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| {{short description|Varna in Hinduism, one of four castes}} | |||
| {{Distinguish2|] – a metaphysical concept in Hinduism, ] – a Hindu god, or ] – a layer of text in the Vedas}} | |||
| {{distinguish|text=] (a metaphysical concept in Hinduism), ] (a Hindu god), ] (a layer of text in the Vedas), or ]}} | |||
| {{Other uses}} | {{Other uses}} | ||
| {{ |
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| {{ |
{{EngvarB|date=April 2024}} | ||
| {{Use dmy dates|date=April 2024}} | |||
| {{Hinduism}} | |||
| ], ''The Land of Temples (India)'', 1882]]{{Hinduism}} | |||
| '''Brahmin''' ({{IPAc-en|'|b|r|ɑː|m|ə|n|ə}}; ब्राह्मण) is a ] (class) in ] forming a part of hierarchical division, called ], in the Indian and Nepalese society who are placed at the top of it.<ref>{{cite book | last=Ingold | first=Tim | title=Companion encyclopedia of anthropology | publisher=Routledge | location=London New York | year=1994 | isbn=978-0-415-28604-6 | page=1026}}</ref><ref name=lochtefeld125>James Lochtefeld (2002), Brahmin, The Illustrated Encyclopedia of Hinduism, Vol. 1: A–M, Rosen Publishing, {{ISBN|978-0-8239-3179-8}}, page 125</ref> | |||
| '''Brahmin''' ({{IPAc-en|ˈ|b|r|ɑː|m|ɪ|n}}; {{langx|sa|ब्राह्मण|brāhmaṇa}}) is a ] (]) within ] society. The other three varnas are the ], ], and ].<ref name="Wren2004">{{cite book | author = Benjamin Lee Wren | date = 2004 | title = Teaching World Civilization with Joy and Enthusiasm | publisher = University Press of America | pages = 77– | isbn = 978-0-7618-2747-4 | url = https://books.google.com/books?id=XdvfevJAsgMC&pg=PA77|quote=At the top were the Brahmins(priests), then the Kshatriyas(warriors), then the vaishya(the merchant class which only in India had a place of honor in Asia), next were the sudras(farmers), and finally the pariah(untouchables), or those who did the dirty defiling work}}</ref><ref name="Valpey2019">{{cite book | author = Kenneth R. Valpey | date = 2 November 2019 | title = Cow Care in Hindu Animal Ethics | publisher = Springer Nature | pages = 169– | isbn = 978-3-03-028408-4 | url = https://books.google.com/books?id=EJO7DwAAQBAJ&pg=PA169|quote=The four varnas are the brahmins (brahmanas—priests, teachers); kshatriyas (ksatriyas—administrators, rulers); vaishyas (vaisyas—farmers, bankers, business people); and shudras(laborers, artisans)}}</ref><ref name="BullietCrossleyHeadrick2018">{{cite book | author1 = Richard Bulliet | author2 = Pamela Crossley | author3 = Daniel Headrick | author4 = Steven Hirsch | author5 = Lyman Johnson | date = 11 October 2018 | title = The Earth and Its Peoples: A Global History, Volume I | publisher = Cengage Learning | pages = 172– | isbn = 978-0-357-15937-8 | url = https://books.google.com/books?id=lJRUEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA172|quote=Varna are the four major social divisions: the Brahmin priest class, the Kshatriya warrior/ administrator class, the Vaishya merchant/farmer class, and the Shudra laborer class.}}</ref><ref name="Iriye1979">{{cite book | author = Akira Iriye | date = 1979 | title = The World of Asia | publisher = Forum Press | isbn = 978-0-88273-500-9 | url = https://books.google.com/books?id=tM-CAAAAIAAJ|quote=The four varna groupings in descending order of their importance came to be Brahmin (priests), Kshatriya (warriors and administrators), Vaishya (cultivators and merchants), and Sudra (peasants and menial laborers)|page=106}}</ref><ref name="ludo14"/> The traditional occupation of Brahmins is that of priesthood (], ], or ]) at Hindu temples or at socio-religious ceremonies, and the performing of ] rituals, such as solemnising a wedding with hymns and prayers.<ref name=lochtefeld125>James Lochtefeld (2002), Brahmin, The Illustrated Encyclopedia of Hinduism, Vol. 1: A–M, Rosen Publishing, {{ISBN|978-0-8239-3179-8}}, page 125</ref><ref name=ghurye15/> | |||
