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{{Short description|King of Elam in the Bible}}
'''Chedorlaomer''' is the name of the main figure in a narrative within ] concerning a civil war in ]. In the narrative (Genesis 14), Chedorlaomer is described as a king of ], who made conquests as far west as ] and exercised supremacy over its southeastern part. After paying tribute to him for twelve years, in the following year the local kings of the ] rebelled, but the year after the rebellion Chedorlaomer and three allies / ]s defeated the rebellion.
]
'''Chedorlaomer''', also spelled '''Kedorlaomer''' ({{IPAc-en|ˌ|k|ɛ|d|ər|ˈ|l|eɪ|ə|m|ər}}; {{Hebrew name|{{Script/Hebr|כְּדָרְלָעֹמֶר}}|Kədorla'ōmer|Kŏḏorlā]ōmer}}; {{langx|el|Χοδολλογομόρ}} ''Khodollogomor''), is a king of ] mentioned in ] 14.<ref>{{bibleref2|Genesis|14:1}}</ref> Genesis portrays him as allied with three other kings,<ref>{{citation|last=Knanishu|first=Joseph|title=About Persia and its People|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=AXFNAAAAYAAJ|accessdate=2012-12-21|year=1899|publisher=Lutheran Augustana book concern, printers|page=228}}</ref> campaigning against five Canaanite city-states in response to an uprising in the days of ].


==Etymology==
According to the biblical narrative, Chedorlaomer's forces siezed ], and when ''] the ]'' discovered this (due to a message from a fugitive), he amassed an army and lead them against Chedorlaomer. Abraham's forces secured victory, and recovered the spoils taken by Chedorlaomer. The king of Sodom, one of the rebels, then went out to meet Abraham, and ] brought bread and wine to Abraham, and blessed him, and Abraham gave him a ]. The king of Sodom then offered to give up his own share of the spoils in return for his subjects, but Abraham refused to take anything from the king of Sodom.
{{See also|Battle of Siddim}}
The name Chedorlaomer is associated with familiar Elamite components, such as ''kudur'' "servant", and ], an important goddess in the Elamite pantheon.<ref>{{citation|last=Kitchen|first=Kenneth|title=Ancient Orient and Old Testament|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=mBAXAAAAIAAJ|accessdate=2012-12-21|year=1966|publisher=Tyndale Press|page=44}}</ref><ref name="je" /> '']'' states that, apart from the fact that Chedorlaomer can be identified as a proper Elamite compound, all else is matter of controversy and "the records give only the rather negative result that from Babylonian and Elamite documents nothing definite has been learned of Chedorlaomer".<ref name="je"/>


==Background==
The rebels are named as:
*], king of ]
*an unnamed king of Bala-]
*], king of ]
*Bera, king of ]
*], king of ]


Chedorlaomer's allies are named as: === Chedorlaomer's reign ===
After twelve years under Elamite rule, in the thirteenth year, the ] (Sodom, Gomorrah, ], ], and ]) rebelled against Chedorlaomer. To put down the rebellion, he called upon three other allies from Shinar, Ellasar, and Tidal "nations" regions. (Genesis 14:9)<ref name="nelson232">{{citation|last=Nelson|first=Russell|editor1-last=Freedman|editor1-first=David|editor2-last=Meyers|editor2-first=Allen|editor3-last=Beck|editor3-first=Astrid|title=Chedorlaomer|encyclopedia=Eerdman's Dictionary of the Bible|publisher=Wm B Eerdmans Publishing Company|location=Grand Rapids|date=November 2000|pages=232|isbn=9780802824004|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=P9sYIRXZZ2MC&q=0802824005+Chedorlaomer&pg=PA232|accessdate=2012-12-21}}</ref>
⚫ *], king of ]
⚫ *], king of ]
*], ''king of nations'' (a few translations instead render this as ''king of ]'', taking Goyim to be a ])


