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{{Short description|Region of the Apennine Peninsula}}
]
{{More citations needed|date=April 2017}}
⚫ '''Old Latium''' ({{lang-la|Latium vetus}} or ''{{lang|la|Latium antiquum}}'') was, in antiquity, the part of the ] bounded to the north by the ], to the east by the central ], to the west by the sea and to the south by ]. It covered an area measuring just 50 Roman miles.<ref>Pliny ''NH'' III 56.</ref> ] calculated its area at ca. 1,860 square kilometres.<ref>T. Mommsen ''History of Rome'' I 3, 3.</ref> It corresponded to the central part of the modern administrative region of ] (]) and was the traditional territory of the ] tribe known as the ], to which the inhabitants of the archaic ] themselves belonged. Later it was also settled by ], ], ], and ].<ref>Strabon ''Geography'' III 10.</ref> It was referred to as "old" (''{{lang|la|vetus}}'') to distinguish it from the expanded region, denoted ] by later Romans, that included the region to the south of Old Latium, between Monte Circeo and the river ] - the so-called ] ("attached Latium").

⚫ '''Old Latium''' ({{langx|la|Latium vetus}} or ''{{lang|la|Latium antiquum}}'') is a region of the ] bounded to the north by the ], to the east by the central ], to the west by the ] and to the south by ]. It was the territory of the ], an ] which included the early inhabitants of the city of ]. Later it was also settled by various Italic tribes such as the ], ], ], and ].<ref>Strabon ''Geography'' III 10.</ref> The region was referred to as "old" to distinguish it from the expanded region, ], that included the region to the south of Old Latium, between ] and the river ] – the so-called ] ("attached Latium"). It corresponded to the central part of the modern administrative region of ], ], and it covered an area measuring of roughly 50 ].<ref>Pliny ''NH'' III 56.</ref> It was calculated by ] that the region's area was about 1860 square kilometres.<ref>T. Mommsen ''History of Rome'' I 3, 3.</ref>


==Settlement== ==Settlement==
⚫ === Literary tradition ===
⚫ ] has preserved extensive information on the settlement of Latium in his book, ''Roman Antiquities,'' where he listed and discussed many legends and traditional stories related by historians and scholars, both Greek and Roman, on how Latium was settled. ] also wrote about Old Latium. In his book '']'', he lists two settlements in Old Latium that at the time of writing had disappeared. Other important literary sources include ], ], ], and ].


⚫ According to these sources Latium was first settled long ago by ] and ],<ref>Festus s. v. ''sacrani'' p. 424 L: "''Sacrani'' are named those who moved from Reate and expelled the Sicels and Ligures from the ''Septimontium''"; Servius Danielis ''Ad Aeneidem'' XI 371, VIII; Dionysius of Halicarnassus ''RA'' I 12, 2 citing Sophocles's ''Triptolemus'' on Oenotrians and Ligures settling the coasts of the Tyrrhenian Sea.</ref> but many sources contradict or do not state which of the two groups first settled Latium. According to the literary tradition, the Sicels and Ligures were forced out of Latium by the constant pressure exerted by the ], who dwelt in ], causing the Ligures to migrate to ] and the Sicels to ]. The migration of the tribes appears to have been from the hills and mountains of the region down towards the plains, although there are testimonies of Greek colonizers migrating by sea into the region, as in the legend of ], and to southern Italy, as the Sicels were considered to be both ] of Greek origin,<ref>Dionysius of Hal. ''RA'' I 12, 3.</ref> and ] of ]an origin.
⚫ ===Literary tradition===


The arrival of the ] and the founding of ] are claimed to mark the beginning of civilization in Latium,<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:2007.01.0058|title = C. Valerius Flaccus, Argonautica, C. Valeri Flacci Argonauticon Liber Primus., line 1}}</ref> and 30 years after these events ] was founded, the city that led the ], a coalition of 30 cities and tribes that lasted for 500 years. While there are many different myths on the founding of these cities, it is known that the region and the Latin League were religiously influenced by the cult of Iuppiter Latiaris, an ], and venerated this god as the high protector of the league.
⚫ ] is the main literary source that preserves ancient traditions on the settlement of Latium. In the first book of his ''Roman Antiquities'', Dionysius scrupulously lists and discusses all the legends and traditional stories related by historians or scholars, both Greek and Roman. Other important sources are ], who in book three of his '']'' gives two lists of the settlements of old Latium, that he says by his time had already disappeared. ], ], ], and ] also provide important information.


⚫ === Pliny's list ===
⚫ According to these sources Latium was first settled by ] and ] at a very early time.<ref>Festus s. v. ''sacrani'' p. 424 L: "''Sacrani'' are named those who moved from Reate and expelled the Sicels and Ligures from the ''Septimontium''"; Servius Danielis ''Ad Aeneidem'' XI 371, VIII ; Dionysius of Halicarnassus ''RA'' I 12, 2 citing Sophocles's ''Triptolemus'' on Oenotrians and Ligures settling the coasts of the Tyrrhenian Sea.</ref> Sources do not state which of these two people settled Latium earlier: even though Servius says that the Sicels were expelled from the ] (more or less the site of Rome) by the Ligures, his statement does not look to be firmly grounded in an earlier tradition, as Festus lists these two people without any timeline definition in a parallel passage. These nations were over time forced out of Latium by the constant pressure exerted by the ], who formerly dwelt the lands of the interior around ], and eventually made their way to Sicily where they settled. Their migration took place some time before the Trojan War or after it.<ref>Dionysius of Halicarnassus ''Roman Antiquities'' I 22 citing Antiochus of Syracuse, Philistus and Thycidides.</ref> Traces of the presence of the Ligures and Sicels remain in the toponymy and onomastics.<ref>See the works by G. Sergi, F. Ribezzo, G. Devoto, G. Alessio and A. Grandazzi cited below.</ref> Generally speaking the movement of peoples appear to have taken place from the hills and mountains of the interior towards the plains, but there are testimonies of the arrival from the sea of Greek colonizers, as in the legend of the Argive ], and also from the south of Italy as for the Sicels who were considered to be the offspring of the Oenotrians<ref>Dionysius of Hal. ''RA'' I 12, 3.</ref> and the ] of Ardea, who were believed of ]an origin.
⚫ The accounting provided by Pliny the Elder does not include all the centres of Latium Vetus that later developed into towns, but rather lists those which, according to the scholar, had disappeared by his time without leaving any trace. Therefore, he does not mention ], ], ], ], ], ], ], ], ], ], ], ], ], ], and ], which were still standing, with the exception of old Labicum. But some settlements he mentions were in fact visited by Strabo only seventy years earlier (such as ]), and some still certainly stood in his own time, such as ]. Another oddity of the passage is that while he claims there were fifty-three centres that had disappeared, his list numbers only fifty. Even though elsewhere he mentions two other sites, ] and ], this still does not equal fifty-three. The list is in book III of his ''Natural History'' ch. 68 and 69:


⚫ {{blockquote|In the first region moreover in Latium were the famous walled towns (''clara oppida'') ], Scaptia, ], ], ], ], ], ], ], ], ], Saturnia now which is Rome, Antipolis (which is now the ], a place in Rome), ], ], ], ], ], and ]. Together with them the Alban Peoples who used to receive the (sacrificial) meat on the Alban Mount: Albani, Aesolani, Accienses, Abolani, Bubetani, Bolani, Cusuetani, Coriolani, Fidenates, Foreti, Hortenses, Latinienses, Longani, Manates, Macrales, Munienses, Numinienses, Olliculani, Octulani, Pedani, Poletaurini, Querquetulani, Sicani, Sisolenses, Tolerienses, Tutienses, Vimitellari, Velienses, Venetulani, Vitellienses.}}
The story of the arrival of Aeneas with his six hundred companions and of the foundation of Lavinium is the breaking point that signals the beginning of civilisation in Latium. The legend of the white sow that gave birth to thirty piglets has a religious meaning, being related to the establishment of the new community of the Latins, the ''populi Albenses'' which numbered thirty.<ref>]. "L'oiseau ominal, la louve de Mars, la truie féconde". In: '']'', Antiquité T. 88, N°1. 1976. pp. 31-50. Later the thirty ] of Rome.</ref> This story bears the characters of a foundation myth and explains the religious significance of the ] bounded by the cult of Iuppiter Latiaris.


