to look for markings on her body that might be brands of the Devil.{{sfnp|James|1895 Jul|pages=18–22}} They discovered two "marks not like theirs or like those of any other woman".{{sfnp|James|1895 Jul|pages=18–22}} The forewoman of this jury was the same Elizabeth Barnes who had previously accused Sherwood of witchcraft.{{sfnp|Campbell|1934}}


Neither the colonial authorities in Williamsburg nor the local court in Princess Anne were willing to declare Sherwood a witch.{{sfnp|Department of Public Libraries|2006|pp=27–30}} Those in Williamsburg considered the charge overly vague, and on April 16 instructed the local court to examine the case more fully. For each court appearance, Sherwood had to travel {{convert|16|mi}} from her farm in Pungo to where the court was sitting.{{sfnp|Old Donation Episcopal Church|2010}}{{sfnp|Burr|1914|pp=435–442}} Neither the colonial authorities in Williamsburg nor the local court in Princess Anne were willing to declare Sherwood a witch.{{sfnp|Department of Public Libraries|2006|pp=27–30}} Those in Williamsburg considered the charge overly vague, and on April 16 instructed the local court to examine the case more fully. For each court appearance, Sherwood had to travel {{convert|16|mi}} from her farm in Pungo to where the court was sitting.{{sfnp|Old Donation Episcopal Church|2010}}{{sfnp|Burr|1914|pp=435–442}}


On May 2, 1706, the county justices noted that while no particular act of ] had been alleged against Sherwood, there was "great cause of suspicion".{{sfnp|Newman|2009|p=47}} Consequently, the Sheriff of Princess Anne County took Sherwood into custody, though Sherwood could give bond for her appearance and good behavior.{{sfnp|James|1895 Apr|pp=242–245}} Maximilian Boush, a ] of Lynnhaven Parish Church, was the prosecutor in Sherwood's case.{{sfnp|Old Donation Episcopal Church|2010}} On July 5, 1706, the justices ordered a trial by ducking to take place, with Sherwood's consent,{{sfnp|Davis|1957|pp=146–147}} but heavy rains caused a postponement until July 10, as they feared the wet weather might harm her health.{{sfnp|Cushing|1833|pp=73–78}} Sherwood was taken inside Lynnhaven Parish Church, placed on a stool and ordered to ask for forgiveness for her witchery.{{sfnp|James|1895 Apr|pp=242–245}} She replied, "I be not a witch, I be a healer."{{sfnp|Old Donation Episcopal Church|2010}} On May 2, 1706, the county justices noted that while no particular act of ] had been alleged against Sherwood, there was "great cause of suspicion".{{sfnp|Newman|2009|p=47}} Consequently, the Sheriff of Princess Anne County took Sherwood into custody, though Sherwood could give bond for her appearance and good behavior.{{sfnp|James|1895 Apr|pp=242–245}} Maximilian Boush, a ] of Lynnhaven Parish Church, was the prosecutor in Sherwood's case.{{sfnp|Old Donation Episcopal Church|2010}} On July 5, 1706, the justices ordered a trial by ducking to take place, with Sherwood's consent,{{sfnp|Davis|1957|pp=146–147}} but heavy rains caused a postponement until July 10, as they feared the wet weather might harm her health.{{sfnp|Cushing|1833|pp=73–78}} Sherwood was taken inside Lynnhaven Parish Church, placed on a stool and ordered to ask for forgiveness for her witchery.{{sfnp|James|1895 Apr|pp=242–245}} She replied, "I be not a witch, I be a healer."{{sfnp|Old Donation Episcopal Church|2010}}


] ]
At about 10&nbsp;a.m. on July 10, 1706, Sherwood was taken down a dirt lane now known as Witchduck Road,{{sfnp|USA Today|2006}}{{sfnp|Virginia Beach.com|2009}} to a plantation near the mouth of the ].{{sfnp|James|1895 Apr|pp=242–245}}{{sfnp|Harpers|1884|pp=99–102}} News had spread, and the event attracted people from all over the colony,{{sfnp|Old Donation Episcopal Church|2010}} who began to shout "Duck the witch!"{{sfnp|USA Today|2006}} According to the principles of trial by water, if Sherwood floated she would be deemed guilty of witchcraft; if she did not, she would be innocent. It was not intended that Sherwood drown; the court had ordered that care be taken to preserve her life.{{sfnp|Seltzer|2013}} At about 10&nbsp;a.m. on July 10, 1706, Sherwood was taken down a dirt lane now known as Witchduck Road,{{sfnp|USA Today|2006}}{{sfnp|Virginia Beach.com|2009}} to a plantation near the mouth of the ].{{sfnp|James|1895 Apr|pp=242–245}}{{sfnp|Harpers|1884|pp=99–102}} News had spread, and the event attracted people from all over the colony,{{sfnp|Old Donation Episcopal Church|2010}} who began to shout "Duck the witch!"{{sfnp|USA Today|2006}} According to the principles of trial by water, if Sherwood floated she would be deemed guilty of witchcraft; if she did not, she would be innocent. It was not intended that Sherwood drown; the court had ordered that care be taken to preserve her life.{{sfnp|Seltzer|2013}}


Five women of Lynnhaven Parish Church examined Sherwood's naked body on the shoreline for any devices she might have to free herself, and then covered her with a sack.{{sfnp|James|1895 Apr|pp=242–245}} Six of the justices that had ordered the ducking rowed in one boat {{convert|200|yd}} out in the river,{{sfnp|Old Donation Episcopal Church|2010}}{{sfnp|USA Today|2006}} and in another were the sheriff, the magistrate, and Sherwood. Just before she was pushed off the boat Sherwood is said to have stated, under clear skies, "Before this day be through you will all get a worse ducking than I."{{sfnp|USA Today|2006}} Bound across the body&nbsp;– her right thumb to her left big toe and her left thumb to her right big toe&nbsp;– she was "cast into the river",{{sfnp|The William and Mary Quarterly|1893|pp=127–129}} and quickly floated to the surface.{{sfnp|Department of Public Libraries|2006|pp=27–30}} The sheriff then tied a {{convert|13|lb|adj=on}} Bible around her neck. This caused her to sink, but she untied herself, and returned to the surface, convincing many spectators she was a witch.{{sfnp|Old Donation Episcopal Church|2010}} As Sherwood was pulled out of the water a downpour reportedly started, drenching the onlookers.{{sfnp|USA Today|2006}}{{sfnp|Barisic|2006}} Several women who subsequently examined her for additional proof found "two ] on her private parts of a black coller ". She was jailed pending further proceedings.{{sfnp|James|1895 Jul|pages=18–22}} Five women of Lynnhaven Parish Church examined Sherwood's naked body on the shoreline for any devices she might have to free herself, and then covered her with a sack.{{sfnp|James|1895 Apr|pp=242–245}} Six of the justices that had ordered the ducking rowed in one boat {{convert|200|yd}} out in the river,{{sfnp|Old Donation Episcopal Church|2010}}{{sfnp|USA Today|2006}} and in another were the sheriff, the magistrate, and Sherwood. Just before she was pushed off the boat Sherwood is said to have stated, under clear skies, "Before this day be through you will all get a worse ducking than I."{{sfnp|USA Today|2006}} Bound across the body—her right thumb to her left big toe and her left thumb to her right big toe&nbsp;– she was "cast into the river",{{sfnp|The William and Mary Quarterly|1893|pp=127–129}} and quickly floated to the surface.{{sfnp|Department of Public Libraries|2006|pp=27–30}} The sheriff then tied a {{convert|13|lb|adj=on}} Bible around her neck. This caused her to sink, but she untied herself, and returned to the surface, convincing many spectators she was a witch.{{sfnp|Old Donation Episcopal Church|2010}} As Sherwood was pulled out of the water a downpour reportedly started, drenching the onlookers.{{sfnp|USA Today|2006}}{{sfnp|Barisic|2006}} Several women who subsequently examined her for additional proof found "two ] on her private parts of a black coller ". She was jailed pending further proceedings.{{sfnp|James|1895 Jul|pages=18–22}}