=== Chedorlaomer's campaigns ===
==Textual features==
The following allies fought as allies of Chedorlaomer in the fourteenth year of his rule.<ref>{{Bibleref2|Genesis|14:1-4}}</ref>
The narrative is generally regarded by ] as having been from the ] text, but also as having been an independent document prior to that, from an unknown source; the narrative is regarded by scholars as somewhat anomolous due to its markedly different linguistic style and subject matter compared to the remainder of the Abraham ], or to the rest of Genesis. In addition, the brief passage concerning Melchizedek (Genesis 14:18-20) is regarded as having been from a separate source, and crudely inserted into the narrative by the Yahwist, interrupting the description of the conversation between the king of Sodom and Abraham.
⚫ *King ] of ] (possibly ])
⚫ *King ] of ]
*King ] of ] – possibly the ]<ref name="nelson232"/>


Chedorlaomer's campaigns aimed to show Elam's might to all territories under Elamite authority. His armies and allies plundered tribes and cities for their provisions, who were en route to the revolting cities of the Jordan plain.
A further curious feature is that Abraham abruptly appears at a late point in the narrative, and is referred to as ''the Hebrew'', a turn of phrase more common for authors who are not themselves ''a Hebrew''; scholars regard this as indicating that the narrative originates from an non-] source, or one from a time before ''Hebrews'' were regarded as synonymous with ''Israelites''. Also, this is notably the only biblical narrative in which Abraham takes on the role of a national leader in his own time, rather than the role of an ] or of an individual; it is also the only narrative of Genesis (and hence of the Abraham ]) that refers to the wider world<ref>''Peake's commentary on the Bible'', '']'' footnote on Genesis 14:13</ref>.


According to {{Bibleref2|Genesis|14:8-10}}, these are the cities plundered by Elam:
==Identities==
* The ]s in ]
* The ] in ]
* The ]s in ]
* The ] in ] as far as the ] near the wilderness
* The ]ites in ]
* The ] in Hazezontamar (])
* The ]ites of the cities of the ]


=== Chedorlaomer's defeat ===
Since the discovery of documents written in the ] and ], it has been generally acknowledged that ''Chedorlaomer'' is a Hebrew spelling of the Elamite compound ''Kudur-Lagamaru'', meaning ''servant of Lagamaru'' - a reference to ], an Elamite deity whose existence was mentioned by ]. No mention of an individual named ''Kudur Lagamar'' has however been found; inscriptions that were thought to contain this name are now known to be have different names (the confusion arose due to similar lettering)<ref>{{JewishEncyclopedia}}</ref>.
{{Main article|Battle of Siddim}}
After warring against the cities of the plain at the Battle of Siddim, Chedorlaomer went to Sodom and Gomorrah to collect bounty. At Sodom, among the spoils of war, he took ] and his entire household captive. When Lot's uncle ] received news of what happened, he assembled a battle unit of 318 men who pursued the Elamite forces north of ] to ]. Abraham and one of his divisions then proceeded to defeat Chedorlaomer. ({{Bibleref2|Genesis|14:11–17}})


While the ] verse 17 translated the Hebrew word in question as {{lang|he|וַיַּכֵּם}} as ''slaughtered'' ({{Bibleref2|Genesis|14:17|KJV}}), ] uses the term ''smiting.'' ({{Bibleref2|Genesis|14:17|YLT}})
As for Chedorlaomer's allies; Amraphel was once thought by most scholars to be a corruption of the name of the famed '']'', but this is now considered implausible, and doubly doubtful since at least three kings named that are now known to have ruled Canaanite city states; Arioch was once thought to have been a king of ] (''Ellasar'' being a corruption of this), but is now thought to be more likely to have been ''Ariukki'', a ] king; and ''Tidal'' is now considered to be a corruption of ''Tudhaliya'' - either referring to the first king of the ] ] (]) or the proto-Hittite king named '']''<ref>''Peake's commentary ...''</ref>. With the former, the title ''king of Nations'' would possibly thus refer to the historic conquest of much of ] by Tudhaliya, with the latter it is unclear to what this title refers.