⚫ The list is apparently made up of two sections, the first is referred to as ''clara oppida'' and the second as ''populi Albenses''. The last two towns mentioned among the ''clara oppida'', Norba and Sulmo, were in fact within Latium Adiectum. They were destroyed in the 1st{{nbsp}}century{{nbsp}}BC during the war between Marius and Sulla.
⚫ ====Pliny's list====


⚫ The second section gives the names of the ''populi Albenses''. These were local communities inhabiting the region of ''Mons Albanus'' (now Monte Cavo) and its immediate surroundings, the Alban Hills. Only some of them seem to have reached the urban stage and the list reflects the typical archaic ] organization of human settlement: sparse, polycentric and gravitating around a religious centre, in this case the sanctuary of ''Iuppiter Latiaris''. The exact location of these settlements is unknown with a few exceptions: Aesulae, Pedum,{{citation needed|date=October 2016}} Fidenae, Politorium, Bovillae, and Tolerium. It is possible that the Latinienses were settlers of the Ager Latiniensis, i. e. the area near Laurentum and Lavinium,<ref>Cf. Cicero ''De Haruspicum Responso'': a crack sound was heard in the Ager Latiniensis.</ref> and that the Foreti were actually settlers of the area later occupied by the Roman Forum. The Querquetulani, however, were certainly not the settlers of the Querquetulan (i.e. Caelian ) Hill in Rome as they are mentioned by Dionysius in the list of Latin peoples who went to war against Rome in 495 BC.
⚫ The accounting provided by Pliny the Elder does not include all the centres of Latium Vetus that developed into towns, but rather lists those which, according to the scholar, by his time had disappeared without leaving any trace: therefore he does not mention ], ], ], ], ], ], ], ], ], ], ], ], ], ], ], which were still standing, with the exception of old Labicum. But some settlements he mentions were in fact visited by Strabo only seventy years earlier (such as ]) and some still certainly stood in his own time, such as ]. Another oddity of the passage is that while he claims there were fifty-three centres that had disappeared, his list numbers only fifty. Even though elsewhere he mentions other two sites, ] and Amyclae, this still does not equal fifty-three. The list is in book III of his ''Natural History'' ch. 68 and 69:


=== Dionysius's list ===
⚫ "In the first region moreover in Latium were the famous walled towns (''clara oppida'') ], Scaptia, ], ], ], Caenina, ], ], ], ], ], Saturnia where now is Rome, Antipolis that is now the Janiculum within Rome, ], ], ], Amitinum, ], ], and together with them the Alban Peoples who use to receive the (sacrificial) meat on the Alban Mount: Albani, Aesolani, Accienses, Abolani, Bubetani, Bolani, Cusuetani, Coriolani, Fidenates, Foreti, Hortenses, Latinienses, Longani, Manates, Macrales, Munienses, Numinienses, Olliculani, Octulani, Pedani, Poletaurini, Querquetulani, Sicani, Sisolenses, Tolerienses, Tutienses, Vimitellari, Velienses, Venetulani, Vitellienses."
⚫ Dionysius gives a list of the towns members of the Latin League that voted for war against Rome after the capture of Fidenae by the Romans, under the influence of Aricia and of former king Tarquinius the Proud at an assembly held at Ferentinum:<ref>Dionysius V 61 3. D. calls ''Ferentinum'' the ''caput Ferentinae'' or ''aquae Ferentinae'' of Roman authors. See below A. Grandazzi's citations in the discussion of the issue.</ref>


⚫ {{blockquote|Ardea, Aricia, Bovillae, Bubentum, Cora, Carventum, Circei, Corioli, Corbio, Cabum, Fortinea, Gabii, Laurentum, Lanuvium, Lavinium, Labici, Nomentum, Norba, Praeneste, Pedum, Querquetula, Satricum, Scaptia, Setia, Tibur, Tusculum, Tolerium, Tellenae, Velitrae.}}
⚫ The list is apparently made up by two sections, the first is referred to as ''clara oppida'' and the second as ''populi Albenses''. The last two towns mentioned among the ''clara oppida'', Norba and Sulmo, were in fact within Latium Adiectum. They were destroyed in the 1st century BC during the war between Marius and Sulla.


⚫ As Niebuhr remarked, once again the total yields the sacred number of thirty, but the sum is made up of different components. It is a mix of some of the members of the ''populi Albenses'' and some of the ''clara oppida''. In fact, many of the ''oppida'' had been destroyed or resettled by the Romans during the regal period, namely Caenina, Politorium, Ficana, Cameria, Medullium, Corniculum, Collatia. Among the ''clara oppida'' of Pliny's list, Satricum, Norba, Sulmo, Scaptia, Tellenae show up here, and among the ''populi albenses'' Bubentum, Corioli, Pedum, Querquetula, Tolerium, and possibly Nomentum.
⚫ The second section gives the names of the ''populi Albenses'': these were local communities which inhabited the region of ''Mons Albanus'' (now Monte Cavo) and its immediate surroundings, the Alban Hills. Only some of them seem to have reached the urban stage and the list reflects the typical archaic Bronze Age organizations of human settlement, sparse, polycentric and gravitating around a religious centre, in this case the sanctuary of ''Iuppiter Latiaris''. The exact location of these settlements is mostly unknown with a few exceptions: Aesulae, Pedum,{{citation needed|date=October 2016}} Fidenae, Politorium, Bovillae, Tolerium. It is possible that the Latinienses were settlers of the Ager Latiniensis, i. e. the area near Laurentum and Lavinium,<ref>Cf. Cicero ''De Haruspicum Responso'': a crack sound was heard in the Ager Latiniensis.</ref> and the Foreti were actually settlers of the area later occupied by the Roman Forum. The Querquetulani though certainly were not the settlers of the Querquetulan (i.e. Caelian ) Hill in Rome as they are mentioned by Dionysius in the list of Latin peoples who went to war against Rome in 495.


====Dionysius's list==== === Other sources ===
⚫ In his description of Augustan region I, which included Old Latium, the geographer ] mentions many old towns, among them ], ], ] and ], as reduced to mere villages, private rural estates or displaced to different locations; ], ] and ] as disappeared; ] on the foothills southwest of the Alban Hills as still standing.
⚫ Dionysius gives a list of the towns members of the ], that voted for war against Rome after the capture of Fidenae by the Romans, under the influence of Aricia and of former king Tarquinius the Proud at an assembly held at Ferentinum:<ref>Dionysius V 61 3. D. calls ''Ferentinum'' the ''caput Ferentinae'' or ''aquae Ferentinae'' of Roman authors. See below A. Grandazzi's citations in the discussion of the issue.</ref>


⚫ The historiographer Livy and the lexicographer ] also repeatedly mention the old Latin towns. Another tradition related by ] calls the Sicels Ligurians, whose king was a Sikelos. This tradition is followed by ], who cites ] as his authority.
⚫ "Ardea, Aricia, Bovillae, Bubentum, Cora, Carventum, Circei, Corioli, Corbio, Cabum, Fortinea, Gabii, Laurentum, Lanuvium, Lavinium, Labici, Nomentum, Norba, Praeneste, Pedum, Querquetula, Satricum, Scaptia, Setia, Tibur, Tusculum, Tolerium, Tellenae, Velitrae."


⚫ These ancient traditions have led some scholars to look for traces of the presence of these peoples in later populations.
⚫ As Niebuhr remarked once again the total yields the sacred number of thirty, but the sum is made up of different components. It is a mix of some of the members of the ''populi Albenses'' and some of the ''clara oppida''. In fact many of the ''oppida'' had been destroyed or resettled by the Romans during the regal period: Caenina, Politorium, Ficana, Cameria, Medullium, Corniculum, Collatia. Among the ''clara oppida'' of Pliny's list here Satricum, Norba, Sulmo, Scaptia, Tellenae show up and among the ''populi albenses'' Bubentum, Corioli, Pedum, Querquetula, Tolerium and possibly Nomentum.

====Other sources====
⚫ The geographer ] in his description of Augustan region I, which included Old Latium, mentions many old towns, among them ], ], ] and ] as reduced to mere villages, private rural estates or displaced to different locations, ], ] and ] as disappeared, ] on the lows to the Southwest ot the Alban Hills as still standing.

⚫ Historiographer ] and lexicographer ] too mention repeatedly the old Latin towns. Another tradition related by Philistos of Syracuse calls the Sicels Ligurians whose king was a Sikelos. This tradition is followed by Stephanos of Byzantium who cites Hellanicus of Lesbos as his authority.

⚫ These ancient traditions have led some scholars to look for traces of the presence of these peoples.


==Archaeological evidence== ==Archaeological evidence==
], late-Archic temple of Juno Sospita, 500 BC, Villa Poniatowski, ]]]
⚫ Even though erudites and scholars have been trying to ascertain the location of the ancient towns of Latium for at least the last four centuries (see Cluvier), and despite the recent progress made by archaeology in the field of the human settlement of ancient Latium, only few towns of archaic Latium cited by ancient sources have been identified with certainty, whereas a remarkable number of settlements that have been unearthed remain not identified. This is due to the lack of epigraphic confirmations, that stems from the rare usage of writing in archaic times. There is still doubt on the exact location of many the sources mention. The problem is made even more difficult by the fact that possibly some of the ancient locations were resettled during the early Middle Ages, as it was probably the case for Labicum and Collatia. A good instance of such a custom is provided by Falerii outside Latium Vetus. Towns which have been identified archaeologically include Satricum, Politorium, Ficana, Tellenae, Crustumerium, Corniculum, Antemnae, Collatia, Fidenae, Pedum,{{citation needed|date=October 2016}} Apiolae, Gabii and perhaps Querquetulum. Alba Longa, Pometia and Corioli remain unidentified.
]]]
]]]
]]]
⚫ Even though erudite scholars have been trying to ascertain the location of the ancient towns of Latium for at least the last four centuries (see Cluvier), and despite the recent progress made by archaeology in the field of the human settlement of ancient Latium, only a few towns of archaic Latium cited by ancient sources have been identified with certainty, whereas a remarkable number of settlements that have been unearthed remain unidentified. This is due to the lack of epigraphic confirmation, due to the rare use of writing in archaic times. The problem is made even more difficult because some of the ancient locations were possibly resettled during the ], as was probably the case for Labicum and Collatia. A good instance of such a custom is provided by Falerii outside Latium Vetus. Towns which have been identified archaeologically include Satricum, Politorium, Ficana, Tellenae, Crustumerium, Corniculum, Antemnae, Collatia, Fidenae, Pedum,{{citation needed|date=October 2016}} Apiolae, Gabii and perhaps Querquetulum. ], Pometia and Corioli remain unidentified. Traces of the presence of the Ligures and Sicels remain in the ] and ].<ref>See the works by G. Sergi, F. Ribezzo, G. Devoto, G. Alessio and A. Grandazzi cited below.</ref>