| Traditionally, Brahmins are accorded the highest ritual status of the four social classes,<ref name=doniger141/> and they also served as spiritual teachers (] or ]). In practice, Indian texts suggest that some Brahmins historically also became ]s, ]s, ]s, and had also held other occupations in the Indian subcontinent.<ref name=ghurye15>GS Ghurye (1969), Caste and Race in India, Popular Prakashan, {{ISBN|978-81-7154-205-5}}, pages 15–18</ref><ref name=doniger141>{{cite book | last=Doniger | first=Wendy | title=Merriam-Webster's encyclopedia of world religions | publisher=Merriam-Webster | location=Springfield, MA, US | year=1999 | isbn=978-0-87779-044-0 | pages= | url=https://archive.org/details/isbn_9780877790440/page/141 }}</ref><ref name="David Shulman 1989 page 111">David Shulman (1989), The King and the Clown, Princeton University Press, {{ISBN|978-0-691-00834-9}}, page 111</ref> | |||
| Brahmins were traditionally responsible for administration of the ] and acted in different capacities as an ] and ] who would advise the administration on different aspects of law and order and economy. Among all the castes, Brahmins were ''in fact'' the only and most heterogeneous caste which performed wide range of activities. Historically, their primary occupation at micro level would include expertise in field of health, ], ], ] and ]. The macro aspect of their occupation would include overlooking macro ] in their capacity as ], management of ] and also ] in ] in ], upkeep and development of ] and at times as a ], especially during the times of crisis. They were the only authorized legal consultants and interpreters of ] in ancient and medieval eras who would assist the ] in arriving to a judgment. The King's role in administration of justice with those of Brahmans would differ only in ] based approach, where Kings shall be concerned only with facts, whereas Brahmins would be primarily concerned with legal-aspect of an issue involved. | |||
| ] worshipping Shakti]] | |||
| ==Origin and history == | |||
| Till India became independent, Brahmins were also dominant aristocratic class with vast land ownership and ran several business enterprises. Brahmins were also assigned the task of religious rituals in temples, as intermediaries between temple deities and devotees, as well as rite of passage rituals such as solemnising a wedding with hymns and prayers.<ref name=lochtefeld125/><ref name=ghurye15/> Theoretically, the Brahmins were the highest ranking of the four social classes.<ref name=doniger141/> In practice, Indian texts suggest that Brahmins were agriculturalists, warriors, traders and have held a variety of other occupations in India.<ref name=ghurye15>GS Ghurye (1969), Caste and Race in India, Popular Prakashan, {{ISBN|978-81-7154-205-5}}, pages 15–18</ref><ref name="David Shulman 1989 page 111">David Shulman (1989), The King and the Clown, Princeton University Press, {{ISBN|978-0-691-00834-9}}, page 111</ref><ref name=doniger141>{{cite book | last=Doniger | first=Wendy | title=Merriam-Webster's encyclopedia of world religions| publisher=Merriam-Webster | location=Springfield, MA, USA | year=1999 | isbn=978-0-87779-044-0 | pages=141–142, 186}}</ref> | |||
| {{multiple image | |||
| | total_width = 300 | |||
| ==Vedic sources== | |||
| | perrow = 2 | |||
| {{Infobox | |||
| | |
| image1 = Mikhail-Tikhanov-Brahmin-1817.jpg | ||
| | caption1 = A Brahmin soldier | |||
| | image = | |||
| | image2 = Four Ascetic Brahmans MET 16459.jpg | |||
| {{image array|perrow=2|height=160|width=120 | |||
| | caption2 = Four ascetic Brahmins from Gandhara, 2nd century | |||