=== Aftermath === === Aftermath ===
What happened to Sherwood after her ducking is unclear{{sfnp|Hume|2005|pp=86–89}} as many court records have been lost.{{efn|George Lincoln Burr's book ''Narrative of the Witchcraft Cases 1648–1706'' reproduces the text of the surviving records relating to Sherwood and to other witchcraft cases, "a selection made and edited by a master hand from authentic, original documents". See {{harvnb|Burstein|1961|p=527}}}}{{sfn|Butler|1979|p=335}} She served an unknown time in the jail next to Lynnhaven Parish Church,{{sfnp|James|1895 Jul|pages=18–22}} perhaps as long as seven years and nine months.{{sfnp|Barisic|2006}} She was ordered to be detained "to be brought to a future trial", but no record of another trial exists, so it is possible the charge was dismissed at some point.{{sfnp|James|1895 Jul|pages=18–22}} On September 1, 1708, she was ordered to pay Christopher Cocke {{convert|600|lb}} of tobacco{{efn|Then used as currency in Virginia}} for a reason not indicated in surviving records, but there is no mention of the payment.{{sfnp|James|1895 Jul|pages=18–22}} She appears to have been released some time in or before 1714, since in that year she paid back taxes on her {{convert|145|acre|adj=on}} property—which ] ] helped her to recover from Princess Anne County—off what is now Muddy Creek Road.{{sfnp|Barisic|2006}}{{sfnp|Virginia Beach Historical Society|2001a}}{{sfnp|Ruegsegger|1999}} She lived the remainder of her life quietly until her death in 1740, aged about 80.{{sfnp|Old Donation Episcopal Church|2010}}{{sfnp|USA Today|2006}}{{sfnp|Virginia Beach Historical Society|2001}} She is believed to have died in August or September 1740.{{sfnp|Nash|Sheets|2012|pp=136–139}} Her will was proved on October 1, 1740; it noted that she was a widow.{{sfnp|Hume|2005|pp=86–89}} She left five ]s each to her sons James and Richard and everything else to her eldest son John.{{sfnp|Chewning|2006|p=89}} What happened to Sherwood after her ducking is unclear as many court records have been lost.{{sfnp|Hume|2005|pp=86–89}}{{efn|George Lincoln Burr's book ''Narrative of the Witchcraft Cases 1648–1706'' reproduces the text of the surviving records relating to Sherwood and to other witchcraft cases, "a selection made and edited by a master hand from authentic, original documents". See {{harvnb|Burstein|1961|p=527}}}}{{sfn|Butler|1979|p=335}} She served an unknown time in the jail next to Lynnhaven Parish Church,{{sfnp|James|1895 Jul|pages=18–22}} perhaps as long as seven years and nine months.{{sfnp|Barisic|2006}} She was ordered to be detained "to be brought to a future trial", but no record of another trial exists, so it is possible the charge was dismissed at some point.{{sfnp|James|1895 Jul|pages=18–22}} On September 1, 1708, she was ordered to pay Christopher Cocke {{convert|600|lb}} of tobacco{{efn|Then used as currency in Virginia.{{sfnp|Murphy|2017}}}} for a reason not indicated in surviving records, but there is no mention of the payment.{{sfnp|James|1895 Jul|pages=18–22}} She appears to have been released some time in or before 1714, since in that year she paid back taxes on her {{convert|145|acre|adj=on}} property—which ] ] helped her to recover from Princess Anne County—on the banks of Muddy Creek off what is now Muddy Creek Road.{{sfnp|Barisic|2006}}{{sfnp|Virginia Beach Historical Society|2001a}}{{sfnp|Ruegsegger|1999}} She lived the remainder of her life quietly until her death in 1740, aged about 80.{{sfnp|Old Donation Episcopal Church|2010}}{{sfnp|USA Today|2006}}{{sfnp|Virginia Beach Historical Society|2001}} She is believed to have died in August or September 1740.{{sfnp|Nash|Sheets|2012|pp=136–139}} Her will was proved on October 1, 1740; it noted that she was a widow.{{sfnp|Hume|2005|pp=86–89}} She left five ] each to her sons James and Richard and everything else to her eldest son John.{{sfnp|Chewning|2006|p=89}}


According to legend, Sherwood's sons put her body near the fireplace and a wind came down the chimney. Her body disappeared amid the embers, with the only clue being a cloven hoofprint.{{sfnp|Department of Public Libraries|2006|pp=27–30}} Sherwood lies in an unmarked grave under some trees in a field close to the intersection of Pungo Ferry Road and Princess Anne Road in Virginia Beach.{{sfnp|Old Donation Episcopal Church|2010}} Stories about the Devil taking her body, unnatural storms, and loitering black cats quickly arose after her death, and local men killed every feline they could find; this widespread killing of cats might have caused the infestation of rats and mice recorded in Princess Anne County in 1743.{{sfnp|Chewning|2006|pp=83–90}} According to legend, Sherwood's sons put her body near the fireplace, and a wind came down the chimney. Her body disappeared amid the embers, with the only clue being a cloven hoofprint.{{sfnp|Department of Public Libraries|2006|pp=27–30}} Sherwood lies in an unmarked grave under some trees in a field near the intersection of Pungo Ferry Road and Princess Anne Road in Virginia Beach.{{sfnp|Old Donation Episcopal Church|2010}} Stories about the Devil taking her body, unnatural storms, and loitering black cats quickly arose after her death, and local men killed every feline they could find; this widespread killing of cats might have caused the infestation of rats and mice recorded in Princess Anne County in 1743.{{sfnp|Chewning|2006|pp=83–90}} Her home on Muddy Creek stood for over 200 years. After being burned several times in the 20th century by vandals, all that was left in 2002 were the brick chimneys, which were bulldozed in November 2002. All that remains are a few bricks and part of the foundation, which is overgrown. The property is now owned by the Federal Government as part of ].{{sfnp|Nash|Sheets|2012|pp=144–148}}


== Legacy == == Legacy ==
] ]
Grace Sherwood's case was little known until Virginia Beach historian and author ] wrote a children's book about her in 1973. Called ''The Witch of Pungo'', it is a collection of seven local ] written as fiction, although based on historical events.{{sfnp|Virginia Beach Historical Society|2001}}{{sfnp|Gibson|2007|pp=95–97}} Sherwood's story was adapted for ''Cry Witch'', a courtroom drama at ], the restored early capital of Virginia.{{sfnp|USA Today|2006}} Grace Sherwood's case was little known until Virginia Beach historian and author ] wrote a children's book about her in 1973. Called ''The Witch of Pungo'', it is a collection of seven local ] written as fiction, although based on historical events.{{sfnp|Virginia Beach Historical Society|2001}}{{sfnp|Gibson|2007|pp=95–97}} Sherwood's story was adapted for ''Cry Witch'', a courtroom drama at ], the restored early capital of Virginia.{{sfnp|USA Today|2006}}


A statue by California sculptor Robert Cunningham depicting Sherwood with a raccoon and a basket of rosemary was unveiled on April 21, 2007, on the site of the present-day Sentara Bayside Hospital, close to the sites of both the colonial courthouse and the ducking point.{{sfnp|Batts|2007}}{{sfnp|Adams|2009}} The raccoon represents Sherwood's love of animals and the rosemary her knowledge of herbal healing.{{sfnp|Batts|2007}} A Virginia Department of Historic Resources marker (K-276) was erected in 2002, about {{convert|25|yd}} from Sherwood's statue. The place of her watery test and the adjacent land are named Witch Duck Bay and Witch Duck Point.{{efn|Witch Duck Bay location: {{Coord|36.881|N|76.117|W|display=inline}}}}{{sfnp|Adams|2009}} A portion of ] in Virginia Beach, a north–south thoroughfare on its western side which traverses ] at exit numbers 14–16, has been named "]".{{sfnp|Interstate Guide|2013}} Other commemorations in Virginia Beach include Sherwood Lane and Witch Point Trail.{{sfnp|Virginia Beach.com|2009}}{{sfnp|Dunphy|1994}} A local legend in Virginia Beach states that all of the rosemary growing there came from a single plant Sherwood carried in an eggshell from England.{{efn|While it was common at the time to protect seedlings in eggshells,{{sfnp|Chewning|2006|pp=83–90}} this tale appears to be a variant of another legend that she once ran out of rosemary and rowed an eggshell to a ship in the harbor, bewitched the lone person on board, and sailed in a single night to and from England.{{sfnp|Hume|2005|p=85}} Another version of the story describes her sailing to the Mediterranean in an eggshell. See {{harvnb|Campbell|1934}}, {{harvnb|Harpers|1884|pp=99–102}}}}{{sfnp|Department of Public Libraries|2006|pp=27–30}} A statue by California sculptor Robert Cunningham depicting Sherwood with a raccoon and a basket of rosemary was unveiled on April 21, 2007, on the site of the present-day Sentara Bayside Hospital, close to the sites of both the colonial courthouse and the ducking point.{{sfnp|Batts|2007}}{{sfnp|Adams|2009}}<ref>{{cite web|url=https://web.hamptonroadschamber.com/Hospitals/Sentara-Bayside-Hospital-379|publisher=Hampton Roads Chamber of Commerce|title=Sentara Bayside Hospital|access-date=March 26, 2024}}</ref> The raccoon represents Sherwood's love of animals and the rosemary her knowledge of herbal healing.{{sfnp|Batts|2007}} A Virginia Department of Historic Resources marker (K-276) was erected in 2002, about {{convert|25|yd}} from Sherwood's statue. The place of her watery test and the adjacent land are named Witch Duck Bay and Witch Duck Point.{{efn|Witch Duck Bay location: {{Coord|36.881|N|76.117|W|display=inline}}}}{{sfnp|Adams|2009}} A portion of ] in Virginia Beach, a north–south thoroughfare on its western side which traverses ] at exit numbers 14–16, has been named "]".{{sfnp|Interstate Guide|2013}} Other commemorations in Virginia Beach include Sherwood Lane and Witch Point Trail.{{sfnp|Virginia Beach.com|2009}}{{sfnp|Dunphy|1994}} In 2014, a memorial marker was placed at a herb garden of the ], Sherwood's former parish church, which is in Virginia Beach.{{sfnp|Cleavelin|2014}} A local legend in Virginia Beach states that all of the rosemary growing there came from a single plant Sherwood carried in an eggshell from England.{{efn|While it was common at the time to protect seedlings in eggshells,{{sfnp|Chewning|2006|pp=83–90}} this tale appears to be a variant of another legend that she once ran out of rosemary and rowed an eggshell to a ship in the harbor, bewitched the lone person on board, and sailed in a single night to and from England.{{sfnp|Hume|2005|p=85}} Another version of the story describes her sailing to the Mediterranean in an eggshell. See {{harvnb|Campbell|1934}} and {{harvnb|Harpers|1884|pp=99–102}}}}{{sfnp|Department of Public Libraries|2006|pp=27–30.}}