The most conspicuous case and that which has given rise to a longstanding debate is Alba Longa. The famous city, according to tradition founded by ] and metropolis of the Latins for 418 years, is still a mystery: some scholars have argued that it has not yet been identified because the Ancients themselves did not know exactly where it was located and the reason of their ignorance was that Alba had never been a real city. It would rather have been a loose collection of protohistoric villages organised in the Bronze Age wise around the sanctuary of Mount Albanus, in which human settlement remained sparse, and it was abandoned before it reached the urban stage.<ref>A. Grandazzi "La localisation d' Alba" in MEFRA 1986. See section below.</ref> The most conspicuous case and one which has given rise to long-standing debate is Alba Longa. The location of that famous city, according to tradition founded by ] and the metropolis of the Latins for 418 years, is still a mystery. Some scholars have argued that it has not yet been identified because the Ancients themselves did not know exactly where it was located and the reason for their ignorance was that Alba had never been a real city. It would rather have been a loose collection of small and sparsely populated protohistoric villages organised in the Bronze Age custom around the sanctuary of Mount Albanus and abandoned before it reached the urban stage.<ref>A. Grandazzi "La localisation d' Alba" in MEFRA 1986. See section below.</ref>


===Amitinum=== ===Amitinum===
It was a centre located to the east of Rome on the Corniculan Mountains, not far from Curniculum: its identification is due to an inscription that mentions a ''pagus amentinus''.<ref>CIL VI 251.</ref> This centre was located to the east of Rome on the Corniculan Mountains, not far from Curniculum. Its identification is due to an inscription that mentions a ''pagus amentinus''.<ref>CIL VI 251.</ref>


===Antemnae=== ===Antemnae===
The town was located three miles to the north of Rome on the left bank of the river Anio and close to its confluence with the Tiber. Its name in fact means "between the rivers" (Antemnae is the Sabine for Latin "interamnes"). Some of its ruins were discovered in 1880 when the place was excavated to build the fortress "Forte Antenne". Later excavations have yielded other material. The place is now within the urban area of Rome. The town of Antemnae was located three miles to the north of Rome on the left bank of the river Anio and close to its confluence with the Tiber. Its name means "between the rivers" (Antemnae is the Sabine for Latin ''interamnes''). Some of its ruins were discovered in 1880 during excavations to build the fortress "Forte Antenne". Later excavations yielded additional material. The location is now within the urban area of Rome.


It was colonised by Rome since the time of Romolus in its first push to control the left bank of the Tiber up to the Anio, thus ensuring a communication route with Etruria along the Via Salaria. The Antemnates and the Caeninenses were granted full Roman citizenship. Nevertheless, it revolted several times, the last in 507 BC.<ref>Dionysius Hal. V 21.</ref> Antemnae was colonised by Rome at the time of Romolus during the first effort to control the left bank of the Tiber up to the Anio, thus ensuring a communication route with Etruria along the Via Salaria. The Antemnates and the Caeninenses were granted full Roman citizenship. Nevertheless, the town revolted several times, the last time in 507 BC.<ref>Dionysius Hal. V 21.</ref>


===Apiolae=== ===Apiolae===
Destroyed by ], its remains have been identified and excavated. It was located on the Monte Savello between ] and ]. It housed a temple of Apollo and the famous spring of ] with the nigh ], object of a local cult. Today they are known as the spring of Secciano and the Laghetto di Pavona. Destroyed by ], the remains have been identified and excavated. The town was located on Monte Savello between ] and ]. It housed a temple of Apollo and the famous spring of ], with nearby Lake Turni being the object of a local cult. Today the two water sources are known as the spring of Secciano and the Laghetto di Pavona.


===Aefulae=== ===Aefulae===
The site of the settlement of the Alban people Aesulani has been identified with the hilltop castrum of Aefulae near Tibur and close to the site of one of the temples of ]. It was deserted by his original dwellers and later resettled by the Romans who turned it into a military fort.<ref>Aesulae is the Latin pronunciatiation of a Sabine Aefulae i.e. meaning Aedules.</ref> The site of the settlement of the Alban people Aesulani has been identified with the hilltop castrum of Aefulae near ancient Tibur and close to the site of one of the temples of ]. It was deserted by the original dwellers and later resettled by the Romans, who turned it into a military fort.<ref>Aesulae is the Latin pronunciatiation of a Sabine Aefulae i.e. meaning Aedules.</ref>


===Bolae=== ===Bolae===
The site of the Alban people Bolani is frequently mentioned by historians Dionysius of Halicarnassus and Livy. It was occupied by the Aequians probably already in the late 6th century or in the wars headed by Coriolanus.<ref>Dion. Hal. VIII 18.</ref> Its site is not known with certainty but must have stood not far from Praeneste and Labicum. The site of the Alban people Bolani is frequently mentioned by the historians Dionysius of Halicarnassus and Livy. It was occupied by the Aequians probably already in the late 6th century or in the wars led by ].<ref>Dion. Hal. VIII 18.</ref> Its site is not known with certainty, but it must have stood not far from Praeneste and Labicum.


===Corioli=== ===Corioli===
The site of this settlement must have stood on the SW side of the Alban Hills near Genzano and Lanuvium. The site of this settlement must have stood on the south-west side of the Alban Hills near Genzano and Lanuvium.


===Pedum=== ===Pedum===
The most important of the Latin towns developed from the ancient ''populi albenses'', ] stood between Tibur and Praeneste near modern ]. It was taken by the Romans with ].<ref>Livy II 39; Plutarch ''Cor.'' 28.</ref> It declined after the final demise of the Latin League in 338 BC. The most important of the Latin towns developed from the ancient ''populi albenses'', ] stood between Tibur and Praeneste near modern ]. It was taken by the Romans with Coriolanus.<ref>Livy II 39; Plutarch ''Cor.'' 28.</ref> After the final demise of the Latin League, the town declined.


===Tolerium=== ===Tolerium===
Probably this settlement of the Alban people was not far from Pedum, according to a passage in ] (7.26).<ref>{{cite web |url=http://pleiades.stoa.org/places/438853 |title=Places: 438853 (Tolerium) |author=Purcell, N., R. Talbert, S. Gillies, T. Elliott, J. Becker |accessdate=October 24, 2015<!-- 10:15 pm--> |publisher=Pleiades}}</ref> This settlement of the Alban people was probably not far from Pedum, according to a passage in ] (7.26).<ref>{{cite web |url=http://pleiades.stoa.org/places/438853 |title=Places: 438853 (Tolerium) |last1=Purcell |first1=N. |first2=R. |last2=Talbert |first3=S. |last3=Gillies |first4=T. |last4=Elliott |first5=J. |last5=Becker |date=26 April 2021 |access-date=October 24, 2015<!-- 10:15 pm--> |publisher=Pleiades}}</ref>


===Vitellia=== ===Vitellia===
The site of the populus of the Vitellienses, it was located at the border between Latins and Aequians. The site of the populus of the Vitellienses was located at the border between the Latins and the Aequians.


===Caenina=== ===Caenina===
The site of ] has not yet been identified with certainty. It may have been located near present-day "La Rustica" close to the ], on a trade route connecting Latium with Etruria and Campania.<ref>P. Zaccagni in ''Civiltá del Lazio primitivo. Catalogo della Mostra'' Roma 1976 p. 155.</ref> Festus states it was close to the old Roman settlement. Originally a settlement of the Sicels as Antemnae, these were later expelled by the Aborigenes.<ref>Dionysius of Halicarnassus ''Roman Antiquities'' II 35, 7.</ref> Dionysius records a tradition according to which Romulus would have been at Caenina for a sacrifice during the festival of the ] that were the occasion of the abduction of Remus by Numitor's shepherds.<ref>Dionysius ''Roman Antiquities'' II 89.</ref> It was subjected to synoecism and some of its cults and ''sacerdotes'' were transferred to Rome<ref>R. E. A. Palmer ''The Archaic Community of the Romans'' Cambridge 1970 p. 106 n. 3; A. Alföldi ''Early Rome and the Latins'' Ann Arbor 1965, p. 132; G. Wissowa RE 1279.</ref> by Romulus, who celebrated his first triumph after conquering the Caeninenses and killing their king, ]. However, according to Dionysius Romulus allowed the Caeninenses to continue to live in their hometown, even though they had to accept a colony of three hundred Romans and the allotment to them of one third of their land.<ref>Dionysius of Halicarnassus II 35, 3-5.</ref>It is still mentioned at the beginning of the Republic: the Vindicius who revealed the plot of the Aquilii to ] was a slave from Caenina captured in war.<ref>Dionysius of Halicarnassus ''Roman Antiquities'' V 7, 3.</ref> The site of ] has not yet been identified with certainty. It may have been located near present-day "La Rustica" close to the ], on a trade route connecting Latium with Etruria and Campania.<ref>P. Zaccagni in ''Civiltá del Lazio primitivo. Catalogo della Mostra'' Roma 1976 p. 155.</ref> Festus states it was close to the old Roman settlement. It was originally a settlement of the Sicels, as was Antemnae, who were later expelled by the Aborigenes.<ref>Dionysius of Halicarnassus ''Roman Antiquities'' II 35, 7.</ref> Dionysius records a tradition according to which Romulus was at Caenina for a sacrifice during the festival of the ], which was the occasion of the abduction of ] by Numitor's shepherds.<ref>Dionysius ''Roman Antiquities'' II 89.</ref> The town underwent ] and some of its cults and priests (''sacerdotes'') were transferred to Rome<ref>R. E. A. Palmer ''The Archaic Community of the Romans'' Cambridge 1970 p. 106 n. 3; A. Alföldi ''Early Rome and the Latins'' Ann Arbor 1965, p. 132; G. Wissowa RE 1279.</ref> by Romulus, who celebrated his first triumph after conquering the Caeninenses and killing their king, ]. However, according to Dionysius, Romulus allowed the Caeninenses to continue to live in their hometown, although they had to accept a colony of three hundred Romans and the allotment to them of one third of their land.<ref>Dionysius of Halicarnassus II 35, 3-5.</ref> The town is still mentioned at the beginning of the Republic: the Vindicius who revealed the plot of the Aquilii to ] was a slave from Caenina captured in war.<ref>Dionysius of Halicarnassus ''Roman Antiquities'' V 7, 3.</ref>