| | image1 = Group of Brahmins 1913.jpg |caption1=a brahmin doing ahaman and chanting | |||
| | image3 = Candi Prambanan - 102 Brahmins, Visnu Temple (12042036684).jpg | |||
| | image2 = A robed Burmese Brahmin priest of Konbaung Dynasty.jpg | caption2=Myanmar | |||
| | caption3 = A Brahmin family, 9th century. ], Indonesia. | |||
| | image3 = Candi Prambanan - 102 Brahmins, Visnu Temple (12042036684).jpg | caption3=Indonesia | |||
| | image4 = A Brahmin standing praying in the corner of the streets 1863.jpg |
| image4 = A Brahmin standing praying in the corner of the streets 1863.jpg | ||
| | caption4 = A Brahmin standing praying in the corner of the streets. India, 1863. | |||
| }} | |||
| | image5 = Officers 1st Brahmins, 1922.jpg | |||
| | caption5 = Brahmin Officers from ] Infantry Regiment | |||
| | image6 = Maharaja Lakshmeshwar Singh statue - Kolkata.JPG | |||
| | caption6 = Maharaja Lakhmeshwar Singh statue | |||
| | image7 = Chanakya artistic depiction.jpg | |||
| | caption7 = Ancient Indian economist and military strategist ] | |||
| | image8 = | |||
| | caption8 = Ancient Indian mathematician and astronomer ] | |||
| }} | }} | ||
| It seems likely that ] and Middle country was the place of origin of majority of migrating Brahmins throughout the medieval centuries.<ref>{{Cite book |first=André|last=Wink|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=uPXvDwAAQBAJ |title=The Making of the Indo-Islamic World C.700–1800 CE|page=42|date=2020|publisher=E.J. Brill |isbn=978-1-108-41774-7 }}</ref> Coming from ] is a frequent claim among Brahmins in areas distant from Madhyadesha or Ganges heartland.<ref>{{Cite book |first=Romila|last=Thapar|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=jFY8wFz-Pj8C |title=Somanatha|date=2008|publisher=Penguin Books|isbn=978-93-5118-021-0 }}</ref> | |||
| ===Purusha Sukta=== | |||
| {{main article|Purusha Sukta}} | |||
| The earliest inferred reference to "Brahmin" as a possible social class is in the Rigveda, occurs once, and the hymn is called Purusha Sukta.<ref>], , Oxford University Press, pages 570–571</ref> Stephanie Jamison and Joel Brereton, a professor of Sanskrit and Religious studies, state, "there is no evidence in the Rigveda for an elaborate, much-subdivided and overarching caste system", and "the varna system seems to be embryonic in the Rigveda and, both then and later, a social ideal rather than a social reality".<ref name="Jamison 2014 57–58">{{cite book | last=Jamison| first=Stephanie | title=The Rigveda : the earliest religious poetry of India | publisher=Oxford University Press | year=2014 | isbn=978-0-19-937018-4 |pages=57–58|display-authors=etal}}</ref> | |||
| ===Generic meaning of the term "Brahmin"=== | |||
| ===Shrauta Sutras=== | |||
| ] | |||
| {{main article|Yajna}} | |||
| Ancient texts describing community-oriented Vedic yajna rituals mention four to five priests: the hotar, the adhvaryu, the udgatar, the Brahmin and sometimes the ritvij.<ref>Mahendra Kulasrestha (2007), The Golden Book of Upanishads, Lotus, {{ISBN|978-81-8382-012-7}}, page 21</ref><ref name=mohrfear81/> The functions associated with the priests were: | |||
| * The ''Hotri'' recites invocations and litanies drawn from the ].<ref name=hume109/> | |||
| * The ''Adhvaryu'' is the priest's assistant and is in charge of the physical details of the ritual like measuring the ground, building the altar explained in the ]. The adhvaryu offers oblations.<ref name=hume109>Robert Hume, , Oxford University Press, pages 107–109</ref> | |||
| * The ''Udgatri'' is the chanter of hymns set to melodies and music (sāman) drawn from the ]. The udgatar, like the hotar, chants the introductory, accompanying and benediction hymns.<ref name=hume109/> | |||
