Revision as of 08:08, 28 July 2015 editAnomieBOT (talk | contribs)Bots6,575,818 editsm Dating maintenance tags: {{Cn}}← Previous edit | Latest revision as of 16:26, 15 November 2024 edit undoTeratingaKevinBaughsNewFriend (talk | contribs)203 editsNo edit summary | ||
(466 intermediate revisions by more than 100 users not shown) | |||
Line 1: | Line 1: | ||
{{short description|1988–1998 armed conflict in Papua New Guinea}} | |||
{{Multiple issues| | |||
{{for|the fighting on the island during World War II|Bougainville campaign}} | |||
{{Incomplete|date=July 2013}} | |||
{{refimprove|date=October 2013}} | |||
}} | |||
{{Use British English|date=July 2013}} | {{Use British English|date=July 2013}} | ||
{{ |
{{Infobox military conflict | ||
|conflict = Bougainville |
| conflict = Bougainville conflict | ||
|image = Bvdistricts.svg |
| image = Bvdistricts.svg | ||
|image_size = 300 | | image_size = 300 | ||
|caption = District map of Bougainville (North Solomons) |
| caption = District map of Bougainville (North Solomons) | ||
|date = 1 December 1988 |
| date = 1 December 1988 – 20 April 1998 | ||
|place = ], ], ], ] | | place = ], ], ], ] | ||
| result = Military stalemate<ref>Bahcheli, Tozun, Barry Bartmann, and Henry Srebrnik, eds. De facto states: the quest for sovereignty, p. 242. Routledge, 2004.</ref> | |||
|result = *Bougainville Peace Agreement | |||
* |
* Bougainville Peace Agreement | ||
* Establishment of the ] | |||
*Occupation in southern ] & area around ] continues. | |||
* Bougainville scheduled to be an independent country around 2027 | |||
|combatant1 = {{flagicon|Papua New Guinea}} ] | |||
| combatant1 = {{flag|Papua New Guinea}}<br> | |||
*{{flagicon image|Papua New Guinea Defence Force emblem.svg}} ] | |||
* Buka Liberation Front | |||
*{{flagicon image|Royal Papua New Guinea Constabulary logo.jpg}} ] | |||
* Bougainville Resistance Force | |||
*{{flagicon image|Naval Ensign of Papua New Guinea.svg}} ] | |||
'''Supported by:'''<br>{{flag|Australia}}<br>{{flag|Indonesia}}<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.lowyinstitute.org/publications/bougainville-referendum-and-beyond|title=The Bougainville Referendum And Beyond|date=8 October 2019|last=Bohane|first=Ben|publisher=Lowy Institute}}</ref> | |||
*{{flagicon image|Papua New Guinea roundel.svg}} ] | |||
| combatant2 = {{flagdeco|Bougainville}} ] (BIG) | |||
* ] | |||
* ] | |||
'''Supported by:'''<br> | |||
{{flagicon|Australia}} ] | |||
*{{flagicon image|Rio Tinto.svg}} ]<ref>https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=py_-I17Phqo | |||
</ref> | |||
|combatant2 = {{flagicon|Bougainville}} ] | |||
* ] (BRA) | * ] (BRA) | ||
'''Supported by:'''<br>{{flag|Solomon Islands}}<br>{{flag|Fiji}} (alleged) | |||
* Numerous ] ], foreign supporters, & local tribes<ref>https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=PHoNTpDtyQM&list=LLItb2dLp-6NlYuBFl4AwvKg&index=97</ref> | |||
| commander1 ={{flagdeco|Papua New Guinea}} ]<br>{{flagdeco|Papua New Guinea}} ]{{WIA}}<br>{{flagdeco|Papua New Guinea}} ]<br>{{flagdeco|Papua New Guinea}} ]<br>{{flagdeco|Papua New Guinea}} ] | |||
'''Supported by:'''<br> | |||
| commander2 = {{flagdeco|Bougainville}} ]<br>{{flagdeco|Bougainville}} Sam Kauona<br>{{flagdeco|Bougainville}} ]{{KIA}}<br>{{flagdeco|Bougainville}} ]<br>{{flagdeco|Bougainville}} ] | |||
{{flagicon|Solomon Islands}} ] | |||
| strength1 = ~800 soldiers<br>150 police<br>Several thousand resistance fighters<br>4 ]s<br>4 ]s | |||
|commander1 = {{flagicon|Papua New Guinea}} ]<br>{{flagicon image|Papua New Guinea Defence Force emblem.svg}} ]<br>{{flagicon|Papua New Guinea}} ]<br>{{flagicon|Papua New Guinea}} ]<br>{{flagicon|Papua New Guinea}} ] | |||
| strength2 = ~2,000 | |||
|commander2 = {{flagicon|Bougainville}} ]<br> {{flagicon|Bougainville}} ]<br> {{flagicon|Bougainville}} ]]<br>{{flagicon|Bougainville}} ]<br> {{flagicon|Bougainville}} ] | |||
| casualties1 = 300+ PNGDF soldiers killed<br>Several thousand wounded | |||
|strength1 = {{flagicon image|Papua New Guinea Defence Force emblem.svg}} 4,700 Soldiers (peak)<br />{{flagicon image|Royal Papua New Guinea Constabulary logo.jpg}} Unknown<br />{{flagicon image|Naval Ensign of Papua New Guinea.svg}} Two ] landing craft & four ] patrol boats<br />{{flagicon image|Papua New Guinea roundel.svg}} Five ] helicopters, 2 ] transport planes<br />{{flagicon|Papua New Guinea}} ~2000 Resistance fighters <br />{{flagicon|Australia}} Several advisors<ref>https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=LDpvxQe_Jhg&index=141&list=LLItb2dLp-6NlYuBFl4AwvKg</ref> | |||
| casualties2 = 1,000–2,000 fighters killed | |||
|strength2 = {{flagicon|Bougainville}} 20,000 Militia (peak)<ref>{{cite web|url=https://pt.wikipedia.org/Revolu%C3%A7%C3%A3o_dos_Cocos|title=Revolução dos Cocos|publisher=|accessdate=26 April 2015}}</ref> | |||
| casualties3 = Estimates vary between 15,000–20,000 Bougainvilleans dead{{sfn|Braithwaite|2010|pp=86–87}} | |||
|casualties1 = {{flagicon image|Papua New Guinea Defence Force emblem.svg}} +200 killed<br />{{flagicon image|Royal Papua New Guinea Constabulary logo.jpg}}~50 Killed<br />{{flagicon image|Naval Ensign of Papua New Guinea.svg}} None<br />{{flagicon image|Papua New Guinea roundel.svg}} 4 ] helicopters destroyed, 1 damaged, & 1 ] transport plane rendered unusable<ref>{{cite av media|url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=PDrQ9ne5Pt4&list=LLItb2dLp-6NlYuBFl4AwvKg&index=82|title=With The Army - Papua New Guinea|date=24 October 2007|work=YouTube|accessdate=26 April 2015}}</ref><ref>{{cite av media|url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=PDrQ9ne5Pt4&list=LLItb2dLp-6NlYuBFl4AwvKg&index=76|title=With The Army - Papua New Guinea|date=24 October 2007|work=YouTube|accessdate=26 April 2015}}</ref><br />{{flagicon|Papua New Guinea}} 1,000+ resistance fighters killed<br />{{flagicon|Australia}} None | |||
| notes = | |||
|casualties2 = ]: +300 Killed ('''In fighting with PNGDF;''' ''unknown killed in fighting with police & militia'') | |||
|notes = 16,000-22,000 Bougainville civilians killed (1,000-2,000 deaths due too combat)<ref>{{cite web|url=http://press.anu.edu.au//apps/bookworm/view/Reconciliation+and+Architectures+of+Commitment:+Sequencing+peace+in+Bougainville/5301/ch07.xhtml#footnote-13459-5-backlink|title='7. The cost of the conflict' in Reconciliation and Architectures of Commitment: Sequencing peace in Bougainville by John Braithwaite... - ANU Press|publisher=|accessdate=26 April 2015}}</ref><br>1,000+ Cases of rape<br>42,000-67,000 Bougainvillean refugees, plus Approx. 20,000 foreign & "educated" refugees. | |||
}} | }} | ||
{{History of Bougainville}} | |||
The '''Bougainville Civil War''', also known as the '''Bougainville Conflict''' or simply as '''The Crisis''', was an armed conflict fought between ] and the ] (BRA), who were fighting for independence. The war has been described as the largest conflict in ] since the end of World War II, with approximately 15,000 to 20,000 Bougainvilleans killed. | |||
The '''Bougainville conflict''', also known as the '''Bougainville Civil War''', was a multi-layered armed conflict fought from 1988 to 1998 in the ] of ] (PNG) between PNG and the secessionist forces of the ] (BRA), and between the BRA and other armed groups on Bougainville. The conflict was described by ] ] as the largest conflict in ] since the end of ] in 1945, with an estimated 15,000–20,000 Bougainvilleans dead, although lower estimates place the toll at around 1,000–2,000.{{sfn|Braithwaite|2010|pp=86–87}} | |||
Hostilities concluded under the Bougainville Peace Agreement in 1998. The national (PNG) government agreed to the founding of the ] and to certain rights and authorities that the autonomous government would have over what became known as ], which includes outlying small islands in addition to ] itself. | |||
==Historical background (1969-1988)== | |||
The discovery of vast ] deposits in the Crown Prince Range on ] in 1969 led to the establishment of the huge ] by the Australian company ]. The ] began production in 1972 under the management of ], with Papua New Guinea as a 20% shareholder. At the time, the Panguna mine was the largest ] in the world. It provided over 45% of Papua New Guinea's national export revenue, incredibly important to the economy.<ref name=nfsa_background>{{cite web | title = Origins of the Bougainville Conflict | publisher = National Film and Sound Archive of Australia | url = http://dl.nfsa.gov.au/module/357/ | accessdate = 2013-06-16 }}</ref> | |||
==Background== | |||
The mine brought thousands of non-Bougainvilleans to the island, most of whom were Papua New Guineans, who were known as "red-skins" by the Bougainvilleans because of their red skin colour, in comparison to the black Bougainvilleans. Many "white-skins", mostly Australians, were also brought in to work the mine. This immigration caused further tension among the Bougainvilleans, who did not want foreigners on their land, especially the "red-skins," because of their cultural differences.<ref name=c-r_origins>{{cite web | author = Mary-Louise O'Callaghan | title = The origins of the conflict | publisher = Conciliation Resources | year = 2002 | url = http://www.c-r.org/accord-article/origins-conflict | accessdate = 2013-06-16 }}</ref> | |||
] is an ] of ], consisting of the main islands of ] and ] and numerous smaller islands. Geographically they form part of the ], but are politically separate from the independent country of ]. Bougainville was part of ], a ] of ], from the late 1800s until it was occupied by ] after the outbreak of ] in 1914. Australia was assigned a ] over German New Guinea in the ] in 1919. Under Australian rule, ] was first discovered on Bougainville in 1930.{{sfn|Regan|Griffin|2005|p=26}} The discovery of vast ] deposits in the Crown Prince Range on Bougainville island during the 1960s led to the establishment of the huge ] by the Australian company ]. In 1972, the Panguna mine began production under the management of ], with the government of Papua New Guinea as a 20% ]. At the time, the Panguna mine was the largest ] in the world and produced more than 45% of Papua New Guinea's ] revenue, making it vitally important to the national economy.<ref name=nfsa_background>{{cite web|title=Origins of the Bougainville Conflict|publisher=National Film and Sound Archive of Australia|url=http://dl.nfsa.gov.au/module/357/|access-date=16 June 2013}}</ref> | |||