Its name may be related to Latin ''caenum'', mud, lime, itself a word with no Indoeuropean etymology.<ref>G. Alessio "Problemi storico-linguistici messapici" in ''Studi salentini'' 1962 '''14''' p. 318 n. 131.</ref> Another possibility is that it was of Celtic (Ligurian) origin. The town name may be related to Latin ''caenum'' (mud, lime), itself a word with no Indoeuropean etymology.<ref>G. Alessio "Problemi storico-linguistici messapici" in ''Studi salentini'' 1962 '''14''' p. 318 n. 131.</ref> Another possibility is that it was of Celtic (Ligurian) origin.


===Cameria or Camerium=== ===Cameria or Camerium===
This town fought many wars against Rome since the time of Romulus and by him was subjected to receiving a Roman colony. It was destroyed in 502 BC. It was located to the northeast of Rome. Its ruins have not yet been identified. Since Romulus made this town into a Roman colony, it fought many wars against Rome. In 502 BC it was destroyed, and its ruins have not yet been found; it was located to the north-east of Rome.


===Collatia=== ===Collatia===
Strabo places ] some 30 ] from Rome: it had been reduced to farmland by his time. The site has not yet been identified with certainty, but it was located near modern ], to the east of Rome. Likely it stood on the hill now occupied by the ]. This identification is supported by the fact that Lunghezza lies at the terminus of the ancient ]. It was conquered by the Romans and subjected to colonization. Livy preserves the formula of their surrender, often cited as example of the ]. Collatia was originally founded by the Latin king ] of Alba Longa and it was the hometown of ], one of the first two consuls of the Roman Republic. Strabo places ] some 30 ] from Rome. Though by his time it had been reduced to farmland. The location of the site has not yet been identified with certainty, but it was located near modern ], to the east of Rome. Likely it stood on the hill now occupied by the ]; which lies at the terminus of the ancient ]. The town was conquered and colonized by the Romans. Livy preserves the formula of their surrender, often cited as example of the '']''.
Collatia was founded by the Latin king ] of Alba Longa and it was the hometown of ], one of the first two consuls of the Roman Republic.


===Curniculum or Corniculum=== ===Curniculum or Corniculum===
The town has been located by modern scholars in the present position of ] (formerly Monticelli) in the comune of ], not far from ]. The two adjacent hills which form a couple of horns were at the origin of its name and the nearby mountain range is still known as "Monti Cornicolani". Near Montecelio have been discovered materials dating from the Iron Age and fragmentary pottery of the 7th-6th centuries BC. The town has been located by modern scholars in the present position of ] (formerly Monticelli) in the comune of ], not far from ]. The two adjacent hills shaped like a pair of horns were the source of its name, and the nearby mountain range is still known as "Monti Cornicolani".


The town was destroyed by Tarquinius Priscus<ref>Livy I 38; 39. Dionysius III 50; IV 1. Ovid Fasti VI 627 ff.</ref> and was believed to be the hometown of ]'s mother Ocresia. Near Montecelio, relics dating from the ] and fragments of pottery from the 7th-6th centuries BC have been discovered. The town was destroyed by Tarquinius Priscus<ref>Livy I 38; 39. Dionysius III 50; IV 1. Ovid Fasti VI 627 ff.</ref> and was believed to be the hometown of ]'s mother, Ocresia.


===Crustumerium or Crustumeria=== ===Crustumerium or Crustumeria===
The site of ] has been known since the 19th century, located in the hills of the park (Riserva Naturale) of Marcigliana Vecchia, to the north of Rome near Settebagni, on the ]. The town was also known as ''Castrimoenium'' and ''Crustumeria'' and has given its name to the surrounding countryside and hills known as "Ager Crustuminus" and "Montes Crustumini". According to Servius it was originally a settlement of the ], founded by the Sicel Clitemnestrus.<ref>Servius Danielis "ad Aeneidem" VII 631 = Cassius Hemina fragm. 2 Peter.</ref> The etymology of the name is unclear and may reflect an ancient Pre-Indo European toponymic ''crustulum'', meaning pond.<ref>Costanzo Garancini</ref> The site of ] has been known since the 19th century. It is located in the hills of the Riserva Naturale park of Marcigliana Vecchia, to the north of Rome near Settebagni, on the ]. The town was also known as ''Castrimoenium'' and ''Crustumeria'' and has given its name to the surrounding countryside and hills known as "Ager Crustuminus" and "Montes Crustumini". According to Servius it was originally a settlement of the ], founded by the Sicel Clitemnestrus.<ref>Servius Danielis "ad Aeneidem" VII 631 = Cassius Hemina fragm. 2 Peter.</ref> The etymology of the name is unclear and may reflect an ancient Pre-Indo European toponymic ''crustulum'', meaning pond.<ref>Ambra Costanzo Garancini, ''La romanizzazione nel bacino idrografico padano attraverso l’odierna idronimia'', Firenze, La Nuova Italia, 1975 (Pubblicazioni della Facoltà di Lettere e Filosofia dell’Università degli Studi di Milano, 75), p. 124.</ref>

⚫ Crustumerium has been and is still being excavated by archaeologists and its study has been important for understanding urban development in Old Latium. It was located on one of the routes that linked ] and ], close to a ford on the Tiber, which fact, along with the richness of its countryside, was the cause of its importance and wealth.<ref name="QuiliciGigli1980">{{cite book|author1=Lorenzo Quilici|author2=Stefania Quilici Gigli|title=Crustumerium|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=JREvAAAAMAAJ|year=1980|publisher=Consiglio nazionale delle ricerche, Centro di studio per l'archeologia etrusco-italica}}</ref>

The town stretched along a road trench and occupied an area of 60 hectares. It had walls that were a complex made by four or five parallel stretches connected by normal ones and covered with stone slabs. Tombs contained a rich production of fine pottery painted in white and red, weapons, and other instruments from the early Iron Age onward.


The town is mentioned in the Aeneid, and in the history of Rome it was involved in the abduction of the Sabine women and the subsequent war. Further, Romulus is said to have installed a colony of Romans there. Later it is frequently mentioned in the wars between Rome and its neighbors.
⚫ Crustumerium has been and is still being excavated by archaeologists and its study has been important for the understanding of urban development in Old Latium. It was located on one of the routes that linked ] and ], close to a ford on the Tiber, which fact, along with the richness of its countryside, was the cause of its importance and wealth.<ref name="QuiliciGigli1980">{{cite book|author1=Lorenzo Quilici|author2=Stefania Quilici Gigli|title=Crustumerium|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=JREvAAAAMAAJ|year=1980|publisher=Consiglio nazionale delle ricerche, Centro di studio per l'archeologia etrusco-italica}}</ref>


The town stretched along a road trench and occupied an area of 60 hectares. The walls were a complex made by several (four or five) parallel stretches connected by normal ones and covered with stone slabs. Tombs contained a rich production of fine pottery painted in white and red, weapons and other instruments from the early Iron Age onward. The town is mentioned in the Aeneid. In the history of Rome it is one of those involved in the abduction of the Sabine women and subsequent war. Romulus is said to have installed there a colony of Romans. Later it is frequently mentioned in the wars between Rome and its neighbours. Literary sources put the destruction of Crustumerium at the end of the sixth century,<ref>Livy II 19.</ref> but archaeology has shown it was still occupied in the fifth century and declined only in the fourth century.<ref>A. Amoroso "Crustumerium: a frontier settlement" in ''Bollettino di Archeologia'' 2001.</ref> Literary sources put the destruction of Crustumerium at the end of the sixth century,<ref>Livy II 19.</ref> but archaeologists have shown it was still occupied in the fifth century and declined only in the fourth century.<ref>A. Amoroso "Crustumerium: a frontier settlement" in ''Bollettino di Archeologia'' 2001.</ref>


===Ficana=== ===Ficana===
] was located on the left bank of the Tiber downstream from Rome, near present-day ] on the highland over Monte Cugno which in ancient times was steeper and a dominant position on the river. Its identification is made certain by the find of an inscription. The sources state it was destroyed twice by Ancus Marcius in his push to control the lower course of the Tiber and the salines, together with Politorium and Tellenae. Its importance was owed to the fact it was a port and afforded a commercial route to the hinterland toward the Alban Hills and Aricia. ] was located on the left bank of the Tiber, downstream from Rome, near present-day ] on the highland over Monte Cugno. In ancient times, this provided an advantage as it was steeper and a dominant position on the river. Its identification is confirmed by the find of an inscription. The sources state that it was destroyed twice by Ancus Marcius in his drive to control the lower course of the Tiber and the salines, together with Politorium and Tellenae. Its importance was owed to the fact it was a port that afforded a commercial route to the hinterland toward the Alban Hills and Aricia.