| * The ''Brahmin'' recites from the ].<ref name=mohrfear81/> | |||
| * The ''Ritvij'' is the chief operating priest.<ref name=mohrfear81>Mohr and Fear (2015), World Religions: The History, Issues, and Truth, {{ISBN|978-1-5035-0369-4}}, page 81</ref> | |||
| The term Brahmin appears extensively in ancient and medieval ]s and commentary texts of ] and ].<ref name="lopez2004busc1">{{cite book|author=Donald Lopez |title=Buddhist Scriptures |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=6Pd-2IIzip4C |year=2004|publisher=Penguin Books |isbn=978-0-14-190937-0 |pages=xi–xv}}</ref> Modern scholars state that such usage of the term Brahmin in ancient texts does not imply a caste, but simply "masters" (experts), guardian, recluse, preacher or guide of any tradition.<ref name="Jaini2001p123"/><ref name="Jayatilleke2013">{{cite book|author=K N Jayatilleke|title=Early Buddhist Theory of Knowledge|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=6pBTAQAAQBAJ |year=2013|publisher=Routledge|isbn=978-1-134-54287-1|pages=141–154, 219, 241 }}</ref><ref>{{cite book |author=Kailash Chand Jain |title=Lord Mahāvīra and His Times |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=8-TxcO9dfrcC |year=1991 |publisher=Motilal Banarsidass |isbn=978-81-208-0805-8 |page=31 |access-date=10 October 2016 |archive-date=11 January 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230111053959/https://books.google.com/books?id=8-TxcO9dfrcC |url-status=live }}</ref> An alternate synonym for Brahmin in the Buddhist and other non-Hindu tradition is ''Mahano''.<ref name="Jaini2001p123">{{cite book|author=Padmanabh S. Jaini |title=Collected Papers on Buddhist Studies |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ZlyDot9RyGcC&pg=PA123 |year=2001|publisher=Motilal Banarsidass |isbn=978-81-208-1776-0 |page=123 }}</ref> | |||
| ===Brahmin and renunciation tradition in Hinduism=== | |||
| The term Brahmin in Indian texts has signified someone who is good and virtuous, not just someone of priestly class.<ref name=olivelleaab60/> Both Buddhist and Brahmanical literature, states Patrick Olivelle, repeatedly define "Brahmin" not in terms of family of birth, but in terms of personal qualities.<ref name=olivelleaab60/> These virtues and characteristics mirror the values cherished in Hinduism during the ] stage of life, or the life of renunciation for spiritual pursuits. Brahmins, states Olivelle, were the social class from which most ascetics came.<ref name=olivelleaab60>Patrick Olivelle (2011), Ascetics and Brahmins: Studies in Ideologies and Institutions, Anthem, {{ISBN|978-0-85728-432-7}}, page 60</ref> | |||
| Strabo cites Megasthenes, highlighting two Indian philosophical schools ] and ]: | |||
| ==Dharmasutras and Dharmashastras== | |||
| {{blockquote|Megasthenes makes a different division of the philosophers, saying that they are of two kinds, one of which he calls the ], and the other the ]...|source=] XV. 1. 58-60<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/cgi-bin/ptext?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0239&query=head%3D%23119 |title=Strabo XV.1 |publisher=Perseus.tufts.edu |access-date=2010-09-01 |archive-date=2007-12-27 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071227232800/http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/cgi-bin/ptext?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0239&query=head%3D%23119 |url-status=live }}</ref>}} | |||