]
Belinda Nash, in addition to writing a biography of Sherwood, worked tirelessly to get her pardoned.{{sfnp|Shapira|2006}} Governor ] officially restored Sherwood's good name on July 10, 2006, the 300th anniversary of her conviction.{{sfnp|Barisic|2006}} Annual reenactments of the ducking have taken place since 2006. No one is actually ducked in these events, which embark from a spot across from ] along Cheswick Lane, which is very close to Witch Duck Bay.{{sfnp|Wethersfield Historical Society|2012}}{{sfnp|Batts|2006}} According to local residents, a strange moving light, said to be Sherwood's restless spirit, still appears each July over the spot in Witch Duck Bay where Sherwood was thrown into the water.{{sfnp|Adams|2009}}
Belinda Nash, in addition to writing a biography of Sherwood, worked tirelessly to get her pardoned.{{sfnp|Shapira|2006}} Governor ] granted an informal ] to "officially restore the good name of Grace Sherwood" on July 10, 2006, the 300th anniversary of her conviction.{{sfnp|Virginia Historical Society|2006}}{{sfnp|Barisic|2006}} Annual reenactments of the ducking have taken place since 2006. No one is actually ducked in these events, which embark from a spot across from ] along Cheswick Lane, which is very close to Witch Duck Bay.{{sfnp|Wethersfield Historical Society|2012}}{{sfnp|Batts|2006}} According to local residents, a strange moving light, said to be Sherwood's ], still appears each July over the spot in Witch Duck Bay where Sherwood was thrown into the water.{{sfnp|Adams|2009}}