Archaeology though has shown it was still a prosperous centre during the 4th century and reached its maximum expansion after the Roman conquest. It declined only in the 4th and 3rd centuries after the development of ]. Archaeologists have shown that it was still a prosperous centre during the 4th century and reached its maximum expansion after the Roman conquest. It declined only in the 4th and 3rd centuries after the development of ]. Excavations have unearthed the town wall, housing areas and a necropolis. Long-necked ]s decorated with reliefs or scratches of a style typical of 7th-century Old Latium testify to the early quality of the local material culture. The Ficana site is now an archaeological park.{{When|date=July 2017}}
Excavations have unearthed the town wall, housing areas and a necropolis. Amphors with a long neck, decorated in relief or scratched, typical of 7th-century Old Latium testify to the early quality of the local material culture. The area of Ficana is now an archaeological park.


===Medullium or Medullia=== ===Medullium===
Also known in the sources as ], its exact location is unknown. It was the hometown of ]'s family. It was conquered by Tullus Hostilius even though not destroyed. Its name looks related to the Ligurian tribe of the Medulli (Medylloi in Strabon IV 1, 11) and would appear to be cognate with Celtic deity Meduna.<ref>G. Alessio "Genti e favelle dell'antica Apulia" Cressati Taranto 1949 p. 17 n. 3 (= ''Archivio Storico Pugliese'' II 1949) citing Holder ''Altceltische Sprache'' II col. 528: cfr. German ''Met''.</ref> Strabo<ref>IV 6.</ref> mentions two other towns named Medullia, one on the western Alps in Gallia and one on the eastern in Iapudia. Also known in the sources as ], its exact location is unknown. It was the hometown of ]'s family and was conquered by Tullus Hostilius, although not destroyed. Its name suggests a relationship to the Ligurian tribe of the Medulli (Medylloi in Strabon IV 1, 11) and would appear to be cognate with the Celtic deity Meduna.<ref>G. Alessio "Genti e favelle dell'antica Apulia" Cressati Taranto 1949 p. 17 n. 3 (= ''Archivio Storico Pugliese'' II 1949) citing Holder ''Altceltische Sprache'' II col. 528: cfr. German ''Met''.</ref> Strabo<ref>IV 6.</ref> mentions two other towns named Medullia, one on the western alps in Gallia and one on the eastern alps in Iapudia.


===Politorium=== ===Politorium===
] has been identified in the archaic settlement found near ], at the southeast of Rome. The identification though lacks epigraphic confirmation. It is mentioned by Cato, who records its foundation, Livy and Dionysius of Halicarnassos, who describe its capture and successive demolition by Ancus Marcius. Its inhabitants would have been deported to the Aventine. These facts are part of the first expansive push by Rome in the direction of the sea, which also brought about the fall of Ficana and Tellenae. ] has been identified in the archaic settlement found near ], south-east of Rome, but this identification lacks epigraphic confirmation. It is mentioned by Cato, who records its founding, and by Livy and Dionysius of Halicarnassos, who describe its capture and successive demolition by Ancus Marcius. Its inhabitants would have been deported to the Aventine. These facts are part of the first expansive drive by Rome toward the sea, which also brought about the fall of Ficana and Tellenae.


The excavations have uncovered remains of the fortifications and a princely necropolis. The excavations have uncovered remains of the fortifications and a princely necropolis.


===Satricum=== ===Satricum===
] was recorded by Pliny as the first in his list of ''clara oppida''. It was an important and very ancient settlement of the Latin and other tribes grown nigh the prehistoric sanctuary of ]. It has been identified by the archaeologists at Le Ferriere, in the present comune of ] and recently systematically excavated by the Royal Dutch Institute in Rome in collaboration with the Italian authorities. During excavations in 1977 the inscription known as ] was unearthed.<ref name="Stibbe1980">{{cite book|author=C. M. Stibbe|title=Lapis Satricanus|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=lvseAAAAMAAJ|year=1980|publisher=Ministerie van Cultuur, Recreatie en Maatschappelijk Werk|isbn=978-90-12-02951-3}}</ref> ] was recorded by Pliny as the first in his list of ''clara oppida''. It was an important and ancient settlement of the Latin and other tribes and arose near the prehistoric sanctuary of ]. It has been identified by archaeologists at Le Ferriere, in the present ], and it was systematically excavated by the Royal Dutch Institute in Rome in collaboration with Italian authorities. During excavations in 1977 the inscription known as ] was unearthed.<ref name="Stibbe1980">{{cite book|author=C. M. Stibbe|title=Lapis Satricanus|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=lvseAAAAMAAJ|year=1980|publisher=Ministerie van Cultuur, Recreatie en Maatschappelijk Werk|isbn=978-90-12-02951-3}}</ref>


===Scaptia=== ===Scaptia===
It is mentioned by Livy<ref>Livy AUC VIII 17.</ref> as the eponymous settlement of the Roman tribe of the same name. Its location has not been identified. Some scholars suppose it was located near Tibur or near Passerano.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://pleiades.stoa.org/places/438829 |title=Places: 438829 (Scaptia) |author=Purcell, N., R. Talbert, S. Gillies, T. Elliott, J. Becker |accessdate=October 24, 2015<!-- 10:02 pm--> |publisher=Pleiades}}</ref> The town is mentioned by Livy<ref>Livy AUC VIII 17.</ref> as the eponymous settlement of the Roman tribe of the same name. Its location has not been identified, with some scholars suggesting that it was located near Tibur or near Passerano.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://pleiades.stoa.org/places/438829 |title=Places: 438829 (Scaptia) |author=Purcell, N., R. Talbert, S. Gillies, T. Elliott, J. Becker |date=13 June 2021 |access-date=October 24, 2015<!-- 10:02 pm--> |publisher=Pleiades}}</ref>


==Modern studies on the settlement of prehistoric Latium== ==Modern studies on the settlement of prehistoric Latium==

===Linguistic comparisons=== ===Linguistic comparisons===
] was the first to remark that the name of Alba Longa on the one hand reminded that of many Ligurian settlements, such as ''Albieis'' north of Massalia with their centre ], as well as Albium (Albion) Intemelium (now ]), Albium (Albion) Ingaunum (now ]) and ] in Italy, and on the other could hardly mean white, as the Latin adjective ''albus'' does, since the rocks in the area of volcanic Mount Albanus are a deep grey in colour.<ref>W. Helbig ''Die Italiker in der Poebene'' 1879.</ref> ]<ref>G. Sergi ''Da Albalonga a Roma. Inizio dell'incivilimento in Italia, ovvero Liguri e Siculi'' Turin 1934 p. 3ff.</ref> remarked that the early name of the Tiber was Albula, a name that recurs elsewhere in hydronomy where there are traces of Ligurians and Sicels.<ref>The Albula, a source near Tibur. The Albula oracle in Virgil's Aeneis. An Albula river in Picenum near Numana, town that Pliny NH III 13 ascribes to the Sicels; another one in the Lepontine Alps; one in the Grisons canton of present day Swytzerland. The Albinia river in Etruria (now ]), a river Alba in Sicily and another one in Northeast Spain.</ref> Further evidence connecting Ligures and Siculi would be provided by a neolithic skeleton unearthed at Sgurgola near ] which was painted in red as the ones found in the Ligurian cave of the "]". Sergi concluded that Ligures and Sicels were in fact just one ethnos, even though since they lived far apart they had come to be considered as two distinct peoples. Their identity would be confirnmed by ancient toponyms found in Latium as well as other regions of Italy. Strabon also mentions that a former names for the Alps was Albia. ] was the first to remark that the name of Alba Longa and of many other Ligurian settlements, such as ''Albieis'' north of Massalia, with their centre ], as well as Albium (Albion) Intemelium (now ]), Albium (Albion) Ingaunum (now ]) and ] in Italy, could hardly mean "white", from the Latin adjective ''albus'', since the rocks in the area of volcanic Mount Albanus are deep grey in colour.<ref>W. Helbig ''Die Italiker in der Poebene'' 1879.</ref> ]<ref>G. Sergi ''Da Albalonga a Roma. Inizio dell'incivilimento in Italia, ovvero Liguri e Siculi'' Turin 1934 p. 3ff.</ref> remarked that the early name of the Tiber was Albula, a name that recurs elsewhere in ] where there are traces of Ligurians and Sicels.<ref>The Albula, a source near Tibur. The Albula oracle in Virgil's Aeneis. An Albula river in Picenum near Numana, town that Pliny NH III 13 ascribes to the Sicels; another one in the Lepontine Alps; one in the Grisons canton of present day Switzerland. The Albinia river in Etruria (now ]), a river Alba in Sicily and another one in Northeast Spain.</ref> Further evidence connecting Ligures and Siculi was provided by a neolithic skeleton unearthed at Sgurgola near ] that was painted red, as were the ones found in the Ligurian cave of the "]". Sergi concluded that Ligures and Siceli were in fact just one ], but since they lived far apart, they had come to be considered as two distinct nations. Their identity could be confirmed by ancient ] found in Latium as well as other regions of Italy. Strabon also mentions that a former name for the Alps was Albia.