| The Dharmasutras and Dharmasatras text of Hinduism describe the expectations, duties and role of Brahmins. The rules and duties in these ] texts of Hinduism, are primarily directed at Brahmins. The ], the oldest of surviving Hindu Dharmasutras, for example, states in verse 9.54–9.55 that a Brahmin should not participate or perform a ritual unless he is invited to do so, but he may attend. Gautama outlines the following rules of conduct for a Brahmin, in Chapters 8 and 9:<ref>RC Prasad (2014), The Upanayana: The Hindu Ceremonies of the Sacred Thread</ref> | |||
| {{Quote box |width=24em | bgcolor=#FFE0BB |align=right |salign = right | |||
| |quote='''Virtues more important than rituals'''<br> | |||
| A man who has performed the forty sacramental rites, but lacks eight virtues does not obtain union with or residence in the same world as ]. A man who may have performed just some rites, but possesses these eight virtues, on the other hand, does. | |||
| |source =—''Gautama Dharmasutra'' 9.24–9.25<ref>Patrick Olivelle (1999), Dharmasutras, Oxford University Press, {{ISBN|978-0-19-283882-7}}, page 91</ref>}} | |||
| Patrick Olivelle states that both Buddhist and Brahmanical literature repeatedly define "Brahmin" not in terms of family of birth, but in terms of personal qualities.<ref name=olivelleaab60/> These virtues and characteristics mirror the values cherished in Hinduism during the ] stage of life, or the life of renunciation for spiritual pursuits. Brahmins, states Olivelle, were the social class from which most ascetics came.<ref name=olivelleaab60>Patrick Olivelle (2011), Ascetics and Brahmins: Studies in Ideologies and Institutions, Anthem, {{ISBN|978-0-85728-432-7}}, page 60</ref> The term Brahmin in Indian texts has also signified someone who is good and virtuous, not just someone of priestly class.<ref name=olivelleaab60/> | |||
| *Be always truthful | |||
| *Conduct himself as an Aryan | |||
| *Teach his art only to virtuous men | |||
| *Follow rules of ritual purification | |||
| *Study Vedas with delight | |||
| *Never hurt any living creature | |||
| *Be gentle but steadfast | |||
| *Have self-control | |||
| *Be kind, liberal towards everyone | |||
| === Purusha sukta === | |||
| Chapter 8 of the Dharmasutra, states Olivelle, asserts the functions of a Brahmin to be to learn the Vedas, the secular sciences, the Vedic supplements, the dialogues, the epics and the Puranas; to understand the texts and pattern his conduct according to precepts contained in this texts, to undertake ] and rituals, and lead a virtuous life.<ref name=patrickolivelle90>Patrick Olivelle (1999), Dharmasutras, Oxford University Press, {{ISBN|978-0-19-283882-7}}, pages 90–91</ref> | |||
| The earliest inferred reference to "Brahmin" as a possible social class is in the ], occurs once, and the hymn is called ].<ref>], , ], pages 570–571</ref> According to a hymn in ], Rigveda 10.90.11-2, Brahmins are described as having emerged from the mouth of ], being that part of the body from which words emerge.<ref>{{cite book |title=Early India: From the Origins to AD 1300 |first=Romila |last=Thapar |author-link=Romila Thapar |publisher=University of California Press |year=2004 |isbn=9780520242258 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=-5irrXX0apQC&pg=PA125 |page=125}}</ref> | |||
| The Purusha Sukta varna verse is now generally considered to have been inserted at a later date into the Vedic text, possibly as a ].<ref name="Jamison 2014 57–58"/> Stephanie Jamison and Joel Brereton, a professor of Sanskrit and Religious studies, state, "there is no evidence in the Rigveda for an elaborate, much-subdivided and overarching caste system", and "the varna system seems to be embryonic in the Rigveda and, both then and later, a social ideal rather than a social reality".<ref name="Jamison 2014 57–58">{{cite book | last=Jamison| first=Stephanie | title=The Rigveda: the earliest religious poetry of India | publisher=Oxford University Press | year=2014 | isbn=978-0-19-937018-4 |pages=57–58|display-authors=etal}}</ref> | |||