Conflict began to emerge in Bougainville from the start of mining operations at Panguna as the mine recruited thousands of migrant workers to the island. Most were Papua New Guineans from the mainland, whom the Bougainvilleans referred to as "red-skins" because of their skin colour. By contrast, most native people of the island identified as "black." Many "white-skins", mostly Australian nationals, also came to work at the mine. The Bougainvilleans wanted neither the migrants nor immigrants on their land, especially the "red-skins" who they resented because of cultural differences between the groups.<ref name=c-r_origins>{{cite web|last=O'Callaghan|first= Mary-Louise|title=The origins of the conflict|publisher=Conciliation Resources|year=2002|url=http://www.c-r.org/accord-article/origins-conflict|access-date=16 June 2013}}</ref> Many of the local landowners were opposed to the mine because it attracted an influx of immigrant workers, the adverse environmental effects, and that most of the mine's profits left the island. Prior to Papua New Guinea's independence in 1975, Bougainville Island had attempted to ] from Papua New Guinea until representatives reached an agreement with the Australian administration for further ], which satisfied concerns at the time.{{sfn|Londey|2004|pp=215–216}} | |||
Along with racial & cultural differences, Bougainvilleans alleged that the mine was causing irreparable enviormental damage (an accusation in part supported by the discoloration & apparent pollution of a previously clean river near the mine, and the destruction of a large plot of fertile land to construct the Panguna mine). In return, the locals demanded $10 Billion, (the equivalent of over three times the mine's net value). | |||
==Secessionist conflict== | |||
Over the course of the mine's nearly twenty years of existence on the island, the locals allegedly received just $1,000 in wages of the mine's net value. | |||
By late 1988, tensions over the mine led to local violence in Bougainville. The government deployed the ] (RPNGC) Mobile Squads and elements of the ] (PNGDF).{{sfn|Londey|2004|p=216}} Although initially restricted to the area around the mine site, the conflict subsequently intensified.{{sfn|Wehner|Denoon|2001|p=3}} Both sides reported abuses against the native population during fighting between government forces and the rebels of the ] (BRA), and the conflict developed into a general separatist ]. The mine company closed the mine, and many non-Bougainvilleans left the island. Fighting continued for a year, during which widespread human rights violations were alleged to have occurred, including the burning of many villages.{{sfn|Londey|2004|p=216}} However, in early 1990 Papua New Guinea withdrew, leaving Bougainville in the control of the BRA.{{sfn|Londey|2004|p=216}} Despite agreeing to disarm and negotiate, ], the leader of the BRA, unilaterally declared independence in May 1990.{{sfn|Woodbury|2015|p=6}}{{sfn|Joint Standing Committee on Foreign Affairs, Defence and Trade|1999|p=23}} | |||
The PNG government subsequently imposed a blockade on Bougainville.{{sfn|Connell|2005|p=297}} It was enforced using ]s and ]s that had been supplied to PNG as aid by the Australian government in the late-1980s as part of a defence co-operation program underway since independence.{{sfn|Wilson|1994|p=32}}<ref>{{cite web |url=http://nautilus.org/publications/books/australian-forces-abroad/pacific-islands/pacific-patrol-boat-program/|title=Pacific patrol boat program|date=19 December 2011 |publisher=Nautilus Institute|access-date=7 August 2015}}</ref> Other Australian support, as part of its capacity-building effort, included funding for the PNGDF, provision of arms and ammunition, logistics, training, and some specialist and technical advisors and personnel. Similar assistance was also provided to the police.{{sfn|Raath|1991|pp=12–26}}{{refn|During this period Australian Defence Force (ADF) loan personnel filled a number of key positions in the PNGDF on a regular basis, and as a result they were often at least indirectly involved in supporting most PNGDF operations, including those on Bougainville.{{sfn|Raath|1991|p=13}} Five members of the ADF on loan or exchange with the PNGDF are reported to have visited Bougainville during the crisis. Their duties were restricted to the provision of technical advice.{{sfn|Raath|1991|p=18}}|group=Note}} The helicopters had been provided by Australia without weapons, and on the provision that they would not be used for combat. The PNGDF subsequently fitted machine guns in contravention of the agreement and later used them as gunships.{{sfn|Joint Standing Committee on Foreign Affairs, Defence and Trade|1999|p=23}}{{sfn|Howe|Kiste|1994|p=305}}{{sfn|Grey|2008|pp=259–260}}{{refn|The helicopters were reported to have been maintained and operated by a private company contracted to the PNGDF at the time,<ref name=Callick>{{cite news|last=Callick|first=Rowan|title=Battle intensifies over Bougainville copper|url=http://www.theaustralian.com.au/news/inquirer/battle-intensifies-over-bougainville-copper/story-e6frg6z6-1226094940146|newspaper=The Australian|publisher=News Corp Australia|location=Sydney|date=16 July 2011|issn=1038-8761}}</ref> and were flown by Australian and New Zealand civilian pilots.{{sfn|Braithwaite|2010|p=30}}|group=Note}} The blockade remained in effect until the ceasefire in 1994 (although it was informally continued for some parts of Bougainville until 1997).{{sfn|Joint Standing Committee on Foreign Affairs, Defence and Trade|1999|p=23}} | |||
In 1988, the leader of the local landowners association, ], voiced the islander's fears & demands during a meeting with ] & PNG government and corporate repesetatives and officials. It was there that his accusations were allegedly met with comic disbelief from the officials. | |||
Ona subsequently set up the Bougainville Interim Government (BIG), appointing himself president. The former premier of the provincial government, ], was appointed Vice-President.{{sfn|Joint Standing Committee on Foreign Affairs, Defence and Trade|1999|p=23}} The military commander of the BRA was Sam Kauona, a former PNGDF officer.{{sfn|Adams|2001|p=26}} Yet the BIG had little power, and the island began to descend into disarray.{{sfn|Woodbury|2015|p=6}}{{sfn|Londey|2004|p=216}} The command structure established by the BRA seldom had any real control over the various groups throughout the island that claimed to be part of the BRA.{{sfn|Wehner|Denoon|2001|p=4}} A number of ] that were affiliated with the BRA, equipped largely with weapons salvaged from the fighting in World War II, terrorized villages, engaging in murder, rape and pillage. Bougainville split into several factions,{{sfn|Braithwaite|2010|p=29}} as the conflict took on ethnic and separatist characteristics.{{sfn|Wehner|Denoon|2001|p=3}} | |||
Too make matters worse for the islanders, an indepedant ]-Australian inquiry into the accusations of pollution. Enraged at what he felt was corporate ignorance & corruption, Ona stormed out the meeting, stole over 45 kilograms of explosives from the mine, and created the ] (BRA), which soon began gierilla attacks against the mine. | |||
The divisions in the conflict were largely drawn along clan lines. There were 70–80 minor tribal conflicts for BIG to deal with in addition to the blockade.<ref name=Phillips>{{cite news|last=Phillips|first=Keri|title=Bougainville at a crossroads: independence and the mine|url=http://www.abc.net.au/radionational/programs/rearvision/bougainville-at-a-crossroads/6514544|date=2 June 2015|work=Rear Vision: Radio National|publisher=Australian Broadcasting Commission|access-date=7 August 2015}}</ref> As the BIG/BRA was dominated by the Nasioi clan, other islanders were suspicious of its goals, especially in north Bougainville.{{sfn|Woodbury|2015|p=6}} On the island of ], north of Bougainville, a local militia was formed which succeeded in driving out the BRA in September, with the help of Papuan troops. {{sfn|Wehner|Denoon|2001|p=4}} By the end of 1990, the PNGDF national forces controlled Buka, while the BRA controlled the remainder of Bougainville.{{sfn|Woodbury|2015|p=6}} Early attempts at resolving the conflict resulted in agreements being signed in 1990 and 1991; however, neither side honoured their terms.{{sfn|Joint Standing Committee on Foreign Affairs, Defence and Trade|1999|p=26}}{{sfn|Braithwaite|2010|p=32}} Meanwhile, the BRA leadership of Ona and Kauona fell out with some of the political leaders, such as Kabui.{{sfn|Braithwaite|2010|p=32}} Several other pro-government village militias, which together became known as the resistance and were armed by the PNGDF, forced the BRA out of their areas.{{sfn|Braithwaite|2010|pp=32–33}} During 1991–92, the PNGDF gradually returned to Bougainville, taking control of the north and southwest of the main island.{{sfn|Joint Standing Committee on Foreign Affairs, Defence and Trade|1999|p=25}} | |||
==Civil war== | |||
By the end of the year, the Panguna mine was deserted, but now, in it's place came dozens of armed PNG riot police (allegedly under the command of PNG Defence Force officer ], who would later serve as the commander of the ] (PNGDF) during the ] of 1997), arriving too the island with the purpose of arresting Ona, and re-opening the mine. Equally determined as the rebels, (as the Panguna mine provided the PNG government with over half it's yearly ]), they soon began to target villages they suspected harbored support for Ona with searches, beatings, ]s, & killings at the hands of the police becoming common place. Australia, also eager to support it's buisness interest, donated 5 ] helicopters (and pilots too operate them) too the PNG government, ostensibly, though, for non combat purposes. Soon after, the PNG army began to convert the helicopters into gunships, which they did simply tying a rope to the top of the roof of the helicopter's interior, next to the sliding doors, then tying a knot at the bottom of the rope, then expanding it so as to allow for a hole to form, then placing an ] through the hole, with the ] facing outwards.<ref>https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=PHoNTpDtyQM&index=982&list=LLItb2dLp-6NlYuBFl4AwvKg</ref><ref>https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=r2NCFQlsC-Y&list=LLItb2dLp-6NlYuBFl4AwvKg&index=1</ref> | |||
Papua New Guinea's policy towards Bougainville hardened after the defeat of the incumbent government at the 1992 elections. New prime minister ] took a considerably more hardline stance.{{sfn|Wehner|Denoon|2001|p=4}} In 1992–93, the PNGDF launched a number of unauthorised cross-border raids into the ] in pursuit of supporters of the BRA. Relations with the Solomon Islands deteriorated, and on one occasion PNG forces clashed with Solomon Island police, exchanging fire. On another the PNGDF troops landed on the island of Oema.{{sfn|May|Selochan|2004|p=172}} The PNGDF, in alliance with the resistance, reoccupied ], the provincial capital, in February 1993.{{sfn|Braithwaite|2010|p=33}} Papuan Foreign Minister ] attempted to gather a peacekeeping force from the nations of the Pacific, but Wingti quashed the idea. He subsequently ordered the army to retake the Panguna mine, and was initially successful. His government was short-lived, and in August 1994 was replaced as prime minister by ].{{sfn|May|1996|}} The assault on Panguna subsequently failed.{{sfn|Adams|2001|p=27}} The PNGDF increasingly sustained losses at the hands of the insurgents in the interior of the island, where the jungle limited the visibility and effectiveness of its patrols.{{sfn|Braithwaite|2010|p=33}} | |||