==Historical identification==
==Dating of the events==
Genesis 14:1 lists four names: "It was in the time of Amraphel king of Shinar, Arioch king of Ellasar, Chedor-Laomer king of Elam, and Tidal king of the Goiim."


Following the discovery of documents written in the ] and ], it was thought that ''Chedorlaomer'' is a transliteration of the Elamite name ''Kudur-Lagamar''. However, no mention of a king named ''Kudur-Lagamar'' has yet been found; inscriptions that were thought to contain this name are now known to have different names (the confusion arose due to similar lettering).<ref name="je">{{Cite Jewish Encyclopedia |title=Chedorlaomer|url=http://www.jewishencyclopedia.com/articles/4283-chedorlaomer|author=Morris Jastrow, Jr., Robert W. Rogers}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Maspéro |first1=Gaston |author1-link=Gaston Maspero |title=History of Egypt |date=2003 |publisher=Kessinger Publishing |isbn=978-0-7661-3506-2 |page=66 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=5pIo164PRQsC&dq=Kudur-Lagamar&pg=PA66}}</ref> According to ], the lack of extrabiblical attestations of the king's name is explained by the fact that there were several concurrent Elamite rulers in the ], and that they are commonly referred to by their titles rather than by their names.<ref>{{cite book |title=The City of Babylon: A History, c. 2000 BC – AD 116 |last=Dalley |first=Stephanie |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=2021 |isbn=9781107136274 |pages=319–320 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=TMsvEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA319}}</ref>
In the biblical account, the text begins ''in the days of'', but the remainder of the sentence is missing, and is not found in any surviving manuscript (some modern translations run this sentence together with the next to bridge the gap)<ref>'']'', ] for Genesis 14:1; et al.</ref>. The missing text would have helped to identify the date range for the events described by the narrative, and, aside from deliberately obscuring the date (perhaps because it proved inconvenient), it is unclear why the text would be missing. The tentative identifications of Tidal, however, enables the date period to be somewhat determined:
*Assuming Tidal is the proto-Hittite Tudhaliya, this would place the events of the narrative in the 18th century BC, shortly prior to the rise of the ] Empire
*Assuming Tidal is Tudhaliya I (of the Hittite New Kingdom), this would place the events of the narrative in the 14th century BC, during the collapse of the Hyksos Empire.


One modern interpretation of Genesis 14 is summed up by Michael Astour in ''The Anchor Bible Dictionary'' (s.v. "Amraphel", "Arioch" and "Chedorlaomer"), who explains the story as a product of anti-Babylonian propaganda during the 6th century ] of the Jews:
If the Hyksos are the Israelites (or at least the genuinely historical core of the Israelite narrative), as many Ancient Near East scholars suspect, then the earlier dating would be more convenient for Biblical accuracy, since in the Biblical narrative Abraham dies before his progeny - the proto-Israelites - move to Egypt. On the other hand, the later dating would somewhat contradict the biblical account, placing the defeat of Chedorlaomer, which the bible states was by Abraham, ''after'' his descendants had started to ]. However, other Near Eastern writings from both periods make clear that the general geo-political situation of the region during the later period is more in accordance with the accounts in Genesis than the situation in the earlier period, and hence neither dating is entirely indicative of Biblical accuracy.<ref>''Peake's commentary...''</ref>.
{{quote|After Böhl's widely accepted, but wrong, identification of <sup>]</sup>Tu-ud-hul-a with one of the Hittite kings named ]s, Tadmor found the correct solution by equating him with the Assyrian king Sennacherib (see Tidal). Astour (1966) identified the remaining two kings of the Chedorlaomer texts with Tukulti-Ninurta I of Assyria (see ]) and with the Chaldean Merodach-baladan (see ]). The common denominator between these four rulers is that each of them, independently, occupied Babylon, oppressed it to a greater or lesser degree, and took away its sacred divine images, including the statue of its chief god Marduk; furthermore, all of them came to a tragic end&nbsp;...&nbsp;All attempts to reconstruct the link between the Chedorlaomer texts and Genesis 14 remain speculative. However, the available evidence seems consistent with the following hypothesis: A Jew in Babylon, versed in Akkadian language and cuneiform script, found in an early version of the Chedorlaomer texts certain things consistent with his anti-Babylonian feelings.<ref>''The Anchor Bible Dictionary'', s.v. "Chedorlaomer"</ref>}}