| The text lists eight virtues that a Brahmin must inculcate: compassion, patience, lack of envy, purification, tranquility, auspicious disposition, generosity and lack of greed, and then asserts in verse 9.24–9.25, that it is more important to lead a virtuous life than perform rites and rituals, because virtue leads to achieving liberation (], a life in the world of ]).<ref name=patrickolivelle90/> | |||
| According to Vijay Nath, in the ] (250 CE), there are references to Brahmins who were born into the families of ]. He posits that this is an indication that some Brahmins are immigrants and some are also mixed.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Nath |first=Vijay |date=2001 |title=From 'Brahmanism' to 'Hinduism': Negotiating the Myth of the Great Tradition |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/3518337 |journal=Social Scientist |volume=29 |issue=3/4 |pages=25 |doi=10.2307/3518337 |jstor=3518337 |issn=0970-0293}}</ref> | |||
| {{double image|right| Brahmin.jpg|150| Brahmingirl.jpg |145|Left: Brahmin woman, Right: Brahmin girl<br>(both paintings by Lady Lawley, 1914)}} | |||
| The later Dharma texts of Hinduism such as Baudhayana Dharmasutra add charity, modesty, refraining from anger and never being arrogant as duties of a Brahmin.<ref>Patrick Olivelle (1999), Dharmasutras, Oxford University Press, {{ISBN|978-0-19-283882-7}}, pages 136–137</ref> The Vasistha Dharmasutra in verse 6.23 lists discipline, austerity, self-control, liberality, truthfulness, purity, Vedic learning, compassion, erudition, intelligence and religious faith as characteristics of a Brahmin.<ref>Patrick Olivelle (1999), Dharmasutras, Oxford University Press, {{ISBN|978-0-19-283882-7}}, pages 267–268</ref> In 13.55, the Vasistha text states that a Brahmin must not accept weapons, poison or liquor as gifts.<ref>Patrick Olivelle (1999), Dharmasutras, Oxford University Press, {{ISBN|978-0-19-283882-7}}, page 284</ref> | |||
| === Gupta era === | |||
| The Dharmasastras such as Manusmriti, like Dharmsutras, are codes primarily focussed on how a Brahmin must live his life, and their relationship with a king and warrior class.<ref>Patrick Olivelle (2005), Manu's Code of Law, Oxford University Press, {{ISBN|978-0-19-517146-4}}, pages 16, 62–65</ref> Manusmriti dedicates 1,034 verses, the largest portion, on laws for and expected virtues of Brahmins.<ref>Patrick Olivelle (2005), Manu's Code of Law, Oxford University Press, {{ISBN|978-0-19-517146-4}}, pages 41, for specific examples see 132–134</ref> It asserts, for example, | |||
| ] around fire]] | |||
| ] | |||
| According to ], "Brahmin as a varna hardly had any presence in historical records before the ] era" (3rd century to 6th century CE), when Buddhism dominated the land. "No Brahmin, no sacrifice, no ritualistic act of any kind ever, even once, is referred to" in any Indian texts between third century BCE and the late first century CE. He also states that "The absence of literary and material evidence, however, does not mean that Brahmanical culture did not exist at that time, but only that it had no elite patronage and was largely confined to rural folk, and therefore went unrecorded in history".<ref name=eraly283>Abraham Eraly (2011), ''The First Spring: The Golden Age of India,'' Penguin, {{ISBN|978-0-670-08478-4}}, page 283</ref> Their role as priests and repository of sacred knowledge, as well as their importance in the practice of Vedic Shrauta rituals, grew during the Gupta Empire era and thereafter.<ref name=eraly283/> | |||
| {{Quote| | |||
| A well disciplined Brahmin, although he knows just the Savitri verse, is far better than an undisciplined one who eats all types of food and deals in all types of merchandise though he may know all three Vedas. | |||
