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| {{For|the khanate in the North Caucasus|Avar Khanate}} | |||
| {{Infobox Former Country | |||
| |conventional_long_name = Avar Khaganate | |||
| |common_name = Avar Khaganate | |||
| |continent = Europe | |||
| |region = ] | |||
| |status = Empire | |||
| |government_type = ] | |||
| |common_languages = ](<small>''lingua franca''</small>)<ref name=Curta2004>{{Cite journal|last1=Curta|first1=Florin|year=2004|title=The Slavic ''lingua franca'' (Linguistic Notes of an Archeologist Turned Historian)|url=http://www.academia.edu/227792/The_Slavic_lingua_franca_Linguistic_notes_of_an_archaeologist_turned_historian_|format=PDF|journal=East Central Europe/L'Europe du Centre-Est|volume=31|issue=1|pages=132}}</ref> | |||
| |religion = | |||
| |year_start = 567 | |||
| |year_end = {{Circa|804}} | |||
| |p1 = Lombards | |||
| |flag_p1 = | |||
| |p2 = Kingdom of the Gepids | |||
| |flag_p2 = | |||
| |s1 = Frankish Empire | |||
| |flag_s1 = Frankish Empire 481 to 814-en.svg | |||
| |s2 = First Bulgarian Empire | |||
| |image_s2 = | |||
| |image_map = Historical map of the Balkans around 582-612 AD.jpg | |||
| |leader1 = ] | |||
| |year_leader1 = 562-602 | |||
| |title_leader = ] | |||
| }} | |||
| The '''Avar Khaganate''' was a ] established in the ] region in 567 by the ], a ] people of uncertain origins and ethno-lingustic affiliation.<ref name="EB_Avar">{{cite web |url=http://global.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/45428/Avar |title=Avar |last1= |first1= |last2= |first2= |date= |website=] |publisher=] |access-date=May 14, 2015 |quote=Avar, one of a people of undetermined origin and language...}}</ref><ref name=WM>{{cite book |last=Waldman |first=Carl |last2=Mason |first2=Catherine |authorlink1= |authorlink2= |ref=harv |title=Encyclopedia of European Peoples |language= |url=http://books.google.no/books?id=kfv6HKXErqAC |accessdate=14 May 2015 |year=2006 |publisher=] |location= |isbn=1-4381-2918-1 |page=46-49 |pages=}}</ref> As the ] expanded westwards, the Khagan ] led a group of Avars and ] out of their reach, eventually settling around 568 in what used to be the Roman province of ]. | |||
| ==History== | |||
| ===Arrival in Europe=== | |||
| In 557, the Avars sent an embassy to ], marking their first contact with the ]{{mdash}}presumably from the northern ]. In exchange for gold, they agreed to subjugate the "unruly ''gentes''" on behalf of the Byzantines. They conquered and incorporated various nomadic tribes{{mdash}}], ] or ] Bulgars, and ]{{mdash}}and defeated the ]. By 562, the Avars controlled the lower Danube basin and the steppes north of the Black Sea.<ref>], "Conceptions of Ethnicity in Early Medieval Studies", ''Debating the Middle Ages: Issues and Readings'', ed. Lester K. Little and Barbara H. Rosenwein, (Blackwell), 1998, pp 13-24) p. 18 ().</ref> By the time they arrived in the ], the Avars formed a heterogeneous group of about 20,000 horsemen.<ref>Curta, Florin. The Making of the Slavs: History and Archaeology of the Lower Danube Region, c. 500–700. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2001. ISBN 0-521-80202-4.</ref> After the Byzantine Emperor ] bought them off, they pushed northwestwards into ]. However, ] opposition halted the Avars' expansion in that direction. | |||
| Seeking rich pastoral lands, the Avars initially demanded land south of the ] in present-day ], but the Byzantines refused, using their contacts with the ] as a threat against Avar aggression.<ref>{{cite book | |||
| | last = Evans| first = James Allan Stewart| title= The Emperor Justinian And The Byzantine Empire| url=http://books.google.com/books?id=xDNv6qZ_I-IC| accessdate = 2013-01-24| series = Greenwood Guides to Historic Events of the Ancient World| year= 2005| publisher= Greenwood Publishing Group| isbn= 9780313325823 | |||