With civilian casualties from the police crackdown and subsequent raids by the Iroquois helicopter gunships increasing, so did the Bougainvilleans discontent with their government, and support of Francis Ona and his BRA, which by now had no shortage of recruits rallying under the banner of an independant Bougainville.{{cn|date=July 2015}} | |||
Chan announced his intention to find a peaceful solution to the conflict, arranging a ceasefire at a meeting with Kauona in the Solomon Islands in September. They agreed to hold a peace conference in Arawa that October, with security provided by an Australian-led ].<ref> ''Pacific Islands Treaty Series'' Pacific Islands Legal Information Institute. A facility of the ] School of Law</ref> However, the BIG leaders boycotted the conference, claiming that their safety could not be guaranteed.{{sfn|Londey|2004|pp=216–217}}{{sfn|Joint Standing Committee on Foreign Affairs, Defence and Trade|1999|pp=27–28}} In the absence of Ona, Kabui and Kauona emerged as more moderate BRA leaders.{{sfn|Joint Standing Committee on Foreign Affairs, Defence and Trade|1999|p=28}} Chan's government subsequently entered into negotiations with a group of chiefs from the Nasioi clan, headed by ], a former lawyer for the Panguna Landowners Association. This resulted in the establishment of a Bougainville Transitional Government in April 1995, with its capital in Buka.{{sfn|Braithwaite|2010|p=38}} Miriung was named as the Premier of a compromise government but ultimately was "unable to bridge the gap between hardliners on both sides".{{sfn|Adams|2001|pp=28–29}} | |||
By May 1990, with military & police casualties in the dozens, Papua New Guinea withdrew & imposed a blockade on Bougainville, enforced by the 5 Iroquois helicopters, and 4 ]s that had been purchased from the Australian government in the early eighties.{{cn|date=July 2015}} | |||
Meanwhile, Chan was beginning to get frustrated at the lack of progress.{{sfn|Adams|2001|p=29}} Following a round of negotiations in ], Australia, in September and December 1995, between the BRA, BTG and the PNG government, in January 1996 the BRA/BIG representatives, including Kabui, were fired on by PNGDF forces after returning to Bougainville.{{sfn|Braithwaite|2010|p=39}} Later, the home of the BIG's representative in the Solomon Islands, Martin Mirori, was firebombed. The BRA subsequently undertook retaliatory action in northern Bougainville and on Buka.{{sfn|Lal|Fortune|2000|p=265}} Chan decided to abandon attempts at peace, and on 21 March 1996, approved the lifting of the ceasefire on Bougainville.{{sfn|Dorney|1998|p=109}} In an address to the nation, he subsequently resolved to achieve a military solution.{{sfn|Lal|Fortune|2000|p=265}} | |||
] responded by unilaterally ], and set up the Bougainville Interim Government (BIG), but it had little power, and the island began to descend into disarray. The command structure set up by the BRA seldom had any real control over the various groups throughout the island that claimed to be part of the BRA. A number of ''{{lang|tpi|raskol}}'' (criminal) gangs that were affiliated with the BRA, equipped largely with weapons salvaged from the fighting in ], terrorized villages, engaging in murder, rape and pillage. Bougainville split into several factions, and a civil war began. {{cn|date=July 2015}} | |||
==Sandline affair== | |||
Much of the division in this fighting were largely along clan-lines; the BIG/BRA was dominated by the Nasioi clan, causing other islanders to view it with suspicion. On the island of ], north of Bougainville a local militia was formed which succeeded in driving out the BRA with the help of Papuan troops, during a bloody offensive in September. Multiple agreements were signed and not honored by any side. The BRA leadership of Ona and Kauona fell out with some of the political leaders, such as Kabui. Several other village militias, which together became known as the resistance, armed by the PNG Defence Force, forced the BRA out of their areas.{{cn|date=July 2015}} | |||
{{main|Sandline affair}} | |||
With the government of Australia declining to provide direct military support and advocating a political solution to the conflict, Chan sought alternatives.{{sfn|Adams|2001|p=28}} The ] began in March 1996, when the government of Papua New Guinea attempted to hire mercenaries from ], a London-based ], that in turn employed the South African military contractor ]. As negotiations with Sandline continued,{{sfn|Braithwaite|2010|pp=40–43}} in July the PNGDF launched a new offensive on Bougainville. The attack failed, suffering from poor logistical planning, a lack of intelligence on BRA locations and mounting casualties.{{sfn|Joint Standing Committee on Foreign Affairs, Defence and Trade|1999|p=29}} | |||
In September, BRA militants attacked a PNG army camp at Kangu Beach with the help of members of a local militia group, killing twelve PNGDF soldiers and taking five hostage. The incident was the largest single loss in an operation for the PNGDF during the conflict.{{sfn|Braithwaite|2010|pp=41–42}} The following month, Theodore Miriung was assassinated.{{sfn|Braithwaite|2010|p=40}} A subsequent independent investigation implicated members of the PNGDF and the resistance militias.{{sfn|Roberts|2002|p=40}}{{sfn|Adams|2001|pp=28–29}} Discipline and morale was rapidly deteriorating within the ranks of the PNG military, and they were withdrawn in August after the offensive ended in a stalemate.{{sfn|Joint Standing Committee on Foreign Affairs, Defence and Trade|1999|p=29}}{{sfn|Braithwaite|2010|p=41}} By this time the PNGDF, with assistance of the Bougainville Resistance Forces, was in "reasonable" control of approximately 40% of the island, yet they remained vulnerable to guerilla attacks with the BRA establishing an ascendency over government forces.{{sfn|Aspinall|Jeffrey|Regan|2013|p=122}} | |||
Papua New Guinea's policy towards Bougainville hardened after the defeat of the incumbent government at the 1992 elections. New Prime Minister ] took a considerably more hardline stance, and angered the ], after a bloody raid on one island that was alleged to be supporting the Bougainvilleans. The Papuan army, in alliance with the resistance, succeeded in retaking ], the provincial capital, in January 1993. Papuan Foreign Minister ] attempted to gather a peacekeeping force from the nations of the Pacific, but Wingti quashed the idea. He subsequently ordered the army to retake the Panguna mine, and was initially successful. However, his government was short-lived, and in August 1994 was replaced as Prime Minister by Chan.{{cn|date=July 2015}} | |||
Chan decided that his best chance to recapture the Panguna mine was with the Sandline mercenaries, and a contract was signed in January 1997. News of his intention to hire mercenaries was leaked to the Australian press and international condemnation followed. Although initially supportive, the commander of the PNGDF, ], then opposed the plan, and ordered all the mercenaries to be detained on arrival. In the resulting saga, Papua New Guinea came close to a military coup, with the parliament surrounded by demonstrators and many military personnel. The Australian government placed pressure on PNG to terminate the contract with Sandline, and intercepted the heavy equipment that was being flown in for the mercenaries. Chan resigned and the mercenaries were removed from Papua New Guinean territory.{{sfn|Braithwaite|2010|pp=43–44}} | |||
Chan announced his intention to find a peaceful solution to the conflict, meeting with Kauona in the ] and arranging for a peace conference to be held in Arawa that October, with security provided by an ]n-led ]. However, the BIG leaders boycotted the conference, claiming that their safety could not be guaranteed. In their absence, Chan's government entered into negotiations with a group of chiefs from the Nasioi clan, headed by Theodore Miriung, a former lawyer for the Panguna Landowners Association. This resulted in the establishment of a Bougainville Transitional Government in April 1995, with its capital in Buka. Miriung was named Prime Minister of the new government, but frequently clashed with Chan by criticizing abuses committed by Papuan soldiers.{{cn|date=July 2015}} | |||
The conflict continued until 1997.{{sfn|Aspinall|Jeffrey|Regan|2013|p=122}} There were approximately 800 PNGDF and 150 "riot squad" personnel deployed on the island by this time, while the BRF probably had around 1,500 men. These men were armed by the PNGDF and operated mostly in a "home guard" role, with only a small number involved in patrolling with the PNGDF or in directly involved in the fighting. BRA strength was estimated at 2,000 men armed with around 500 modern weapons (mostly captured or bought from PNGDF or "riot squad" personnel) and several thousand World War II vintage or homemade weapons.{{sfn|Londey|2004|p=219}}{{sfn|Wehner|Denoon|2001|p=4}} | |||
By 1996, Chan was beginning to get frustrated at the lack of progress. In January, following a round of negotiations in ], ], between the BRA, BTG and the PNG government, a PNG defense force patrol boat fired upon Kabui and the other delegates when they returned to Bougainville. The next month, the home of the BIG's representative in the Solomon Islands, Martin Mirori, was firebombed. Chan decided to abandon attempts at peace, and on 21 March 1996, he gave the go-ahead for an invasion of Bougainville, under new commander of the PNG defence forces, ].{{cn|date=July 2015}} | |||
== |
==Ceasefire and aftermath== | ||
] | |||
Under pressure from human rights groups, the governments of ] and ] declined to provide military support, forcing Chan to begin to look elsewhere. Thus began the ], where the government of Papua New Guinea attempted to hire mercenaries from ], a London-based ], composed primarily of former ] and ] special forces soldiers, which had been involved in the civil wars in ] and ]. With negotiations with Sandline ongoing and incomplete Chan ordered the military to invade anyway. In July the PNG defense forces attempted to seize Aropa airport, the island's principal airfield. However, the attack was a disaster, suffering from poor logistical planning and determined resistance by BRA fighters. In September, BRA militants attacked a PNG army camp at Kangu Beach with the help of members of a local militia group, killing twelve PNGDF soldiers and taking five hostage. The following month, Theodore Miriung was assassinated. Although Chan's government attempted to blame the BRA, a subsequent independent investigation implicated members of the PNG defense force and the resistance militias. Discipline and morale was rapidly deteriorating within the ranks of the PNG military, which had been unable to make any substantial progress in penetrating the mountainous interior of the island and reopening the Panguna mine. Chan decided that his best chance to recapture the Panguna mine was with the Sandline mercenaries. | |||