== Notes== ==Notes==
{{notes}} {{notelist}}


==References== ==References==

===Citations=== ===Citations===
{{reflist|colwidth=30em}} {{reflist|colwidth=30em}}
Line 89: Line 99:
=== Bibliography === === Bibliography ===
{{refbegin|30em}} {{refbegin|30em}}
* {{cite news|ref={{sfnRef|Adams|2009}}|url=http://hamptonroads.com/2009/05/whats-name-virginia-beachs-witchduck-road|title=What's in a name? Virginia Beach's Witchduck Road|last=Adams|first=Kathy|date=June 1, 2009|work=The Virginian-Pilot|accessdate=August 5, 2013}} * {{cite news |url=http://hamptonroads.com/2009/05/whats-name-virginia-beachs-witchduck-road |title=What's in a name? Virginia Beach's Witchduck Road |last=Adams |first=Kathy |date=June 1, 2009 |work=] |access-date=August 5, 2013 |archive-date=October 28, 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141028174123/http://hamptonroads.com/2009/05/whats-name-virginia-beachs-witchduck-road |url-status=dead }}
* {{cite news|ref={{sfnRef|Barisic|2006}}|url=http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2006/07/10/AR2006071000495.html|title=Va. Gov. Gives Informal Pardon to Witch|last=Barisic|first=Sonja|date=July 10, 2006|newspaper=The Washington Post|accessdate=August 5, 2013}} * {{cite news |url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2006/07/10/AR2006071000495.html |title=Va. Gov. Gives Informal Pardon to Witch |last=Barisic |first=Sonja |date=July 10, 2006 |newspaper=] |access-date=August 5, 2013 }}
* {{cite news|ref={{sfnRef|Batts|2007}}|url=http://hamptonroads.com/node/241271|title=Statue of exonerated 'Witch of Pungo' finds place to rest|last=Batts|first=Denise Watson|date=March 24, 2007|work=The Virginian-Pilot|accessdate=August 5, 2013}} * {{cite news |url=http://hamptonroads.com/node/241271 |title=Statue of exonerated 'Witch of Pungo' finds place to rest |last=Batts |first=Denise Watson |date=March 24, 2007 |work=The Virginian-Pilot |access-date=August 5, 2013 |archive-date=August 11, 2007 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070811044721/http://hamptonroads.com/node/241271 |url-status=dead }}
* {{cite news|ref={{sfnRef|Batts|2006}}|url=http://hamptonroads.com/node/124641|title=''Witch of Pungo'' pardoned by governor after 300 years|last=Batts|first=Denise Watson|date=July 10, 2006|work=The Virginian-Pilot|accessdate=August 10, 2013}} * {{cite news |url=http://hamptonroads.com/node/124641 |title=''Witch of Pungo'' pardoned by governor after 300 years |last=Batts |first=Denise Watson |date=July 10, 2006 |work=The Virginian-Pilot |access-date=August 10, 2013 |archive-date=May 24, 2008 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080524031907/http://hamptonroads.com/node/124641 |url-status=dead }}
* {{cite book|ref=harv|last=Burr|first=George Lincoln|title=Narratives of the Witchcraft Cases 1648–1706|url=http://infomotions.com/etexts/archive/ia331315.us.archive.org/1/items/narrativesofwitc00burriala/narrativesofwitc00burriala_djvu.htm|year=1914|publisher=Charles Scribner's Sons|location=New York}} * {{cite book |last=Burr |first=George Lincoln |title=Narratives of the Witchcraft Cases 1648–1706 |url=http://infomotions.com/etexts/archive/ia331315.us.archive.org/1/items/narrativesofwitc00burriala/narrativesofwitc00burriala_djvu.htm |year=1914 |publisher=] |location=New York |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100820085607/http://infomotions.com/etexts/archive/ia331315.us.archive.org/1/items/narrativesofwitc00burriala/narrativesofwitc00burriala_djvu.htm |archive-date=2010-08-20 }}
* {{cite journal|ref = harv|last=Burstein|first=Sona Rose|title=Some Modern Books on Witchcraft|volume=72|journal=Folklore|publisher=Folklore Society|location=London |date=September 1961|jstor=1258580|issue=3|doi = 10.1080/0015587X.1961.9717297|pages = 520}} * {{cite journal |last=Burstein |first=Sona Rose |title=Some Modern Books on Witchcraft |volume=72 |journal=Folklore |publisher=Folklore Society |location=London |date=September 1961 |jstor=1258580 |issue=3 |doi=10.1080/0015587X.1961.9717297 |pages=520–534|doi-access=free }}
* {{cite journal|ref={{sfnRef|Butler|1979}}|last =Butler|first=Jon|authorlink=Jon Butler|title=Magic, Astrology, and the Early American Religious Heritage, 1600-1760|journal=The American Historical Review|volume=84| date=April 1979 |publisher=Oxford University Press on behalf of the American Historical Association|location=Oxford|jstor=1855136|issue=2|doi=10.2307/1855136|pages=317–46|pmid=11610526}} * {{cite journal |last=Butler |first=Jon |author-link=Jon Butler |title=Magic, Astrology, and the Early American Religious Heritage, 1600-1760 |journal=] |volume=84 |date=April 1979 |publisher=] on behalf of the ] |location=Oxford |jstor=1855136 |issue=2 |doi=10.2307/1855136 |pages=317–46 |pmid=11610526}}
* {{cite news|ref={{sfnRef|Campbell|1934}}|url=http://richmondthenandnow.com/Newspaper-Articles/Witch-Grace-Sherwood.html|title=When Virginia Ducked Milady Witch|last=Campbell|first=Beverly|date=December 30, 1934|work=Richmond Times-Dispatch|accessdate=August 5, 2013}} * {{cite news |url=http://richmondthenandnow.com/Newspaper-Articles/Witch-Grace-Sherwood.html |title=When Virginia Ducked Milady Witch |last=Campbell |first=Beverly |date=December 30, 1934 |work=] |access-date=August 5, 2013 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131029231535/http://richmondthenandnow.com/Newspaper-Articles/Witch-Grace-Sherwood.html |archive-date=October 29, 2013 }}
* {{cite news |last=Cleavelin |first=Mary Beth |url=http://hamptonroads.com/2014/07/witch-pungos-church-dedicates-marker-her |title=Witch of Pungo's church dedicates marker to her |publisher=hamptonroads.com |year=2014 |access-date=October 22, 2014 |archive-date=November 18, 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141118122618/http://hamptonroads.com/2014/07/witch-pungos-church-dedicates-marker-her |url-status=dead }}
* {{cite book| ref = harv| last =Cushing|first=Jonathan Peter|year=1833|chapter=Record of the Trial of Grace Sherwood in 1705 Princess Anne County for Witchcraft|title=Collections of the Virginia Historical and Philosophical Society|url=http://books.google.com/?id=XEYUAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA71&lpg=PA71&dq=cushing+record+of+the+trial+for+grace+sherwood#v=onepage&q=cushing%20record%20of%20the%20trial%20for%20grace%20sherwood&f=false |volume=95|publisher= Virginia Historical and Philosophical Society|location=Richmond, VA}} ''Note: includes transcripts of legal proceedings.''
* {{cite book |last=Cushing |first=Jonathan Peter |year=1833 |chapter=Record of the Trial of Grace Sherwood in 1705 Princess Anne County for Witchcraft |title=Collections of the Virginia Historical and Philosophical Society |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=XEYUAAAAYAAJ&q=cushing+record+of+the+trial+for+grace+sherwood&pg=PA71 |volume=95 |publisher=] |location=Richmond, VA }} ''Note: includes transcripts of legal proceedings.''
* {{cite book| ref = harv| last = Chewning| first = Alpheus J.| title = Haunted Virginia Beach| url = http://books.google.com/?id=B7Bm8-sw6JEC| year = 2006| publisher = History Press| location = Charleston, SC| isbn = 978-1-59629-188-1}}
* {{cite book |last=Chewning |first=Alpheus J. |title=Haunted Virginia Beach |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=B7Bm8-sw6JEC |year=2006 |publisher=History Press |location=Charleston, SC |isbn=978-1-59629-188-1 }}{{Dead link|date=September 2023 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}
* {{cite journal|ref={{sfnRef|Davis|1957}}|last=Davis|first=Richard Beale|title=The Devil in Virginia in the Seventeenth Century|journal=The American Historical Review|volume=65| date=April 1979 |publisher=Virginia Historical Society|location=Richmond, VA|jstor=4246295|issue=2}}
* {{cite journal |ref={{sfnRef|Davis|1957}} |last=Davis |first=Richard Beale |title=The Devil in Virginia in the Seventeenth Century |journal=The Virginia Magazine of History and Biography |volume=65 |date=April 1979 |publisher=Virginia Historical Society |location=Richmond, VA |jstor=4246295 |issue=2| pages=131–47}}
* {{cite book| ref = harv| last = Department of Public Libraries| title = The Beach: A History of Virginia Beach, Virginia| url = http://archive.org/stream/beachhistoryofvi00unse#page/28/mode/2up/search/sherwood| edition = 3rd| year = 2006| publisher = City of Virginia Beach| location = Virginia Beach, VA| isbn = 978-0-9779570-0-2| chapter = 4. Witches and Witchcraft}}
* {{cite book |last=Department of Public Libraries |title=The Beach: A History of Virginia Beach, Virginia |chapter-url=https://archive.org/stream/beachhistoryofvi00unse#page/28/mode/2up/search/sherwood |edition=3rd |year=2006 |publisher=City of Virginia Beach |location=Virginia Beach, VA |isbn=978-0-9779570-0-2 |chapter=4. Witches and Witchcraft }}
* {{cite news|ref={{sfnRef|Dunphy|1994}}|title=Rural Charm Meets City Splendor|last=Dunphy|first=Janet|date=August 13, 1994|newspaper=The Virginian-Pilot|publisher=Landmark Communications}}
* {{cite news |title=Rural Charm Meets City Splendor |last=Dunphy |first=Janet |date=August 13, 1994 |newspaper=The Virginian-Pilot |publisher=Landmark Communications}}
* {{cite book| ref = harv| last = Gibson| first = Marion| title = Witchcraft Myths in American Culture| year = 2007| publisher = Routledge| location = Milton Park, Abingdon| isbn = 978-0-415-97977-1}}
* {{cite book| ref = harv| last = Hill| first = Christopher| title = The World Turned Upside Down: Radical Ideas during the English Revolution| year = 1972| publisher = Viking Press| location = New York| isbn = 0-14-013732-7}} * {{cite book |last=Gibson |first=Marion |title=Witchcraft Myths in American Culture |year=2007 |publisher=Routledge |location=Milton Park, Abingdon |isbn=978-0-415-97977-1}}
* {{cite book| last = Hume| first = Ivor Noël| title = Something From The Cellar| url = http://books.google.com/?id=e288zhVyuWsC&pg=PA89| year = 2005| publisher = The Colonial Williamsburg Foundation| location = Williamsburg, VA| isbn = 978-0-87935-229-5| ref = harv}} * {{cite book |last=Hill |first=Christopher |title=The World Turned Upside Down: Radical Ideas during the English Revolution |url=https://archive.org/details/worldturnedupsid00hill |url-access=registration |year=1972 |publisher=] |location=New York |isbn=0-14-013732-7 }}
* {{cite journal|ref={{sfnRef|James|1894 Oct}}|last=James|first=Edward W.|date=October 1894|title=Grace Sherwood, the Virginia Witch|journal=The William and Mary Quarterly|publisher=College of William and Mary|location=Williamsburg, VA|volume=3|issue=2|jstor=1914583}} ''Note: includes transcripts of legal proceedings.'' * {{cite book |last=Hume |first=Ivor Noël |title=Something from the Cellar |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=e288zhVyuWsC&pg=PA89 |year=2005 |publisher=Colonial Williamsburg Foundation |location=Williamsburg, VA |isbn=978-0-87935-229-5 }}
* {{cite journal|ref={{sfnRef|James|1895 Jan}}|last=James|first=Edward W.|date=January 1895|title=Grace Sherwood, the Virginia Witch|journal=The William and Mary Quarterly|publisher=College of William and Mary|location=Williamsburg, VA|volume=3|issue=3|jstor=1914774}} ''Note: includes transcripts of legal proceedings.'' * {{cite journal |ref={{sfnRef|James|1894 Oct}} |last=James |first=Edward W. |date=October 1894 |title=Grace Sherwood, the Virginia Witch |journal=] |publisher=College of William and Mary |location=Williamsburg, VA |volume=3 |issue=2 |pages=96–101 |doi=10.2307/1914583 |jstor=1914583}} ''Note: includes transcripts of legal proceedings.''
* {{cite journal|ref={{sfnRef|James|1895 Apr}}|last=James|first=Edward W.|date=April 1895|title=Grace Sherwood, the Virginia Witch|journal=The William and Mary Quarterly * {{cite journal |ref={{sfnRef|James|1895 Jan}} |last=James |first=Edward W. |date=January 1895 |title=Grace Sherwood, the Virginia Witch |journal=William and Mary Quarterly |publisher=College of William and Mary |location=Williamsburg, VA |volume=3 |issue=3 |pages=190–192 |doi=10.2307/1914774 |jstor=1914774}} ''Note: includes transcripts of legal proceedings.''
|publisher=College of William and Mary|location=Williamsburg, VA|volume=3|issue=4|jstor=1915288}} ''Note: includes transcripts of legal proceedings.'' * {{cite journal |ref={{sfnRef|James|1895 Apr}} |last=James |first=Edward W. |date=April 1895 |title=Grace Sherwood, the Virginia Witch |journal=William and Mary Quarterly |publisher=College of William and Mary |location=Williamsburg, VA |volume=3 |issue=4 |pages=242–245 |doi=10.2307/1915288 |jstor=1915288}} ''Note: includes transcripts of legal proceedings.''
* {{cite journal|ref={{sfnRef|James|1895 Jul}}|last=James|first=Edward W.|date=July 1895|title=Grace Sherwood, the Virginia Witch|journal=The William and Mary Quarterly * {{cite journal |ref={{sfnRef|James|1895 Jul}} |last=James |first=Edward W. |date=July 1895 |title=Grace Sherwood, the Virginia Witch |journal=William and Mary Quarterly
|publisher=College of William and Mary|location=Williamsburg, VA|volume=4|issue=1|jstor=1916177}} ''Note: includes transcripts of legal proceedings.'' |publisher=College of William and Mary |location=Williamsburg, VA |volume=4 |issue=1 |pages=18–22 |doi=10.2307/1916177 |jstor=1916177}} ''Note: includes transcripts of legal proceedings.''
* {{cite book| ref = harv| last1 = Nash| first1 = Belinda| last2 = Sheets| first2 = Danielle| title = A Place in Time: The Age of the Witch of Pungo| year = 2012| publisher = W. S. Dawson Company| location = Virginia Beach, VA| isbn = 1-57000-107-3}} * {{cite book |last1=Nash |first1=Belinda |last2=Sheets |first2=Danielle |title=A Place in Time: The Age of the Witch of Pungo |year=2012 |publisher=W. S. Dawson Company |location=Virginia Beach, VA |isbn=978-1-57000-107-9}}
* {{cite magazine|last1=Murphy|first1=Sharon Ann|title=Early American Colonists Had a Cash Problem. Here's How They Solved It|url=https://time.com/4675303/money-colonial-america-currency-history/|magazine=Time|access-date=July 11, 2017|date=February 27, 2017}}
* {{Cite thesis|ref={{sfnRef|Newman|2009}} |degree= Thesis MA (History)|title= Under an Ill Tongue: Witchcraft and Religion in Seventeenth-Century Virginia |last= Newman|first= Lindsey M. |date= April 3, 2009|format=PDF|publisher= Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University|accessdate= August 5, 2013|url=http://scholar.lib.vt.edu/theses/available/etd-04092009-110353/unrestricted/LMNewmanThesis1.pdf}}
* {{cite thesis |degree=MA (History) |title=Under an Ill Tongue: Witchcraft and Religion in Seventeenth-Century Virginia |last=Newman |first=Lindsey M. |date=April 3, 2009 |format=PDF |publisher=] |hdl=10919/31667 |access-date=September 23, 2020 |url=http://hdl.handle.net/10919/31667 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120331212039/http://scholar.lib.vt.edu/theses/available/etd-04092009-110353/unrestricted/LMNewmanThesis1.pdf |archive-date=March 31, 2012 }}
* {{cite news|ref={{sfnRef|Ruegsegger|1999}}|url=http://news.google.com/newspapers?nid=1298&dat=19991030&id=uS4zAAAAIBAJ&sjid=gggGAAAAIBAJ&pg=3940,8271057|title=Virginia's 'Witch of Pungo': Accused Remembered as Colony's Joan of Arc|last=Ruegsegger|first=Bob|date=October 30, 1999|work=The Free-Lance Star|accessdate=August 20, 2013}}
* {{cite news |url=https://news.google.com/newspapers?nid=1298&dat=19991030&id=uS4zAAAAIBAJ&pg=3940,8271057 |title=Virginia's 'Witch of Pungo': Accused Remembered as Colony's Joan of Arc |last=Ruegsegger |first=Bob |date=October 30, 1999 |work=] |access-date=August 20, 2013 }}
* {{cite web|ref={{sfnRef|Seltzer|2013}}|url=http://www.samizdat.com/sherwood/|title=Grace Sherwood, the witch of Virginia|last=Seltzer|first=Richard|publisher=Samizdat|accessdate=August 5, 2013}} ''Note: this is a transcript in modern English, with shorthand expanded, of the Burr book.''
* {{cite web |ref={{sfnRef|Seltzer|2013}} |url=http://www.samizdat.com/sherwood/ |title=Grace Sherwood, the witch of Virginia |last=Seltzer |first=Richard |publisher=Samizdat |access-date=August 5, 2013 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140725231435/http://www.samizdat.com/sherwood/ |archive-date=July 25, 2014 }} ''Note: this is a transcript in modern English, with shorthand expanded, of the Burr book.''
* {{cite news|ref={{sfnRef|Shapira|2006}}|url=http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2006/07/11/AR2006071101218.html|title=After Toil and Trouble, 'Witch' Is Cleared|last=Shapira|first=Ian|newspaper=The Washington Post|date=July 12, 2006|accessdate=August 10, 2013}}
* {{cite news |url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2006/07/11/AR2006071101218.html |title=After Toil and Trouble, 'Witch' Is Cleared |last=Shapira |first=Ian |newspaper=The Washington Post |date=July 12, 2006 |access-date=August 10, 2013 }}
* {{cite web|ref={{sfnRef|Witkowski|2012}}|url=http://www.encyclopediavirginia.org/Sherwood_Grace_ca_1660-1740|title=Grace Sherwood (ca. 1660–1740)|work=Encyclopedia Virginia|publisher=Virginia Foundation for the Humanities|last=Witkowski|first=Monica C.|date = August 15, 2012|accessdate=August 5, 2013}}
* {{cite encyclopedia |url=http://www.encyclopediavirginia.org/Sherwood_Grace_ca_1660-1740 |title=Grace Sherwood (ca. 1660–1740) |encyclopedia=Encyclopedia Virginia |publisher=] |last=Witkowski |first=Monica C. |date=August 15, 2012 |access-date=August 5, 2013 }}
* {{cite book| ref = harv| last = Yarsinske| first1 = Amy Waters| title = Virginia Beach: A History of Virginia's Golden Shore| year = 2002| publisher = Arcadia Publishing| location = Charleston, SC| isbn = 978-0-7385-2402-3}}
* {{cite book |last1=Yarsinske |first1=Amy Waters |title=Virginia Beach: A History of Virginia's Golden Shore |year=2002 |publisher=] |location=Charleston, SC |isbn=978-0-7385-2402-3}}
* {{cite journal|ref={{sfnRef|Good Luck Horseshoe|1909}}|year=1909|title=The Good Luck Horseshoe|journal=The William and Mary Quarterly|publisher=College of William and Mary|location=Williamsburg, VA|volume=17|issue=4|jstor=1915528}}
* {{cite journal|ref={{sfnRef|Harpers|1884}}|year=1884|date=June–November 1884|title=Grace Sherwood&nbsp;– The One Virginia Witch|journal=Harper's New Monthly Magazine|publisher=Harper & Brothers|location=New York|volume=69|url=http://books.google.com/?id=BPEvAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA99&lpg=PA99&dq=grace+sherwood+light#v=onepage&q=grace%20sherwood%20light&f=false}} * {{cite journal |ref={{sfnRef|Good Luck Horseshoe|1909}} |year=1909 |title=The Good Luck Horseshoe |journal=William and Mary Quarterly |publisher=College of William and Mary |location=Williamsburg, VA |volume=17 |issue=4 |pages=247–248 |doi=10.2307/1915528 |jstor=1915528}}
* {{cite journal |ref={{sfnRef|Harpers|1884}} |date=June–November 1884 |title=Grace Sherwood&nbsp;– The One Virginia Witch |journal=Harper's New Monthly Magazine |publisher=] |location=New York |volume=69 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=BPEvAAAAMAAJ&q=grace+sherwood+light&pg=PA99 }}
* {{cite web|ref={{sfnRef|Virginia Beach Historical Society|2001}}|url=http://www.virginiabeachhistory.org/kyle.html|title=Grace Sherwood & ''The Witch of Pungo''|publisher=Princess Anne County/Virginia Beach Historical Society|accessdate=August 5, 2013}}
* {{cite web|ref={{sfnRef|Old Donation Episcopal Church|2010}}|url=http://www.olddonation.org/index.php?page=grace-sherwood---a-unique-story|title=Grace Sherwood&nbsp;– the Witch of Pungo (1660–1740)|year=2010|publisher=Old Donation Episcopal Church|archivedate=April 12, 2012|archiveurl=http://web.archive.org/web/20120412035254/http://www.olddonation.org/index.php?page=grace-sherwood---a-unique-story|accessdate=August 15, 2013}} * {{cite web |ref={{sfnRef|Virginia Beach Historical Society|2001}} |url=http://www.virginiabeachhistory.org/kyle.html |title=Grace Sherwood & ''The Witch of Pungo'' |publisher=Princess Anne County/Virginia Beach Historical Society |access-date=August 5, 2013 |archive-date=June 24, 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160624043130/http://www.virginiabeachhistory.org/kyle.html |url-status=dead }}
* {{cite web |ref={{sfnRef|Old Donation Episcopal Church|2010}} |url=http://www.olddonation.org/index.php?page=grace-sherwood---a-unique-story |title=Grace Sherwood&nbsp;– the Witch of Pungo (1660–1740) |year=2010 |publisher=Old Donation Episcopal Church |archive-date=April 12, 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120412035254/http://www.olddonation.org/index.php?page=grace-sherwood---a-unique-story |access-date=August 15, 2013 }}
* {{cite web|ref={{sfnRef|Virginia Beach.com|2009}}|url=http://www.virginiabeach.com/articles/haunting-witchduck-road|title=The Haunting of Witchduck Road|publisher=Virginiabeach.com|accessdate=August 5, 2013}}
* {{cite web|ref={{sfnRef|Interstate Guide|2013}}|url=http://www.interstate-guide.com/i-264_va.html|title=Interstate 264 Virginia|publisher=Interstate Guide|accessdate=August 5, 2013}} * {{cite web |ref={{sfnRef|Virginia Beach.com|2009}} |url=http://www.virginiabeach.com/articles/haunting-witchduck-road |title=The Haunting of Witchduck Road |date=4 June 2009 |publisher=Virginiabeach.com |access-date=August 5, 2013 }}
* {{cite web |ref={{sfnRef|Interstate Guide|2013}} |url=http://www.interstate-guide.com/i-264_va.html |title=Interstate 264 Virginia |publisher=Interstate Guide |access-date=August 5, 2013 |archive-date=July 8, 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140708230430/http://www.interstate-guide.com/i-264_va.html |url-status=dead }}
* {{cite web|ref={{sfnRef|Wethersfield Historical Society|2012}}|url=http://www.wethhist.org/articles-from-the-community/2012/06/pardoning-the-witches.html|title=Pardoning the Witches|date=June 20, 2012|publisher=Wethersfield Historical Society|accessdate=August 10, 2013}}
* {{cite web|ref={{sfnRef|Virginia Beach Historical Society|2001a}}|url=http://virginiabeachhistory.org/pungohistory.html|title=Pungo|publisher=Princess Anne County/Virginia Beach Historical Society|accessdate=August 5, 2013}} * {{cite web |ref={{sfnRef|Wethersfield Historical Society|2012}} |url=http://www.wethhist.org/articles-from-the-community/2012/06/pardoning-the-witches.html |title=Pardoning the Witches |date=June 20, 2012 |publisher=Wethersfield Historical Society |access-date=August 10, 2013 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131103175901/http://www.wethhist.org/articles-from-the-community/2012/06/pardoning-the-witches.html |archive-date=November 3, 2013 }}
* {{cite web |ref={{sfnRef|Virginia Beach Historical Society|2001a}} |url=http://virginiabeachhistory.org/pungohistory.html |title=Pungo |publisher=Princess Anne County/Virginia Beach Historical Society |access-date=August 5, 2013 |archive-date=January 20, 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100120134514/http://www.virginiabeachhistory.org/pungohistory.html |url-status=dead }}
* {{cite news|ref={{sfnRef|USA Today|2006}}|url=http://www.usatoday.com/news/nation/2006-07-09-witch-pungo_x.htm|title=Va. Woman Seeks To Clear Witch of Pungo|date=July 9, 2006|work=USA Today|agency=Associated Press|accessdate=August 5, 2013}}
* {{cite web|ref={{sfnRef|Virginia Beach.com|2013}}|url=http://www.vabeach.com/virginia-beach-history/|title=Virginia Beach History Guide * {{cite news |ref={{sfnRef|USA Today|2006}} |url=https://www.usatoday.com/news/nation/2006-07-09-witch-pungo_x.htm |title=Va. Woman Seeks to Clear Witch of Pungo |date=July 9, 2006 |work=] |agency=Associated Press |access-date=August 5, 2013 }}
|publisher=Vabeach.com|accessdate=August 5, 2013}} * {{cite web |ref={{sfnRef|Virginia Beach.com|2013}} |url=http://www.vabeach.com/virginia-beach-history/ |title=Virginia Beach History Guide |publisher=Vabeach.com |access-date=August 5, 2013 }}
* {{cite web|ref={{sfnRef|Virginia Historical Society|2006}}|archiveurl=http://web.archive.org/web/20121113084350/http://vahistorical.org/news/gracesherwood.htm|archivedate=November 13, 2012|url=http://www.vahistorical.org/news/gracesherwood.htm|title=The Witch of Pungo: 300 Years After Her Conviction, Governor Restores Grace Sherwood's Good Name|year=2006|publisher=Virginia Historical Society|accessdate=August 17, 2013}} * {{cite web |ref={{sfnRef|Virginia Historical Society|2006}} |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121113084350/http://vahistorical.org/news/gracesherwood.htm |archive-date=November 13, 2012 |url=http://www.vahistorical.org/news/gracesherwood.htm |title=The Witch of Pungo: 300 Years After Her Conviction, Governor Restores Grace Sherwood's Good Name |year=2006 |publisher=Virginia Historical Society |access-date=August 17, 2013 }}
* {{cite journal|ref={{sfnRef|The William and Mary Quarterly|1893}}| date=January 1893 |title=Witchcraft in Virginia|journal=The William and Mary Quarterly|publisher=College of William and Mary|location=Williamsburg, VA|volume=1|issue=3|jstor=1939689}} * {{cite journal |ref={{sfnRef|The William and Mary Quarterly|1893}} |date=January 1893 |title=Witchcraft in Virginia |journal=William and Mary Quarterly |publisher=College of William and Mary |location=Williamsburg, VA |volume=1 |issue=3 |pages=127–129 |doi=10.2307/1939689 |jstor=1939689}}
{{refend}} {{refend}}


