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{{Short description|Kingdoms in the Indian subcontinent (c. 600 BCE–c. 345 BCE)}}
{{Globalize|article|date=February 2016}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=December 2015}} {{Use dmy dates|date=December 2015}}
{{Use Indian English|date=December 2015}} {{Use Indian English|date=December 2015}}
{{Infobox Former Country {{Infobox country
|native_name = Mahajanapada | native_name = '''Mahājanapadas'''
|conventional_long_name = | conventional_long_name =
| era = ]
|common_name = Mahājanapada
| status =
|continent = Asia
| event_start =
|region = ]
| life_span = {{c.|600 BCE}} – {{c.|345 BCE}}
|country = Aryavart
| date_start =
|era = ]
| event1 =
|status =
| date_event1 =
|event_start =
| event_end =
|year_start = c. 600 BCE
| year_end =
|date_start =
| date_end =
|event1 =
| p1 = Painted Grey Ware culture
|date_event1 =
| p2 = Vedic period
|event_end =
| p3 = Janapadas
|year_end = c. 300 BCE
| p4 = Kuru Kingdom
|date_end =
| s1 = Nanda dynasty
|p1 = Epic India
| s2 = Achaemenid Empire
|p2 = Vedic period
| today =
|flag_p2 = Late Vedic Culture (1100-500 BCE).png
| image_flag =
|s1 = Nanda Empire
| flag_type =
|image_flag =
| image_coat =
|flag_type =
| image_map = Mahajanapadas (c. 500 BCE).png
|image_coat =
| image_map_caption = Map of the 16 Mahājanapadas.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Lal |first1=Deepak |title=The Hindu Equilibrium: India C.1500 B.C. – 2000 A.D. |date=2005 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-927579-3 |page=xxxviii |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=dps-A5gOmA8C&pg=PR38 |language=en}}</ref>
|image_map = Mahajanapadas (c. 500 BCE).png
| capital =
|image_map_caption = Map of the 16 Mahajanapada
| common_languages = ], ]s, and ]
|capital =
| religion = ]<br>]<br>]
|common_languages = ]
| government_type =
|religion = ] ]<br />] (] and ])
| leader1 =
|government_type = ]s<br />]
| year_leader1 =
|leader1 =
| leader2 =
|year_leader1 =
| year_leader2 =
|leader2 =
| title_leader =
|year_leader2 =
| legislature =
|title_leader =
|legislature =
}} }}
{{Part of History of India}} {{Part of History of India}}
{{HistoryOfSouthAsia}} {{HistoryOfSouthAsia}}
A '''Mahājanapada''' (Sanskrit '''महाजनपद''') (literally "great realm", from ''maha'', "great", and '']'' "foothold of a tribe", "country") is one of the sixteen kingdoms or oligarchic republics that existed in the ] from the sixth centuries BCE to fourth centuries BCE. Two of them were most probably 'ganas' ie. republics, and others had forms of monarchy. Ancient ] like the '']''<ref>Anguttara Nikaya I. p 213; IV. pp 252, 256, 261.</ref> make frequent reference to sixteen great kingdoms and republics which had evolved and flourished in a belt stretching from ] in the northwest to ] in the eastern part of the ] and included parts of the trans-]n region,<ref name=singh>{{cite book|last=Singh|first=Upinder|title=A History of Ancient and Early Medieval India: From the Stone Age to the 12th Century|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=H3lUIIYxWkEC&pg=PA260&dq=Great+States+Upinder+singh&hl=en&ei=tu6ITPDYMoG6vQO9uannCg&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=1&ved=0CC4Q6AEwAA#v=onepage&q&f=false|year=2008|publisher=Pearson Education|location=Delhi|isbn=978-81-317-1120-0|pages=260–4}}</ref> prior to the rise of ] in India.<ref>. Iloveindia.com. Retrieved on 2013-07-12.</ref>


The '''Mahājanapadas'''{{efn|{{langx|sa|महाजनपद||Great ]}}}} were sixteen ] and ] ]s that existed in ] from the sixth to fourth centuries BCE, during the ] period.<ref>Vikas Nain, "Second Urbanization in the Chronology of Indian History", ''International Journal of Academic Research and Development'' '''3''' (2) (March 2018), pp. 538–542 esp. 539.</ref>
The 6th century BCE is often regarded as a major turning point in early Indian history. Archaeologically, this period corresponds in part to the ] culture.<ref>J.M. Kenoyer (2006), "Cultures and Societies of the Indus Tradition. In Historical Roots" in ''the Making of ‘the Aryan’'', R. Thapar (ed.), pp. 21–49. New Delhi, National Book Trust.</ref>


== History ==
raman palk
The 6th–5th centuries BCE are often regarded as a major turning point in early ]. During this period, India's first large cities since the demise of the ] arose. It was also the time of the rise of ] movements (including ] and ]), which challenged the religious orthodoxy of the ].
The term "]" literally means the ''foothold of a tribe''. The fact that ''Janapada'' is derived from ''Jana'' points to an early stage of land-taking by the Jana tribe for a settled way of life. This process of first settlement on land had completed its final stage prior to the times of the ] and ]. The Pre-Buddhist north-west region of the Indian sub-continent was divided into several Janapadas demarcated from each other by boundaries. In Pāṇini's "Ashtadhyayi", ''Janapada'' stands for country and ''Janapadin'' for its citizenry. Each of these Janapadas was named after the ] tribe (or the Kshatriya Jana) who had settled therein.<ref>India as Known to Panini: A Study of the Cultural Material in the Ashṭādhyāyī, 1963, p 427</ref><ref>Vasudeva Sharana Agrawala - India; India in the Time of Patañjali, 1968, p 68 Dr B. N. Puri - India;</ref><ref>Socio-economic and Political History of Eastern India, 1977, p 9, Y. K Mishra - Bihar (India)</ref><ref>Tribes of Ancient India, 1977, p 18 Mamata Choudhury - Ethnology</ref><ref>Tribal Coins of Ancient India, 2007, p xxiv Devendra Handa - Coins, Indic - 2007</ref><ref>The Journal of the Numismatic Society of India, 1972, p 221 Numismatic Society of India - Numismatics</ref><ref>A History of Pāli Literature, 2000 Edition, p 648 B. C. Law</ref><ref>Some Ksatriya Tribes of Ancient India, 1924, pp 230-253, Dr B. C. Law.</ref> Buddhist and other texts only incidentally refer to sixteen great nations (''Solasa Mahajanapadas'') which were in existence before the time of the Buddha. They do not give any connected history except in the case of Magadha. The Buddhist ], at several places,<ref>Anguttara Nikaya: Vol I, p 213, Vol IV, pp 252, 256, 260 etc.</ref> gives a list of sixteen great nations:

{{colbegin||20em}}
Two of the Mahājanapadas were most probably ]s (aristocratic republics), and others had forms of monarchy. Ancient ] like the '']''<ref>Anguttara Nikaya I. p 213; IV. pp 252, 256, 261.</ref> make frequent reference to sixteen great kingdoms and republics that had developed and flourished in a belt stretching from ] in the northwest to ] in the east to ] in the southern part of the ]. They included parts of the trans-]n region,<ref name=singh>{{cite book|last=Singh|first=Upinder|title=A History of Ancient and Early Medieval India: From the Stone Age to the 12th Century|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=H3lUIIYxWkEC&q=Great+States+Upinder+singh&pg=PA260|year=2008|publisher=Pearson Education|location=Delhi|isbn=978-81-317-1120-0|pages=260–4}}</ref> and all had developed prior to the rise of Buddhism in India.<ref>. Iloveindia.com. Retrieved on 12 July 2013.</ref>

Archaeologically, this period has been identified as corresponding in part to the ] culture.<ref>J.M. Kenoyer (2006), "Cultures and Societies of the Indus Tradition. In Historical Roots", in ''the Making of 'the Aryan''', R. Thapar (ed.), pp. 21–49. New Delhi: National Book Trust.</ref>

== Overview ==
{{Main|Janapada}}
] culture ({{Circa|500}}–200 BCE)]]
The term "]" literally means the ''foothold of a people''. The fact that ''Janapada'' is derived from ''Jana'' points to an early stage of land-taking by the Jana people for a settled way of life. This process of settlement on land had completed its final stage prior to the times of the ] and ]. The Pre-Buddhist northern Indian sub-continent was divided into several Janapadas, demarcated from each other by boundaries. In Pāṇini's "Ashtadhyayi", ''Janapada'' stands for country and ''Janapadin'' for its citizenry. Each of these Janapadas was named after the ] people (or the Kshatriya Jana) who had settled therein.<ref>''India as Known to Panini: A Study of the Cultural Material in the Ashṭādhyāyī,'' 1963, p 427</ref><ref>Vasudeva Sharana Agrawala – ''India; India in the Time of Patañjali,'' 1968, p 68, Dr B. N. Puri – India;</ref><ref>''Socio-economic and Political History of Eastern India,'' 1977, p 9, Y. K Mishra – Bihar (India)</ref><ref>''Tribes of Ancient India,'' 1977, p 18 Mamata Choudhury – Ethnology</ref><ref>Tribal Coins of Ancient India, 2007, p xxiv Devendra Handa – ''Coins, Indic'' – 2007</ref><ref>''The Journal of the Numismatic Society of India,'' 1972, p 221 Numismatic Society of India – Numismatics</ref><ref>''A History of Pāli Literature,'' 2000 Edition, p 648 B. C. Law</ref><ref>''Some Ksatriya Tribes of Ancient India,'' 1924, pp 230–253, Dr B. C. Law.</ref> Buddhist and other texts only incidentally refer to sixteen great nations (''Solasa Mahajanapadas'') that existed prior to the time of the Buddha. They do not give any connected history except in the case of Magadha. The Buddhist ], at several places,<ref>Anguttara Nikaya: Vol I, p 213, Vol IV, pp 252, 256, 260 etc.</ref> gives a list of sixteen great states:<ref>{{Cite book |last=Raychaudhuri |first=Hemchandra |url=https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.282598/page/n77/mode/2up |title=Political History of Ancient India |publisher=University of Calcutta |year=1972 |location=Calcutta |pages=59}}</ref>
{{div col|colwidth=30em}}
# ] # ]
# ] (or Asmaka) # ]
# ] # ]
# ] # ]
# ] # ]
# ] # ]
# ] # ]
# ] # ]
# ] # ]
# ] # ]
# ] # ]
# ] (or Matsya) # ] (or Maccha)
# ] # ]
# ] # ]
# ] # ]
# ] (or Vamsa) # ] (or Vamsa)
{{colend}} {{div col end}}


