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{{Short description|Bronze age city-state mentioned in the Armana Letters}}
⚫ The land of '''Subartu''' (Akkadian ''Šubartum/Subartum/ina Šú-ba-ri'', Assyrian ''] Šubarri'') or '''Subar''' (Sumerian Su-bir<sub>4</sub>/Subar/Šubur) is mentioned in ]. The name also appears as ''Subari'' in the ], and, in the form ''Šbr'', in ], and came to be known as the ] or Subarians and their country was known as ''Subir'', ''Subartu'' or ''Shubar''.<ref name="Malati">Malati J. Shendge, '''', 1997, p. 47.</ref>
⚫ {{Use dmy dates|date=July 2020}}
] under ], Subartu is shown north.]]
⚫ The land of '''Subartu''' ({{langx|akk|Šubartum/Subartum/ina Šú-ba-ri}}, Assyrian:{{Clarify|reason=Which Assyrian language?|date=November 2024}} ''] Šubarri'') or '''Subar''' ({{langx|sux|Su-bir<sub>4</sub>/Subar/Šubur}}, {{langx|uga|𐎘𐎁𐎗 ṯbr}}) is mentioned in ]. The name also appears as ''Subari'' in the ], and, in the form ''Šbr'', in ].


Subartu was apparently a polity in ], at the upper ]. Most scholars accept ''Subartu'' as an early name for ] proper on the Tigris, although there are various other theories placing it sometimes a little farther to the east, north or west of there. Its precise location has not been identified. Subartu was apparently a kingdom in ], at the upper ] and later it referred to a region of Mesopotamia. Most scholars suggest that ''Subartu'' is an early name for people of upper Mesopotamia proper on the Tigris and westward, although there are various other theories placing it sometimes a little farther to the east and/or north. Its precise location has not been identified.
From the point of view of the ], Subartu marked the northern geographical horizon, just as ], ] and ] marked "west", "east" and "south", respectively. From the point of view of the ], Subartu marked the northern geographical horizon, just as ], ] and ] marked "west", "east" and "south", respectively, functioning as a term to mean 'north'.<ref>{{Citation |last=McMahon |first=Augusta |title=North Mesopotamia in the third millennium BC |url=https://www.taylorfrancis.com/chapters/edit/10.4324/9780203096604-37/north-mesopotamia-third-millennium-bc-augusta-mcmahon |work=The Sumerian World |year=2013 |pages=486–501 |doi=10.4324/9780203096604-37 |isbn=9780203096604 |access-date=2023-03-01}}</ref>


== History == == History ==
]
The Sumerian mythological epic '']'' lists the countries where the "languages are confused" as Subartu, ], ], Uri-ki (]), and the Martu land (the ]). Similarly, the earliest references to the "four quarters" by the kings of Akkad name Subartu as one of these quarters around Akkad, along with Martu, ], and Sumer. Subartu in the earliest texts seem to have been farming mountain dwellers, frequently raided for slaves. The Sumerian mythological epic '']'' lists the countries where the "languages are confused" as Subartu, ], ], Uri-ki (]), and the Martu land (the ]). Similarly, the earliest references to the "four-quarters" by the kings of Akkad name Subartu as one of these quarters around Akkad, along with Martu, ], and Sumer. Subartu in the earliest texts seem to have been farming mountain dwellers, frequently raided for slaves.


] of ] was said to have smitten Subartu or Shubur, and it was listed as a province of the empire of ]; in a later era ] campaigned against Subar, and his grandson ] listed Subar along with ''Armani'' (]), -which has been identified with ]-,<ref></ref> among the lands under his control. ] of ] and ] also claimed victories over Subar. ] of ] was said to have smitten Subartu or Shubur, and it was listed as a province of the empire of ]; in a later era ] campaigned against Subar, and his grandson ] listed Subar along with ], which has been identified with ],<ref> {{ISBN|0-931464-99-4}}</ref> among the lands under his control. ] of ] and ] also claimed victories over Subar.