The "Chedorlaomer tablets" are now thought to be from the 7th or 6th century BCE, a millennium after the time of ], but at roughly the time when the main elements of Genesis are thought to have been set down. Another prominent scholar considers a relationship between the tablet and Genesis speculative, but identifies Tudhula as a veiled reference to Sennacherib of Assyria, and Chedorlaomer as "a recollection of a 12th century BCE king of Elam who briefly ruled Babylon."<ref>{{cite journal |author= Hendel, Ronald |title=Finding Historical Memories in the Patriarchal Narratives |journal=Biblical Archaeology Review|volume=21 |issue=4 |year=1994 |pages=52–59, 70–72}}</ref>
==Notes and Citations==
<references />
==Bibliography==
*L. W. King, ''Letters and Inscriptions of Hammurabi'', 1898, vol. i.
*Schrader, Keilinschriften des ''Alten Testaments'', 2d ed., pp. 135 et seq.;
*(compare paper read by Pinches before the Victoria Institute) Jan. 20, 1896;
*{{JewishEncyclopedia}}


Some modern scholars suggest that Chedorlomer in the Chedorlaomer tablets might refer to the Elamite usurper Kutir-Naḫḫunte in the ].<ref>Gard Granerød (26 March 2010). Abraham and Melchizedek: Scribal Activity of Second Temple Times in Genesis 14 and Psalm 110. Walter de Gruyter. pp. 118-121. ISBN 978-3-11-022346-0.</ref> He assassinated Khallushu, who murdered Shutruk-Naḫḫunte II and in 694 BCE managed to briefly capture ] and the ] governor of Babylonia, ], causing the ].
{{HeBible-stub}}


The translation of "]" from the ]:<ref>{{cite book |title=Before the Muses: An Anthology of Akkadian Literature |last=Foster |first=Benjamin Read |publisher=Pennsylvania State University Press |year=2005 |isbn=978-1-883053-76-5 |pages=369–375 |edition=3rd}}</ref>
⚫ ]
{{quote|With their firm counsel, they established Kudur-KUKUmal, king of Elam. Now, one who is pleasing to them will exercise kingship in Babylon, the city of Babylonia (...) What king of Elam is there who provided for Esagila and ... ? The Babylonians ... and their message: “(As for) rds that you wrote: ‘I am a king, son of king, of ternal, the son of a king's daughter who sat upon the royal throne. Dur-ṣil-ilani son of ku]], who plunder of , he sat on the royal throne ... us, let a king come whose firmly founded] from ancient days, he should be called lord of Babylon (...) When the guardian of well-being cries The protective spirit of Esharra was frightened away. The Elamite hastened to evil deeds, for the Lord devised evil for Babylon. When the protective genius of justice stood aside, the protective spirit of Esharra, temple of all the gods, was frightened away. The Elamite enemy took away his possessions, Enlil, who dwelt therein, became furious. When the heavens (?) changed their appearance, the fiery glare and ill wind obliterated their faces. Their gods were frightened off, they went down to the depths. Whirlwinds, ill wind engulfed the heavens. Anu (the gods') creator had become furious. He diminished their (celestial) appearances, he laid waste (?) his (own celestial) position, with the burning of the shrine E-ana he obliterated its designs. Esharra, the netherworld trembled. commanded total destruction. become furious: he commanded for Sumer the smashing of En's land. Which one is Kudur-KUKUmal, the evil doer? He called therefore the Umman-man(da he level)led the land of Enlil, he laid waste (?) at their side. When the of Ê-zida, and Nabu, trustee of all hastened to He set downstream, toward the ocean, Ibbi-Tutu, who was on the sea, hastened to the East, He (Nabu) crossed the sea and accupied a dwelling not his own. The rites of E-zida, the sure house, were deathly still. The Elamite sent forth his chariotry, he headed dowstream toward Borsippa. He came down the dark way, he entered Borsippa. The vile Elamite toppled its sanctuary, he slew the nobles of ...with weapons, he plundered all the temples. He took their possessions and carried them off to Elam. He destroyed its wall, he filled the land (...) an improvident sovereign he felled with weapons Dur-ṣil-ilani son of Aku]], he plundered water over Babylon and Esagila, he slaughtered its with his own weapon like sheep, he burned with fire, old and young, with weapons, he cut down young and old. ] son of Gazza, plundered the water over Babylon and Esagila, his son smote his pate with his own weapon. his lordship to the of Annunit Elam plundered the great ..., he sent like the deluge, all the cult centers of Akkad and their sanctuaries he burned re Kudur-KUmal his son c his middle and his heart with an iron dagger, his enemy he took and sought out (?). The wicked kings, criminals, captured. The king of the gods, Marduk, became angry at them (...) of evil to him his heart the doer of sin must not }}