Another Buddhist text, the '']'', mentions only the first twelve Mahajanapadas and omits the last four in the above list.<ref>Digha Nikaya, Vol II, p 200.</ref> Another Buddhist text, the '']'', mentions twelve Mahajanapadas from the above list and omits four of them (Assaka, Avanti, Gandhara, and Kamboja).<ref>Digha Nikaya, Vol II, p 200.</ref>


'']'', another ancient text of the Buddhist canon, adds ] to the list and substitutes ] for Gandhara, thus listing the Kamboja and the Yona as the only Mahajanapadas from ].<ref>Chulla-Niddesa (P.T.S.), p 37.</ref><ref>Lord Mahāvīra and his times, 1974, p 197, Dr Kailash Chand Jain; ], 1968, p lxv, Dr Ramesh Chandra Majumdar, Bharatiya Vidya Bhavan, Bhāratīya Itihāsa Samiti; Problems of Ancient India, 2000, p 7, K. D. Sethna.</ref> '']'', another ancient text of the Buddhist canon, adds ] to the list and substitutes ] for Gandhara, thus listing the Kamboja and the Yona as the only Mahajanapadas from ].<ref>Chulla-Niddesa (P.T.S.), p 37.</ref><ref>Lord Mahāvīra and his times, 1974, p 197, Dr Kailash Chand Jain; ''],'' 1968, p lxv, Dr Ramesh Chandra Majumdar, Bharatiya Vidya Bhavan, Bhāratīya Itihāsa Samiti; ''Problems of Ancient India,'' 2000, p 7, K. D. Sethna.</ref>


The '']'', a sutra of ], gives a slightly different list of sixteen Mahajanapadas: The '']'' (or the '']''), a sutra of ], gives a different list of sixteen Mahajanapadas:


{{colbegin||20em}} {{div col|colwidth=20em}}
# Anga # Anga
# Banga (Vanga) # Banga (Vanga)
Line 82: Line 89:
# Kochcha # Kochcha
# Padha # Padha
# Ladha (]) # Ladha (] or ])
# Bajji (Vajji) # Bajji (Vajji)
# Moli (Malla) # Moli (Malla)
Line 89: Line 96:
# Avaha # Avaha
# Sambhuttara # Sambhuttara
{{colend}} {{div col end}}


The author of Bhagvati has a focus on the countries of Madhydesa and of the far east and south only. He omits the nations from Uttarapatha like the Kamboja and Gandhara. The more extended horizon of the ''Bhagvati'' and the omission of all countries from Uttarapatha "clearly shows that the Bhagvati list is of later origin and therefore less reliable."<ref>Political History of Ancient India, 1996, p 86; History & Culture of Indian People, Age of Imperial Unity, p 15-16</ref> The author of the '']'' (or the '']'') has a focus on the countries of Madhydesa and of the far east and south only. He omits the nations from Uttarapatha like the Kamboja and Gandhara. The more extended horizon of the ''Bhagvati'' and the omission of all countries from Uttarapatha "clearly shows that the Bhagvati list is of later origin and therefore less reliable."<ref>Political History of Ancient India, 1996, p. 86; History & Culture of Indian People, Age of Imperial Unity, pp. 15–16</ref>


== List of Mahajanapadas ==
overview
=== Aṅga ===
The term "]" literally means the ''foothold of a tribe''. The fact that ''Janapada'' is derived from ''Jana'' points to an early stage of land-taking by the Jana tribe for a settled way of life. This process of first settlement on land had completed its final stage prior to the times of the ] and ]. The Pre-Buddhist north-west region of the Indian sub-continent was divided into several Janapadas demarcated from each other by boundaries. In Pāṇini's "Ashtadhyayi", ''Janapada'' stands for country and ''Janapadin'' for its citizenry. Each of these Janapadas was named after the ] tribe (or the Kshatriya Jana) who had settled therein.<ref>India as Known to Panini: A Study of the Cultural Material in the Ashṭādhyāyī, 1963, p 427</ref><ref>Vasudeva Sharana Agrawala - India; India in the Time of Patañjali, 1968, p 68 Dr B. N. Puri - India;</ref><ref>Socio-economic and Political History of Eastern India, 1977, p 9, Y. K Mishra - Bihar (India)</ref><ref>Tribes of Ancient India, 1977, p 18 Mamata Choudhury - Ethnology</ref><ref>Tribal Coins of Ancient India, 2007, p xxiv Devendra Handa - Coins, Indic - 2007</ref><ref>The Journal of the Numismatic Society of India, 1972, p 221 Numismatic Society of India - Numismatics</ref><ref>A History of Pāli Literature, 2000 Edition, p 648 B. C. Law</ref><ref>Some Ksatriya Tribes of Ancient India, 1924, pp 230-253, Dr B. C. Law.</ref> Buddhist and other texts only incidentally refer to sixteen great nations (''Solasa Mahajanapadas'') which were in existence before the time of the Buddha. They do not give any connected history except in the case of Magadha. The Buddhist ], at several places,<ref>Anguttara Nikaya: Vol I, p 213, Vol IV, pp 252, 256, 260 etc.</ref> gives a list of sixteen great nations:
{{colbegin||20em}} {{main|Anga}}
The first reference to the ]s is found in the ] where they find mention along with the ], ] and the Mujavats, apparently as a despised people. The ]a Prajnapana ranks Angas and Vangas in the first group of ] people. It mentions the principal cities of ].<ref>Digha Nikaya</ref> It was also a great center of trade and commerce and its merchants regularly sailed to distant ]. Anga was annexed by Magadha in the time of ]. This was the one and only conquest of Bimbisara.
# ]
# ] (or Asmaka)
# ]
# ]
# ]
# ]
# ]
# ]
# ]
# ]
# ]
# ] (or Matsya)
# ]
# ]
# ]
# ] (or Vamsa)
{{colend}}


=== Aśmaka ===
Another Buddhist text, the '']'', mentions only the first twelve Mahajanapadas and omits the last four in the above list.<ref>Digha Nikaya, Vol II, p 200.</ref>
{{main|Assaka}}
The country of Assaka or the Ashmaka tribe was located in ''Dakshinapatha'' or southern India. It included areas in present-day ], ], and ].<ref>{{Cite book|last1=Tiwari|first1=Anshuman|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=qQ5kDwAAQBAJ&pg=PT307|title=Laxminama: Monks, Merchants, Money and Mantra|last2=Sengupta|first2=Anindya|date=10 August 2018|publisher=Bloomsbury Publishing|isbn=9789387146808|pages=307|language=en}}</ref> In ]'s time, many of the Assakas were located on the banks of the ] (south of the ] mountains). The capital of the Assakas was Potana or Potali, which corresponds present-day ] in Telangana and Paudanya of ].<ref>{{Cite book|last=Sen|first=Sailendra Nath|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Wk4_ICH_g1EC&pg=PA109|title=Ancient Indian History and Civilization|date=1999|publisher=New Age International|isbn=9788122411980|pages=109|language=en}}</ref> In Maharashtra its capital is located in Potali which corresponds to present day Nandura, Buldhana district. The Ashmakas are also mentioned by Pāṇini. They are placed in the north-west in the ''Markendeya Purana'' and the '']''. The river Godavari separated the country of the Assakas from that of the Mulakas (or Alakas). The country of Assaka lay outside the pale of ]. It was located on a southern high road, the ''Dakshinapatha''. At one time, Assaka included Mulaka and abutted Avanti.<ref>Dr Bhandarkaar</ref>


=== Avanti ===
'']'', another ancient text of the Buddhist canon, adds ] to the list and substitutes ] for Gandhara, thus listing the Kamboja and the Yona as the only Mahajanapadas from ].<ref>Chulla-Niddesa (P.T.S.), p 37.</ref><ref>Lord Mahāvīra and his times, 1974, p 197, Dr Kailash Chand Jain; ], 1968, p lxv, Dr Ramesh Chandra Majumdar, Bharatiya Vidya Bhavan, Bhāratīya Itihāsa Samiti; Problems of Ancient India, 2000, p 7, K. D. Sethna.</ref>
{{main|Avanti (Ancient India)}}
] mahajanapada (4th century BCE)]]
The country of the Avantis was an important kingdom of western India and was one of the four great monarchies in India in the post era of Mahavira and Buddha, the other three being ], ] and ]. Avanti was divided into north and south by the river ]. Initially, ] (Mahissati) was the capital of Southern Avanti, and ]i (Sanskrit: Ujjayini) was of northern Avanti, but at the times of ] and Buddha, Ujjaini was the capital of integrated Avanti. The country of Avanti roughly corresponded to modern ], Nimar and adjoining parts of today's ]. Both Mahishmati and Ujjaini stood on the southern high road called ''Dakshinapatha'' which extended from ] to Pratishthana (modern ]). Avanti was an important centre of Buddhism and some of the leading ''theras'' and ''theris'' were born and resided there. King Nandivardhana of Avanti was defeated by king ] of Magadha. Avanti later became part of the Magadhan empire.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Shah |first=Bipin |date=February 2014 |title=Home of Jainism after the Fall of Magadhan Empire and history of Shrimal Nagar-"Vayam Shrimali" |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/340953327 |access-date=25 March 2023 |website=Researchgate}}</ref>


=== Chedi ===
The '']'', a sutra of ], gives a slightly different list of sixteen Mahajanapadas:
{{main|Cedī (tribe)}}