Three of the 14th century BC ], Akkadian cuneiform correspondence found in Egypt, mention ''Subari'' as a toponym. All are addressed to ]; in two (EA 108 and 109), ], king of ], complains that ], ruler of Amurru, had sold captives to Subari, while another (EA 100), from the city of ], also alludes to having transferred captured goods to Subari. Three of the 14th-century BC ] – Akkadian cuneiform correspondence found in Egypt – mention ''Subari'' as a toponym. All are addressed to ]; in two (EA 108 and 109), ], king of ], complains that ], ruler of Amurru, had sold captives to Subari, while another (EA 100), from the city of ], also alludes to having transferred captured goods to Subari.


There is also a mention of "Subartu" in the 8th century BC ''Poem of ]'' (IV, 132), along with other lands that have harassed Babylonia.<ref>BOTTERO Jean, KRAMER Samuel Noah, ''Lorsque les dieux faisaient l'homme'', Gallimard, Paris, 1989, p.704.</ref> In Neo-Babylonian times (under ], ] and ]), Subartu was used as a generic term for ]. There is also a mention of "Subartu" in the 8th century BC ''Poem of ]'' (IV, 132), along with other lands that have harassed Babylonia<ref>BOTTERO Jean, KRAMER Samuel Noah, ''Lorsque les dieux faisaient l'homme'', Gallimard, Paris, 1989, p.704.</ref> in ] times (under ], ] and ]).


⚫ Subartu may have been in the general sphere of influence of the ].<ref>Finkelstein J.J., "Subartu and Subarians in Old Babylonian Sources", Journal of Cuneiform Studies, vol 9, no. 1, 1955</ref>
==Name==
{{cite check|section|date=August 2014}}

Zeki V. Togan explains the word "Subar" as a Turkic name composed of two word stems ''Sub'' ('water') and ''er'' ('man, people, tribesman'), which means 'water people' or 'river people'.<ref name="Velidi Togan">A. Z. Velidi Togan, '''', Enderun, 1946, . quote from pages 143 and 163:
*"''Muhtelif istikamette yayılan bir Türk urugunun da Subar (Suar, Sabir)lar olduğunu yukarıda anlatmıştım. . Milâdın 305 yılında Sabir Türkleri, Kafkasya'nın şimalinden cenubuna geçtiler. Bunlar, eski dünyanın muhtelif taraflarında izleri görülen Subar (Sub + er) ve bu ismin muhtelif telâffuz şekillerine göre adlanan Türk boyunun Hazar'lara karışarak yaşıyan bir kısmıdır;... .''"</ref> The philologists F. Ağasıoğlu and ] propose the same Turkic etymologization.<ref>O. Karatay, In: "''''", chapter: "''''", KaraM 2004, . quote from page 17:
*"''Ağasıoğlu ve Zekiev gibi bilginlere göre, Suvar < Subar kelimesi '''sub''' + '''ar'''/'''er''' (su halkı, ırmak boyu sakinleri) şeklinde çözümlenir.''"
:#Firudin Ağasıoğlu Cəlilov, ''Azär halgy: (sečmä jazylar)'', Baku 2000, pp. 129-130.
:#Zakiev Mirfatyh, "''Törki-Tatar etnogenezi''", Kazan/Moscow 1998, p. 223.</ref>

==Identity==

{{Expand section|date=May 2012}}

⚫ Subartu may have been in the general sphere of influence of the ].<ref>Finkelstein J.J. (1955), "Subartu and Subarians in Old Babylonian Sources" (Journal of Cuneiform Studies, Vol 9, No.1)</ref>