Other correspondences include the ancient name of the ], ''Sabatinus Lacus'' and the town of Sabate on its shores, the river Sāpis in Umbria, which are based on a Praeindoeuropean root *sāb- meaning water, seen also in the name ] (today ]).<ref>C. Battisti ''Sostrati e parastrati'' Florence 1959 p. 125 ff. ; A. Trombetti ''Studi Etruschi'' XIV 1940 p. 187; G. Devoto ''Gli antichi Italici'' Rome 1969 p. 126.</ref> Other correspondences include the ancient name of the ], ''Sabatinus Lacus'' and the town of Sabate on its shores, and the river Sāpis in Umbria, names based on a ] root *sāb- meaning water, seen also in the name ] (today ]).<ref>C. Battisti ''Sostrati e parastrati'' Florence 1959 p. 125 ff.; A. Trombetti ''Studi Etruschi'' XIV 1940 p. 187; G. Devoto ''Gli antichi Italici'' Rome 1969 p. 126.</ref>


==Economy== ==Economy==
⚫ The land of Old Latium was mostly fertile, and agriculture was practiced in the lowlands since an early time. In the lowlands, cereals and legumes were grown. In the hills, grapes were planted, and wines such as Setinus, Albanus, and Signinus, were of good quality.<ref>Strabo V 3, 2; V 3, 10.</ref> In the highlands, animal husbandry took the place of food production as an economic force.

⚫ ] had famous quarries of red ] stone, which was used as building material in the surrounding area, Rome included.<ref>Strabo V 3, 10-11.</ref> Crafts, such as smithing and pottery, were also developed.

Diseases like ] were restricted to coastal areas and a few other locations.


==See also==
⚫ The land was mostly fertile. Agriculture was practiced in the lowlands since an early time and yielded cereals and legumes. The hills were planted with grapes and the wines were of good or high qualitiy, such as the Setinus, Albanus, Signinus.<ref>Strabo V 3, 2; V 3, 10.</ref> Highlands were put to use for animal husbandry.
* ] — ''all periods''.
⚫ Gabii had famous quarries of red stone (travertine) which was used as building material in the surrounding area, Rome included.<ref>Strabo V 3, 10-11.</ref> Crafts (smithery and pottery) were also developed. Malaric areas were restricted to cooastal lowlands and some other places at the time.
* ]
* {{C|History of Lazio}}
* {{C|History of Rome}}


==References== ==References==
{{Reflist|2}} {{Reflist|25em}}


{{Commons category|Latium vetus}}
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{{Ancient Rome topics|state=collapsed}}


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Latest revision as of 01:29, 26 December 2024

Region of the Apennine Peninsula
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Old Latium (Latin: Latium vetus or Latium antiquum) is a region of the Apennine Peninsula bounded to the north by the Tiber River, to the east by the central Apennine Mountains, to the west by the Mediterranean Sea and to the south by Monte Circeo. It was the territory of the Latins, an Italic tribe which included the early inhabitants of the city of Rome. Later it was also settled by various Italic tribes such as the Rutulians, Volscians, Aequi, and Hernici. The region was referred to as "old" to distinguish it from the expanded region, Latium, that included the region to the south of Old Latium, between Monte Circeo and the river Garigliano – the so-called Latium adiectum ("attached Latium"). It corresponded to the central part of the modern administrative region of Lazio, Italy, and it covered an area measuring of roughly 50 Roman miles. It was calculated by Mommsen that the region's area was about 1860 square kilometres.

Settlement

Literary tradition

Dionysius of Halicarnassus has preserved extensive information on the settlement of Latium in his book, Roman Antiquities, where he listed and discussed many legends and traditional stories related by historians and scholars, both Greek and Roman, on how Latium was settled. Pliny the Elder also wrote about Old Latium. In his book Natural History, he lists two settlements in Old Latium that at the time of writing had disappeared. Other important literary sources include Livy, Strabo, Festus, and Servius Danielis.

According to these sources Latium was first settled long ago by Sicels and Ligures, but many sources contradict or do not state which of the two groups first settled Latium. According to the literary tradition, the Sicels and Ligures were forced out of Latium by the constant pressure exerted by the Aborigines, who dwelt in Reate, causing the Ligures to migrate to Liguria and the Sicels to Sicily. The migration of the tribes appears to have been from the hills and mountains of the region down towards the plains, although there are testimonies of Greek colonizers migrating by sea into the region, as in the legend of Evander, and to southern Italy, as the Sicels were considered to be both Oenotrians of Greek origin, and Rutulian of Daunian origin.

The arrival of the Aeneads and the founding of Lavinium are claimed to mark the beginning of civilization in Latium, and 30 years after these events Alba was founded, the city that led the Latin League, a coalition of 30 cities and tribes that lasted for 500 years. While there are many different myths on the founding of these cities, it is known that the region and the Latin League were religiously influenced by the cult of Iuppiter Latiaris, an epithet of Jupiter, and venerated this god as the high protector of the league.

Pliny's list

The accounting provided by Pliny the Elder does not include all the centres of Latium Vetus that later developed into towns, but rather lists those which, according to the scholar, had disappeared by his time without leaving any trace. Therefore, he does not mention Anxur, Tibur, Cora, Ficulea, Nomentum, Praeneste, Gabii, Ardea, Aricia, Tusculum, Lavinium, Laurentum, Lanuvium, Labicum, and Velitrae, which were still standing, with the exception of old Labicum. But some settlements he mentions were in fact visited by Strabo only seventy years earlier (such as Tellenae), and some still certainly stood in his own time, such as Pedum. Another oddity of the passage is that while he claims there were fifty-three centres that had disappeared, his list numbers only fifty. Even though elsewhere he mentions two other sites, Apiolae and Amyclae, this still does not equal fifty-three. The list is in book III of his Natural History ch. 68 and 69:

In the first region moreover in Latium were the famous walled towns (clara oppida) Satricum, Scaptia, Politorium, Tellena, Tifata, Caenina, Ficana, Crustumeria, Ameriola, Medullum, Corniculum, Saturnia now which is Rome, Antipolis (which is now the Janiculum, a place in Rome), Antemnae, Camerium, Collatia, Amitinum, Norba, and Sulmo. Together with them the Alban Peoples who used to receive the (sacrificial) meat on the Alban Mount: Albani, Aesolani, Accienses, Abolani, Bubetani, Bolani, Cusuetani, Coriolani, Fidenates, Foreti, Hortenses, Latinienses, Longani, Manates, Macrales, Munienses, Numinienses, Olliculani, Octulani, Pedani, Poletaurini, Querquetulani, Sicani, Sisolenses, Tolerienses, Tutienses, Vimitellari, Velienses, Venetulani, Vitellienses.

The list is apparently made up of two sections, the first is referred to as clara oppida and the second as populi Albenses. The last two towns mentioned among the clara oppida, Norba and Sulmo, were in fact within Latium Adiectum. They were destroyed in the 1st century BC during the war between Marius and Sulla.

The second section gives the names of the populi Albenses. These were local communities inhabiting the region of Mons Albanus (now Monte Cavo) and its immediate surroundings, the Alban Hills. Only some of them seem to have reached the urban stage and the list reflects the typical archaic Bronze Age organization of human settlement: sparse, polycentric and gravitating around a religious centre, in this case the sanctuary of Iuppiter Latiaris. The exact location of these settlements is unknown with a few exceptions: Aesulae, Pedum, Fidenae, Politorium, Bovillae, and Tolerium. It is possible that the Latinienses were settlers of the Ager Latiniensis, i. e. the area near Laurentum and Lavinium, and that the Foreti were actually settlers of the area later occupied by the Roman Forum. The Querquetulani, however, were certainly not the settlers of the Querquetulan (i.e. Caelian ) Hill in Rome as they are mentioned by Dionysius in the list of Latin peoples who went to war against Rome in 495 BC.

Dionysius's list

Dionysius gives a list of the towns members of the Latin League that voted for war against Rome after the capture of Fidenae by the Romans, under the influence of Aricia and of former king Tarquinius the Proud at an assembly held at Ferentinum:

Ardea, Aricia, Bovillae, Bubentum, Cora, Carventum, Circei, Corioli, Corbio, Cabum, Fortinea, Gabii, Laurentum, Lanuvium, Lavinium, Labici, Nomentum, Norba, Praeneste, Pedum, Querquetula, Satricum, Scaptia, Setia, Tibur, Tusculum, Tolerium, Tellenae, Velitrae.