The Chedis, Chetis or Chetyas had two distinct settlements of which one was in the mountains of Nepal and the other in ] near ]. According to old authorities, Chedis lay near ] midway between the kingdom of ] and ]s. In the mediaeval period, the southern frontiers of Chedi extended to the banks of the river ]. Sotthivatnagara, the Sukti or Suktimati of ], was the capital of Chedi. The Chedis were an ancient people of India and are mentioned in the ], with their king Kashu Chaidya.<ref name="auto">{{Citation|url=https://archive.org/details/politicalhistory00raycuoft|last=Raychaudhuri|first=Hem Chandra|title=Political history of ancient India, from the accession of Parikshit to the extinction of the Gupta dynasty|year=1923|page=66|publisher=Calcutta, Univ. of Calcutta }}</ref>
{{colbegin||20em}}

# Anga
The location of the capital city, ], has not been established with certainty. Historian ] and ] believed that it was in the vicinity of ].<ref name="auto"/> Archaeologist ] has proposed that Suktimati can be identified as the ruins of a large ] city, at a place with the modern-day name Itaha, on the outskirts of ].<ref>{{Citation|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=8qvY8pxVxcwC|last=Chakrabarti|first=Dilip Kumar|chapter=Mahajanapada States of Early Historic India|title=A Comparative Study of Thirty City-state Cultures: An Investigation|year=2000|editor-last=Hansen|editor-first=Mogens Herman|page=387|publisher=Kgl. Danske Videnskabernes Selskab |isbn=9788778761774}}</ref>
# Banga (Vanga)

# Magadha
=== Gandhāra ===
# Malaya
{{main|Gandhāra (kingdom)}}
# Malavaka
<gallery widths="200px" heights="200px">
# Accha
Gandhara1.JPG|Coin of Early Gandhara Janapada: AR Shatamana and one-eighth Shatamana (round), Taxila-Gandhara region, {{c.|600–300 BCE}}.
# Vaccha
Taxila_(local_coinage)._Circa_220-185_BC.jpg|A coin of ], portrays a tree flanked by a hill surmounted by a crescent and a ] above a ].<ref>{{cite web|title=Post-Mauryan (Punjab). Taxila (local coinage). Circa 220–185 BC. Æ (17x18mm, 7.71 g)|url=https://www.cngcoins.com/Coin.aspx?CoinID=259870|website=www.cngcoins.com|publisher=Classical Numismatic Group Inc.|access-date=28 June 2017}}</ref>
# Kochcha
</gallery>
# Padha
The wool of the ] is referred to in the ]. The Gandharas and their king figure prominently as strong allies of the ] against the ]s in the ] war. The Gandharas were furious people, well-trained in the art of war. According to ] traditions, this Janapada was founded by ''Gandhara'', son of Aruddha, a descendant of Yayati. The princes of this country are said to have come from the line of Druhyu who was a famous king of the Rigvedic period and one of the five sons of king Yayati of lunar dynasty. The river Indus watered the lands of Gandhara. ] and ], the two cities of this Mahajanapada, are said to have been named after Taksa and Pushkara, the two sons of ], a prince of ] and younger brother of Lord ]. According to Vayu Purana (II.36.107), the Gandharas were destroyed by Pramiti (a.k.a. Kalika) at the end of '']''. Pāṇini mentioned both the Vedic form Gandhari as well as the later form Gandhara in his ]. The Gandhara kingdom sometimes also included ].<ref>Jataka No 406.</ref> Hecataeus of Miletus (549–468) refers to Kaspapyros (Kasyapura or Purushapura, i.e., modern day Peshawar) as a ] city. According to Gandhara Jataka, at one time, Gandhara formed a part of the kingdom of ]. The ] also gives another name ''Chandahara'' for Gandhara.
# Ladha (])

# Bajji (Vajji)
Gandhara Mahajanapada of ] traditions included territories of east ], and north-west of the ] (modern districts of ] (Purushapura) and ]). Its later capital was Taksashila (Prakrit for ]). The Taksashila University was a renowned centre of learning in ancient times, where scholars from all over the world came to seek higher education. Pāṇini, the Indian genius of grammar and ] are the world-renowned products of Taxila University. King Pukkusati or Pushkarasarin of Gandhara in the middle of the 6th century BCE was the contemporary of king ] of Magadha. Gandhara was located on the northern high road (]) and was a centre of international commercial activities. According to one group of scholars, the Gandharas and Kambojas were cognate people.<ref>Revue des etudes grecques 1973, p. 131, Ch-Em Ruelle, Association pour l'encouragement des etudes grecques en France.</ref><ref>Early Indian Economic History, 1973, pp. 237, 324, Rajaram Narayan Saletore.</ref><ref>Myths of the Dog-man, 199, p. 119, David Gordon White; Journal of the Oriental Institute, 1919, p 200; Journal of Indian Museums, 1973, p 2, Museums Association of India; The Pāradas: A Study in Their Coinage and History, 1972, p 52, Dr ] – Pāradas; Journal of the Department of Sanskrit, 1989, p 50, Rabindra Bharati University, Dept. of Sanskrit- Sanskrit literature; The Journal of Academy of Indian Numismatics & Sigillography, 1988, p 58, Academy of Indian Numismatics and Sigillography – Numismatics; Cf: Rivers of Life: Or Sources and Streams of the Faiths of Man in All Lands, 2002, p. 114, J. G. R. Forlong.</ref> It is also contended that the Kurus, Kambojas, Gandharas and Bahlikas were cognate people.<ref>Journal of the Oriental Institute, 1919, p 265, Oriental Institute (Vadodara, India) – Oriental studies; For Kuru-Kamboja connections, see Dr Chandra Chakraberty's views in: Literary history of ancient India in relation to its racial and linguistic affiliations, pp. 14,37, Vedas; The Racial History of India, 1944, p. 153, Chandra Chakraberty – Ethnology; Paradise of Gods, 1966, p 330, Qamarud Din Ahmed – Pakistan.</ref> According to Dr T. L. Shah, the Gandhara and Kamboja were nothing but two provinces of one empire and were located coterminously, hence influencing each other's language.<ref>Ancient India, History of India for 1000 years, four Volumes, Vol I, 1938, pp. 38, 98 by Dr T. L. Shah.</ref> Naturally, they may have once been a cognate people.<ref>James Fergusson observes: ''"In a wider sense, name Gandhara implied all the countries west of Indus as far as Candhahar"'' (The Tree and Serpent Worship, 2004, p. 47, James Fergusson).</ref> Gandhara was often linked politically with the neighboring regions of ] and ].<ref>''Encyclopedia Americana'', 1994, p 277, Encyclopedias and Dictionaries.</ref>
# Moli (Malla)

# Kasi
=== Kamboja ===
# ]
{{main|Kambojas}}
# Avaha
Kambojas are also included in the Uttarapatha. In ancient literature, the Kamboja is variously associated with the ], ] and the ] (]). Ancient Kamboja is known to have comprised regions on either side of the ]. The original Kamboja was located in eastern ] country as neighbor to Bahlika, but with time, some ]s of the Kambojas appear to have crossed the Hindukush and planted colonies on its southern side also. These latter Kambojas are associated with the Daradas and Gandharas in Indian literature and also find mention in the ] of ]. The evidence in the ] and in ]'s Geography distinctly supports two Kamboja settlements.<ref>Ptolemy's Geography mentions Tambyzoi located in eastern Bactria (''Ancient India as Described by Ptolemy: Being a Translation of the Chapters ...'' 1885, p. 268, John Watson McCrindle – Geography, Ancient; ''Barrington Atlas of the Greek and Roman World'', History – 2000, p. 99, (editors) Richard J. A. Talbert) and Ambautai people located to south of Hindukush Mountains (Geography 6.18.3; See map in McCrindle, p. 8). Dr S. Levi has identified Tambyzoi with Kamboja (''Indian Antiquary'', 1923, p. 54; ''Pre Aryan and Pre Dravidian in India'', 1993, p. 122, Dr Sylvain Lévi, Dr Jean Przyluski, Jules Bloch, Asian Educational Services) while land of Ambautai has also been identified by Dr ] (Harvard University) with Sanskrit Kamboja ''Electronic Journal of Vedic Studies'', Vol. 5, 1999, issue 1 (September), Dr. M. Witzel; ''Indo-Aryan Controversy: Evidence and Inference in Indian History'', 2005, p 257, Laurie L. Patton, Edwin Bryant; ''The Indo-Aryans of Ancient South Asia: Language, Material Culture and Ethnicity'', 1995, p. 326, George Erdosy.</ref> The cis-Hindukush region from ] up to ] in southwest of ] sharing borders with the ] and the ]s constituted the ''Kamboja'' country.<ref>MBH VII.4.5; II.27.23.</ref> The capital of ''Kamboja'' was probably ''Rajapura'' (modern Rajori) in the south-west of Kashmir. The ''Kamboja Mahajanapada'' of the ] traditions refers to this cis-Hindukush branch of ancient Kambojas.<ref>See: ''Problems of Ancient India'', 2000, pp. 5–6; cf: ''Geographical Data in the Early Puranas'', p. 168.</ref>
# Sambhuttara

{{colend}}
The trans-Hindukush region including the ] and ] which shared borders with the ] (Bactria) in the west and the Lohas and ] of ]/] in the north, constituted the ] country.<ref>MBH II.27.27.</ref> The trans-Hindukush branch of the Kambojas remained pure ] but a large section of the Kambojas of cis-Hindukush appears to have come under Indian cultural influence. The Kambojas are known to have had both Iranian as well as Indian affinities.<ref>''Vedic Index I'', p. 138, Macdonnel, Dr Keith.</ref><ref>''Ethnology of Ancient Bhārata'', 1970, p. 107, Dr Ram Chandra Jain.</ref><ref>''The Journal of Asian Studies''; 1956, p. 384, Association for Asian Studies, Far Eastern Association (U.S.).</ref><ref>''Balocistān: siyāsī kashmakash, muz̤mirāt va rujḥānāt''; 1989, p. 2, Munīr Aḥmad Marrī.</ref><ref>''India as Known to Panini: A Study of the Cultural Material in the Ashṭādhyāyī''; 1953, p. 49, Dr Vasudeva Sharana Agrawala.</ref><ref>''Afghanistan'', p. 58, W. K. Fraser, M. C. Gillet.</ref><ref>''Afghanistan, its People, its Society, its Culture'', Donal N. Wilber, 1962, pp. 80, 311 etc.</ref><ref>''Iran'', 1956, p. 53, Herbert Harold Vreeland, Clifford R. Barnett.</ref><ref>''Geogrammatical Dictionary of Sanskrit (Vedic): 700 Complete Revisions of the Best Books...'', 1953, p. 49, Dr Peggy Melcher, Dr A. A. McDonnel, Dr Surya Kanta, Dr Jacob Wackernagel, Dr V. S. Agarwala.</ref><ref>''Geographical and Economic Studies in the Mahābhārata: Upāyana Parva'', 1945, p. 33, Dr Moti Chandra – India.</ref><ref>''A Grammatical Dictionary of Sanskrit (Vedic): 700 Complete Reviews of the ...'', 1953, p. 49, Dr Vasudeva Sharana Agrawala, Surya Kanta, Jacob Wackernagel, ], Peggy Melcher – India.</ref>