== Further reading == Further reading ==
* {{cite book| last = Bond| first = Edward| title = Damned Souls in a Tobacco Colony: Religion in Seventeenth-Century Virginia| year = 2000| publisher = Mercer University Press| location = Macon, GA| url=http://books.google.com/books?id=L0xrCWUuyicC|isbn = 0-86554-708-4}}
* {{cite book| last1 = Gilbert| first1 = Lillie| last2 = Nash| first2 = Belinda| last3 = Norred-Williams| first3 = Deni| title = Ghosts, Witches & Weird Tales Of Virginia Beach| year = 2004| publisher = Eco Images| location = Virginia Beach, VA| isbn = 0-938423-12-6}}
* {{cite news|last1 = Hardy |first1 = Michael |last2 = Geroux|first2=Bill |date = July 11, 2006 |url = |title = Ding dong, the stigma's gone|work = ]}}
* {{cite book| last = Kyle| first = Louisa Venable| authorlink = Louisa Venable Kyle| title = The Witch of Pungo, and Other Historical Stories of the Early Colonies|date=November 1973| publisher = Four O'Clock Farms| location = Virginia Beach, VA| isbn = 978-0-927044-00-4}}
* {{cite journal|last=Levermore|first=C. H.|date=October 1914|title=Narratives of the Witchcraft Cases, 1648-1706 by George L. Burr|journal=American Historical Review|publisher=American Historical Association|location=Bloomington, IN|volume=20|issue=1|pages=164–166|jstor=1836141|doi=10.2307/1836141|first2=George L.|last3=Jameson|first3=J. Franklin|last2=Burr}}
* {{cite journal|last=Norton|first=Mary Beth|date=September 2003|title=Salem Witch Trials Documentary Archive and Transcription Project by Benjamin Ray|journal=The Journal of American History|publisher=Organization of American Historians|location=Bloomington, IN|volume=90|issue=2|pages=747–748|jstor=3659596|doi=10.2307/3659596|first2=Benjamin|last2=Ray}} ''Note: Discusses Burr's work''
* {{cite book| last = Weisman| first = Richard| title = Witchcraft, Magic and Religion in 17th-Century Massachusetts| year = 1985| publisher = University of Massachusetts Press| location = Amherst, MA| isbn = 0-87023-494-3}}
* {{cite book| author = Writer's Program of the Works Projects Administration of the State of Virginia| title = Virginia: A Guide To The Old Dominion| url = http://books.google.com/?id=z2VzSg9hfp0C&pg=PA142| year = 1941| publisher = Oxford University Press| location = New York| isbn = 978-1-60354-045-2| page = 142}}
* {{cite web|url=http://ferryplantation.org/history/grace-sherwood/|title=Grace Sherwood|publisher=Ferry Plantation|accessdate=August 5, 2013}}
* {{cite journal| date=July 1926 |title=Notes and Queries|journal=The Virginia Magazine of History and Biography|publisher=Virginia Historical Society|location=Richmond, VA|volume=34|issue=3|pages=278–279|jstor=4244097}}