As Niebuhr remarked, once again the total yields the sacred number of thirty, but the sum is made up of different components. It is a mix of some of the members of the populi Albenses and some of the clara oppida. In fact, many of the oppida had been destroyed or resettled by the Romans during the regal period, namely Caenina, Politorium, Ficana, Cameria, Medullium, Corniculum, Collatia. Among the clara oppida of Pliny's list, Satricum, Norba, Sulmo, Scaptia, Tellenae show up here, and among the populi albenses Bubentum, Corioli, Pedum, Querquetula, Tolerium, and possibly Nomentum.

Other sources

In his description of Augustan region I, which included Old Latium, the geographer Strabo mentions many old towns, among them Collatia, Antemnae, Fidenae and Labicum, as reduced to mere villages, private rural estates or displaced to different locations; Apiolae, Suessa and Alba Longa as disappeared; Tellenae on the foothills southwest of the Alban Hills as still standing.

The historiographer Livy and the lexicographer Festus also repeatedly mention the old Latin towns. Another tradition related by Philistos of Syracuse calls the Sicels Ligurians, whose king was a Sikelos. This tradition is followed by Stephanus of Byzantium, who cites Hellanicus of Lesbos as his authority.

These ancient traditions have led some scholars to look for traces of the presence of these peoples in later populations.

Archaeological evidence

Polychrome antefix with female head with nimbus from Lanuvium, late-Archic temple of Juno Sospita, 500 BC, Villa Poniatowski, Rome
Acroterial statue of harpy-siren, beginning of the 5th century BC, from Gabii
Frontonal sima with procession of floats and winged horses, 510–490 BC, from Praeneste
Antefix with Satyr and Maenad dancing from the acropolis, Temple of Mater Matuta, 490–470 BC, from Satricum

Even though erudite scholars have been trying to ascertain the location of the ancient towns of Latium for at least the last four centuries (see Cluvier), and despite the recent progress made by archaeology in the field of the human settlement of ancient Latium, only a few towns of archaic Latium cited by ancient sources have been identified with certainty, whereas a remarkable number of settlements that have been unearthed remain unidentified. This is due to the lack of epigraphic confirmation, due to the rare use of writing in archaic times. The problem is made even more difficult because some of the ancient locations were possibly resettled during the Early Middle Ages, as was probably the case for Labicum and Collatia. A good instance of such a custom is provided by Falerii outside Latium Vetus. Towns which have been identified archaeologically include Satricum, Politorium, Ficana, Tellenae, Crustumerium, Corniculum, Antemnae, Collatia, Fidenae, Pedum, Apiolae, Gabii and perhaps Querquetulum. Alba Longa, Pometia and Corioli remain unidentified. Traces of the presence of the Ligures and Sicels remain in the toponymy and onomastics.

The most conspicuous case and one which has given rise to long-standing debate is Alba Longa. The location of that famous city, according to tradition founded by Ascanius and the metropolis of the Latins for 418 years, is still a mystery. Some scholars have argued that it has not yet been identified because the Ancients themselves did not know exactly where it was located and the reason for their ignorance was that Alba had never been a real city. It would rather have been a loose collection of small and sparsely populated protohistoric villages organised in the Bronze Age custom around the sanctuary of Mount Albanus and abandoned before it reached the urban stage.

Amitinum

This centre was located to the east of Rome on the Corniculan Mountains, not far from Curniculum. Its identification is due to an inscription that mentions a pagus amentinus.

Antemnae

The town of Antemnae was located three miles to the north of Rome on the left bank of the river Anio and close to its confluence with the Tiber. Its name means "between the rivers" (Antemnae is the Sabine for Latin interamnes). Some of its ruins were discovered in 1880 during excavations to build the fortress "Forte Antenne". Later excavations yielded additional material. The location is now within the urban area of Rome.

Antemnae was colonised by Rome at the time of Romolus during the first effort to control the left bank of the Tiber up to the Anio, thus ensuring a communication route with Etruria along the Via Salaria. The Antemnates and the Caeninenses were granted full Roman citizenship. Nevertheless, the town revolted several times, the last time in 507 BC.

Apiolae

Destroyed by Tarquinius Priscus, the remains have been identified and excavated. The town was located on Monte Savello between Albano and Pavona. It housed a temple of Apollo and the famous spring of Juturna, with nearby Lake Turni being the object of a local cult. Today the two water sources are known as the spring of Secciano and the Laghetto di Pavona.

Aefulae

The site of the settlement of the Alban people Aesulani has been identified with the hilltop castrum of Aefulae near ancient Tibur and close to the site of one of the temples of Bona Dea. It was deserted by the original dwellers and later resettled by the Romans, who turned it into a military fort.

Bolae

The site of the Alban people Bolani is frequently mentioned by the historians Dionysius of Halicarnassus and Livy. It was occupied by the Aequians probably already in the late 6th century or in the wars led by Coriolanus. Its site is not known with certainty, but it must have stood not far from Praeneste and Labicum.

Corioli

The site of this settlement must have stood on the south-west side of the Alban Hills near Genzano and Lanuvium.

Pedum

The most important of the Latin towns developed from the ancient populi albenses, Pedum stood between Tibur and Praeneste near modern Gallicano nel Lazio. It was taken by the Romans with Coriolanus. After the final demise of the Latin League, the town declined.

Tolerium

This settlement of the Alban people was probably not far from Pedum, according to a passage in Dionysius of Halicarnassus (7.26).

Vitellia

The site of the populus of the Vitellienses was located at the border between the Latins and the Aequians.

Caenina

The site of Caenina has not yet been identified with certainty. It may have been located near present-day "La Rustica" close to the Anio river, on a trade route connecting Latium with Etruria and Campania. Festus states it was close to the old Roman settlement. It was originally a settlement of the Sicels, as was Antemnae, who were later expelled by the Aborigenes. Dionysius records a tradition according to which Romulus was at Caenina for a sacrifice during the festival of the Lupercalia, which was the occasion of the abduction of Remus by Numitor's shepherds. The town underwent synoecism and some of its cults and priests (sacerdotes) were transferred to Rome by Romulus, who celebrated his first triumph after conquering the Caeninenses and killing their king, Acron. However, according to Dionysius, Romulus allowed the Caeninenses to continue to live in their hometown, although they had to accept a colony of three hundred Romans and the allotment to them of one third of their land. The town is still mentioned at the beginning of the Republic: the Vindicius who revealed the plot of the Aquilii to Publius Valerius Publicola was a slave from Caenina captured in war.

The town name may be related to Latin caenum (mud, lime), itself a word with no Indoeuropean etymology. Another possibility is that it was of Celtic (Ligurian) origin.

Cameria or Camerium

Since Romulus made this town into a Roman colony, it fought many wars against Rome. In 502 BC it was destroyed, and its ruins have not yet been found; it was located to the north-east of Rome.

Collatia

Strabo places Collatia some 30 stades from Rome. Though by his time it had been reduced to farmland. The location of the site has not yet been identified with certainty, but it was located near modern Lunghezza, to the east of Rome. Likely it stood on the hill now occupied by the Castello di Lunghezza; which lies at the terminus of the ancient Via Collatina. The town was conquered and colonized by the Romans. Livy preserves the formula of their surrender, often cited as example of the deditio in fidem.

Collatia was founded by the Latin king Silvius of Alba Longa and it was the hometown of Lucius Tarquinius Collatinus, one of the first two consuls of the Roman Republic.

Curniculum or Corniculum

The town has been located by modern scholars in the present position of Montecelio (formerly Monticelli) in the comune of Guidonia, not far from Tibur. The two adjacent hills shaped like a pair of horns were the source of its name, and the nearby mountain range is still known as "Monti Cornicolani".

Near Montecelio, relics dating from the Iron Age and fragments of pottery from the 7th-6th centuries BC have been discovered. The town was destroyed by Tarquinius Priscus and was believed to be the hometown of Servius Tullius's mother, Ocresia.

Crustumerium or Crustumeria

The site of Crustumerium has been known since the 19th century. It is located in the hills of the Riserva Naturale park of Marcigliana Vecchia, to the north of Rome near Settebagni, on the Via Salaria. The town was also known as Castrimoenium and Crustumeria and has given its name to the surrounding countryside and hills known as "Ager Crustuminus" and "Montes Crustumini". According to Servius it was originally a settlement of the Sicels, founded by the Sicel Clitemnestrus. The etymology of the name is unclear and may reflect an ancient Pre-Indo European toponymic crustulum, meaning pond.

Crustumerium has been and is still being excavated by archaeologists and its study has been important for understanding urban development in Old Latium. It was located on one of the routes that linked Veii and Gabii, close to a ford on the Tiber, which fact, along with the richness of its countryside, was the cause of its importance and wealth.

The town stretched along a road trench and occupied an area of 60 hectares. It had walls that were a complex made by four or five parallel stretches connected by normal ones and covered with stone slabs. Tombs contained a rich production of fine pottery painted in white and red, weapons, and other instruments from the early Iron Age onward.

The town is mentioned in the Aeneid, and in the history of Rome it was involved in the abduction of the Sabine women and the subsequent war. Further, Romulus is said to have installed a colony of Romans there. Later it is frequently mentioned in the wars between Rome and its neighbors.

Literary sources put the destruction of Crustumerium at the end of the sixth century, but archaeologists have shown it was still occupied in the fifth century and declined only in the fourth century.