The Kambojas were also a well known republican people since ] times. The ] refers to several {{transliteration|sa|gaṇaḥ}} (or Republics) of the Kambojas.<ref>MBH 7/91/39.</ref> ]'s ]<ref>Arthashastra 11/1/4.</ref> attestes the Kambojas republican character and ]'s Edict No. XIII also testifies the presence of the Kambojas along with the Yavanas.<ref>13th Major Rock Edict. Translation by E. Hultzsch (1857–1927). Published in India in 1925. Inscriptions of Asoka p.43. Public Domain.</ref> Pāṇini's Sutras,<ref>Ashtadhyayi IV.1.168–175.</ref> though tend to convey that the Kamboja of Pāṇini was a ] monarchy, but "the special rule and the exceptional form of derivative" he gives to denote the ruler of the Kambojas implies that the king of Kamboja was a titular head (''king consul'') only.<ref>''Hindu Polity: A Constitutional History of India in Hindu Times'', Parts I and II., 1955, p. 52, Dr Kashi Prasad Jayaswal – Constitutional history; Prācīna Kamboja, jana aura janapada =: Ancient Kamboja, people and country, 1981, Dr Jiyālāla Kāmboja – Kamboja (Pakistan).</ref> According to Buddhist texts, the first fourteen of the above Mahajanapadas belong to Majjhimadesa (''Mid India'') while the last two belong to Uttarapatha or the ''north-west'' division of ].

In a struggle for supremacy that followed in the 6th/5th century BCE, the growing state of the Magadhas emerged as the predominant power in ancient India, annexing several of the Janapadas of the Majjhimadesa. A bitter line in the ]s laments that Magadhan emperor ] exterminated all ]s, none worthy of the name Kshatriya being left thereafter. This refers to the Kasis, Kosalas, Kurus, Panchalas, Vatsyas and other neo-Vedic tribes of the east Panjab of whom nothing was ever heard except in the legend and poetry. (The Nandas usurped the throne of ] {{Circa|345 BCE}}, thus founding the ].)<ref>{{citation |last=Panda |first=Harihar |title=Prof. H.C. Raychaudhuri, as a Historian |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=f1XMtc2Q97IC |publisher=Northern Book Centre |date=2007 |isbn=978-81-7211-210-3 |page=28 }}</ref>

The Kambojans and Gandharans, however, never came into direct contact with the Magadhan state until ] and ] arose on the scene. But these nations also fell prey to the ]s of ] during the reign of ] (558–530 BCE) or in the first year of ]. Kamboja and Gandhara formed the twentieth and richest ]y of the Achaemenid Empire. Cyrus II is said to have destroyed the famous Kamboja city called Kapisi (modern ]) in ].

=== Kāśī ===
{{main|Kāśī (kingdom)}}
The kingdom was located in the region around its capital ], bounded by the Varuna and Asi rivers in the north and south which gave Varanasi its name. Before Buddha, Kasi was the most powerful of the sixteen Mahajanapadas. Several '']'' bear witness to the superiority of its capital over other cities in India and speak highly of its prosperity and opulence. These stories tell of the long struggle for supremacy between Kashi and the three kingdoms of ], ] and ]. Although King ] of Kashi conquered ], Kashi was later incorporated into ] by ] during Buddha's time. The Kashis along with the Kosalas and Videhans find mention in Vedic texts and appear to have been a closely allied people. The '']'' and ''Alberuni'' spell Kashi as ''Kausika'' and ''Kaushaka'' respectively. All other ancient texts read Kashi.{{citation needed|date=January 2019}}

=== Kosala ===
{{main|Kosala}}
] mahajanapada ({{c.|525}}–465 BCE)]]
The country of Kosala was located to the north-west of Magadha, with its capital at ]. Its territory corresponded to the modern ] (or Oudh) in Central and Eastern ]. It had the river ] for its southern, the river ] (Narayani) for its eastern, and the ] mountains for its northern boundary.

] of Kosala leaving ] to meet the ], ].<ref>Marshall </ref>]]
Later, the kingdom was ruled by the famous king Prasenajit during the era of Mahavira and Buddha, followed by his son Vidudabha (]). King Prasenajit was highly educated. His position was further improved by a matrimonial alliance with Magadha: his sister was married to Bimbisara and part of Kasi was given as dowry. There was, however, a struggle for supremacy between king ] (Prasenajit) and king ] of Magadha which was finally settled once the confederation of ] became conquered by Magadha. Kosala was ultimately merged into Magadha when Vidudabha was Kosala's ruler. ], ], ], and ] were the chief cities of Kosala.{{citation needed|date=January 2019}}

=== Kuru ===
{{main|Kuru kingdom}}
] mahajanapada (4th century BCE)]]
The ]s trace the origin of Kurus from the '']-]'' family. Kuru was born after 25 generations of Puru's dynasty, and after 15 generations of Kuru, Kauravas and Pandavas were born. Aitareya Brahmana locates the Kurus in ''Madhyadesha'' and also refers to the Uttarakurus as living beyond the Himalayas. According to the Buddhist text Sumangavilasini,<ref>II. p 481</ref> the people of Kururashtra (the Kurus) came from the Uttarakuru. Vayu Purana attests that ''Kuru'', son of Samvarsana of the Puru lineage, was the eponymous ancestor of the Kurus and the founder of Kururashtra (Kuru Janapada) in Kurukshetra. The country of the Kurus roughly corresponded to the modern ], state of ], and ] of ]. According to the ]s, the capital of the Kurus was ] (Indapatta) near modern Delhi which extended seven leagues. At Buddha's time, the Kuru country was ruled by a titular chieftain (king consul) named Korayvya. The Kurus of the Buddhist period did not occupy the same position as they did in the ] but they continued to enjoy their ancient reputation for deep wisdom and sound health. The Kurus had matrimonial relations with the ], the Bhojas, Trigratas, and the Panchalas. There is a ] reference to king Dhananjaya, introduced as a prince from the lineage of ]. Though a well known monarchical people in the earlier period, the Kurus are known to have switched to a republican form of government during the 6th to 5th centuries BCE. In the 4th century BCE, ]'s ] also attests the Kurus following the ''Rajashabdopajivin'' (Royal Consul) constitution.

=== Magadha ===
{{main|Magadha (Mahajanapada)|Rajagriha|Pataliputra|Greater Magadha}}
] mahajanapada ({{Circa|350 BCE}})]]
] of ] with his royal cortege issuing from the city of Rajagriha to visit the Buddha.]]

The ] was one of the most prominent and prosperous of Mahajanapadas.<ref>{{cite book|last=Sinha|first=Bindeshwari Prasad|title=Dynastic History of Magadha, Cir. 450–1200 A.D.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=V3KDaZY85wYC&pg=PA128|year=1977|publisher=Abhinav Publications|page=128}}</ref>

] of Magadha visits the Bamboo Garden (Venuvana) in Rajagriha; artwork from ].]]

The kingdom of the ]s roughly corresponded to the modern districts of ] and ] in southern ] and parts of ] in the east. The capital city of Pataliputra was bound in the north by the river Ganges, in the east by the river Champa, in the south by the ] mountains and in the west by the river Sona. During Buddha's time its boundaries included Anga. Its earliest capital was Girivraja or Rajagaha (modern Rajgir in the Nalanda district of Bihar). The other names for the city were Magadhapura, Brihadrathapura, Vasumati, Kushagrapura and Bimbisarapuri. It was an active center of ] in ancient times. The ] was held in Rajagaha in the Vaibhara Hills. Later on, ] became the capital of Magadha.<ref>{{cite book|last=Sinha|first=Bindeshwari Prasad|title=Dynastic History of Magadha, Cir. 450–1200 A.D.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=V3KDaZY85wYC&pg=PA128|year=1977|publisher=Abhinav Publications|page=128}}</ref>

=== Malla ===
{{main|Malla (tribe)}}
{{multiple image
| align = right
| caption_align = center
| image1 = Conjectural reconstruction of the main gate of Kusinagara circa 500 BCE adapted from a relief at Sanchi.jpg
| width1 = 200
| caption1 = Conjectural reconstruction of the main gate of ], city of the Mallakas, circa 500 BCE adapted from a relief at Sanchi.
| image2 = City of Kushinagar in the 5th century BCE according to a 1st century BCE frieze in Sanchi Stupa 1 Southern Gate.jpg
| width2 = 210
| caption2 = City of Kushinagar in the 5th century BCE according to a 1st-century BCE frieze in Sanchi Stupa 1 Southern Gate.
}}
The ]s are frequently mentioned in Buddhist and ] works. They were a powerful people dwelling in Northern India. According to Mahabharata, Panduputra Bhimasena is said to have conquered the chief of the Mallakas in the course of his expedition in Eastern India. During the Buddhist period, the Mallakas Kshatriya were a republican people with their dominion consisting of nine territories<ref>Kalpa Sutra; Nirayavali Sutra</ref> corresponding to the nine confederated clans. These republican states were known as ]s. Two of these confederations – one with ] (modern Kasia near ]) as its capital and the second with Pava (modern ], {{convert|20|km}} southeast of Kushinagar) as the ''capital'' – had become very important at the time of Buddha. Kuśināra is very important in the history of ] since ] took last meal at Pava. Buddha was taken ill at Pava and died at Kusinara. It is widely believed that Lord Gautam died at the courtyard of King Sastipal Mall of Kushinagar. Kushinagar is now the centre of the Buddhist pilgrimage circle which is being developed by the tourism development corporation of Uttar Pradesh.