| |] 2.118|Translated by Patrick Olivelle<ref>Patrick Olivelle (2005), Manu's Code of Law, Oxford University Press, {{ISBN|978-0-19-517146-4}}, page 101</ref>}} | |||
| However, the knowledge about actual history of Brahmins or other varnas of Hinduism in and after the first millennium is fragmentary and preliminary, with little that is from verifiable records or archaeological evidence, and much that is constructed from ahistorical Sanskrit works and fiction. ] writes: | |||
| John Bussanich states that the ethical precepts set for Brahmins, in ancient Indian texts, are similar to Greek virtue-ethics, that "Manu's dharmic Brahmin can be compared to Aristotle's man of practical wisdom",<ref>John Bussanich (2014), Ancient Ethics (Editors: Jörg Hardy and George Rudebusch), Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, {{ISBN|978-3-89971-629-0}}, pages 38, 33–52, Quote: "Affinities with Greek virtue ethics are also noteworthy. Manu's dharmic Brahmin can be compared to Aristotle's man of practical wisdom, who exercises moral authority because he feels the proper emotions and judges difficult situations correctly, when moral rules and maxims are unavailable".</ref> and that "the virtuous Brahmin is not unlike the Platonic-Aristotelian philosopher" with the difference that the latter was not sacerdotal.<ref>John Bussanich (2014), Ancient Ethics (Editors: Jörg Hardy and George Rudebusch), Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, {{ISBN|978-3-89971-629-0}}, pages 44–45</ref> | |||
| {{blockquote|Current research in the area is fragmentary. The state of our knowledge of this fundamental subject is preliminary, at best. Most Sanskrit works are a-historic or, at least, not especially interested in presenting a chronological account of India's history. When we actually encounter history, such as in ''Rajatarangini'' or in the ''Gopalavamsavali'' of Nepal, the texts do not deal with brahmins in great detail.<ref>Michael Witzel (1993) {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181001041949/https://www.jstor.org/stable/603031 |date=1 October 2018 }}, ''Journal of the American Oriental Society,'' Vol. 113, No. 2, pages 264–268</ref>}} | |||
| ==Gauda and Dravida Brahmins== | |||
| ==History== | |||
| According to ]'s '']'' (12th cent. CE) and ] (5th–13th cent. CE) of Skandapurana, Brahmins are broadly classified into two groups based on geography.<ref name="JGL_2002">{{cite book |url=https://archive.org/details/illustratedencyc0000loch |url-access=registration |title=The Illustrated Encyclopedia of Hinduism: N-Z |author=James G. Lochtefeld |publisher=Rosen |year=2002 |isbn=9780823931804 |page= }}</ref> The northern ] group comprises five Brahmin communities, as mentioned in the text, residing north of the ].<ref name="JGL_2002"/><ref>{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=lXyWE6KbG8oC&pg=PA168 |title=Caste in Life: Experiencing Inequalities |editor=D. Shyam Babu and ] |publisher=Pearson Education India |year=2011 |isbn=9788131754399 |page=168}}</ref> Historically, the Vindhya mountain range formed the southern boundary of the '']'', the territory of the ancient ], and Gauda has territorial, ethnographic and linguistic connotations.{{sfnp|Narasimhacharya|1999|p=8}} Linguistically, the term "Gauda" refers to the Sanskrit-derived languages of northern India.{{sfnp|Narasimhacharya|1999|p=8}} The Pancha Gauda Brahmins are:<ref name="JGL_2002"/> | |||
| {{See also|List of Brahmin dynasties and states}} | |||
| * ] | |||