* {{cite book |last=Bond |first=Edward |title=Damned Souls in a Tobacco Colony: Religion in Seventeenth-Century Virginia |year=2000 |publisher=] |location=Macon, GA |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=L0xrCWUuyicC |isbn=0-86554-708-4}}
{{commons category|Grace Sherwood}}
* {{cite book |last=Estes |first=Larry |title=Curse of Witchduck |year=2019 |publisher=Amazon KDP |location=Virginia Beach, VA |isbn=978-1-727496-21-5}}
{{kml}}
* {{cite book |last1=Gilbert |first1=Lillie |last2=Nash |first2=Belinda |last3=Norred-Williams |first3=Deni |title=Ghosts, Witches & Weird Tales Of Virginia Beach |year=2004 |publisher=Eco Images |location=Virginia Beach, VA |isbn=0-938423-12-6}}
<!-- Goes above DEFAULTSORT/Categories -->
* {{cite news |last1=Hardy |first1=Michael |last2=Geroux |first2=Bill |date=July 11, 2006 |title=Ding dong, the stigma's gone |work=]}}
* {{cite book |last=Kyle |first=Louisa Venable |author-link=Louisa Venable Kyle |title=The Witch of Pungo, and Other Historical Stories of the Early Colonies |date=November 1973 |publisher=Four O'Clock Farms |location=Virginia Beach, VA |isbn=978-0-927044-00-4}}
* {{cite journal |last1=Levermore |first1=C. H. |last2=Burr |first2=George L. |last3=Jameson |first3=J. Franklin |date=October 1914 |title=Narratives of the Witchcraft Cases, 1648-1706 by George L. Burr |journal=American Historical Review |publisher=American Historical Association |location=Bloomington, IN |volume=20 |issue=1 |pages=164–166 |jstor=1836141 |doi=10.2307/1836141}}
* {{cite book |last1=Moore |first1=Scott |title=The Witch of Pungo: Grace Sherwood in Virginia History and Legend |date=2024 |publisher=Rivanna Books |location=Charlotteville and London |isbn=9780813951300 |pages=277 |edition=First |url=https://lccn.loc.gov/2023052298}}
* {{cite journal |last1=Norton |first1=Mary Beth |date=September 2003 |title=Salem Witch Trials Documentary Archive and Transcription Project by Benjamin Ray |journal=] |publisher=Organization of American Historians |location=Bloomington, IN |volume=90 |issue=2 |pages=747–748 |jstor=3659596 |doi=10.2307/3659596 |first2=Benjamin |last2=Ray}} ''Note: Discusses Burr's work''
* {{cite book |last=Weisman |first=Richard |title=Witchcraft, Magic and Religion in 17th-Century Massachusetts |year=1985 |publisher=] |location=Amherst, MA |isbn=0-87023-494-3}}
* {{cite book |author=Writer's Program of the Works Projects Administration of the State of Virginia |title=Virginia: A Guide to the Old Dominion |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=z2VzSg9hfp0C&pg=PA142 |year=1941 |publisher=Oxford University Press |location=New York |isbn=978-1-60354-045-2 |page=142}}
* {{cite web |url=http://ferryplantation.org/history/grace-sherwood/ |title=Grace Sherwood |publisher=Ferry Plantation |access-date=August 5, 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141013021520/http://ferryplantation.org/history/grace-sherwood/ |archive-date=October 13, 2014 |url-status=dead |df=mdy-all }}
* {{cite journal |date=July 1926 |title=Notes and Queries |journal=The Virginia Magazine of History and Biography |publisher=Virginia Historical Society |location=Richmond, VA |volume=34 |issue=3 |pages=278–279 |jstor=4244097}}

== External links ==
{{geoGroup}}
* {{commons category-inline|Grace Sherwood}}

{{Authority control}}

{{Witch Trials in America}}


{{Persondata <!-- Metadata: see ] -->
| NAME = Sherwood, Grace
| ALTERNATIVE NAMES = Witch of Pungo
| SHORT DESCRIPTION = American alleged witch
| DATE OF BIRTH = 1660
| PLACE OF BIRTH =
| DATE OF DEATH = 1740
| PLACE OF DEATH = Pungo, Virginia
}}
{{DEFAULTSORT:Sherwood, Grace}} {{DEFAULTSORT:Sherwood, Grace}}
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Latest revision as of 15:17, 29 November 2024

American woman, convicted and posthumously pardoned for witchcraft

Grace White Sherwood
Born1660
likely Pungo, Princess Anne County,
Colony of Virginia
Died1740 (aged 79–80)
likely Pungo
MonumentsStatue of Grace Sherwood located at 36°51′58″N 76°07′55″W / 36.866139°N 76.131811°W / 36.866139; -76.131811
Other namesThe Witch of Pungo
Occupations
  • Farmer
  • healer
  • midwife
Criminal chargeWitchcraft
Criminal statusPosthumously granted an informal pardon

Grace White Sherwood (1660–1740), called the Witch of Pungo, is the last person known to have been convicted of witchcraft in Virginia.

A farmer, healer, and midwife, she was accused by her neighbors of transforming herself into a cat, damaging crops, and causing the death of livestock. She was charged with witchcraft several times. The court ordered that Sherwood's guilt or innocence be determined by ducking her in water. If she sank, she was innocent; if she did not, she was guilty. Sherwood floated to the surface and may have spent almost eight years in jail before being released.