The impetus for peace was the election of Prime Minister ], who had previously opposed a military solution. In mid-1997, talks were held in ] and ] in ] resulting in a truce, as well as agreement to de-militarize the island. An unarmed Truce Monitoring Group (TMG) led by New Zealand and supported by Australia, Fiji and Vanuatu was subsequently deployed.{{sfn|Londey|2004|pp=219–220}} Since then a ceasefire has largely held on the island. Breaking with Ona, Kauona and Kabui entered into peace talks with the Skate government in ], New Zealand, which culminated in the signing of the Lincoln Agreement in January 1998.{{sfn|Londey|2004|pp=220–222}} Under the terms of the agreement, PNG began to withdraw its soldiers from the island, and steps were taken to disarm the BRA and BRF, while a multinational ] (PMG) under Australian leadership was deployed, replacing the TMG. Legislation to establish a Bougainville Reconciliation Government failed to win approval in the PNG Parliament in December 1998.{{sfn|Wehner|Denoon|2001|pp=10–12}} | |||
A Bougainville provincial government of the same status as the other eighteen provinces of Papua New Guinea, with ] as Governor, was established in January 1999. However, this government was suspended after facing opposition from both the BIA/BRA and BTG. Arrangements were made for the creation of a modified government, to be established in two phases: the first being the Bougainville Constituent Assembly and the second being the elections for the Bougainville People's Congress. Elections were held in May, and Kabui was named president. However, the legality of this was contested by Momis, with the support of a number of tribal chiefs and Resistance leaders. In November, a new body, the Bougainville Interim Provincial Government, was established, headed by Momis. Rapprochment between Kauona and Momis led to an agreement through which the two bodies would act in consultation. An organised reconciliation process began at the tribal level in the early 2000s.{{sfn|Wehner|Denoon|2001|pp=12–14}} | |||
However, this too turned out to be a disaster. News of his intention to hire mercenaries was leaked to the Australian press, and international condemnation followed. Furthermore, when ] heard of the news, he ordered the detaining of all the mercenaries on arrival. In the resulting saga, Prime Minister Chan was forced to resign, and Papua New Guinea came very close to a military coup. Indeed, the officers in charge had the parliament surrounded, but steadfastly refused to go any further. In the end, however, they got their way, with Chan's resignation and the removal of the mercenaries from Papua New Guinean territory. | |||
A peace agreement was reached in 2001, leading to a roadmap to the creation of an ] (ABG).{{sfn|Woodbury|2015|p=7}} Yet Ona refused to play any part in the peace process, and, with a small minority of fighters, broke away from the BRA.{{sfn|Woodbury|2015|p=6}} Throughout the decade, he continued to resist overtures to participate in the new government, occupying an area around the mine which remained a no-go zone and declaring himself 'king' of Bougainville before dying of malaria in 2005.<ref>{{cite web|last=McLeod|first=Shane|title=Bougainville – The Man Who Would Be King (Transcript)|url=http://www.abc.net.au/foreign/content/2005/s1372909.htm|date=17 May 2005|work=Foreign Correspondent|publisher=Australian Broadcasting Commission|access-date=9 August 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304043102/http://www.abc.net.au/foreign/content/2005/s1372909.htm|archive-date=2016-03-04|url-status=dead}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|last=Skehan|first=Craig|title=Ona's death paves way for mining to resume |url=http://www.smh.com.au/news/world/onas-death-paves-way-for-mining-to-resume/2005/07/25/1122143784481.html|date=26 July 2005|publisher=The Sydney Morning Herald|access-date=9 August 2015}}</ref> Elections for the first ABG were held in May and June 2005 with Joseph Kabui elected president.{{sfn|de Matos|Gerster|2009|p=243}} | |||
Sandline sparked a lowpoint in the Bougainvillean war. Since 1997, a ceasefire has largely held on the island. Breaking with Ona, Kauona and Kabui entered into peace talks with the government of ] in ], ], which culminated in the signing of the Lincoln Agreement in January 1998. Under the terms of the agreement, PNG began to withdraw its soldiers from the island and a multinational ] was deployed. Legislation to establish a Bougainville Reconciliation Government failed to win approval in the PNG Parliament. | |||
In March 2006, Dr ] of the ] working group on mercenaries asked ] and Papua New Guinea for permission to send a team to investigate allegations about the presence of former Fijian soldiers in Bougainville.<ref>{{cite press release|title=Bougainville: UN Asks for Invitation to Investigate Mercenaries|url=http://www.unpo.org/article/3886|date=2 March 2006|publisher=Unrepresented Nations and Peoples Organization (UNPO)|access-date=7 August 2015}}</ref> In 2011 it was reported that former PNG Prime Minister Sir ] had alleged that Rio Tinto played a role in the civil war by helping finance the actions of the PNG government in Bougainville during the conflict in an attempt to allow the mine to be reopened.<ref name=Callick/> The Bougainville government was given control of mining on the island following the passage of the ''Bougainville Mining Act'' in March 2015; however, the Panguna mine remains closed.<ref name=Phillips/> | |||
A Bougainville provincial government of the same status as the other eighteen provinces of Papua New Guinea, with ] as Governor, was established in January 1999. However, this government was suspended after facing opposition from both the BIA/BRA and BTG. Arrangements were made for the creation of a modified government, to be established in two phases-the first being the Bougainville Constituent Assembly and the second being the elections for the Bougainville People's Congress. Elections were held in May, and Kabui was named President. However, the legality of this was contested by Momis, with the support of a number of tribal chiefs and Resistance leaders. In November, a new body, the Bougainville Interim Provincial Government, was established, headed by ]. Rapprochment between Kauona and ] led to an agreement in which the two bodies would act in consultation. An organised reconciliation process began at the tribal level in the early 2000. | |||
The war has been described by ], ] of the Autonomous Region of Bougainville, as the largest conflict in ] since the end of World War II.{{sfn|Woodbury|2015|p=6}} PNGDF casualties during the fighting were believed to include more than 300 killed.{{sfn|Aspinall|Jeffrey|Regan|2013|p=123}} Meanwhile, the Australian government estimated that anywhere between 15,000–20,000 people could have died in the Bougainville conflict. However, more conservative estimates put the number of combat deaths as 1,000–2,000.{{sfn|Braithwaite|2010|pp=86–87}} Other sources estimated that around 10,000 Bougainvilleans died of violence or disease during this period, while over 60,000 Bougainvilleans were living in internally displaced persons' camps by the mid-1990s and thousands more had fled to nearby Solomon Islands.{{sfn|Woodbury|2015|p=6}} | |||
] refused to play any part in the peace process, and, with a small minority of fighters, continued to occupy the area around Panguna mine. Throughout the decade, Ona continued to resist overtures to participate in the new government, declaring himself 'king' of Bougainville before dying of malaria in 2005. In March 2005, Dr ] of the ] working group on mercenaries asked ] and Papua New Guinea for permission to send a team to investigate the presence of former Fijian soldiers in Bougainville. As part of the current peace settlement, a referendum on independence will be held sometime in the 2010s, with an apparent small minority of fighters left in the centre of the island, and enough instability to ensure that the mine remains closed. | |||
==Independence referendum== | |||
The Australian government has estimated that anywhere between 15,000 to 20,000 people could have died in the Bougainville Conflict. More conservative estimates put the number of combat deaths as 1-2,000.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://epress.anu.edu.au/apps/bookworm/view/Reconciliation+and+Architectures+of+Commitment%3A+Sequencing+peace+in+Bougainville/5301/ch07.xhtml|title='7. The cost of the conflict' in Reconciliation and Architectures of Commitment: Sequencing peace in Bougainville by John Braithwaite... - ANU Press|publisher=|accessdate=26 April 2015}}</ref> | |||
{{Main|2019 Bougainvillean independence referendum}} | |||
A condition of the peace agreement was that a referendum on Bougainville's political status would be held within 20 years, scheduled sometime between 2015 and 2020.{{sfn|Woodbury|2015|p=3}} In January 2016 the ] and Government of Papua New Guinea agreed to establish the Bougainville Referendum Commission. The Commission was tasked with making preparations for a vote on Bougainville's future political status in 2019.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.radionz.co.nz/international/pacific-news/323054/signing-paves-way-for-bougainville-independence-vote|title=Signing paves way for Bougainville independence vote|date=25 January 2017|website=radionz.co.nz|access-date=19 May 2017}}</ref> In late November and early December 2019, a non-binding ] was held with an overwhelming majority voting for independence.<ref name=":4">{{Cite news|url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-50739203|title=Bougainville referendum: PNG region votes overwhelmingly for independence|date=11 December 2019|work=BBC|access-date=11 December 2019}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2019/dec/11/bougainville-referendum-region-votes-overwhelmingly-for-independence-from-papua-new-guinea|title=Bougainville referendum: region votes overwhelmingly for independence from Papua New Guinea|last=Lyons|first=Kate|date=11 December 2019|work=The Guardian|access-date=12 December 2019|language=en-GB|issn=0261-3077}}</ref> | |||