The Mallakas, like the ], are mentioned by ] as Vratya ]s. They are called Vasishthas (Vasetthas) in the Mahapparnibbana Suttanta. The Mallakas originally had a monarchical form of government but later they switched to one of ] (republican union), the members of which called themselves ''rajas''. The Mallakas appeared to have formed an alliance with the Licchhavis for self-defense but lost their independence not long after Buddha's death and their dominions were annexed to the Magadhan empire.{{citation needed|date=March 2016}}

] defending the city of Kushinagar, as depicted at ]. Malla was an ] (]s) mentioned in the '']''.<ref>Asiatic Mythology by J. Hackin </ref>}}]]

=== Matsya ===
{{main|Matsya (tribe)}}
The country of the ] or Macchā tribe lay to the south of the Kurus and west of the ], which separated them from the Panchalas. It roughly corresponded to the former ] of ] in ], and included the whole of ] with portions of ]. The capital of Matsya was at ''Viratanagara'' (modern ]) which is said to have been named after its founder king Virata. In ] literature, the Matsyas are usually associated with the Surasenas. The western Matsya was the hill tract on the north bank of the ]. A branch of Matsya is also found in later days in the ] region. The Matsyas had not much political importance of their own during the time of Buddha.{{citation needed|date=January 2019}}

=== Pañcāla ===
{{main|Pañcāla}}
] seated facing on pedestal, holding bifurcated object.<br />'''Rev''' ''Idramitrasa'' in ], Panchala symbols.]]

The Panchalas occupied the country to the east of the Kurus between the mountains and river Ganges. It roughly corresponded to modern ], ] and the adjoining districts of ]. The country was divided into Uttara-Panchala and Dakshina-Panchala. The northern Panchala had its capital at Adhichhatra or Chhatravati (modern ] in the ]), while southern Panchala had its capital at ] or ] in the Farrukhabad District. The famous city of Kanyakubja or ] was situated in the kingdom of Panchala. Originally a monarchical ], the Panchals appear to have switched to republican corporation in the 6th and 5th centuries BCE. In the 4th century BCE, ]'s ] also attests the Panchalas as following the ''Rajashabdopajivin'' (king consul) constitution.{{citation needed|date=January 2019}}

=== Śūrasena ===
{{main|Surasena}}
]

The country of the Surasenas lay to the east of Matsya and west of ]. This corresponds roughly to the ] of Uttar Pradesh, ] and ]. and ] of ]. It had its capital at Madhura or ]. Avantiputra, the king of Surasena, was the first among the chief disciples of Buddha, through whose help ] gained ground in Mathura country. The Andhakas and Vrishnis of Mathura/Surasena are referred to in the ] of Pāṇini. In ]'s ], the Vrishnis are described as ''sangha'' or republic. The Vrishnis, Andhakas and other allied tribes of the ] formed a ''sangha'' and ] (]) is described as the ''sangha-mukhya''. Mathura, the capital of Surasena, was also known at the time of ] as the centre of Krishna worship. The Surasena kingdom had lost its independence on annexation by the Magadhan empire.{{citation needed|date=January 2019}}

=== Vajji ===
{{main|Vajjika League}}
]'' at ], which served as the ] of the ], one of the world's earliest ]s (]).]]

{{lang|pi|Vajji}} or {{lang|sa|Vṛji}} was a confederacy of neighbouring clans including the ]s and one of the principal mahājanapadas of ]. The area they ruled constitutes the region of ] in ] and northern ] and their capital was the city of ].<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=efaOR_-YsIcC&q=vajji+mithila&pg=PA15|title=Between the Empires: Society in India 300 BCE to 400 CE|first=Patrick|last=Olivelle|date=13 July 2006|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=9780199775071|via=Google Books}}</ref>

Both the Buddhist text ''Anguttara Nikaya'' and the Jaina text ''Bhagavati Sutra'' (''Saya'' xv ''Uddesa'' I) included Vajji in their lists of ''solasa'' (sixteen) mahājanapadas.<ref>Raychaudhuri Hemchandra (1972), ''Political History of Ancient India'', Calcutta: University of Calcutta, pp. 85–6</ref> The name of this mahājanapada was derived from one of its ruling clans, the Vṛjis. The Vajji state is indicated to have been a republic. This clan is mentioned by ], ] and ].<ref>Raychaudhuri Hemchandra (1972), ''Political History of Ancient India'', Calcutta: University of Calcutta, p.107</ref>

=== Vatsa (or Vaṃsa) ===
{{main|Vatsa}}
The ]s or Vamsas are called to be a branch of the ]. The Vatsa or Vamsa country corresponded with the territory of modern ] in ]. It had a monarchical form of government with its capital at ] (identified with the village Kosam, 38 miles from ]).<ref>{{cite news
|url = http://www.dailynews.lk/2007/12/05/fea06.asp
|title = The Ghositarama of Kaushambi
|author = Rohan L. Jayetilleke
|work = ]
|date = 5 December 2007
|access-date = 29 October 2008
|url-status = dead
|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20110604160714/http://www.dailynews.lk/2007/12/05/fea06.asp
|archive-date = 4 June 2011
|df = dmy-all
}}</ref> Kausambi was a very prosperous city where a large number of wealthy merchants resided. It was the most important ] of goods and passengers from the north-west and south. Udayana was the ruler of ] in the 6th–5th century BCE. He was very powerful, warlike and fond of hunting. Initially king Udayana was opposed to ], but later became a follower of Buddha and made Buddhism the state religion. Udayana's mother, ], is notable for being one of the earliest known female rulers in Indian history.


== See also ==
The author of Bhagvati has a focus on the countries of Madhydesa and of the far east and south only. He omits the nations from Uttarapatha like the Kamboja and Gandhara. The more extended horizon of the ''Bhagvati'' and the omission of all countries from Uttarapatha "clearly shows that the Bhagvati list is of later origin and therefore less reliable."<ref>Political History of Ancient India, 1996, p 86; History & Culture of Indian People, Age of Imperial Unity, p 15-16</ref>
{{Indo-European topics|283}}
* ]
* ]
* ]
* ]
* ]


== References ==
==The Period of the Vedas==
{{Reflist}}
''Brahmarshi-deca'', 'the county of the holy sages,' includes the territories of the ], ], ] and ] (i.e. the eastern half of the State of Patiala and of the Delhi division of the Punjab, the Alwar State and adjacent territory in Rajputana, the region which lies between the Ganges and the Jumna, and the ] in the United Provinces). <ref> Rapson, E. J. (1914). Ancient India, from the earliest times to the first century, A.D. </ref>


==See also== == Further reading ==
*R. C. Majumdar and A. D. Pusalker, eds. ''The History and Culture of the Indian People''. Bharatiya Vidya Bhavan, Bombay 1951.
* ]
* ] (1989). ''Ancient India in a new light''. New Delhi: Aditya Prakashan.
* ]
* Sethna, K. D. (2000). ''Problems of ancient India''. New Delhi: Aditya Prakashan.


==Notes== == Notes ==
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{{reflist|group=Note}}


== External links ==
==References==
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{{Mahajanapada |state=collapsed}} {{Mahajanapada |state=collapsed}}
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Latest revision as of 05:27, 5 January 2025

Kingdoms in the Indian subcontinent (c. 600 BCE–c. 345 BCE)

Mahājanapadas
c. 600 BCE – c. 345 BCE
Map of the 16 Mahājanapadas.Map of the 16 Mahājanapadas.
Common languagesPali, Prakrits, and Sanskrit
Religion Historical Vedic religion
Buddhism
Jainism
Historical eraIron Age
Preceded by Succeeded by
Painted Grey Ware culture
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Janapadas
Kuru Kingdom
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The Mahājanapadas were sixteen kingdoms and aristocratic republics that existed in ancient India from the sixth to fourth centuries BCE, during the second urbanisation period.

History

The 6th–5th centuries BCE are often regarded as a major turning point in early Indian history. During this period, India's first large cities since the demise of the Indus Valley civilization arose. It was also the time of the rise of sramana movements (including Buddhism and Jainism), which challenged the religious orthodoxy of the Vedic period.

Two of the Mahājanapadas were most probably gaṇasaṅghas (aristocratic republics), and others had forms of monarchy. Ancient Buddhist texts like the Anguttara Nikaya make frequent reference to sixteen great kingdoms and republics that had developed and flourished in a belt stretching from Gandhara in the northwest to Anga in the east to Asmaka in the southern part of the Indian subcontinent. They included parts of the trans-Vindhyan region, and all had developed prior to the rise of Buddhism in India.

Archaeologically, this period has been identified as corresponding in part to the Northern Black Polished Ware culture.

Overview

Main article: Janapada
Pottery of the Northern Black Polished Ware culture (c. 500–200 BCE)

The term "Janapada" literally means the foothold of a people. The fact that Janapada is derived from Jana points to an early stage of land-taking by the Jana people for a settled way of life. This process of settlement on land had completed its final stage prior to the times of the Buddha and Pāṇini. The Pre-Buddhist northern Indian sub-continent was divided into several Janapadas, demarcated from each other by boundaries. In Pāṇini's "Ashtadhyayi", Janapada stands for country and Janapadin for its citizenry. Each of these Janapadas was named after the Kshatriya people (or the Kshatriya Jana) who had settled therein. Buddhist and other texts only incidentally refer to sixteen great nations (Solasa Mahajanapadas) that existed prior to the time of the Buddha. They do not give any connected history except in the case of Magadha. The Buddhist Anguttara Nikaya, at several places, gives a list of sixteen great states:

  1. Anga
  2. Asmaka
  3. Avanti
  4. Chedi
  5. Gandhara
  6. Kasi
  7. Kamboja
  8. Kosala
  9. Kuru
  10. Magadha
  11. Malla
  12. Matsya (or Maccha)
  13. Panchala
  14. Surasena
  15. Vajji
  16. Vatsa (or Vamsa)

Another Buddhist text, the Digha Nikaya, mentions twelve Mahajanapadas from the above list and omits four of them (Assaka, Avanti, Gandhara, and Kamboja).