Sherwood lived in Pungo, Princess Anne County (today part of Virginia Beach), and married James Sherwood, a planter, in 1680. The couple had three sons: John, James, and Richard. Her first case was in 1697; she was accused of casting a spell on a bull, resulting in its death, but the matter was dismissed by the agreement of both parties. The following year she was accused of witchcraft by two neighbors; she supposedly bewitched the hogs and cotton crop of one of them. Sherwood sued for slander after each accusation, but her lawsuits were unsuccessful and her husband had to pay court costs. In 1706 she was convicted of witchcraft and was incarcerated. Freed from prison by 1714, she recovered her property from Princess Anne County (her husband had died in 1701). She did not remarry, and lived on her farm until her death in 1740 at the age of about 80.

On July 10, 2006, the 300th anniversary of Sherwood's conviction, Governor Tim Kaine granted an informal pardon to "officially restore good name", recognizing that she was wrongfully convicted. A statue depicting her was erected near Sentara Bayside Hospital on Independence Boulevard in Virginia Beach, close to the site of the colonial courthouse where she was tried. She is sculpted alongside a raccoon, representing her love of animals, and carrying a basket containing garlic and rosemary, in recognition of her knowledge of herbal healing.

Family background

Sherwood was born in 1660 to John and Susan White. John White was a carpenter and farmer of Scottish descent; it is uncertain whether he was born in America. Susan was English by birth; their daughter Grace was born in Virginia, probably in Pungo.

In April 1680 Grace White married a respected small-farm landowner, James Sherwood, in the Lynnhaven Parish Church. The couple had three sons: John, James, and Richard. John White gave the Sherwoods 50 acres (20 ha) of land when they married, and on his death in 1681 left them the remainder of his 145 acres (59 ha) farm. The Sherwood family was poor, and lived in an area inhabited by small landowners or those with no land at all. In addition to farming, Grace Sherwood grew her own herbs, which she used to heal both people and animals. She also acted as a midwife. When James died in 1701, Grace inherited his property. She did not remarry.

No drawings or paintings of Sherwood exist, but contemporary accounts describe her as attractive and tall and possessing a sense of humor. Sherwood wore trousers instead of a dress while working on her farm. This was unusual for the time, as was her herb growing. The combination of clothing and good looks was said to attract men and upset their wives. Sherwood biographer and advocate Belinda Nash suggests that Sherwood's neighbors may have been jealous of Sherwood, and that the witchcraft tales may have been conjured up in an effort to remove her from, and subsequently get, her property. Sherwood was a party to at least a dozen lawsuits, in which she had to defend against accusations of witchcraft, or in which she sued her accusers for slander.

Witchcraft and Virginia

Further information: Witch trials in Virginia

The existence of witches and demonic forces was taken for granted by the American colonists—witchcraft was considered the work of the Devil. Colonists believed that witches could be identified by their strange behavior. As early as 1626, nineteen years after the founding of the Jamestown colony, a grand jury in Virginia sat to consider whether Goodwife Joan Wright was a witch—she had supposedly predicted the deaths of three women and had caused illness as revenge for not hiring her as midwife. No record of the outcome is extant.

Asheville Bridge Creek, known as Muddy Creek when Grace Sherwood lived on its banks

Nevertheless, Virginia did not experience events of mass hysteria such as the Salem, Massachusetts witch trials in 1692–1693, in which 19 people were executed on allegations of sorcery, some years before the first accusations against Sherwood. Ecclesiastical influence in the courtroom was much less a factor in Virginia, where the clergy rarely participated in witchcraft trials, than in New England, where ministers took an active part. People's fears of witchcraft in Virginia were not based on their religious beliefs as much as they were rooted in folklore, although the two often intermingled. New England's Puritans had settled in towns, and community pressure helped contribute to witchcraft convictions. There were few such towns in Virginia, where the population mostly lived on farms and plantations, connected by water transport and scattered over a large area.

Virginia's lay and religious leaders were more interested in prosecuting offenses such as gossip, slander, and fornication, seeing them as threats to social stability. They wished to avoid witchcraft prosecutions, which were divisive. Virginia courts were reluctant to hear accusations of witchcraft and were even more reluctant to convict. Unlike the Salem witch trial courts, where the accused had to prove her innocence, in Virginia courts the accuser carried the burden of proof.

Further, Virginia courts generally ignored evidence said to have been obtained by supernatural means, whereas the New England courts were known to convict people based solely on it. Virginia required proof of guilt through either searches for witch's marks or ducking. Judges and magistrates would dismiss unsubstantiated cases of witchcraft and allow the accusers, who found themselves "under an ill tongue", to be sued for slander. Frances Pollard of the Virginia Historical Society states: "It was pretty clear that Virginia early on tried to discourage these charges being brought of witchcraft because they were so troublesome."

The southeastern corner of Virginia, around present-day Norfolk and Virginia Beach (where Pungo is located), saw more accusations of witchcraft than other areas. According to Leslie M. Newman, this may have been due to local poverty as there was no cultural elite to restrain such prosecutions.

Although few Virginia records survive from that era, 19 known witchcraft cases were brought in the colony during the 17th century, all but one of which ended in acquittal. The one conviction was a 1656 case of a man convicted of witchcraft and sentenced to 10 stripes and banishment from the county. There were no executions for witchcraft in Virginia. Nonetheless, as late as in 1736, Virginia's justices of the peace were reminded that witchcraft was still a crime, and that first offenders could expect to be pilloried and jailed for up to a year.

In 1745, John Craig, a Presbyterian minister in Augusta County, made assertions of witchcraft after his child and several of his animals died, and was in response accused of using evil arts to divine who was responsible. Neither he nor those who accused him brought their claims to court to face "unsympathetic magistrates", though prosecution for witchcraft was still possible in Virginia. The last Virginia witchcraft trial took place in 1802 in Brooke County, which is now in West Virginia. In that case, a couple claimed that a woman was a witch, an accusation ruled slanderous.

The trial by ducking (immersing the accused, bound, in water, to see if she would float) appears to have been used only once in Virginia, to try Sherwood. It was believed that, as water was considered pure, it would reject witches, causing them to float, whereas the innocent would sink.

Accusations against Sherwood

Initial claims of witchcraft

The first accusation against Sherwood came to court in early 1697. Richard Capps alleged that she had used a spell to cause the death of his bull. The court made no decision, and the Sherwoods filed a defamation suit against Capps that was resolved by a settlement. In 1698, Sherwood was accused by her neighbor John Gisburne of enchanting his pigs and cotton crop. No court action followed this accusation, and another suit for defamation by the Sherwoods failed. In the same year Elizabeth Barnes alleged that Sherwood had assumed the form of a black cat, entered Barnes' home, jumped over her bed, drove and whipped her, and left via the keyhole. Again the allegation was unresolved, and again the subsequent defamation action was lost. For each of the failed actions, Sherwood and her husband had to pay court-related costs.

According to Richard Beale Davis in his journal article on witchcraft in Virginia, by this time "Princess Anne County had obviously grown tired of Mrs. Sherwood as a general nuisance". In 1705, Sherwood was involved in a fight with her neighbor, Elizabeth Hill. Sherwood sued Hill and her husband for assault and battery, and on December 7, 1705, was awarded damages of twenty shillings (one pound sterling).

Trial by water

Engraving of a naked woman with hands tied to feet floating on her back as a trial by ordeal for being a witch
17th-century engraving of ducking similar to that of Sherwood

On January 3, 1706, the Hills accused Grace Sherwood of witchcraft. She failed to answer the charge in court, and on February 7, 1706, the court ordered her to appear on a charge of having bewitched Elizabeth Hill, causing a miscarriage. In March 1706 the Princess Anne County justices sought to empanel two juries, both made up of women. The first was ordered to search Sherwood's home for waxen or baked figures that might indicate she was a witch. The second was ordered to look for "demon suckling teats" by examining her. In both instances, reluctance on the part of the local residents made it difficult to form a jury and both juries refused to carry out the searches. On March 7, 1706, Sherwood was examined by a jury of 12 "ancient and knowing women" appointed to look for markings on her body that might be brands of the Devil. They discovered two "marks not like theirs or like those of any other woman". The forewoman of this jury was the same Elizabeth Barnes who had previously accused Sherwood of witchcraft.

Neither the colonial authorities in Williamsburg nor the local court in Princess Anne were willing to declare Sherwood a witch. Those in Williamsburg considered the charge overly vague, and on April 16 instructed the local court to examine the case more fully. For each court appearance, Sherwood had to travel 16 miles (26 km) from her farm in Pungo to where the court was sitting.

On May 2, 1706, the county justices noted that while no particular act of maleficium had been alleged against Sherwood, there was "great cause of suspicion". Consequently, the Sheriff of Princess Anne County took Sherwood into custody, though Sherwood could give bond for her appearance and good behavior. Maximilian Boush, a warden of Lynnhaven Parish Church, was the prosecutor in Sherwood's case. On July 5, 1706, the justices ordered a trial by ducking to take place, with Sherwood's consent, but heavy rains caused a postponement until July 10, as they feared the wet weather might harm her health. Sherwood was taken inside Lynnhaven Parish Church, placed on a stool and ordered to ask for forgiveness for her witchery. She replied, "I be not a witch, I be a healer."

A bay and two points of land
Witch Duck Bay as seen from the very end of North Witchduck Road on Witch Duck Point in Virginia Beach, looking north. This is the place where Grace Sherwood was ducked.