In July 2021, an agreement was reached between the governments of Papua New Guinea and Bougainville, in which Bougainville will gain independence in 2027 pending approval of the PNG government.<ref name="postcourier.com.pg">{{Cite web |last=Kenneth |first=Gorethy |date=2021-07-07 |title=PNG, B'ville agree on latter's independence |url=https://postcourier.com.pg/png-bville-agree-on-latters-independence/ |access-date=2021-07-07 |website=Post Courier |language=en-US}}</ref><ref name= "interpreter">{{Cite web|last1=Mckenna|first1=Kylie|last2=Ariku|first2=Emelda|date=19 November 2021|title=Bougainville independence: recalling promises of international help|url=https://www.lowyinstitute.org/the-interpreter/bougainville-independence-recalling-promises-international-help|url-status=live|access-date=3 December 2021|website=The Interpreter|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211118233551/https://www.lowyinstitute.org/the-interpreter/bougainville-independence-recalling-promises-international-help |archive-date=18 November 2021 }}</ref> | |||
==Cultural depictions== | |||
The area of ] has sine been closed off by ] landowners, represented by the Me'ekamui Tribal Government and remains a "no go zone." The mine is controlled by the Me'ekamui Tribal Government of Unity and it's leaders, President Philip Miriori and Vice Presidents, Phillip Takaung and Stanley Ona, son of Francis Ona. The area is secured by the 500-strong Me'ekamui Defence Force (mostly former BRA & locals). The MDF is led by Commander Moses Pipero. Both President Miriori and Commander Pipero were visited and acknowledged by large feast and speeches held as part of the historic visit by the ] on 29 January 2014 to Panguna. | |||
The Bougainville conflict was depicted in the 2006 novel '']'', by the New Zealand journalist ], who had written about the war but had not been able to visit PNG. It was made into a film in 2012, entitled '']'', starring ] and New Guinean actress Xzannjah Matsi.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.screendaily.com/5004063.article|title=Andrew Adamson to direct adaptation of Mister Pip|website=www.screendaily.com|access-date=2016-04-09}}</ref> | |||
==See also== | ==See also== | ||
{{portal|New Guinea}} | |||
*] | *] | ||
*], a similar conflict in ]'s ] region | |||
==Notes== | |||
'''Footnotes''' | |||
{{Reflist|group=Note}} | |||
'''Citations''' | |||
{{reflist|20em}} | |||
==References== | ==References== | ||
{{ |
{{Refbegin}} | ||
*{{cite book|last=Adams|first=Rebecca|title=Peace on Bougainville: Truce Monitoring Group|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Wy7eGt6RVIkC|year=2001|publisher=Centre for Strategic Studies New Zealand, Victoria University Press|isbn=9780864734082}} | |||
*{{cite book|last1=Aspinall|first1=Edward|last2=Jeffrey|first2=Robin|last3=Regan|first3=Anthony J.|title=Diminishing Conflicts in Asia and the Pacific: Why Some Subside and Others Don't|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=aKb9cFFu1xAC|year=2013|publisher=Routledge|location=London|isbn=9780415670319}} | |||
*{{cite book|last=Braithwaite|first=John|title=Reconciliation and Architectures of Commitment: Sequencing Peace in Bougainville|url=https://press.anu.edu.au/publications/series/peacebuilding-compared/reconciliation-and-architectures-commitment|year=2010|publisher=ANU Press|location=Canberra, Australian Capital Territory|isbn=9781921666681}} | |||
*{{cite book|last=Connell|first=John|title=Papua New Guinea: The Struggle for Development|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=jMeHAgAAQBAJ|year=2005|publisher=Routledge|location=New York|isbn=9780415054010}} | |||
*{{cite book|last1=de Matos|first1=Christine|last2=Gerster|first2=Robin|title=Occupying the "Other": Australia and Military Occupations from Japan to Iraq|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=m58YBwAAQBAJ|year=2009|publisher=Cambridge Scholars Publishing|location=Newcastle upon Tyne, United Kingdom|isbn=9781443804387}} | |||
*{{cite book|last=Dorney|first=Sean|title=The Sandline Affair|year=1998|publisher=ABC Books|location=Sydney|isbn=9780733307010}} | |||
*{{cite book |last=Grey |first=Jeffrey |title=A Military History of Australia |publisher=Cambridge University Press |location=Port Melbourne |year=2008 |edition=Third |isbn=978-0-521-69791-0}} | |||
*{{cite book|last1=Howe|first1=K.R.|last2=Kiste|first2=Robert C.|title=Tides of History: The Pacific Islands in the Twentieth Century|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=P-ybBDLbKJIC&q=four+Iroquois+Australia+Papua+New+Guinea+1989|year=1994|publisher=University of Hawaii Press|location=Honolulu|isbn=9780824815974}} | |||
*{{cite book|author=Joint Standing Committee on Foreign Affairs, Defence and Trade|title=Bougainville: The Peace Process and Beyond|url=http://aphnew.aph.gov.au/Parliamentary_Business/Committees/House_of_Representatives_Committees?url=jfadt/bougainville/bvrepindx.htm|year=1999|publisher=Commonwealth of Australia|location=Canberra|isbn=9780642366122}}{{Dead link|date=June 2019 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }} | |||
*{{cite book|last1=Lal|first1=Brij V.|last2=Fortune|first2=Kate|title=The Pacific Islands: An Encyclopedia|volume=1|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=T5pPpJl8E5wC|year=2000|publisher=University of Hawaii Press|location=Honolulu|isbn=9780824822651}} | |||
*{{cite book|last=Londey|first=Peter|title=Other People's Wars: A History of Australian Peacekeeping|year=2004|publisher=Allen & Unwin|location=Crows Nest, New South Wales|isbn=1865086517}} | |||
*{{cite book|last=May|first=Ronald James|title=The Situation on Bougainville: Implications for Papua New Guinea, Australia and the Region|url=http://www.aph.gov.au/sitecore/content/Home/About_Parliament/Parliamentary_Departments/Parliamentary_Library/Publications_Archive/CIB/CIB9697/97cib9|series=Current Issues Brief 9 1996–97|year=1996|publisher=Parliamentary Research Service|location=Canberra|oclc=221898325|access-date=2015-08-10|archive-date=2019-12-11|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191211214715/https://www.aph.gov.au/sitecore/content/Home/About_Parliament/Parliamentary_Departments/Parliamentary_Library/Publications_Archive/CIB/CIB9697/97cib9|url-status=dead}} | |||
*{{cite book|last1=May|first1=Ronald James|last2=Selochan|first2=Viberto|title=The Military and Democracy in Asia and the Pacific|url=https://press.anu.edu.au/publications/military-and-democracy-asia-and-pacific|year=2004|publisher=ANU E Press|location=Canberra|isbn=9781920942007}} | |||
* {{cite journal|last=Raath|first=Niki|title=Moral Support? Australia's Support to Papua New Guinea's Internal Security Problems|journal=Issues Brief|url=https://www.aph.gov.au/binaries/library/pubs/bp/1991/91bp33.pdf|date=19 December 1991|publisher=Parliamentary Research Service|location=Canberra|issn=1037-2938}} | |||
* {{cite book|editor-last1=Regan|editor-first1=Anthony|editor-last2=Griffin|editor-first2=Helga|title=Bougainville Before the Conflict|year=2005|publisher=Pandanus Books|location=Canberra|isbn=9781740761383}} | |||
*{{cite thesis|last=Roberts|first=John|title=Reporting Military Conflict and Human Rights Abuse: The Australian Press and Bougainville, 1996|url=https://researchbank.rmit.edu.au/eserv/rmit:161071/Roberts.pdf|date=2002|degree=Master of Social Science|publisher=RMIT University|access-date=2015-08-10|archive-date=2021-12-05|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211205034842/https://researchbank.rmit.edu.au/eserv/rmit:161071/Roberts.pdf|url-status=dead}} | |||
*{{cite book|last1=Wehner|first1=Monica|last2=Denoon|first2=Donald|title=Without a Gun: Australians' Experiences Monitoring Peace in Bougainville, 1997–2001|year=2001|publisher=Pandanus Books|location=Canberra|isbn=1740760131}} | |||
*{{cite book|last=Wilson|first=Stewart|title=Military Aircraft of Australia|year=1994|publisher=Aerospace Publications|location=Weston Creek, Australian Capital Territory|isbn=1-875671-08-0}} | |||
*{{cite book|last=Woodbury|first=Jo|title=The Bougainville Independence Referendum: Assessing the Risks and Challenges Before, During and After the Referendum|url=http://www.defence.gov.au/ADC/Publications/IndoPac/Woodbury%20paper%20(IPSD%20version).pdf|series=Indo-Pacific Strategy Papers|date=January 2015|publisher=Centre for Defence and Strategic Studies (CDSS), Australian Defence College|location=Canberra}} | |||
{{Refend}} | |||
==Further reading== | |||
{{Refbegin}} | |||
* {{cite book|last=Bowd|first=Reuben|title=Doves over the Pacific: In Pursuit of Peace and Stability in Bougainville|year=2007|publisher=Australian Military Historical Publications|location=Loftus, New South Wales|isbn=9780980320480}} | |||
* {{cite book|last=Breen|first=Bob|title=The Good Neighbour: Australian Peace Support Operations in the Pacific Islands, 1980–2006|series=]|volume=V|year=2016|publisher=Cambridge University Press|location=Port Melbourne, Victoria|isbn=978-1-107-01971-3}} | |||
*{{cite journal|last=Lavaka Ata|first=Ulukalala|title=The Bougainville Crisis and PNG-Australia relations|url=http://epublications.bond.edu.au/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1041&context=cm|journal=Culture Mandala: The Bulletin of the Centre for East-West Cultural and Economic Studies|publisher=Centre for East-West Cultural and Economic Studies, School of Humanities and Social Sciences, Bond University|location=Gold Coast, Queensland|volume=3|issue=1|date=1 January 1998|pages=41–55|issn=1322-6916|access-date=9 August 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160424012826/http://epublications.bond.edu.au/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1041&context=cm|archive-date=24 April 2016|url-status=dead}} | |||
{{Refend}} | |||
==External links== | |||
*{{cite AV media|last=Coles-Janess|first=Wayne|title=Bougainville "Our Island, Our Fight"|url=http://www.pireport.org/articles/1999/05/11/bougainville-our-island-our-fight|year=1998|publisher=Ipso-facto Productions|access-date=2019-06-17|archive-date=2020-07-27|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200727130716/http://www.pireport.org/articles/1999/05/11/bougainville-our-island-our-fight|url-status=dead}} | |||
*{{cite AV media|last=Coles-Janess|first=Wayne|title=Bougainville "Sandline"|url=https://www.abc.net.au/foreign/ |year=1997|publisher= ABC and Ipso-facto Productions}} | |||
*{{cite AV media|last=Coles-Janess|first=Wayne|title=Bougainville "Dirty War"|url=https://www.abc.net.au/foreign/ |year=1994|publisher= ABC and Ipso-facto Productions}} | |||
*{{cite AV media|last=Coles-Janess|first=Wayne|title=Bougainville "Forgotten"|url=https://www.abc.net.au/foreign/ |year=1997|publisher= ABC and Ipso-facto Productions}} | |||
*{{cite web | |||
|url = https://kokodafoundation.wildapricot.org/Resources/Documents/SC10-2.pdf | |||
|title = The Military in Papua New Guinea: A 'Culture of Instability' But No Coup | |||
|work = ] | |||
|author1 = Ron J. May | |||
|author2 = Nicole Haley | |||
|date = 2014 | |||
|volume = 10 | |||
|number = 2 | |||
|pages = 58, 59, 61, 62 | |||
|access-date = 2020-11-11 | |||
|quote = Shortly after this, the acting PNGDF chief of staff, Colonel Leo Nuia, publicly rebuked the defence minister, saying he {{'}}should refrain from making wild statements on matters affecting the operations of the soldiers and police{{'}} on Bougainville. <!-- | |||