Chulla-Niddesa, another ancient text of the Buddhist canon, adds Kalinga to the list and substitutes Yona for Gandhara, thus listing the Kamboja and the Yona as the only Mahajanapadas from Uttarapatha.

The Vyākhyāprajñapti (or the Bhagavati Sutra), a sutra of Jainism, gives a different list of sixteen Mahajanapadas:

  1. Anga
  2. Banga (Vanga)
  3. Magadha
  4. Malaya
  5. Malavaka
  6. Accha
  7. Vaccha
  8. Kochcha
  9. Padha
  10. Ladha (Radh or Lata)
  11. Bajji (Vajji)
  12. Moli (Malla)
  13. Kasi
  14. Kosala
  15. Avaha
  16. Sambhuttara

The author of the Bhagavati Sutra (or the Vyākhyāprajñapti) has a focus on the countries of Madhydesa and of the far east and south only. He omits the nations from Uttarapatha like the Kamboja and Gandhara. The more extended horizon of the Bhagvati and the omission of all countries from Uttarapatha "clearly shows that the Bhagvati list is of later origin and therefore less reliable."

List of Mahajanapadas

Aṅga

Main article: Anga

The first reference to the Angas is found in the Atharvaveda where they find mention along with the Magadhas, Gandharis and the Mujavats, apparently as a despised people. The Jaina Prajnapana ranks Angas and Vangas in the first group of Aryan people. It mentions the principal cities of ancient India. It was also a great center of trade and commerce and its merchants regularly sailed to distant Suvarnabhumi. Anga was annexed by Magadha in the time of Bimbisara. This was the one and only conquest of Bimbisara.

Aśmaka

Main article: Assaka

The country of Assaka or the Ashmaka tribe was located in Dakshinapatha or southern India. It included areas in present-day Andhra Pradesh, Telangana, and Maharashtra. In Gautama Buddha's time, many of the Assakas were located on the banks of the Godavari River (south of the Vindhya mountains). The capital of the Assakas was Potana or Potali, which corresponds present-day Bodhan in Telangana and Paudanya of Mahabharata. In Maharashtra its capital is located in Potali which corresponds to present day Nandura, Buldhana district. The Ashmakas are also mentioned by Pāṇini. They are placed in the north-west in the Markendeya Purana and the Brhat Samhita. The river Godavari separated the country of the Assakas from that of the Mulakas (or Alakas). The country of Assaka lay outside the pale of Madhyadesa. It was located on a southern high road, the Dakshinapatha. At one time, Assaka included Mulaka and abutted Avanti.

Avanti

Main article: Avanti (Ancient India)
Silver coin of Avanti mahajanapada (4th century BCE)

The country of the Avantis was an important kingdom of western India and was one of the four great monarchies in India in the post era of Mahavira and Buddha, the other three being Kosala, Vatsa and Magadha. Avanti was divided into north and south by the river Narmada. Initially, Mahishamati (Mahissati) was the capital of Southern Avanti, and Ujjaini (Sanskrit: Ujjayini) was of northern Avanti, but at the times of Mahavira and Buddha, Ujjaini was the capital of integrated Avanti. The country of Avanti roughly corresponded to modern Malwa, Nimar and adjoining parts of today's Madhya Pradesh. Both Mahishmati and Ujjaini stood on the southern high road called Dakshinapatha which extended from Rajagriha to Pratishthana (modern Paithan). Avanti was an important centre of Buddhism and some of the leading theras and theris were born and resided there. King Nandivardhana of Avanti was defeated by king Shishunaga of Magadha. Avanti later became part of the Magadhan empire.

Chedi

Main article: Cedī (tribe)

The Chedis, Chetis or Chetyas had two distinct settlements of which one was in the mountains of Nepal and the other in Bundelkhand near Kausambi. According to old authorities, Chedis lay near Yamuna midway between the kingdom of Kurus and Vatsas. In the mediaeval period, the southern frontiers of Chedi extended to the banks of the river Narmada. Sotthivatnagara, the Sukti or Suktimati of Mahabharata, was the capital of Chedi. The Chedis were an ancient people of India and are mentioned in the Rigveda, with their king Kashu Chaidya.

The location of the capital city, Suktimati, has not been established with certainty. Historian Hem Chandra Raychaudhuri and F. E. Pargiter believed that it was in the vicinity of Banda, Uttar Pradesh. Archaeologist Dilip Kumar Chakrabarti has proposed that Suktimati can be identified as the ruins of a large early historical city, at a place with the modern-day name Itaha, on the outskirts of Rewa, Madhya Pradesh.

Gandhāra

Main article: Gandhāra (kingdom)
  • Coin of Early Gandhara Janapada: AR Shatamana and one-eighth Shatamana (round), Taxila-Gandhara region, c. 600–300 BCE. Coin of Early Gandhara Janapada: AR Shatamana and one-eighth Shatamana (round), Taxila-Gandhara region, c. 600–300 BCE.
  • A coin of Takshashila, portrays a tree flanked by a hill surmounted by a crescent and a Nandipada above a swastika. A coin of Takshashila, portrays a tree flanked by a hill surmounted by a crescent and a Nandipada above a swastika.

The wool of the Gandharis is referred to in the Rigveda. The Gandharas and their king figure prominently as strong allies of the Kurus against the Pandavas in the Mahabharata war. The Gandharas were furious people, well-trained in the art of war. According to Puranic traditions, this Janapada was founded by Gandhara, son of Aruddha, a descendant of Yayati. The princes of this country are said to have come from the line of Druhyu who was a famous king of the Rigvedic period and one of the five sons of king Yayati of lunar dynasty. The river Indus watered the lands of Gandhara. Taksashila and Pushkalavati, the two cities of this Mahajanapada, are said to have been named after Taksa and Pushkara, the two sons of Bharata, a prince of Ayodhya and younger brother of Lord Rama. According to Vayu Purana (II.36.107), the Gandharas were destroyed by Pramiti (a.k.a. Kalika) at the end of Kali Yuga. Pāṇini mentioned both the Vedic form Gandhari as well as the later form Gandhara in his Ashtadhyayi. The Gandhara kingdom sometimes also included Kashmira. Hecataeus of Miletus (549–468) refers to Kaspapyros (Kasyapura or Purushapura, i.e., modern day Peshawar) as a Gandharic city. According to Gandhara Jataka, at one time, Gandhara formed a part of the kingdom of Kashmira. The Jataka also gives another name Chandahara for Gandhara.

Gandhara Mahajanapada of Buddhist traditions included territories of east Afghanistan, and north-west of the Punjab (modern districts of Peshawar (Purushapura) and Rawalpindi). Its later capital was Taksashila (Prakrit for Taxila). The Taksashila University was a renowned centre of learning in ancient times, where scholars from all over the world came to seek higher education. Pāṇini, the Indian genius of grammar and Kautiliya are the world-renowned products of Taxila University. King Pukkusati or Pushkarasarin of Gandhara in the middle of the 6th century BCE was the contemporary of king Bimbisara of Magadha. Gandhara was located on the northern high road (Uttarapatha) and was a centre of international commercial activities. According to one group of scholars, the Gandharas and Kambojas were cognate people. It is also contended that the Kurus, Kambojas, Gandharas and Bahlikas were cognate people. According to Dr T. L. Shah, the Gandhara and Kamboja were nothing but two provinces of one empire and were located coterminously, hence influencing each other's language. Naturally, they may have once been a cognate people. Gandhara was often linked politically with the neighboring regions of Kashmira and Kamboja.

Kamboja

Main article: Kambojas

Kambojas are also included in the Uttarapatha. In ancient literature, the Kamboja is variously associated with the Gandhara, Darada and the Bahlika (Bactria). Ancient Kamboja is known to have comprised regions on either side of the Hindukush. The original Kamboja was located in eastern Oxus country as neighbor to Bahlika, but with time, some clans of the Kambojas appear to have crossed the Hindukush and planted colonies on its southern side also. These latter Kambojas are associated with the Daradas and Gandharas in Indian literature and also find mention in the Edicts of Ashoka. The evidence in the Mahabharata and in Ptolemy's Geography distinctly supports two Kamboja settlements. The cis-Hindukush region from Nurestan up to Rajauri in southwest of Kashmir sharing borders with the Daradas and the Gandharas constituted the Kamboja country. The capital of Kamboja was probably Rajapura (modern Rajori) in the south-west of Kashmir. The Kamboja Mahajanapada of the Buddhist traditions refers to this cis-Hindukush branch of ancient Kambojas.

The trans-Hindukush region including the Pamirs and Badakhshan which shared borders with the Bahlikas (Bactria) in the west and the Lohas and Rishikas of Sogdiana/Fergana in the north, constituted the Parama-Kamboja country. The trans-Hindukush branch of the Kambojas remained pure Iranian but a large section of the Kambojas of cis-Hindukush appears to have come under Indian cultural influence. The Kambojas are known to have had both Iranian as well as Indian affinities.

The Kambojas were also a well known republican people since Epic times. The Mahabharata refers to several gaṇaḥ (or Republics) of the Kambojas. Kautiliya's Arthashastra attestes the Kambojas republican character and Ashoka's Edict No. XIII also testifies the presence of the Kambojas along with the Yavanas. Pāṇini's Sutras, though tend to convey that the Kamboja of Pāṇini was a Kshatriya monarchy, but "the special rule and the exceptional form of derivative" he gives to denote the ruler of the Kambojas implies that the king of Kamboja was a titular head (king consul) only. According to Buddhist texts, the first fourteen of the above Mahajanapadas belong to Majjhimadesa (Mid India) while the last two belong to Uttarapatha or the north-west division of Jambudvipa.

In a struggle for supremacy that followed in the 6th/5th century BCE, the growing state of the Magadhas emerged as the predominant power in ancient India, annexing several of the Janapadas of the Majjhimadesa. A bitter line in the Puranas laments that Magadhan emperor Mahapadma Nanda exterminated all Kshatriyas, none worthy of the name Kshatriya being left thereafter. This refers to the Kasis, Kosalas, Kurus, Panchalas, Vatsyas and other neo-Vedic tribes of the east Panjab of whom nothing was ever heard except in the legend and poetry. (The Nandas usurped the throne of Shishunaga dynasty c. 345 BCE, thus founding the Nanda Empire.)