| | page= xxxv| quote= An Avar embassy first appeared in Constantinople in 558, asking for land within the empire and calling for an annual subsidy. Justinian granted them a subsidy, but for land he directed them elsewhere.}}</ref> They turned their attention to the ] and to the natural defenses it afforded.<ref> | |||
| ''History of Transylvania'', Volume I. László Makkai, András Mócsy. Columbia University Press. 2001</ref> However, the Carpathian basin was then occupied by the ]. In 567, the Avars signed an alliance with the ]{{mdash}}enemies of the Gepids{{mdash}}and together they destroyed much of the ]. The Avars then persuaded the Lombards to move into ], an invasion that marked the last Germanic mass-movement in the ].{{citation needed|date=May 2014}} | |||
| Continuing their successful policy of turning the various barbarians against each other, the Byzantines persuaded the Avars to attack the ] in ]; their land was rich with goods and had never been conquered before.<ref>Florin Curta. ''The Making of the Slavs''</ref> After devastating much of the Sclavenes' land, the Avars returned to Pannonia after many of the Khagan's subjects deserted to the Byzantine Emperor. By 600, the Avars had established a nomadic empire ruling over a multitude of peoples and stretching from modern-day Austria in the west to the ] in the east.{{citation needed|date=May 2014}} | |||
| ===Early Avar Period (580-670)=== | |||
| By about 580, the Avar Khagan ] had established supremacy over most of ], ], and ] living in Pannonia and the Carpathian Basin.<ref>Pohl 1998:18.</ref> When the Byzantine Empire was unable to pay subsidies or hire Avar mercenaries, the Avars raided their ] territories. According to ], Bayan commanded an army of 10,000 Kutrigur Bulgars and sacked ] in 568, effectively cutting the Byzantine terrestrial link with North Italy and Western Europe. By 582, the Avars had ], an important fort in Pannonia. When the Byzantines refused to increase the stipend amount as requested by Bayan's son and successor ] (from 584), the Avars proceeded to capture ] and ]. They suffered setbacks, however, during ] in the 590s. ] in their homeland, some Avars defected to the Byzantines in 602,<ref>Walter Pohl, ''Die Awaren'' (Munich) 2.ed.2002., page 158.</ref> but ] decided not to return home as was customary. He maintained his army camp beyond the Danube throughout the winter and the resulting hardships caused the army to revolt. This gave the Avars a desperately needed respite. The ensuing civil war prompted a ] and after 615, the Avars enjoyed a free hand in the undefended Balkans. They attempted an invasion of northern Italy in 610. While negotiating with Emperor Heraclius beneath the walls of Constantinople, the Avars launched a surprise attack, pillaged the suburbs of the city and took 270,000 captives. They were, however, unable to capture the city in 617. Payments in gold and goods reached the record sum of 200,000 '']'' shortly before 626.<ref>Walter Pohl, ''Die Awaren'' (Munich) 1.ed.1988.</ref> | |||
| ] | |||
| In 626, the ] by a joint Avar-] force failed. Following this defeat, the prestige and power of the Avars declined. The Byzantines and Franks document a war between the Avars and their western Slav clients, the ].<ref>]. ''The Making of the Slavs: History and Archaeology of the Lower Danube Region, c. 500–700''. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2001. ISBN 0-521-80202-4.</ref> In the 630s, ], the ruler of the first historically known Slavic polity known as Samo's Tribal Union or Samo's realm, increased his authority over lands to the north and west of the Khaganate at the expense of the Avars, ruling until his death in 658<ref>The fate of Samo's empire after his death is unclear; it is generally assumed to have disappeared. Archaeological findings show that the Avars returned to their previous territories{{mdash}}at least to southernmost part of present-day ]{{mdash}}and entered into a symbiotic relationship with the Slavs, whereas to the north of the Avar empire was purely Wends territory. The first specific knowledge of the presence of Slavs and Avars in this area is the existence in the late 8th century of the Moravian and ] principalities (see ]) that were attacking the Avars, and the defeat of the Avars by the Franks under ] in 799 or 802–03.</ref> | |||