There are various alternate theories associating the ancient ''Subartu'' with one or more modern cultures, including ],<ref></ref> ],<ref name="Velidi Togan">A. Z. Velidi Togan, '''', Enderun, 1946, . quote from pages 143 and 163:
*"''Muhtelif istikamette yayılan bir Türk urugunun da Subar (Suar, Sabir)lar olduğunu yukarıda anlatmıştım. . Milâdın 305 yılında Sabir Türkleri, Kafkasya'nın şimalinden cenubuna geçtiler. Bunlar, eski dünyanın muhtelif taraflarında izleri görülen Subar (Sub + er) ve bu ismin muhtelif telâffuz şekillerine göre adlanan Türk boyunun Hazar'lara karışarak yaşıyan bir kısmıdır;... .''"</ref><ref>, Ankara Üniversitesi Basimevi, 1979, . quote:
*"''Bu duruma göre, Kuzey Asya'dan Güney Mezopotamya'ya doğru göç eden ve bir kısmı da göç yollan boyunca yerleşen Türk asıllı kavimleri şöyle sıralayabiliriz: 1. Sabir'ler, Subar'lar, Subir'ler, Sibir'ler ve Sümerler.''"</ref> ] (Ugric)<ref>{{cite book |last=Endrey |first=Anthony |date=1975 |title=Sons of Nimrod: The Origin of Hungarians |publisher=Hawthorn Press |page=70 |isbn=0725601302}}</ref> or ] tribes. Some scholars, such as Harvard Professor ], claim to have identified Subartu with the current ] tribe of ]s inhabiting the northern ring around Mosul up to ] in Turkey.<ref>{{Cite journal | url = http://books.google.com/?id=I9mr6OgLjBoC&pg=PA74&lpg=PA74&dq=zibari+izady#v=onepage&q&f=false | title = The Kurds: A concise handbook | isbn = 978-0-8448-1727-9 | author1 = Izady | first1 = Mehrdad R | year = 1992}}. quote from :
*"''There are considerable number of clans, tribes, and tribal confederations in Kurdistan today, each with its own defined territory. Many of these tribes have been in existence - with the same names - for several thousand years. The modern Zibari tribe, for example, is mentioned as the Saubaru/Sibaru by Sumerian and Akkadian sources. Variations of the tribal names... appear in the Greco-Roman, Aramaic, Middle Persian, and Armenian records.''"</ref>

A connection with the ] of classical sources, which modern scholars associate with Turkic tribes, was proposed by a number of scholars such as ],<ref name="Gelb">P. Dhorme, ''Soubartou-Mitani'', , Volume VIII (Paris 1911), pp. 92 & 98f. Pauly-Wissowa-Kroll, ''Real-Encyclopädie der classischen Altertumswissenschaft'', under ''Sabiroi and Saspeires''. In: Ignace J. Gelb, '''', 1944 - No.22, p. 30. The University of Chicago Press - Chicago - Illinois. Quote:
*"''P. Dhorme's identification of the ] (to whom might possibly be added some other similarly named peoples not cited by Dhorme) of classical sources with the Subarians, although phonetically admissible, is at present unprovable. The chief difficulty lies in the fact that it is impossible to localize the peoples of the classical sources in one definite region; at various periods they seem to have occupied widely separated areas of Asia, such as Armenia, Iran, and Turkestan.''"</ref> ],<ref>Igor Mikhailovich Diakonoff (1971), '''' . In: '''', Centro camuno di studi preistorici, 1977, . quote:
*"''The Subarians expanding to the north, reached Siberia which received its name from the Sabir people (Diakonoff, 1971) like the city in western Hungary;...''"</ref> and ].<ref name="Velidi Togan"/> Some scholars also tried to identify them with the Turkic ].<ref>Mehmet Bilgin, '''', 2008, pp. , .</ref> However, the ] historian ] is not in accordance with these scholars and determines that these connections at present remain unprovable, but phonetically admissible.<ref name="Gelb"/>

Amongst the names of peoples mentioned in the ] epic of ] '']'', there occurs a name ''Sauvīra'' secondary nominal derivative of *''Suvīra'' whch may be ''Subīra'' with a ''v'' < ''b'' correspondence.<ref name="Malati"/>


==Amarna letters corpus== ==Amarna letters corpus==
Line 49: Line 29:


The following are the letters referencing Subartu: The following are the letters referencing Subartu:
:EA 100&mdash;Title: "The city of Irqata to the king" -See ], Amarna letters ''Irqata'' :EA 100—Title: "The city of Irqata to the king" -See ], Amarna letters ''Irqata''
:EA 108&mdash;Title: "Unheard-of deeds" -letter of ] :EA 108—Title: "Unheard-of deeds" -letter of ]
:EA 109&mdash;Title: "Then and now" -letter of Rib-Hadda :EA 109—Title: "Then and now" -letter of Rib-Hadda