== References ==
{{reflist}}

]
⚫ ]
]
]

Latest revision as of 05:40, 12 December 2024

King of Elam in the Bible
Battle of Abraham against Chedorlaomer by Cornelis Massijs, 1545

Chedorlaomer, also spelled Kedorlaomer (/ˌkɛdərˈleɪəmər/; Hebrew: כְּדָרְלָעֹמֶר‎, Modern: Kədorla'ōmer, Tiberian: Kŏḏorlā'ōmer; Greek: Χοδολλογομόρ Khodollogomor), is a king of Elam mentioned in Genesis 14. Genesis portrays him as allied with three other kings, campaigning against five Canaanite city-states in response to an uprising in the days of Abraham.

Etymology

See also: Battle of Siddim

The name Chedorlaomer is associated with familiar Elamite components, such as kudur "servant", and Lagamal, an important goddess in the Elamite pantheon. The Jewish Encyclopedia states that, apart from the fact that Chedorlaomer can be identified as a proper Elamite compound, all else is matter of controversy and "the records give only the rather negative result that from Babylonian and Elamite documents nothing definite has been learned of Chedorlaomer".

Background

Chedorlaomer's reign

After twelve years under Elamite rule, in the thirteenth year, the Cities of the Plain (Sodom, Gomorrah, Admah, Zeboim, and Zoara) rebelled against Chedorlaomer. To put down the rebellion, he called upon three other allies from Shinar, Ellasar, and Tidal "nations" regions. (Genesis 14:9)

Chedorlaomer's campaigns

The following allies fought as allies of Chedorlaomer in the fourteenth year of his rule.

Chedorlaomer's campaigns aimed to show Elam's might to all territories under Elamite authority. His armies and allies plundered tribes and cities for their provisions, who were en route to the revolting cities of the Jordan plain.

According to Genesis 14:8–10, these are the cities plundered by Elam:

Chedorlaomer's defeat

Main article: Battle of Siddim

After warring against the cities of the plain at the Battle of Siddim, Chedorlaomer went to Sodom and Gomorrah to collect bounty. At Sodom, among the spoils of war, he took Lot and his entire household captive. When Lot's uncle Abraham received news of what happened, he assembled a battle unit of 318 men who pursued the Elamite forces north of Damascus to Hobah. Abraham and one of his divisions then proceeded to defeat Chedorlaomer. (Genesis 14:11–17)

While the King James Version verse 17 translated the Hebrew word in question as וַיַּכֵּם as slaughtered (Genesis 14:17), Young's Literal Translation uses the term smiting. (Genesis 14:17)

Historical identification

Genesis 14:1 lists four names: "It was in the time of Amraphel king of Shinar, Arioch king of Ellasar, Chedor-Laomer king of Elam, and Tidal king of the Goiim."