As the Bougainville conflict dragged on, strains in the civil-military relationship were clearly evident. In April 1991, following peace talks between the BRA and the government which resulted in a joint commitment to resolution of the conflict as set out in the Honiara Declaration, a group of soldiers under the command of hardline Colonel Nuia made an unauthorised landing on north Bougainville. They launched an attack on the BRA, which clearly violated the Declaration and jeopardised the peace process. In June 1991 Nuia was dismissed (subsequently he was reinstated, dismissed again in 1996, and later reinstated as PNGDF commander). Bougainvillean minister for provincial affairs John Momis supported the action against Nuia, saying, "If we don't put a stop to it, we cannot stop a coup". But Nuia's removal did not stop the PNGDF from defying the government in blocking access to Bougainville, conducting raids across the border into Solomon Islands, and in 1996 being involved in the murder of the premier of the Bougainville Transitional Government established in the previous year. --> | |||
|archive-date = 2021-12-05 | |||
|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20211205023913/https://kokodafoundation.wildapricot.org/Resources/Documents/SC10-2.pdf | |||
|url-status = dead | |||
}} | |||
{{Authority control}} | |||
{{Post-Cold War Asian conflicts}} | |||
{{Post-Cold War European conflicts}} | |||
] | |||
] | ] | ||
] | ] | ||
] | ] | ||
] | ] | ||
] | |||
] | ] | ||
] | ] | ||
] | |||
] | |||
] | |||
] |
Latest revision as of 16:26, 15 November 2024
1988–1998 armed conflict in Papua New Guinea For the fighting on the island during World War II, see Bougainville campaign.
Bougainville conflict | |||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
District map of Bougainville (North Solomons) | |||||||
| |||||||
Belligerents | |||||||
Australia Indonesia |
Bougainville Interim Government (BIG) Supported by:Solomon Islands Fiji (alleged) | ||||||
Commanders and leaders | |||||||
Julius Chan Jerry Singirok (WIA) Paias Wingti Bill Skate Rabbie Namaliu |
Francis Ona Sam Kauona Theodore Miriung † Ishmael Toroama Joseph Kabui | ||||||
Strength | |||||||
~800 soldiers 150 police Several thousand resistance fighters 4 UH-1 Iroquois helicopters 4 Pacific-class patrol boats | ~2,000 | ||||||
Casualties and losses | |||||||
300+ PNGDF soldiers killed Several thousand wounded | 1,000–2,000 fighters killed | ||||||
Estimates vary between 15,000–20,000 Bougainvilleans dead |
Part of a series on the |
---|
History of Bougainville |
The Bougainville conflict, also known as the Bougainville Civil War, was a multi-layered armed conflict fought from 1988 to 1998 in the North Solomons Province of Papua New Guinea (PNG) between PNG and the secessionist forces of the Bougainville Revolutionary Army (BRA), and between the BRA and other armed groups on Bougainville. The conflict was described by Bougainvillean President John Momis as the largest conflict in Oceania since the end of World War II in 1945, with an estimated 15,000–20,000 Bougainvilleans dead, although lower estimates place the toll at around 1,000–2,000.
Hostilities concluded under the Bougainville Peace Agreement in 1998. The national (PNG) government agreed to the founding of the Autonomous Bougainville Government and to certain rights and authorities that the autonomous government would have over what became known as Bougainville Province, which includes outlying small islands in addition to Bougainville Island itself.
Background
Bougainville is an autonomous region of Papua New Guinea, consisting of the main islands of Bougainville and Buka and numerous smaller islands. Geographically they form part of the Solomon Islands archipelago, but are politically separate from the independent country of Solomon Islands. Bougainville was part of German New Guinea, a protectorate of Imperial Germany, from the late 1800s until it was occupied by Australia after the outbreak of World War I in 1914. Australia was assigned a League of Nations mandate over German New Guinea in the Treaty of Versailles in 1919. Under Australian rule, lode gold was first discovered on Bougainville in 1930. The discovery of vast copper ore deposits in the Crown Prince Range on Bougainville island during the 1960s led to the establishment of the huge Panguna mine by the Australian company Conzinc Rio Tinto. In 1972, the Panguna mine began production under the management of Bougainville Copper Ltd, with the government of Papua New Guinea as a 20% shareholder. At the time, the Panguna mine was the largest open cut mine in the world and produced more than 45% of Papua New Guinea's export revenue, making it vitally important to the national economy.
Conflict began to emerge in Bougainville from the start of mining operations at Panguna as the mine recruited thousands of migrant workers to the island. Most were Papua New Guineans from the mainland, whom the Bougainvilleans referred to as "red-skins" because of their skin colour. By contrast, most native people of the island identified as "black." Many "white-skins", mostly Australian nationals, also came to work at the mine. The Bougainvilleans wanted neither the migrants nor immigrants on their land, especially the "red-skins" who they resented because of cultural differences between the groups. Many of the local landowners were opposed to the mine because it attracted an influx of immigrant workers, the adverse environmental effects, and that most of the mine's profits left the island. Prior to Papua New Guinea's independence in 1975, Bougainville Island had attempted to secede from Papua New Guinea until representatives reached an agreement with the Australian administration for further decentralization, which satisfied concerns at the time.
Secessionist conflict
By late 1988, tensions over the mine led to local violence in Bougainville. The government deployed the Royal Papua New Guinea Constabulary (RPNGC) Mobile Squads and elements of the Papua New Guinea Defence Force (PNGDF). Although initially restricted to the area around the mine site, the conflict subsequently intensified. Both sides reported abuses against the native population during fighting between government forces and the rebels of the Bougainville Revolutionary Army (BRA), and the conflict developed into a general separatist insurgency. The mine company closed the mine, and many non-Bougainvilleans left the island. Fighting continued for a year, during which widespread human rights violations were alleged to have occurred, including the burning of many villages. However, in early 1990 Papua New Guinea withdrew, leaving Bougainville in the control of the BRA. Despite agreeing to disarm and negotiate, Francis Ona, the leader of the BRA, unilaterally declared independence in May 1990.
The PNG government subsequently imposed a blockade on Bougainville. It was enforced using UH-1 Iroquois helicopters and Pacific-class patrol boats that had been supplied to PNG as aid by the Australian government in the late-1980s as part of a defence co-operation program underway since independence. Other Australian support, as part of its capacity-building effort, included funding for the PNGDF, provision of arms and ammunition, logistics, training, and some specialist and technical advisors and personnel. Similar assistance was also provided to the police. The helicopters had been provided by Australia without weapons, and on the provision that they would not be used for combat. The PNGDF subsequently fitted machine guns in contravention of the agreement and later used them as gunships. The blockade remained in effect until the ceasefire in 1994 (although it was informally continued for some parts of Bougainville until 1997).
Ona subsequently set up the Bougainville Interim Government (BIG), appointing himself president. The former premier of the provincial government, Joseph Kabui, was appointed Vice-President. The military commander of the BRA was Sam Kauona, a former PNGDF officer. Yet the BIG had little power, and the island began to descend into disarray. The command structure established by the BRA seldom had any real control over the various groups throughout the island that claimed to be part of the BRA. A number of raskol (criminal) gangs that were affiliated with the BRA, equipped largely with weapons salvaged from the fighting in World War II, terrorized villages, engaging in murder, rape and pillage. Bougainville split into several factions, as the conflict took on ethnic and separatist characteristics.
The divisions in the conflict were largely drawn along clan lines. There were 70–80 minor tribal conflicts for BIG to deal with in addition to the blockade. As the BIG/BRA was dominated by the Nasioi clan, other islanders were suspicious of its goals, especially in north Bougainville. On the island of Buka, north of Bougainville, a local militia was formed which succeeded in driving out the BRA in September, with the help of Papuan troops. By the end of 1990, the PNGDF national forces controlled Buka, while the BRA controlled the remainder of Bougainville. Early attempts at resolving the conflict resulted in agreements being signed in 1990 and 1991; however, neither side honoured their terms. Meanwhile, the BRA leadership of Ona and Kauona fell out with some of the political leaders, such as Kabui. Several other pro-government village militias, which together became known as the resistance and were armed by the PNGDF, forced the BRA out of their areas. During 1991–92, the PNGDF gradually returned to Bougainville, taking control of the north and southwest of the main island.
Papua New Guinea's policy towards Bougainville hardened after the defeat of the incumbent government at the 1992 elections. New prime minister Paias Wingti took a considerably more hardline stance. In 1992–93, the PNGDF launched a number of unauthorised cross-border raids into the Solomon Islands in pursuit of supporters of the BRA. Relations with the Solomon Islands deteriorated, and on one occasion PNG forces clashed with Solomon Island police, exchanging fire. On another the PNGDF troops landed on the island of Oema. The PNGDF, in alliance with the resistance, reoccupied Arawa, the provincial capital, in February 1993. Papuan Foreign Minister Sir Julius Chan attempted to gather a peacekeeping force from the nations of the Pacific, but Wingti quashed the idea. He subsequently ordered the army to retake the Panguna mine, and was initially successful. His government was short-lived, and in August 1994 was replaced as prime minister by Julius Chan. The assault on Panguna subsequently failed. The PNGDF increasingly sustained losses at the hands of the insurgents in the interior of the island, where the jungle limited the visibility and effectiveness of its patrols.