====EA 108, "Unheard-of deeds"==== ====EA 108, "Unheard-of deeds"====
:"] writes to his lord, king of all countries, ], ]: May the ] grant power to the king, my lord. I fall at the feet of my lord, my Sun, 7 times and 7 times. Moreover, is it pleasing in the sight of the king, who is like ] and ] in the sky, that the sons of ] do as they please? They have taken the king's horses and ]s, and they have sold ''into captivity, charioteers: ši-x-y(?)'' and soldiers to ((to))-(emphasis?) the land of ''Su(ba)ru''. In whose lifetime has such a deed been done? False words are now being spoken in the presence of the king, the Sun. I am your loyal servant, and whatever I know or have heard I write to the king, my lord. Wh are they, the ], that they could ''res'' the ] of the king, the Sun? I wrote t ((to))-(emphasis?) your father-(i.e. ]), and he he my wors, and he sent arers. Did he not take 'Abdi-Aširta for ''h''? Moreover, since the mayors have not oppo th, they are stron. The army furnishes whatever they ne, and so they are not afra of the magnate. Because they have taken the hors, they are bold. Because we know that they are strong, we have ''to(ld)'' the king, "They are strong," Truly, they will not prevail. When I sent 2 ] to ]-(]), I retained this man in order to report to the king. Moreover, why do you listen to other men? The king's messengers must bring (news) by night and bring (it) back by night because of the ]. If the king, the Sun, desires, they will be taken in a day. Moreover, has he o ''plotted'' evils gainst'' you, and ''revnd as for the man of ''god'', ] came from Sumur to take him prisoner, but I did not give him up. May the ing he the words of his servant. Send me 0 men from ] and 20 men from Egypt-(named 'Mizri'-see ]), to guard the city for the king, the Sun, my lord. (I am)-''Your loyal set''. -EA 108, lines 1-69 (complete) :"] writes to his lord, king of all countries, ], ]: May the ] grant power to the king, my lord. I fall at the feet of my lord, my Sun, 7 times and 7 times. Moreover, is it pleasing in the sight of the king, who is like ] and ] in the sky, that the sons of ] do as they please? They have taken the king's horses and ]s, and they have sold ''into captivity, charioteers: ši-x-y(?)'' and soldiers to ((to))-(emphasis?) the land of ''Su(ba)ru''. In whose lifetime has such a deed been done? False words are now being spoken in the presence of the king, the Sun. I am your loyal servant, and whatever I know or have heard I write to the king, my lord. Wh are they, the ], that they could ''res'' the ] of the king, the Sun? I wrote t ((to))-(emphasis?) your father-(i.e. ]), and he he my wors, and he sent arers. Did he not take 'Abdi-Aširta for ''h''? Moreover, since the mayors have not oppo th, they are stron. The army furnishes whatever they ne, and so they are not afra of the magnate. Because they have taken the hors, they are bold. Because we know that they are strong, we have ''to(ld)'' the king, "They are strong," Truly, they will not prevail. When I sent 2 ] to ]-(]), I retained this man in order to report to the king. Moreover, why do you listen to other men? The king's messengers must bring (news) by night and bring (it) back by night because of the ]. If the king, the Sun, desires, they will be taken in a day. Moreover, has he o ''plotted'' evils gainst'' you, and ''revnd as for the man of ''god'', ] came from Sumur to take him prisoner, but I did not give him up. May the ing he the words of his servant. Send me 0 men from ] and 20 men from Egypt-(named 'Mizri'-see ]), to guard the city for the king, the Sun, my lord. (I am)-''Your loyal set''. -EA 108, lines 1-69 (complete)


==See also== ==See also==
*] *]