| At about the time of Samo's realm, the ] of the ] led a successful uprising to end Avar authority over the ]; he established what the Byzantines used to call ], "the homeland of Onogurs" or ]. The civil war, possibly a succession struggle in Onoguria between the joint Avar/Kutrigur Bulgar parties and Kubrat's Utigur Bulgar forces, raged from 631 to 632. The power of the Avar/Kutrigur forces was shattered and the Avars came under the control of Patria Onoguria. Chronicler ] recorded that 9,000 of the Avar/Kutrigur Bulgars sought asylum and fled to modern-day ], but were killed by King ] of the Franks. Some remained in Onoguria and came to be known as ]{{mdash}}still noted in ] even as late as the time of ] around 895. Following Khan Kubrat's death, they would fight for control, leading to the ] when the Utigurs were forced south. Those remaining between Transylvania and the Ukraine were assimilated by the ] while the Cozariks extended their control north up the Volga River where the state of ] would emerge.{{citation needed|date=May 2014}} | |||
| ===Middle (670-720) and Late (720-804) Avar periods=== | |||
| ] | |||
| With the death of ], some Slavic tribes again came under Avar rule. Khan Kubrat died in 665 and was succeeded by Khan ] of ]. By 670, the Khazars had broken the unity of the Bulgar confederation, causing some of the Utigur Bulgars to relocate their capital to the west. The '']'' records that in 677, the "Hungar"/(Onogur Bulgar) ethnicon had established itself decisively in Pannonia. According to the '']'' the Avar-Slavic alliance from northern Carpathia forced the Bulgars south out of western Onoguria (Sirmium) at about the same time that the Battle of Ongal took place south of the eastern Carpathians. The new ethnic element marked by hair clips for pigtails; curved, single-edged sabres; broad, symmetrical bows marks the middle Avar-Bulgar period (670-720). The Onogur Bulgars under a ] leader expelled from western Onoguria (Sirmium) moved south, settling in the present-day region of ]. The Onogur/Utigur Bulgars, led by Khan ]{{mdash}}the father of Khan ]{{mdash}}settled permanently along the Danube (c. 679-681), expanding the ] from ]. Although the Avar empire had diminished to half its original size, the new Avar-Slav alliance consolidated their rule west from the central parts of the mid-Danubian basin and extended their sphere of influence west to the ]. New regional centers, such as those near ] and ]{{mdash}}] in Hungary{{mdash}}appeared. This strengthened the Avars' power base, although most of the Balkans now lay in the hands of ] since neither the Avars nor Byzantines were able to reassert control.{{citation needed|date=May 2014}} | |||
| The Khaganate in the Middle and Late periods was a product of cultural symbiosis between Slavic and original Turkic elements with a Slavic language as a ] or the most common language.<ref>Curta, Florin (2004), "The Slavic Lingua Franca. Linguistic Notes of an Archaeologist Turned Historian." (PDF), East Central Europe/L'Europe du Centre-Est 31 (1): 125–148,</ref> | |||
| In the 7th century, the Avar Khaganate opened a door for Slavic demographic and linguistic expansion to Adriatic and Aegean regions.{{citation needed|date=May 2014}} | |||