At about 10 a.m. on July 10, 1706, Sherwood was taken down a dirt lane now known as Witchduck Road, to a plantation near the mouth of the Lynnhaven River. News had spread, and the event attracted people from all over the colony, who began to shout "Duck the witch!" According to the principles of trial by water, if Sherwood floated she would be deemed guilty of witchcraft; if she did not, she would be innocent. It was not intended that Sherwood drown; the court had ordered that care be taken to preserve her life.

Five women of Lynnhaven Parish Church examined Sherwood's naked body on the shoreline for any devices she might have to free herself, and then covered her with a sack. Six of the justices that had ordered the ducking rowed in one boat 200 yards (180 m) out in the river, and in another were the sheriff, the magistrate, and Sherwood. Just before she was pushed off the boat Sherwood is said to have stated, under clear skies, "Before this day be through you will all get a worse ducking than I." Bound across the body—her right thumb to her left big toe and her left thumb to her right big toe – she was "cast into the river", and quickly floated to the surface. The sheriff then tied a 13-pound (5.9 kg) Bible around her neck. This caused her to sink, but she untied herself, and returned to the surface, convincing many spectators she was a witch. As Sherwood was pulled out of the water a downpour reportedly started, drenching the onlookers. Several women who subsequently examined her for additional proof found "two things like titts on her private parts of a black coller ". She was jailed pending further proceedings.

Aftermath

What happened to Sherwood after her ducking is unclear as many court records have been lost. She served an unknown time in the jail next to Lynnhaven Parish Church, perhaps as long as seven years and nine months. She was ordered to be detained "to be brought to a future trial", but no record of another trial exists, so it is possible the charge was dismissed at some point. On September 1, 1708, she was ordered to pay Christopher Cocke 600 pounds (270 kg) of tobacco for a reason not indicated in surviving records, but there is no mention of the payment. She appears to have been released some time in or before 1714, since in that year she paid back taxes on her 145-acre (59 ha) property—which Virginia Lieutenant Governor Alexander Spotswood helped her to recover from Princess Anne County—on the banks of Muddy Creek off what is now Muddy Creek Road. She lived the remainder of her life quietly until her death in 1740, aged about 80. She is believed to have died in August or September 1740. Her will was proved on October 1, 1740; it noted that she was a widow. She left five shillings each to her sons James and Richard and everything else to her eldest son John.

According to legend, Sherwood's sons put her body near the fireplace, and a wind came down the chimney. Her body disappeared amid the embers, with the only clue being a cloven hoofprint. Sherwood lies in an unmarked grave under some trees in a field near the intersection of Pungo Ferry Road and Princess Anne Road in Virginia Beach. Stories about the Devil taking her body, unnatural storms, and loitering black cats quickly arose after her death, and local men killed every feline they could find; this widespread killing of cats might have caused the infestation of rats and mice recorded in Princess Anne County in 1743. Her home on Muddy Creek stood for over 200 years. After being burned several times in the 20th century by vandals, all that was left in 2002 were the brick chimneys, which were bulldozed in November 2002. All that remains are a few bricks and part of the foundation, which is overgrown. The property is now owned by the Federal Government as part of Back Bay National Wildlife Refuge.

Legacy

Sign reading 'Sherwood La' in one direction and N Witchduck Rd' in the other, in white lettering on a green background
Street sign in the Witch Duck Point housing area of Virginia Beach. Many things are named "Witchduck" or "Witch Duck" in Virginia Beach, and both spellings are in use.

Grace Sherwood's case was little known until Virginia Beach historian and author Louisa Venable Kyle wrote a children's book about her in 1973. Called The Witch of Pungo, it is a collection of seven local folk tales written as fiction, although based on historical events. Sherwood's story was adapted for Cry Witch, a courtroom drama at Colonial Williamsburg, the restored early capital of Virginia.

A statue by California sculptor Robert Cunningham depicting Sherwood with a raccoon and a basket of rosemary was unveiled on April 21, 2007, on the site of the present-day Sentara Bayside Hospital, close to the sites of both the colonial courthouse and the ducking point. The raccoon represents Sherwood's love of animals and the rosemary her knowledge of herbal healing. A Virginia Department of Historic Resources marker (K-276) was erected in 2002, about 25 yards (23 m) from Sherwood's statue. The place of her watery test and the adjacent land are named Witch Duck Bay and Witch Duck Point. A portion of Virginia State Route 190 in Virginia Beach, a north–south thoroughfare on its western side which traverses Interstate 264 at exit numbers 14–16, has been named "Witchduck Road". Other commemorations in Virginia Beach include Sherwood Lane and Witch Point Trail. In 2014, a memorial marker was placed at a herb garden of the Old Donation Episcopal Church, Sherwood's former parish church, which is in Virginia Beach. A local legend in Virginia Beach states that all of the rosemary growing there came from a single plant Sherwood carried in an eggshell from England.

Memorial marker for Sherwood

Belinda Nash, in addition to writing a biography of Sherwood, worked tirelessly to get her pardoned. Governor Tim Kaine granted an informal pardon to "officially restore the good name of Grace Sherwood" on July 10, 2006, the 300th anniversary of her conviction. Annual reenactments of the ducking have taken place since 2006. No one is actually ducked in these events, which embark from a spot across from Ferry Plantation House along Cheswick Lane, which is very close to Witch Duck Bay. According to local residents, a strange moving light, said to be Sherwood's restless spirit, still appears each July over the spot in Witch Duck Bay where Sherwood was thrown into the water.

Notes

  1. Lower Norfolk County before 1691
  2. George Lincoln Burr's book Narrative of the Witchcraft Cases 1648–1706 reproduces the text of the surviving records relating to Sherwood and to other witchcraft cases, "a selection made and edited by a master hand from authentic, original documents". See Burstein 1961, p. 527
  3. Then used as currency in Virginia.
  4. Witch Duck Bay location: 36°52′52″N 76°07′01″W / 36.881°N 76.117°W / 36.881; -76.117
  5. While it was common at the time to protect seedlings in eggshells, this tale appears to be a variant of another legend that she once ran out of rosemary and rowed an eggshell to a ship in the harbor, bewitched the lone person on board, and sailed in a single night to and from England. Another version of the story describes her sailing to the Mediterranean in an eggshell. See Campbell 1934 and Harpers 1884, pp. 99–102

References

Citations

  1. ^ Barisic (2006).
  2. ^ Old Donation Episcopal Church (2010).
  3. ^ Chewning (2006), pp. 83–90.
  4. Nash & Sheets (2012), pp. 40–44.
  5. ^ Witkowski (2012).
  6. ^ Campbell (1934).
  7. James & 1894 Oct, pp. 96–101.
  8. ^ Chewning (2006), p. 83.
  9. ^ Hume (2005), pp. 86–89.
  10. ^ Newman (2009), pp. 42–43.
  11. ^ Virginia Historical Society (2006).
  12. ^ Department of Public Libraries (2006), pp. 27–30.
  13. Chewning (2006), p. 85.
  14. ^ USA Today (2006).
  15. Newman (2009), pp. 1–8.
  16. Hill (1972), p. 87.
  17. Davis (1957), pp. 131–149.
  18. Virginia Beach.com (2013).
  19. Davis (1957), pp. 138–139.
  20. Newman (2009), pp. 56–57, 65–74.
  21. Newman (2009), p. 37.
  22. Newman (2009), pp. 56–57.
  23. Newman (2009), p. ii.
  24. Newman (2009), pp. 58–59.
  25. Newman (2009), pp. 2–3, 10–11.
  26. Newman (2009), p. 78.
  27. Good Luck Horseshoe (1909), pp. 247248.
  28. Newman (2009), pp. 2, 11.
  29. ^ Burr (1914), pp. 435–442.
  30. ^ Seltzer (2013).
  31. ^ The William and Mary Quarterly (1893), pp. 127–129.
  32. Butler (1979), p. 338.
  33. ^ Yarsinske (2002), pp. 61–62.
  34. Nash & Sheets (2012), p. 108.
  35. ^ Davis (1957), p. 146.
  36. James & 1895 Jan, pp. 190–192.
  37. James & 1895 Jan.
  38. ^ James & 1895 Apr, pp. 242–245.
  39. Newman (2009), pp. 48–49.
  40. ^ James & 1895 Jul, pp. 18–22.
  41. Newman (2009), p. 47.
  42. Davis (1957), pp. 146–147.
  43. Cushing (1833), pp. 73–78.
  44. ^ Virginia Beach.com (2009).
  45. Harpers (1884), pp. 99–102.
  46. Butler 1979, p. 335.
  47. Murphy (2017).
  48. Virginia Beach Historical Society (2001a).
  49. Ruegsegger (1999).
  50. ^ Virginia Beach Historical Society (2001).
  51. Nash & Sheets (2012), pp. 136–139.
  52. Chewning (2006), p. 89.
  53. Nash & Sheets (2012), pp. 144–148.
  54. Gibson (2007), pp. 95–97.
  55. ^ Batts (2007).
  56. ^ Adams (2009).
  57. "Sentara Bayside Hospital". Hampton Roads Chamber of Commerce. Retrieved March 26, 2024.
  58. Interstate Guide (2013).
  59. Dunphy (1994).
  60. Cleavelin (2014).
  61. Hume (2005), p. 85.
  62. Department of Public Libraries (2006), pp. 27–30..
  63. Shapira (2006).
  64. Wethersfield Historical Society (2012).
  65. Batts (2006).

Bibliography

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