Ficana

Ficana was located on the left bank of the Tiber, downstream from Rome, near present-day Acilia on the highland over Monte Cugno. In ancient times, this provided an advantage as it was steeper and a dominant position on the river. Its identification is confirmed by the find of an inscription. The sources state that it was destroyed twice by Ancus Marcius in his drive to control the lower course of the Tiber and the salines, together with Politorium and Tellenae. Its importance was owed to the fact it was a port that afforded a commercial route to the hinterland toward the Alban Hills and Aricia.

Archaeologists have shown that it was still a prosperous centre during the 4th century and reached its maximum expansion after the Roman conquest. It declined only in the 4th and 3rd centuries after the development of Ostia. Excavations have unearthed the town wall, housing areas and a necropolis. Long-necked amphoras decorated with reliefs or scratches of a style typical of 7th-century Old Latium testify to the early quality of the local material culture. The Ficana site is now an archaeological park.

Medullium

Also known in the sources as Medullia, its exact location is unknown. It was the hometown of Hostus Hostilius's family and was conquered by Tullus Hostilius, although not destroyed. Its name suggests a relationship to the Ligurian tribe of the Medulli (Medylloi in Strabon IV 1, 11) and would appear to be cognate with the Celtic deity Meduna. Strabo mentions two other towns named Medullia, one on the western alps in Gallia and one on the eastern alps in Iapudia.

Politorium

Politorium has been identified in the archaic settlement found near Castel di Decima, south-east of Rome, but this identification lacks epigraphic confirmation. It is mentioned by Cato, who records its founding, and by Livy and Dionysius of Halicarnassos, who describe its capture and successive demolition by Ancus Marcius. Its inhabitants would have been deported to the Aventine. These facts are part of the first expansive drive by Rome toward the sea, which also brought about the fall of Ficana and Tellenae.

The excavations have uncovered remains of the fortifications and a princely necropolis.

Satricum

Satricum was recorded by Pliny as the first in his list of clara oppida. It was an important and ancient settlement of the Latin and other tribes and arose near the prehistoric sanctuary of Mater Matuta. It has been identified by archaeologists at Le Ferriere, in the present Province of Latina, and it was systematically excavated by the Royal Dutch Institute in Rome in collaboration with Italian authorities. During excavations in 1977 the inscription known as Lapis Satricanus was unearthed.

Scaptia

The town is mentioned by Livy as the eponymous settlement of the Roman tribe of the same name. Its location has not been identified, with some scholars suggesting that it was located near Tibur or near Passerano.

Modern studies on the settlement of prehistoric Latium

Linguistic comparisons

Wolfgang Helbig was the first to remark that the name of Alba Longa and of many other Ligurian settlements, such as Albieis north of Massalia, with their centre Alba Augusta, as well as Albium (Albion) Intemelium (now Ventimiglia), Albium (Albion) Ingaunum (now Albenga) and Alba Pompeia in Italy, could hardly mean "white", from the Latin adjective albus, since the rocks in the area of volcanic Mount Albanus are deep grey in colour. Giuseppe Sergi remarked that the early name of the Tiber was Albula, a name that recurs elsewhere in hydronymy where there are traces of Ligurians and Sicels. Further evidence connecting Ligures and Siculi was provided by a neolithic skeleton unearthed at Sgurgola near Anagni that was painted red, as were the ones found in the Ligurian cave of the "Arene Candide". Sergi concluded that Ligures and Siceli were in fact just one ethnic group, but since they lived far apart, they had come to be considered as two distinct nations. Their identity could be confirmed by ancient toponyms found in Latium as well as other regions of Italy. Strabon also mentions that a former name for the Alps was Albia.

Other correspondences include the ancient name of the Lake of Bracciano, Sabatinus Lacus and the town of Sabate on its shores, and the river Sāpis in Umbria, names based on a Pre-Indo-European root *sāb- meaning water, seen also in the name Vada Sabatia (today Vado Ligure).

Economy

The land of Old Latium was mostly fertile, and agriculture was practiced in the lowlands since an early time. In the lowlands, cereals and legumes were grown. In the hills, grapes were planted, and wines such as Setinus, Albanus, and Signinus, were of good quality. In the highlands, animal husbandry took the place of food production as an economic force.

Gabii had famous quarries of red travertine stone, which was used as building material in the surrounding area, Rome included. Crafts, such as smithing and pottery, were also developed.

Diseases like malaria were restricted to coastal areas and a few other locations.

See also

References

  1. Strabon Geography III 10.
  2. Pliny NH III 56.
  3. T. Mommsen History of Rome I 3, 3.
  4. Festus s. v. sacrani p. 424 L: "Sacrani are named those who moved from Reate and expelled the Sicels and Ligures from the Septimontium"; Servius Danielis Ad Aeneidem XI 371, VIII; Dionysius of Halicarnassus RA I 12, 2 citing Sophocles's Triptolemus on Oenotrians and Ligures settling the coasts of the Tyrrhenian Sea.
  5. Dionysius of Hal. RA I 12, 3.
  6. "C. Valerius Flaccus, Argonautica, C. Valeri Flacci Argonauticon Liber Primus., line 1".
  7. Cf. Cicero De Haruspicum Responso: a crack sound was heard in the Ager Latiniensis.
  8. Dionysius V 61 3. D. calls Ferentinum the caput Ferentinae or aquae Ferentinae of Roman authors. See below A. Grandazzi's citations in the discussion of the issue.
  9. See the works by G. Sergi, F. Ribezzo, G. Devoto, G. Alessio and A. Grandazzi cited below.
  10. A. Grandazzi "La localisation d' Alba" in MEFRA 1986. See section below.
  11. CIL VI 251.
  12. Dionysius Hal. V 21.
  13. Aesulae is the Latin pronunciatiation of a Sabine Aefulae i.e. meaning Aedules.
  14. Dion. Hal. VIII 18.
  15. Livy II 39; Plutarch Cor. 28.
  16. Purcell, N.; Talbert, R.; Gillies, S.; Elliott, T.; Becker, J. (26 April 2021). "Places: 438853 (Tolerium)". Pleiades. Retrieved October 24, 2015.
  17. P. Zaccagni in Civiltá del Lazio primitivo. Catalogo della Mostra Roma 1976 p. 155.
  18. Dionysius of Halicarnassus Roman Antiquities II 35, 7.
  19. Dionysius Roman Antiquities II 89.
  20. R. E. A. Palmer The Archaic Community of the Romans Cambridge 1970 p. 106 n. 3; A. Alföldi Early Rome and the Latins Ann Arbor 1965, p. 132; G. Wissowa RE 1279.
  21. Dionysius of Halicarnassus II 35, 3-5.
  22. Dionysius of Halicarnassus Roman Antiquities V 7, 3.
  23. G. Alessio "Problemi storico-linguistici messapici" in Studi salentini 1962 14 p. 318 n. 131.
  24. Livy I 38; 39. Dionysius III 50; IV 1. Ovid Fasti VI 627 ff.
  25. Servius Danielis "ad Aeneidem" VII 631 = Cassius Hemina fragm. 2 Peter.
  26. Ambra Costanzo Garancini, La romanizzazione nel bacino idrografico padano attraverso l’odierna idronimia, Firenze, La Nuova Italia, 1975 (Pubblicazioni della Facoltà di Lettere e Filosofia dell’Università degli Studi di Milano, 75), p. 124.
  27. Lorenzo Quilici; Stefania Quilici Gigli (1980). Crustumerium. Consiglio nazionale delle ricerche, Centro di studio per l'archeologia etrusco-italica.
  28. Livy II 19.
  29. A. Amoroso "Crustumerium: a frontier settlement" in Bollettino di Archeologia 2001.
  30. G. Alessio "Genti e favelle dell'antica Apulia" Cressati Taranto 1949 p. 17 n. 3 (= Archivio Storico Pugliese II 1949) citing Holder Altceltische Sprache II col. 528: cfr. German Met.
  31. IV 6.
  32. C. M. Stibbe (1980). Lapis Satricanus. Ministerie van Cultuur, Recreatie en Maatschappelijk Werk. ISBN 978-90-12-02951-3.
  33. Livy AUC VIII 17.
  34. Purcell, N., R. Talbert, S. Gillies, T. Elliott, J. Becker (13 June 2021). "Places: 438829 (Scaptia)". Pleiades. Retrieved October 24, 2015.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  35. W. Helbig Die Italiker in der Poebene 1879.
  36. G. Sergi Da Albalonga a Roma. Inizio dell'incivilimento in Italia, ovvero Liguri e Siculi Turin 1934 p. 3ff.
  37. The Albula, a source near Tibur. The Albula oracle in Virgil's Aeneis. An Albula river in Picenum near Numana, town that Pliny NH III 13 ascribes to the Sicels; another one in the Lepontine Alps; one in the Grisons canton of present day Switzerland. The Albinia river in Etruria (now Albegna), a river Alba in Sicily and another one in Northeast Spain.
  38. C. Battisti Sostrati e parastrati Florence 1959 p. 125 ff.; A. Trombetti Studi Etruschi XIV 1940 p. 187; G. Devoto Gli antichi Italici Rome 1969 p. 126.
  39. Strabo V 3, 2; V 3, 10.
  40. Strabo V 3, 10-11.

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