| In the early 8th century, a new ] the so-called "griffin and tendril" culture{{mdash}}appeared in the Carpathian basin. Some theories, including the “double conquest” theory of archaeologist ], attribute it to the arrival of new settlers, such as early ], but this is still under debate. Hungarian archaeologists ] and ] attribute this culture to an internal evolution of Avars resulting from the integration of the Bulgar émigrés from the previous generation of the 670s. According to Makkai and Mócsy, "the material culture{{mdash}}art, clothing, equipment, weapons{{mdash}}of the late Avar/Bulgar period evolved autonomously from these new foundations". Many regions that had once been important centers of the Avar empire had lost their significance while new ones arose. Although Avaric ] found over much of the northern Balkans may indicate an existing Avar presence, it probably represents the presence of independent Slavs who had adopted Avaric customs.<ref>László Makkai and András Mócsy, editors, 2001. History of Transylvania, II.4 "The period of Avar rule"</ref> | |||
| ===Collapse=== | |||
| ] | |||
| The gradual decline of Avar power accelerated to a rapid fall within a decade. A series of Frankish campaigns in the 790s led by Charlemagne ended with the conquest of the Avar realm, taking most of Pannonia up to the ]. Avar occupation was ended when a Slavic-Croatian force led by prince ] and supported by the Franks launched a counterattack in 791.<ref name="Denis Sinor">{{cite book | last=Sinor | first=Denis | page=219 | title=The Cambridge history of early Inner Asia | publisher=Cambridge University Press | location=New York | year=1990 | language= | isbn=0-521-24304-1}}</ref><ref name="Francis Dvornik69">{{cite book | last=Dvornik | first=Francis | page=69 | url= | title=The Slavs: their early history and civilization | year=1959 | publisher=American Academy of Arts and Sciences | isbn=}}</ref> The offensive was successful and the Avars were driven out of ].<ref name="Francis Dvornik69"/> Charlemagne won another major victory against the Avars in 796.<ref name=JohnVanAntwerpFinep257>{{cite book | last=Fine | first=John Van Antwerp | page=78 | url= | title=The early medieval Balkans: a critical survey from the sixth to the late twelfth century | year=1991 | publisher=University of Michigan Press | isbn=0-472-08149-7<!--9780472081493-->}}</ref> One of Charlemagne's sons captured a large, fortified encampment known as "the Ring", which contained much of the spoils from earlier Avar campaigns.<ref>Victor Duruy, The History of the Middle Ages, pg. 446</ref> | |||
| According to the '']'', Avars began to submit to the Franks from 796 onwards. The song "'']''" celebrating the defeat of the Avars at the hands of ] in 796 still survives. The Franks baptized many Avars and integrated them into the ]<ref>''...(sc. Avaros) autem, qui obediebant fidei et baptismum sunt consecuti...''</ref> The growing number of archaeological evidence in ] also presumes an Avar population in the Carpathian Basin in the very late 9th century.<ref name='Olajos'/> In 804, the First Bulgarian Empire conquered the southeastern Avar lands of Transylvania and southeastern Pannonia up to the ], and many Avars became subjects of the Bulgarian Empire. ], a convert to Christianity, died after asking Charlemagne for help in 805; he was succeeded by ], who was baptized as the new Frankish Client and should not be assumed from his name alone to have been ] rather than ]. Abraham was succeeded by ], about whom little is known. The Franks turned the Avar lands under their control into a ]. The ]{{mdash}}the eastern half of the ]{{mdash}}was then granted to the Slavic Prince ], who established the ] in 840 AD. It continued to exist in the west until it was divided between the ]n and ] marches in 871.{{citation needed|date=May 2014}} | |||