Chan announced his intention to find a peaceful solution to the conflict, arranging a ceasefire at a meeting with Kauona in the Solomon Islands in September. They agreed to hold a peace conference in Arawa that October, with security provided by an Australian-led South Pacific Peacekeeping Force. However, the BIG leaders boycotted the conference, claiming that their safety could not be guaranteed. In the absence of Ona, Kabui and Kauona emerged as more moderate BRA leaders. Chan's government subsequently entered into negotiations with a group of chiefs from the Nasioi clan, headed by Theodore Miriung, a former lawyer for the Panguna Landowners Association. This resulted in the establishment of a Bougainville Transitional Government in April 1995, with its capital in Buka. Miriung was named as the Premier of a compromise government but ultimately was "unable to bridge the gap between hardliners on both sides".
Meanwhile, Chan was beginning to get frustrated at the lack of progress. Following a round of negotiations in Cairns, Australia, in September and December 1995, between the BRA, BTG and the PNG government, in January 1996 the BRA/BIG representatives, including Kabui, were fired on by PNGDF forces after returning to Bougainville. Later, the home of the BIG's representative in the Solomon Islands, Martin Mirori, was firebombed. The BRA subsequently undertook retaliatory action in northern Bougainville and on Buka. Chan decided to abandon attempts at peace, and on 21 March 1996, approved the lifting of the ceasefire on Bougainville. In an address to the nation, he subsequently resolved to achieve a military solution.
Sandline affair
Main article: Sandline affairWith the government of Australia declining to provide direct military support and advocating a political solution to the conflict, Chan sought alternatives. The Sandline affair began in March 1996, when the government of Papua New Guinea attempted to hire mercenaries from Sandline International, a London-based private military company, that in turn employed the South African military contractor Executive Outcomes. As negotiations with Sandline continued, in July the PNGDF launched a new offensive on Bougainville. The attack failed, suffering from poor logistical planning, a lack of intelligence on BRA locations and mounting casualties.
In September, BRA militants attacked a PNG army camp at Kangu Beach with the help of members of a local militia group, killing twelve PNGDF soldiers and taking five hostage. The incident was the largest single loss in an operation for the PNGDF during the conflict. The following month, Theodore Miriung was assassinated. A subsequent independent investigation implicated members of the PNGDF and the resistance militias. Discipline and morale was rapidly deteriorating within the ranks of the PNG military, and they were withdrawn in August after the offensive ended in a stalemate. By this time the PNGDF, with assistance of the Bougainville Resistance Forces, was in "reasonable" control of approximately 40% of the island, yet they remained vulnerable to guerilla attacks with the BRA establishing an ascendency over government forces.
Chan decided that his best chance to recapture the Panguna mine was with the Sandline mercenaries, and a contract was signed in January 1997. News of his intention to hire mercenaries was leaked to the Australian press and international condemnation followed. Although initially supportive, the commander of the PNGDF, Jerry Singirok, then opposed the plan, and ordered all the mercenaries to be detained on arrival. In the resulting saga, Papua New Guinea came close to a military coup, with the parliament surrounded by demonstrators and many military personnel. The Australian government placed pressure on PNG to terminate the contract with Sandline, and intercepted the heavy equipment that was being flown in for the mercenaries. Chan resigned and the mercenaries were removed from Papua New Guinean territory.
The conflict continued until 1997. There were approximately 800 PNGDF and 150 "riot squad" personnel deployed on the island by this time, while the BRF probably had around 1,500 men. These men were armed by the PNGDF and operated mostly in a "home guard" role, with only a small number involved in patrolling with the PNGDF or in directly involved in the fighting. BRA strength was estimated at 2,000 men armed with around 500 modern weapons (mostly captured or bought from PNGDF or "riot squad" personnel) and several thousand World War II vintage or homemade weapons.
Ceasefire and aftermath
The impetus for peace was the election of Prime Minister Bill Skate, who had previously opposed a military solution. In mid-1997, talks were held in Honiara and Burnham in New Zealand resulting in a truce, as well as agreement to de-militarize the island. An unarmed Truce Monitoring Group (TMG) led by New Zealand and supported by Australia, Fiji and Vanuatu was subsequently deployed. Since then a ceasefire has largely held on the island. Breaking with Ona, Kauona and Kabui entered into peace talks with the Skate government in Christchurch, New Zealand, which culminated in the signing of the Lincoln Agreement in January 1998. Under the terms of the agreement, PNG began to withdraw its soldiers from the island, and steps were taken to disarm the BRA and BRF, while a multinational Peace Monitoring Group (PMG) under Australian leadership was deployed, replacing the TMG. Legislation to establish a Bougainville Reconciliation Government failed to win approval in the PNG Parliament in December 1998.
A Bougainville provincial government of the same status as the other eighteen provinces of Papua New Guinea, with John Momis as Governor, was established in January 1999. However, this government was suspended after facing opposition from both the BIA/BRA and BTG. Arrangements were made for the creation of a modified government, to be established in two phases: the first being the Bougainville Constituent Assembly and the second being the elections for the Bougainville People's Congress. Elections were held in May, and Kabui was named president. However, the legality of this was contested by Momis, with the support of a number of tribal chiefs and Resistance leaders. In November, a new body, the Bougainville Interim Provincial Government, was established, headed by Momis. Rapprochment between Kauona and Momis led to an agreement through which the two bodies would act in consultation. An organised reconciliation process began at the tribal level in the early 2000s.
A peace agreement was reached in 2001, leading to a roadmap to the creation of an Autonomous Bougainville Government (ABG). Yet Ona refused to play any part in the peace process, and, with a small minority of fighters, broke away from the BRA. Throughout the decade, he continued to resist overtures to participate in the new government, occupying an area around the mine which remained a no-go zone and declaring himself 'king' of Bougainville before dying of malaria in 2005. Elections for the first ABG were held in May and June 2005 with Joseph Kabui elected president.
In March 2006, Dr Shaista Shameem of the United Nations working group on mercenaries asked Fiji and Papua New Guinea for permission to send a team to investigate allegations about the presence of former Fijian soldiers in Bougainville. In 2011 it was reported that former PNG Prime Minister Sir Michael Somare had alleged that Rio Tinto played a role in the civil war by helping finance the actions of the PNG government in Bougainville during the conflict in an attempt to allow the mine to be reopened. The Bougainville government was given control of mining on the island following the passage of the Bougainville Mining Act in March 2015; however, the Panguna mine remains closed.
The war has been described by John Momis, President of the Autonomous Region of Bougainville, as the largest conflict in Oceania since the end of World War II. PNGDF casualties during the fighting were believed to include more than 300 killed. Meanwhile, the Australian government estimated that anywhere between 15,000–20,000 people could have died in the Bougainville conflict. However, more conservative estimates put the number of combat deaths as 1,000–2,000. Other sources estimated that around 10,000 Bougainvilleans died of violence or disease during this period, while over 60,000 Bougainvilleans were living in internally displaced persons' camps by the mid-1990s and thousands more had fled to nearby Solomon Islands.
Independence referendum
Main article: 2019 Bougainvillean independence referendumA condition of the peace agreement was that a referendum on Bougainville's political status would be held within 20 years, scheduled sometime between 2015 and 2020. In January 2016 the Autonomous Bougainville Government and Government of Papua New Guinea agreed to establish the Bougainville Referendum Commission. The Commission was tasked with making preparations for a vote on Bougainville's future political status in 2019. In late November and early December 2019, a non-binding referendum on independence was held with an overwhelming majority voting for independence. In July 2021, an agreement was reached between the governments of Papua New Guinea and Bougainville, in which Bougainville will gain independence in 2027 pending approval of the PNG government.
Cultural depictions
The Bougainville conflict was depicted in the 2006 novel Mister Pip, by the New Zealand journalist Lloyd Jones, who had written about the war but had not been able to visit PNG. It was made into a film in 2012, entitled Mr. Pip, starring Hugh Laurie and New Guinean actress Xzannjah Matsi.
See also
- History of Bougainville
- Papua conflict, a similar conflict in Indonesia's West Papua region
Notes
Footnotes
- During this period Australian Defence Force (ADF) loan personnel filled a number of key positions in the PNGDF on a regular basis, and as a result they were often at least indirectly involved in supporting most PNGDF operations, including those on Bougainville. Five members of the ADF on loan or exchange with the PNGDF are reported to have visited Bougainville during the crisis. Their duties were restricted to the provision of technical advice.
- The helicopters were reported to have been maintained and operated by a private company contracted to the PNGDF at the time, and were flown by Australian and New Zealand civilian pilots.
Citations
- Bohane, Ben (8 October 2019). "The Bougainville Referendum And Beyond". Lowy Institute.
- Bahcheli, Tozun, Barry Bartmann, and Henry Srebrnik, eds. De facto states: the quest for sovereignty, p. 242. Routledge, 2004.
- ^ Braithwaite 2010, pp. 86–87.
- Regan & Griffin 2005, p. 26.
- "Origins of the Bougainville Conflict". National Film and Sound Archive of Australia. Retrieved 16 June 2013.
- O'Callaghan, Mary-Louise (2002). "The origins of the conflict". Conciliation Resources. Retrieved 16 June 2013.
- Londey 2004, pp. 215–216.
- ^ Londey 2004, p. 216.
- ^ Wehner & Denoon 2001, p. 3.
- ^ Woodbury 2015, p. 6.
- ^ Joint Standing Committee on Foreign Affairs, Defence and Trade 1999, p. 23.
- Connell 2005, p. 297.
- Wilson 1994, p. 32.
- "Pacific patrol boat program". Nautilus Institute. 19 December 2011. Retrieved 7 August 2015.
- Raath 1991, pp. 12–26.
- Raath 1991, p. 13.
- Raath 1991, p. 18.
- Howe & Kiste 1994, p. 305.
- Grey 2008, pp. 259–260.
- ^ Callick, Rowan (16 July 2011). "Battle intensifies over Bougainville copper". The Australian. Sydney: News Corp Australia. ISSN 1038-8761.