The Kambojans and Gandharans, however, never came into direct contact with the Magadhan state until Chandragupta and Kautilya arose on the scene. But these nations also fell prey to the Achaemenids of Persia during the reign of Cyrus II (558–530 BCE) or in the first year of Darius. Kamboja and Gandhara formed the twentieth and richest satrapy of the Achaemenid Empire. Cyrus II is said to have destroyed the famous Kamboja city called Kapisi (modern Begram) in Paropamisade.

Kāśī

Main article: Kāśī (kingdom)

The kingdom was located in the region around its capital Varanasi, bounded by the Varuna and Asi rivers in the north and south which gave Varanasi its name. Before Buddha, Kasi was the most powerful of the sixteen Mahajanapadas. Several jataka tales bear witness to the superiority of its capital over other cities in India and speak highly of its prosperity and opulence. These stories tell of the long struggle for supremacy between Kashi and the three kingdoms of Kosala, Anga and Magadha. Although King Brihadratha of Kashi conquered Kosala, Kashi was later incorporated into Kosala by King Kansa during Buddha's time. The Kashis along with the Kosalas and Videhans find mention in Vedic texts and appear to have been a closely allied people. The Matsya Purana and Alberuni spell Kashi as Kausika and Kaushaka respectively. All other ancient texts read Kashi.

Kosala

Main article: Kosala
Silver coins of Kosala mahajanapada (c. 525–465 BCE)

The country of Kosala was located to the north-west of Magadha, with its capital at Ayodhya. Its territory corresponded to the modern Awadh (or Oudh) in Central and Eastern Uttar Pradesh. It had the river Ganges for its southern, the river Gandak (Narayani) for its eastern, and the Himalaya mountains for its northern boundary.

Procession of Prasenajit of Kosala leaving Sravasti to meet the Buddha, Sanchi.

Later, the kingdom was ruled by the famous king Prasenajit during the era of Mahavira and Buddha, followed by his son Vidudabha (Virudhaka). King Prasenajit was highly educated. His position was further improved by a matrimonial alliance with Magadha: his sister was married to Bimbisara and part of Kasi was given as dowry. There was, however, a struggle for supremacy between king Pasenadi (Prasenajit) and king Ajatashatru of Magadha which was finally settled once the confederation of Liccavis became conquered by Magadha. Kosala was ultimately merged into Magadha when Vidudabha was Kosala's ruler. Ayodhya, Saketa, Banaras, and Sravasti were the chief cities of Kosala.

Kuru

Main article: Kuru kingdom
Silver coin of Kuru mahajanapada (4th century BCE)

The Puranas trace the origin of Kurus from the Puru-Bharata family. Kuru was born after 25 generations of Puru's dynasty, and after 15 generations of Kuru, Kauravas and Pandavas were born. Aitareya Brahmana locates the Kurus in Madhyadesha and also refers to the Uttarakurus as living beyond the Himalayas. According to the Buddhist text Sumangavilasini, the people of Kururashtra (the Kurus) came from the Uttarakuru. Vayu Purana attests that Kuru, son of Samvarsana of the Puru lineage, was the eponymous ancestor of the Kurus and the founder of Kururashtra (Kuru Janapada) in Kurukshetra. The country of the Kurus roughly corresponded to the modern Thanesar, state of Delhi, and Meerut district of Uttar Pradesh. According to the Jatakas, the capital of the Kurus was Indraprastha (Indapatta) near modern Delhi which extended seven leagues. At Buddha's time, the Kuru country was ruled by a titular chieftain (king consul) named Korayvya. The Kurus of the Buddhist period did not occupy the same position as they did in the Vedic period but they continued to enjoy their ancient reputation for deep wisdom and sound health. The Kurus had matrimonial relations with the Yadavas, the Bhojas, Trigratas, and the Panchalas. There is a Jataka reference to king Dhananjaya, introduced as a prince from the lineage of Yudhishtra. Though a well known monarchical people in the earlier period, the Kurus are known to have switched to a republican form of government during the 6th to 5th centuries BCE. In the 4th century BCE, Kautiliya's Arthashastra also attests the Kurus following the Rajashabdopajivin (Royal Consul) constitution.

Magadha

Main articles: Magadha (Mahajanapada), Rajagriha, Pataliputra, and Greater Magadha
Silver coin of Magadha mahajanapada (c. 350 BCE)
King Bimbisara of Magadha with his royal cortege issuing from the city of Rajagriha to visit the Buddha.

The Magadha was one of the most prominent and prosperous of Mahajanapadas.

King Bimbisara of Magadha visits the Bamboo Garden (Venuvana) in Rajagriha; artwork from Sanchi.

The kingdom of the Magadhas roughly corresponded to the modern districts of Patna and Gaya in southern Bihar and parts of Bengal in the east. The capital city of Pataliputra was bound in the north by the river Ganges, in the east by the river Champa, in the south by the Vindhya mountains and in the west by the river Sona. During Buddha's time its boundaries included Anga. Its earliest capital was Girivraja or Rajagaha (modern Rajgir in the Nalanda district of Bihar). The other names for the city were Magadhapura, Brihadrathapura, Vasumati, Kushagrapura and Bimbisarapuri. It was an active center of Jainism in ancient times. The First Buddhist Council was held in Rajagaha in the Vaibhara Hills. Later on, Pataliputra became the capital of Magadha.

Malla

Main article: Malla (tribe) Conjectural reconstruction of the main gate of Kushinagar, city of the Mallakas, circa 500 BCE adapted from a relief at Sanchi.City of Kushinagar in the 5th century BCE according to a 1st-century BCE frieze in Sanchi Stupa 1 Southern Gate.

The Mallakas are frequently mentioned in Buddhist and Jain works. They were a powerful people dwelling in Northern India. According to Mahabharata, Panduputra Bhimasena is said to have conquered the chief of the Mallakas in the course of his expedition in Eastern India. During the Buddhist period, the Mallakas Kshatriya were a republican people with their dominion consisting of nine territories corresponding to the nine confederated clans. These republican states were known as gaṇasaṅghas. Two of these confederations – one with Kushinagar (modern Kasia near Gorakhpur) as its capital and the second with Pava (modern Fazilnagar, 20 kilometres (12 mi) southeast of Kushinagar) as the capital – had become very important at the time of Buddha. Kuśināra is very important in the history of Buddhism since Lord Buddha took last meal at Pava. Buddha was taken ill at Pava and died at Kusinara. It is widely believed that Lord Gautam died at the courtyard of King Sastipal Mall of Kushinagar. Kushinagar is now the centre of the Buddhist pilgrimage circle which is being developed by the tourism development corporation of Uttar Pradesh.

The Mallakas, like the Licchavis, are mentioned by Manusmriti as Vratya Kshatriyas. They are called Vasishthas (Vasetthas) in the Mahapparnibbana Suttanta. The Mallakas originally had a monarchical form of government but later they switched to one of Samgha (republican union), the members of which called themselves rajas. The Mallakas appeared to have formed an alliance with the Licchhavis for self-defense but lost their independence not long after Buddha's death and their dominions were annexed to the Magadhan empire.

Mallaka defending the city of Kushinagar, as depicted at Sanchi. Malla was an ancient Indian republic (gaṇasaṅghas) mentioned in the Anguttara Nikaya.

Matsya

Main article: Matsya (tribe)

The country of the Matsya or Macchā tribe lay to the south of the Kurus and west of the Yamuna, which separated them from the Panchalas. It roughly corresponded to the former princely state of Jaipur in Rajputana, and included the whole of Alwar with portions of Bharatpur. The capital of Matsya was at Viratanagara (modern Bairat) which is said to have been named after its founder king Virata. In Pali literature, the Matsyas are usually associated with the Surasenas. The western Matsya was the hill tract on the north bank of the Chambal. A branch of Matsya is also found in later days in the Visakhapatnam region. The Matsyas had not much political importance of their own during the time of Buddha.

Pañcāla

Main article: Pañcāla
Coin of the Panchalas of Adhichhatra (75–50 BCE).
Obv Indra seated facing on pedestal, holding bifurcated object.
Rev Idramitrasa in Brahmi, Panchala symbols.

The Panchalas occupied the country to the east of the Kurus between the mountains and river Ganges. It roughly corresponded to modern Budaun, Farrukhabad and the adjoining districts of Uttar Pradesh. The country was divided into Uttara-Panchala and Dakshina-Panchala. The northern Panchala had its capital at Adhichhatra or Chhatravati (modern Ramnagar in the Bareilly district), while southern Panchala had its capital at Kampilya or Kampil in the Farrukhabad District. The famous city of Kanyakubja or Kanauj was situated in the kingdom of Panchala. Originally a monarchical clan, the Panchals appear to have switched to republican corporation in the 6th and 5th centuries BCE. In the 4th century BCE, Kautiliya's Arthashastra also attests the Panchalas as following the Rajashabdopajivin (king consul) constitution.

Śūrasena

Main article: Surasena
Silver coin of Surasena mahajanapada (5th century BCE).

The country of the Surasenas lay to the east of Matsya and west of Yamuna. This corresponds roughly to the Brij region of Uttar Pradesh, Haryana and Rajasthan. and Gwalior district of Madhya Pradesh. It had its capital at Madhura or Mathura. Avantiputra, the king of Surasena, was the first among the chief disciples of Buddha, through whose help Buddhism gained ground in Mathura country. The Andhakas and Vrishnis of Mathura/Surasena are referred to in the Ashtadhyayi of Pāṇini. In Kautiliya's Arthashastra, the Vrishnis are described as sangha or republic. The Vrishnis, Andhakas and other allied tribes of the Shoorsaini formed a sangha and Vasudeva (Krishna) is described as the sangha-mukhya. Mathura, the capital of Surasena, was also known at the time of Megasthenes as the centre of Krishna worship. The Surasena kingdom had lost its independence on annexation by the Magadhan empire.

Vajji

Main article: Vajjika League
Ananda Stupa, built by the Licchavis at Vaishali, which served as the capital of the Vajjika League, one of the world's earliest republics (gaṇasaṅgha).