| According to Pohl, an Avar presence in Pannonia is certain in 871, but thereafter the name is no longer used by chroniclers. Pohl wrote, "It simply proved impossible to keep up an Avar identity after Avar institutions and the high claims of their tradition had failed".<ref>Pohl 1998:19.</ref> Although, ] wrote about them at the year of 889.<ref>"''Et primo quidem Pannoniorum et Avarum solitudines pererrantes''"</ref><ref name='Olajos'/> The growing number of archaeological evidence in ] also presumes an Avar population in the Carpathian Basin in the very late 9th century.<ref name='Olajos'/> Archaeological findings suggest a substantial, late Avar presence on the Great Hungarian Plain, however it is difficult to determine their proper chronology.<ref name='Olajos'/> | |||
| Byzantine records, including the "'']''", the "'']''" by ], the "''Chronica''" by ] and the "'']''" mention the 9th century Avars as an existing Christian population.<ref name='Olajos'>OLAJOS , TERÉZ, , A 9. SZÁZADI AVAR TÖRTÉNELEM GÖRÖG ÉS LATIN NYELVÛ FORRÁSAI, Tiszatáj, 2001, pp. 50-56</ref> The Avars had already been mixing with the more numerous Slavs for generations, and they later came under the rule of external polities, such as the Franks, Bulgaria, and ].<ref>''The early medieval Balkans''. John Fine, Jr</ref>{{Page needed|date=November 2010}} The Avars in the region known as ''solitudo avarorum''{{mdash}}currently called the ]{{mdash}}vanished in an arc of three generations. They slowly merged with the Slavs to create a bilingual Turkic-Slavic-speaking people who were subjected to Frankish domination; the invading Magyars found this composite people in the late 9th century.<ref>András Róna-Tas, ''Hungarians and Europe in the early Middle Ages: an introduction to early Hungarian history'', Central European University Press, 1999, p. 264</ref> The '']'', written around 950, clearly states the presence of an Avar population in the region of modern-day ].<ref name='Olajos'/> | |||
| == See also == | |||
| * ] | |||
| * ] | |||
| * ] | |||
| * ] | |||
| * ] | |||
| * ] | |||
| * ] | |||
| ==Notes== | |||
| {{Reflist|2}} | |||
| ==References== | |||
| *Curta, Florin. The Making of the Slavs: History and Archaeology of the Lower Danube Region, c. 500–700. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2001. ISBN 0-521-80202-4. | |||
| *{{cite book | last=Dvornik | first=Francis | page=69 | url= | title=The Slavs: their early history and civilization | year=1959 | publisher=American Academy of Arts and Sciences | isbn=}} | |||
| *{{cite book | |||
| | last = Evans | |||
| | first = James Allan Stewart | |||
| | title = The Emperor Justinian And The Byzantine Empire | |||
| | url = http://books.google.com/books?id=xDNv6qZ_I-IC | |||
| | accessdate = 2013-01-24 | |||
| | series = Greenwood Guides to Historic Events of the Ancient World | |||
| | year = 2005 | |||
| | publisher = Greenwood Publishing Group | |||
| | isbn = 9780313325823 | |||
| | page = xxxv | |||
| | quote = | |||
| }} | |||
| *{{cite book | last=Fine | first=John Van Antwerp | page=78 | url= | title=The Early Medieval Balkans: A critical survey from the sixth to the late twelfth century | year=1991 | publisher=University of Michigan Press | isbn=0-472-08149-7<!--9780472081493-->}} | |||
| *László Makkai & András Mócsy, editors, 2001. '' | |||
| *], "Conceptions of Ethnicity in Early Medieval Studies", ''Debating the Middle Ages: Issues and Readings'', ed. Lester K. Little and Barbara H. Rosenwein, (Blackwell), 1998, pp 13-24) p. 18 (). | |||
| *András Róna-Tas, ''Hungarians and Europe in the early Middle Ages: an introduction to early Hungarian history'', Central European University Press, 1999. | |||
| *{{cite book | last=Sinor | first=Denis | page=219 | title=The Cambridge history of early Inner Asia | publisher=Cambridge University Press | location=New York | year=1990 | language= | isbn=0-521-24304-1}} | |||
| == External links == | |||
| {{Commons category|Avar Khaganate}} | |||
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Latest revision as of 11:14, 26 November 2022
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