==References== ==References==
{{reflist}} {{Reflist}}


== Further reading == == Further reading ==
* Arthur Ungnad, ''Die ältesten Völkerwanderungen Vorderasiens. Ein Beitrag zur Geschichte und Kultur der Semiten, Arier, Hethiter und Subaräer.'' Kulturfragen 1, 1923, 4-8. * Arthur Ungnad, "Die ältesten Völkerwanderungen Vorderasiens. Ein Beitrag zur Geschichte und Kultur der Semiten, Arier, Hethiter und Subaräer", Kulturfragen 1, 4–8, 1923
* Arthur Ungnad, ''Subartu, Beiträge zur Kulturgeschichte und Völkerkunde Vorderasiens'' (Berlin/Leipzig 1936). * Arthur Ungnad, "Subartu, Beiträge zur Kulturgeschichte und Völkerkunde Vorderasiens", Berlin/Leipzig, 1936
*] ''The Amarna Letters.'' Johns Hopkins University Press, 1987, 1992. (softcover, ISBN 0-8018-6715-0) *] ''The Amarna Letters.'' Johns Hopkins University Press, 1987, 1992. (softcover, {{ISBN|0-8018-6715-0}})
*<cite id="refWueth00">{{cite journal |last=Wuerthrich|first=Bernice|date=19 May 2000 |title=Peering Into the Past, With Words |journal=] |volume=288 |issue=5469 |page=1158 |url=http://www.sciencemag.org/cgi/content/full/288/5469/1158 |doi=10.1126/science.288.5469.1158}}</cite> *{{cite journal |last=Wuerthrich|first=Bernice|date=19 May 2000 |title=Peering into the Past, With Words |journal=] |volume=288 |issue=5469 |page=1158 |url=http://www.sciencemag.org/cgi/content/full/288/5469/1158 |doi=10.1126/science.288.5469.1158|s2cid=82205296 |ref=refWueth00}}

;Amarna letters corpus
*] ''The Amarna Letters.'' Johns Hopkins University Press, 1987, 1992. (softcover, ISBN 0-8018-6715-0)

⚫ {{Use dmy dates|date=April 2011}}


{{Ancient Syria and Mesopotamia}} {{Ancient Syria and Mesopotamia}}
{{Ancient Mesopotamia}} {{Ancient Mesopotamia}}
{{Iraq topics}} {{Iraq topics}}
{{Authority control}}


]
⚫ ]
] ]
] ]
] ]
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⚫ ]

Latest revision as of 21:51, 28 November 2024

Bronze age city-state mentioned in the Armana Letters

The Akkadian Empire under Naram-Sin, Subartu is shown north.

The land of Subartu (Akkadian: Šubartum/Subartum/ina Šú-ba-ri, Assyrian: mât Šubarri) or Subar (Sumerian: Su-bir4/Subar/Šubur, Ugaritic: 𐎘𐎁𐎗 ṯbr) is mentioned in Bronze Age literature. The name also appears as Subari in the Amarna letters, and, in the form Šbr, in Ugarit.

Subartu was apparently a kingdom in Upper Mesopotamia, at the upper Tigris and later it referred to a region of Mesopotamia. Most scholars suggest that Subartu is an early name for people of upper Mesopotamia proper on the Tigris and westward, although there are various other theories placing it sometimes a little farther to the east and/or north. Its precise location has not been identified. From the point of view of the Akkadian Empire, Subartu marked the northern geographical horizon, just as Amurru, Elam and Sumer marked "west", "east" and "south", respectively, functioning as a term to mean 'north'.

History

Another possible location of Subartu.

The Sumerian mythological epic Enmerkar and the Lord of Aratta lists the countries where the "languages are confused" as Subartu, Hamazi, Sumer, Uri-ki (Akkad), and the Martu land (the Amorites). Similarly, the earliest references to the "four-quarters" by the kings of Akkad name Subartu as one of these quarters around Akkad, along with Martu, Elam, and Sumer. Subartu in the earliest texts seem to have been farming mountain dwellers, frequently raided for slaves.

Eannatum of Lagash was said to have smitten Subartu or Shubur, and it was listed as a province of the empire of Lugal-Anne-Mundu; in a later era Sargon of Akkad campaigned against Subar, and his grandson Naram-Sin listed Subar along with Armani, which has been identified with Aleppo, among the lands under his control. Ishbi-Erra of Isin and Hammurabi also claimed victories over Subar.

Three of the 14th-century BC Amarna letters – Akkadian cuneiform correspondence found in Egypt – mention Subari as a toponym. All are addressed to Akhenaten; in two (EA 108 and 109), Rib-Hadda, king of Byblos, complains that Abdi-Ashirta, ruler of Amurru, had sold captives to Subari, while another (EA 100), from the city of Irqata, also alludes to having transferred captured goods to Subari.

There is also a mention of "Subartu" in the 8th century BC Poem of Erra (IV, 132), along with other lands that have harassed Babylonia in Neo-Babylonian times (under Nabopolassar, Nebuchadnezzar II and Nabonidus).