Vajji or Vṛji was a confederacy of neighbouring clans including the Licchavis and one of the principal mahājanapadas of Ancient India. The area they ruled constitutes the region of Mithila in Nepal and northern Bihar and their capital was the city of Vaishali.

Both the Buddhist text Anguttara Nikaya and the Jaina text Bhagavati Sutra (Saya xv Uddesa I) included Vajji in their lists of solasa (sixteen) mahājanapadas. The name of this mahājanapada was derived from one of its ruling clans, the Vṛjis. The Vajji state is indicated to have been a republic. This clan is mentioned by Pāṇini, Chanakya and Xuanzang.

Vatsa (or Vaṃsa)

Main article: Vatsa

The Vatsas or Vamsas are called to be a branch of the Kurus. The Vatsa or Vamsa country corresponded with the territory of modern Prayagraj in Uttar Pradesh. It had a monarchical form of government with its capital at Kausambi (identified with the village Kosam, 38 miles from Prayagraj). Kausambi was a very prosperous city where a large number of wealthy merchants resided. It was the most important entrepôt of goods and passengers from the north-west and south. Udayana was the ruler of Vatsa in the 6th–5th century BCE. He was very powerful, warlike and fond of hunting. Initially king Udayana was opposed to Buddhism, but later became a follower of Buddha and made Buddhism the state religion. Udayana's mother, Queen Mrigavati, is notable for being one of the earliest known female rulers in Indian history.

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  21. Digha Nikaya
  22. Tiwari, Anshuman; Sengupta, Anindya (10 August 2018). Laxminama: Monks, Merchants, Money and Mantra. Bloomsbury Publishing. p. 307. ISBN 9789387146808.
  23. Sen, Sailendra Nath (1999). Ancient Indian History and Civilization. New Age International. p. 109. ISBN 9788122411980.
  24. Dr Bhandarkaar
  25. Shah, Bipin (February 2014). "Home of Jainism after the Fall of Magadhan Empire and history of Shrimal Nagar-"Vayam Shrimali"". Researchgate. Retrieved 25 March 2023.
  26. ^ Raychaudhuri, Hem Chandra (1923), Political history of ancient India, from the accession of Parikshit to the extinction of the Gupta dynasty, Calcutta, Univ. of Calcutta, p. 66
  27. Chakrabarti, Dilip Kumar (2000), "Mahajanapada States of Early Historic India", in Hansen, Mogens Herman (ed.), A Comparative Study of Thirty City-state Cultures: An Investigation, Kgl. Danske Videnskabernes Selskab, p. 387, ISBN 9788778761774
  28. "Post-Mauryan (Punjab). Taxila (local coinage). Circa 220–185 BC. Æ (17x18mm, 7.71 g)". www.cngcoins.com. Classical Numismatic Group Inc. Retrieved 28 June 2017.
  29. Jataka No 406.
  30. Revue des etudes grecques 1973, p. 131, Ch-Em Ruelle, Association pour l'encouragement des etudes grecques en France.
  31. Early Indian Economic History, 1973, pp. 237, 324, Rajaram Narayan Saletore.
  32. Myths of the Dog-man, 199, p. 119, David Gordon White; Journal of the Oriental Institute, 1919, p 200; Journal of Indian Museums, 1973, p 2, Museums Association of India; The Pāradas: A Study in Their Coinage and History, 1972, p 52, Dr B. N. Mukherjee – Pāradas; Journal of the Department of Sanskrit, 1989, p 50, Rabindra Bharati University, Dept. of Sanskrit- Sanskrit literature; The Journal of Academy of Indian Numismatics & Sigillography, 1988, p 58, Academy of Indian Numismatics and Sigillography – Numismatics; Cf: Rivers of Life: Or Sources and Streams of the Faiths of Man in All Lands, 2002, p. 114, J. G. R. Forlong.
  33. Journal of the Oriental Institute, 1919, p 265, Oriental Institute (Vadodara, India) – Oriental studies; For Kuru-Kamboja connections, see Dr Chandra Chakraberty's views in: Literary history of ancient India in relation to its racial and linguistic affiliations, pp. 14,37, Vedas; The Racial History of India, 1944, p. 153, Chandra Chakraberty – Ethnology; Paradise of Gods, 1966, p 330, Qamarud Din Ahmed – Pakistan.
  34. Ancient India, History of India for 1000 years, four Volumes, Vol I, 1938, pp. 38, 98 by Dr T. L. Shah.
  35. James Fergusson observes: "In a wider sense, name Gandhara implied all the countries west of Indus as far as Candhahar" (The Tree and Serpent Worship, 2004, p. 47, James Fergusson).
  36. Encyclopedia Americana, 1994, p 277, Encyclopedias and Dictionaries.
  37. Ptolemy's Geography mentions Tambyzoi located in eastern Bactria (Ancient India as Described by Ptolemy: Being a Translation of the Chapters ... 1885, p. 268, John Watson McCrindle – Geography, Ancient; Barrington Atlas of the Greek and Roman World, History – 2000, p. 99, (editors) Richard J. A. Talbert) and Ambautai people located to south of Hindukush Mountains (Geography 6.18.3; See map in McCrindle, p. 8). Dr S. Levi has identified Tambyzoi with Kamboja (Indian Antiquary, 1923, p. 54; Pre Aryan and Pre Dravidian in India, 1993, p. 122, Dr Sylvain Lévi, Dr Jean Przyluski, Jules Bloch, Asian Educational Services) while land of Ambautai has also been identified by Dr Michael Witzel (Harvard University) with Sanskrit Kamboja Electronic Journal of Vedic Studies, Vol. 5, 1999, issue 1 (September), Dr. M. Witzel; Indo-Aryan Controversy: Evidence and Inference in Indian History, 2005, p 257, Laurie L. Patton, Edwin Bryant; The Indo-Aryans of Ancient South Asia: Language, Material Culture and Ethnicity, 1995, p. 326, George Erdosy.
  38. MBH VII.4.5; II.27.23.
  39. See: Problems of Ancient India, 2000, pp. 5–6; cf: Geographical Data in the Early Puranas, p. 168.
  40. MBH II.27.27.
  41. Vedic Index I, p. 138, Macdonnel, Dr Keith.
  42. Ethnology of Ancient Bhārata, 1970, p. 107, Dr Ram Chandra Jain.
  43. The Journal of Asian Studies; 1956, p. 384, Association for Asian Studies, Far Eastern Association (U.S.).
  44. Balocistān: siyāsī kashmakash, muz̤mirāt va rujḥānāt; 1989, p. 2, Munīr Aḥmad Marrī.
  45. India as Known to Panini: A Study of the Cultural Material in the Ashṭādhyāyī; 1953, p. 49, Dr Vasudeva Sharana Agrawala.
  46. Afghanistan, p. 58, W. K. Fraser, M. C. Gillet.
  47. Afghanistan, its People, its Society, its Culture, Donal N. Wilber, 1962, pp. 80, 311 etc.
  48. Iran, 1956, p. 53, Herbert Harold Vreeland, Clifford R. Barnett.
  49. Geogrammatical Dictionary of Sanskrit (Vedic): 700 Complete Revisions of the Best Books..., 1953, p. 49, Dr Peggy Melcher, Dr A. A. McDonnel, Dr Surya Kanta, Dr Jacob Wackernagel, Dr V. S. Agarwala.
  50. Geographical and Economic Studies in the Mahābhārata: Upāyana Parva, 1945, p. 33, Dr Moti Chandra – India.
  51. A Grammatical Dictionary of Sanskrit (Vedic): 700 Complete Reviews of the ..., 1953, p. 49, Dr Vasudeva Sharana Agrawala, Surya Kanta, Jacob Wackernagel, Arthur Anthony Macdonell, Peggy Melcher – India.
  52. MBH 7/91/39.
  53. Arthashastra 11/1/4.
  54. 13th Major Rock Edict. Translation by E. Hultzsch (1857–1927). Published in India in 1925. Inscriptions of Asoka p.43. Public Domain.
  55. Ashtadhyayi IV.1.168–175.
  56. Hindu Polity: A Constitutional History of India in Hindu Times, Parts I and II., 1955, p. 52, Dr Kashi Prasad Jayaswal – Constitutional history; Prācīna Kamboja, jana aura janapada =: Ancient Kamboja, people and country, 1981, Dr Jiyālāla Kāmboja – Kamboja (Pakistan).
  57. Panda, Harihar (2007), Prof. H.C. Raychaudhuri, as a Historian, Northern Book Centre, p. 28, ISBN 978-81-7211-210-3
  58. Marshall p.59
  59. II. p 481
  60. Sinha, Bindeshwari Prasad (1977). Dynastic History of Magadha, Cir. 450–1200 A.D. Abhinav Publications. p. 128.
  61. Sinha, Bindeshwari Prasad (1977). Dynastic History of Magadha, Cir. 450–1200 A.D. Abhinav Publications. p. 128.
  62. Kalpa Sutra; Nirayavali Sutra
  63. Asiatic Mythology by J. Hackin p.83ff
  64. Olivelle, Patrick (13 July 2006). Between the Empires: Society in India 300 BCE to 400 CE. Oxford University Press. ISBN 9780199775071 – via Google Books.
  65. Raychaudhuri Hemchandra (1972), Political History of Ancient India, Calcutta: University of Calcutta, pp. 85–6
  66. Raychaudhuri Hemchandra (1972), Political History of Ancient India, Calcutta: University of Calcutta, p.107
  67. Rohan L. Jayetilleke (5 December 2007). "The Ghositarama of Kaushambi". Daily News. Archived from the original on 4 June 2011. Retrieved 29 October 2008.

Further reading

  • R. C. Majumdar and A. D. Pusalker, eds. The History and Culture of the Indian People. Bharatiya Vidya Bhavan, Bombay 1951.
  • Sethna, K. D. (1989). Ancient India in a new light. New Delhi: Aditya Prakashan.
  • Sethna, K. D. (2000). Problems of ancient India. New Delhi: Aditya Prakashan.

Notes

  1. Sanskrit: महाजनपद, lit. 'Great Janapadas'

External links

Media related to Mahajanapadas at Wikimedia Commons

Mahajanapadas
Great Indian Kingdoms
(c. 600 BCE–c. 300 BCE)
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