Following the discovery of documents written in the Elamite language and Babylonian language, it was thought that Chedorlaomer is a transliteration of the Elamite name Kudur-Lagamar. However, no mention of a king named Kudur-Lagamar has yet been found; inscriptions that were thought to contain this name are now known to have different names (the confusion arose due to similar lettering). According to Stephanie Dalley, the lack of extrabiblical attestations of the king's name is explained by the fact that there were several concurrent Elamite rulers in the 18th century BC, and that they are commonly referred to by their titles rather than by their names.

One modern interpretation of Genesis 14 is summed up by Michael Astour in The Anchor Bible Dictionary (s.v. "Amraphel", "Arioch" and "Chedorlaomer"), who explains the story as a product of anti-Babylonian propaganda during the 6th century Babylonian captivity of the Jews:

After Böhl's widely accepted, but wrong, identification of Tu-ud-hul-a with one of the Hittite kings named Tudhaliyas, Tadmor found the correct solution by equating him with the Assyrian king Sennacherib (see Tidal). Astour (1966) identified the remaining two kings of the Chedorlaomer texts with Tukulti-Ninurta I of Assyria (see Arioch) and with the Chaldean Merodach-baladan (see Amraphel). The common denominator between these four rulers is that each of them, independently, occupied Babylon, oppressed it to a greater or lesser degree, and took away its sacred divine images, including the statue of its chief god Marduk; furthermore, all of them came to a tragic end ... All attempts to reconstruct the link between the Chedorlaomer texts and Genesis 14 remain speculative. However, the available evidence seems consistent with the following hypothesis: A Jew in Babylon, versed in Akkadian language and cuneiform script, found in an early version of the Chedorlaomer texts certain things consistent with his anti-Babylonian feelings.

The "Chedorlaomer tablets" are now thought to be from the 7th or 6th century BCE, a millennium after the time of Hammurabi, but at roughly the time when the main elements of Genesis are thought to have been set down. Another prominent scholar considers a relationship between the tablet and Genesis speculative, but identifies Tudhula as a veiled reference to Sennacherib of Assyria, and Chedorlaomer as "a recollection of a 12th century BCE king of Elam who briefly ruled Babylon."

Some modern scholars suggest that Chedorlomer in the Chedorlaomer tablets might refer to the Elamite usurper Kutir-Naḫḫunte in the 7th century BCE. He assassinated Khallushu, who murdered Shutruk-Naḫḫunte II and in 694 BCE managed to briefly capture Babylon and the Neo-Assyrian governor of Babylonia, Aššur-nādin-šumi, causing the Assyrian conquest of Elam.

The translation of "Chedorlaomer Tablets" from the Spartoli collection:

With their firm counsel, they established Kudur-KUKUmal, king of Elam. Now, one who is pleasing to them will exercise kingship in Babylon, the city of Babylonia (...) What king of Elam is there who provided for Esagila and ... ? The Babylonians ... and their message: “(As for) rds that you wrote: ‘I am a king, son of king, of ternal, the son of a king's daughter who sat upon the royal throne. Dur-ṣil-ilani son of Erieku, who plunder of , he sat on the royal throne ... us, let a king come whose firmly founded] from ancient days, he should be called lord of Babylon (...) When the guardian of well-being cries The protective spirit of Esharra was frightened away. The Elamite hastened to evil deeds, for the Lord devised evil for Babylon. When the protective genius of justice stood aside, the protective spirit of Esharra, temple of all the gods, was frightened away. The Elamite enemy took away his possessions, Enlil, who dwelt therein, became furious. When the heavens (?) changed their appearance, the fiery glare and ill wind obliterated their faces. Their gods were frightened off, they went down to the depths. Whirlwinds, ill wind engulfed the heavens. Anu (the gods') creator had become furious. He diminished their (celestial) appearances, he laid waste (?) his (own celestial) position, with the burning of the shrine E-ana he obliterated its designs. Esharra, the netherworld trembled. commanded total destruction. become furious: he commanded for Sumer the smashing of En's land. Which one is Kudur-KUKUmal, the evil doer? He called therefore the Umman-man(da he level)led the land of Enlil, he laid waste (?) at their side. When the of Ê-zida, and Nabu, trustee of all hastened to He set downstream, toward the ocean, Ibbi-Tutu, who was on the sea, hastened to the East, He (Nabu) crossed the sea and accupied a dwelling not his own. The rites of E-zida, the sure house, were deathly still. The Elamite sent forth his chariotry, he headed dowstream toward Borsippa. He came down the dark way, he entered Borsippa. The vile Elamite toppled its sanctuary, he slew the nobles of ...with weapons, he plundered all the temples. He took their possessions and carried them off to Elam. He destroyed its wall, he filled the land (...) an improvident sovereign he felled with weapons Dur-ṣil-ilani son of Eri-Aku, he plundered water over Babylon and Esagila, he slaughtered its with his own weapon like sheep, he burned with fire, old and young, with weapons, he cut down young and old. Tudḫula son of Gazza, plundered the water over Babylon and Esagila, his son smote his pate with his own weapon. his lordship to the of Annunit Elam plundered the great ..., he sent like the deluge, all the cult centers of Akkad and their sanctuaries he burned re Kudur-KUmal his son c his middle and his heart with an iron dagger, his enemy he took and sought out (?). The wicked kings, criminals, captured. The king of the gods, Marduk, became angry at them (...) of evil to him his heart the doer of sin must not

References

  1. Genesis 14:1
  2. Knanishu, Joseph (1899), About Persia and its People, Lutheran Augustana book concern, printers, p. 228, retrieved 2012-12-21
  3. Kitchen, Kenneth (1966), Ancient Orient and Old Testament, Tyndale Press, p. 44, retrieved 2012-12-21
  4. ^ Public Domain Morris Jastrow, Jr., Robert W. Rogers (1901–1906). "Chedorlaomer". In Singer, Isidore; et al. (eds.). The Jewish Encyclopedia. New York: Funk & Wagnalls.{{cite encyclopedia}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  5. ^ Nelson, Russell (November 2000), "Chedorlaomer", in Freedman, David; Meyers, Allen; Beck, Astrid (eds.), Eerdman's Dictionary of the Bible, Grand Rapids: Wm B Eerdmans Publishing Company, p. 232, ISBN 9780802824004, retrieved 2012-12-21
  6. Genesis 14:1–4
  7. Maspéro, Gaston (2003). History of Egypt. Kessinger Publishing. p. 66. ISBN 978-0-7661-3506-2.
  8. Dalley, Stephanie (2021). The City of Babylon: A History, c. 2000 BC – AD 116. Cambridge University Press. pp. 319–320. ISBN 9781107136274.
  9. The Anchor Bible Dictionary, s.v. "Chedorlaomer"
  10. Hendel, Ronald (1994). "Finding Historical Memories in the Patriarchal Narratives". Biblical Archaeology Review. 21 (4): 52–59, 70–72.
  11. Gard Granerød (26 March 2010). Abraham and Melchizedek: Scribal Activity of Second Temple Times in Genesis 14 and Psalm 110. Walter de Gruyter. pp. 118-121. ISBN 978-3-11-022346-0.
  12. Foster, Benjamin Read (2005). Before the Muses: An Anthology of Akkadian Literature (3rd ed.). Pennsylvania State University Press. pp. 369–375. ISBN 978-1-883053-76-5.
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