- Braithwaite 2010, p. 30.
- Adams 2001, p. 26.
- ^ Wehner & Denoon 2001, p. 4.
- Braithwaite 2010, p. 29.
- ^ Phillips, Keri (2 June 2015). "Bougainville at a crossroads: independence and the mine". Rear Vision: Radio National. Australian Broadcasting Commission. Retrieved 7 August 2015.
- Joint Standing Committee on Foreign Affairs, Defence and Trade 1999, p. 26.
- ^ Braithwaite 2010, p. 32.
- Braithwaite 2010, pp. 32–33.
- Joint Standing Committee on Foreign Affairs, Defence and Trade 1999, p. 25.
- May & Selochan 2004, p. 172.
- ^ Braithwaite 2010, p. 33.
- May 1996.
- Adams 2001, p. 27.
- Agreement between Papua New Guinea and Fiji, Tonga, Solomon Islands, Vanuatu, Australia and New Zealand, concerning the status of elements of the defence forces of those countries deployed in the North Solomon's Province of Papua New Guinea as part of the South Pacific Peacekeeping Force (1994) PITSE 18 (28 September 1994) Pacific Islands Treaty Series Pacific Islands Legal Information Institute. A facility of the University of the South Pacific School of Law
- Londey 2004, pp. 216–217.
- Joint Standing Committee on Foreign Affairs, Defence and Trade 1999, pp. 27–28.
- Joint Standing Committee on Foreign Affairs, Defence and Trade 1999, p. 28.
- Braithwaite 2010, p. 38.
- ^ Adams 2001, pp. 28–29.
- Adams 2001, p. 29.
- Braithwaite 2010, p. 39.
- ^ Lal & Fortune 2000, p. 265.
- Dorney 1998, p. 109.
- Adams 2001, p. 28.
- Braithwaite 2010, pp. 40–43.
- ^ Joint Standing Committee on Foreign Affairs, Defence and Trade 1999, p. 29.
- Braithwaite 2010, pp. 41–42.
- Braithwaite 2010, p. 40.
- Roberts 2002, p. 40.
- Braithwaite 2010, p. 41.
- ^ Aspinall, Jeffrey & Regan 2013, p. 122.
- Braithwaite 2010, pp. 43–44.
- Londey 2004, p. 219.
- Londey 2004, pp. 219–220.
- Londey 2004, pp. 220–222.
- Wehner & Denoon 2001, pp. 10–12.
- Wehner & Denoon 2001, pp. 12–14.
- Woodbury 2015, p. 7.
- McLeod, Shane (17 May 2005). "Bougainville – The Man Who Would Be King (Transcript)". Foreign Correspondent. Australian Broadcasting Commission. Archived from the original on 2016-03-04. Retrieved 9 August 2015.
- Skehan, Craig (26 July 2005). "Ona's death paves way for mining to resume". The Sydney Morning Herald. Retrieved 9 August 2015.
- de Matos & Gerster 2009, p. 243.
- "Bougainville: UN Asks for Invitation to Investigate Mercenaries" (Press release). Unrepresented Nations and Peoples Organization (UNPO). 2 March 2006. Retrieved 7 August 2015.
- Aspinall, Jeffrey & Regan 2013, p. 123.
- Woodbury 2015, p. 3.
- "Signing paves way for Bougainville independence vote". radionz.co.nz. 25 January 2017. Retrieved 19 May 2017.
- "Bougainville referendum: PNG region votes overwhelmingly for independence". BBC. 11 December 2019. Retrieved 11 December 2019.
- Lyons, Kate (11 December 2019). "Bougainville referendum: region votes overwhelmingly for independence from Papua New Guinea". The Guardian. ISSN 0261-3077. Retrieved 12 December 2019.
- Kenneth, Gorethy (2021-07-07). "PNG, B'ville agree on latter's independence". Post Courier. Retrieved 2021-07-07.
- Mckenna, Kylie; Ariku, Emelda (19 November 2021). "Bougainville independence: recalling promises of international help". The Interpreter. Archived from the original on 18 November 2021. Retrieved 3 December 2021.
- "Andrew Adamson to direct adaptation of Mister Pip". www.screendaily.com. Retrieved 2016-04-09.
References
- Adams, Rebecca (2001). Peace on Bougainville: Truce Monitoring Group. Centre for Strategic Studies New Zealand, Victoria University Press. ISBN 9780864734082.
- Aspinall, Edward; Jeffrey, Robin; Regan, Anthony J. (2013). Diminishing Conflicts in Asia and the Pacific: Why Some Subside and Others Don't. London: Routledge. ISBN 9780415670319.
- Braithwaite, John (2010). Reconciliation and Architectures of Commitment: Sequencing Peace in Bougainville. Canberra, Australian Capital Territory: ANU Press. ISBN 9781921666681.
- Connell, John (2005). Papua New Guinea: The Struggle for Development. New York: Routledge. ISBN 9780415054010.
- de Matos, Christine; Gerster, Robin (2009). Occupying the "Other": Australia and Military Occupations from Japan to Iraq. Newcastle upon Tyne, United Kingdom: Cambridge Scholars Publishing. ISBN 9781443804387.
- Dorney, Sean (1998). The Sandline Affair. Sydney: ABC Books. ISBN 9780733307010.
- Grey, Jeffrey (2008). A Military History of Australia (Third ed.). Port Melbourne: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-69791-0.
- Howe, K.R.; Kiste, Robert C. (1994). Tides of History: The Pacific Islands in the Twentieth Century. Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press. ISBN 9780824815974.
- Joint Standing Committee on Foreign Affairs, Defence and Trade (1999). Bougainville: The Peace Process and Beyond. Canberra: Commonwealth of Australia. ISBN 9780642366122.
- Lal, Brij V.; Fortune, Kate (2000). The Pacific Islands: An Encyclopedia. Vol. 1. Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press. ISBN 9780824822651.
- Londey, Peter (2004). Other People's Wars: A History of Australian Peacekeeping. Crows Nest, New South Wales: Allen & Unwin. ISBN 1865086517.
- May, Ronald James (1996). The Situation on Bougainville: Implications for Papua New Guinea, Australia and the Region. Current Issues Brief 9 1996–97. Canberra: Parliamentary Research Service. OCLC 221898325. Archived from the original on 2019-12-11. Retrieved 2015-08-10.
- May, Ronald James; Selochan, Viberto (2004). The Military and Democracy in Asia and the Pacific. Canberra: ANU E Press. ISBN 9781920942007.
- Raath, Niki (19 December 1991). "Moral Support? Australia's Support to Papua New Guinea's Internal Security Problems" (PDF). Issues Brief. Canberra: Parliamentary Research Service. ISSN 1037-2938.
- Regan, Anthony; Griffin, Helga, eds. (2005). Bougainville Before the Conflict. Canberra: Pandanus Books. ISBN 9781740761383.
- Roberts, John (2002). Reporting Military Conflict and Human Rights Abuse: The Australian Press and Bougainville, 1996 (PDF) (Master of Social Science thesis). RMIT University. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2021-12-05. Retrieved 2015-08-10.
- Wehner, Monica; Denoon, Donald (2001). Without a Gun: Australians' Experiences Monitoring Peace in Bougainville, 1997–2001. Canberra: Pandanus Books. ISBN 1740760131.
- Wilson, Stewart (1994). Military Aircraft of Australia. Weston Creek, Australian Capital Territory: Aerospace Publications. ISBN 1-875671-08-0.
- Woodbury, Jo (January 2015). The Bougainville Independence Referendum: Assessing the Risks and Challenges Before, During and After the Referendum (PDF). Indo-Pacific Strategy Papers. Canberra: Centre for Defence and Strategic Studies (CDSS), Australian Defence College.
Further reading
- Bowd, Reuben (2007). Doves over the Pacific: In Pursuit of Peace and Stability in Bougainville. Loftus, New South Wales: Australian Military Historical Publications. ISBN 9780980320480.
- Breen, Bob (2016). The Good Neighbour: Australian Peace Support Operations in the Pacific Islands, 1980–2006. The Official History of Australian Peacekeeping, Humanitarian and Post-Cold War Operations. Vol. V. Port Melbourne, Victoria: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-1-107-01971-3.
- Lavaka Ata, Ulukalala (1 January 1998). "The Bougainville Crisis and PNG-Australia relations". Culture Mandala: The Bulletin of the Centre for East-West Cultural and Economic Studies. 3 (1). Gold Coast, Queensland: Centre for East-West Cultural and Economic Studies, School of Humanities and Social Sciences, Bond University: 41–55. ISSN 1322-6916. Archived from the original on 24 April 2016. Retrieved 9 August 2015.
External links
- Coles-Janess, Wayne (1998). Bougainville "Our Island, Our Fight". Ipso-facto Productions. Archived from the original on 2020-07-27. Retrieved 2019-06-17.
- Coles-Janess, Wayne (1997). Bougainville "Sandline". ABC and Ipso-facto Productions.
- Coles-Janess, Wayne (1994). Bougainville "Dirty War". ABC and Ipso-facto Productions.
- Coles-Janess, Wayne (1997). Bougainville "Forgotten". ABC and Ipso-facto Productions.
- Ron J. May; Nicole Haley (2014). "The Military in Papua New Guinea: A 'Culture of Instability' But No Coup" (PDF). Security Challenges. pp. 58, 59, 61, 62. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2021-12-05. Retrieved 2020-11-11.
Shortly after this, the acting PNGDF chief of staff, Colonel Leo Nuia, publicly rebuked the defence minister, saying he 'should refrain from making wild statements on matters affecting the operations of the soldiers and police' on Bougainville.
Post–Cold War conflicts in Asia | |||||||||||||||||||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
South Asia |
| ||||||||||||||||||||||
East Asia |
| ||||||||||||||||||||||
Southeast Asia |
| ||||||||||||||||||||||
Central Asia |
| ||||||||||||||||||||||
Western Asia |
| ||||||||||||||||||||||
Inter-continental conflict | |||||||||||||||||||||||
Related topics |
- Autonomous Region of Bougainville
- Separatism in Papua New Guinea
- Civil wars involving the states and peoples of Oceania
- Wars involving Papua New Guinea
- Civil wars of the 20th century
- 1980s in Papua New Guinea
- 1990s in Papua New Guinea
- 1988 in Papua New Guinea
- 1998 in Papua New Guinea
- Proxy wars
- Separatist rebellion-based civil wars