Subartu may have been in the general sphere of influence of the Hurrians.

Amarna letters corpus

Subartu (Subaru of the letters) is a toponym mentioned in the Amarna letters (14th century BC); the letters were written in the short period approximately from 1350–1335 BC. It is commonly accepted that the region referenced was Subartu.

Subartu is only referenced in three of the Amarna letters: EA 100, 108, and EA 109. All three letters state that people, or 'items' are needed to be sold in Subaru, for money.

The letters referencing region Subartu

Subaru of the letters is only referenced in three Amarna letters, and with no links to any rulers of Subaru.

The following are the letters referencing Subartu:

EA 100—Title: "The city of Irqata to the king" -See Arqa, Amarna letters Irqata
EA 108—Title: "Unheard-of deeds" -letter of Rib-Hadda
EA 109—Title: "Then and now" -letter of Rib-Hadda

EA 108, "Unheard-of deeds"

"Rib-Hadda writes to his lord, king of all countries, Great King, King of Battle: May the Lady of Gubla grant power to the king, my lord. I fall at the feet of my lord, my Sun, 7 times and 7 times. Moreover, is it pleasing in the sight of the king, who is like Baal and Šamaš in the sky, that the sons of 'Abdi-Aširta do as they please? They have taken the king's horses and chariots, and they have sold into captivity, charioteers: ši-x-y(?) and soldiers to ((to))-(emphasis?) the land of Su(ba)ru. In whose lifetime has such a deed been done? False words are now being spoken in the presence of the king, the Sun. I am your loyal servant, and whatever I know or have heard I write to the king, my lord. Wh are they, the dogs, that they could res the archers of the king, the Sun? I wrote t ((to))-(emphasis?) your father-(i.e. Amenhotep III), and he he my wors, and he sent arers. Did he not take 'Abdi-Aširta for h? Moreover, since the mayors have not oppo th, they are stron. The army furnishes whatever they ne, and so they are not afra of the magnate. Because they have taken the hors, they are bold. Because we know that they are strong, we have to(ld) the king, "They are strong," Truly, they will not prevail. When I sent 2 messengers to Sumur-(Zemar), I retained this man in order to report to the king. Moreover, why do you listen to other men? The king's messengers must bring (news) by night and bring (it) back by night because of the dog. If the king, the Sun, desires, they will be taken in a day. Moreover, has he o plotted evils gainst you, and revnd as for the man of god, 'Apiru came from Sumur to take him prisoner, but I did not give him up. May the ing he the words of his servant. Send me 0 men from Meluhha and 20 men from Egypt-(named 'Mizri'-see Mizraim), to guard the city for the king, the Sun, my lord. (I am)-Your loyal set. -EA 108, lines 1-69 (complete)

See also

References

  1. McMahon, Augusta (2013), "North Mesopotamia in the third millennium BC", The Sumerian World, pp. 486–501, doi:10.4324/9780203096604-37, ISBN 9780203096604, retrieved 1 March 2023
  2. Wayne Horowitz, "Mesopotamian Cosmic Geography", Eisenbrauns 1998 ISBN 0-931464-99-4
  3. BOTTERO Jean, KRAMER Samuel Noah, Lorsque les dieux faisaient l'homme, Gallimard, Paris, 1989, p.704.
  4. Finkelstein J.J., "Subartu and Subarians in Old Babylonian Sources", Journal of Cuneiform Studies, vol 9, no. 1, 1955

Further reading

Timeline of Mesopotamia
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c. 2100–2000 BCE Third Dynasty of Ur
c. 2000–1800 BCE Mari and other Amorite city-states Old Assyrian period Isin/Larsa and other Amorite city-states
c. 1800–1600 BCE Old Hittite Kingdom Old Babylonian Empire (Southern Akkadians)
c. 1600–1400 BCE Mitanni (Hurrians) Karduniaš (Kassites)
c. 1400–1200 BCE Middle Hittite Kingdom Middle Assyria
c. 1200–1150 BCE Bronze Age Collapse ("Sea Peoples") Arameans
c. 1150–911 BCE Phoenicia Neo-Hittite
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