| According to Abraham Eraly, "Brahmin as a varna hardly had any presence in historical records before the Gupta Empire era" (3rd century to 6th century CE), and "no Brahmin, no sacrifice, no ritualistic act of any kind ever, even once, is referred to in any Indian text" dated to be from the first century CE or before.<ref name=eraly283>Abraham Eraly (2011), The First Spring: The Golden Age of India, Penguin, {{ISBN|978-0-670-08478-4}}, page 283</ref> Their role as priests and repository of sacred knowledge, as well as their importance in the practice of Vedic Shrauta rituals grew during the Gupta Empire era and thereafter.<ref name=eraly283/> However, the knowledge about actual history of Brahmins or other varnas of Hinduism in and after 1st-millennium is fragmentary and preliminary, with little that is from verifiable records or archeological evidence, and much that is constructed from a-historical Sanskrit works and fiction. Michael Witzel writes, | |||
| * ] | |||
| * ] | |||
| * ] | |||
| * ] | |||
| Subcastes of ] are: | |||
| * Sanadhya<ref>{{Cite book |last=Bahadur |first=K. P. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=yQHpEQ8HkRMC&dq=titles+of+sanadhya+brahmins&pg=PA28 |title=Selection From Ramachndrika Of Keshv |date=1976 |publisher=Motilal Banarsidass Publ. |isbn=978-81-208-2789-9 |language=en}}</ref> | |||
| {{Quote| | |||
| * Paliwal<ref>{{Cite news |date=26 August 2018 |title=This community does not believe in the tradition |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/jaipur/this-community-does-not-believe-in-the-tradition/articleshow/65546929.cms |access-date=26 March 2024 |work=The Times of India |issn=0971-8257}}</ref> | |||
| '''Toward a history of the Brahmins''': Current research in the area is fragmentary. The state of our knowledge of this fundamental subject is preliminary, at best. Most Sanksrit works are a-historic or, at least, not especially interested in presenting a chronological account of India's history. When we actually encounter history, such as in ''Rajatarangini'' or in the ''Gopalavamsavali'' of Nepal, the texts do not deal with brahmins in great detail. | |||
| |]|Review (1993)<ref>Michael Witzel (1993) , Journal of the American Oriental Society, Vol. 113, No. 2, pages 264–268</ref>}} | |||
| Subcastes of Kanyakubja Brahmins are: | |||
| ===Normative occupations=== | |||
| *Jujhatiya Brahmin<ref name="Sherring 1977">{{Cite book |last=Sherring|first=Matthew Atmore |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=iTXXAAAAMAAJ |title=Hindu Tribes and Castes Volume 1 | |||
| ] around fire]] | |||
| |date=1977 |publisher=Thacker, spink and company|language=en}}</ref> | |||
| The Gautama Dharmasutra states in verse 10.3 that it is obligatory on a Brahmin to learn and teach the Vedas.<ref name=olivelleds94>Patrick Olivelle (1999), Dharmasutras, Oxford University Press, {{ISBN|978-0-19-283882-7}}, page 94</ref> Chapter 10 of the text, according to Olivelle translation, states that he may impart Vedic instructions to a teacher, relative, friend, elder, anyone who offers exchange of knowledge he wants, or anyone who pays for such education.<ref name=olivelleds94/> The Chapter 10 adds that a Brahmin may also engage in agriculture, trade, lend money on interest, while Chapter 7 states that a Brahmin may engage in the occupation of a warrior in the times of adversity.<ref name=olivelleds94/><ref name=olivelleds89/> Typically, asserts Gautama Dharmasutra, a Brahmin should accept any occupation to sustain himself but avoid the occupations of a ], but if his life is at stake a Brahmin may sustain himself by accepting occupations of a Shudra.<ref name=olivelleds89>Patrick Olivelle (1999), Dharmasutras, Oxford University Press, {{ISBN|978-0-19-283882-7}}, page 89</ref> The text forbids a Brahmin from engaging in the trade of animals for slaughter, meat, medicines and milk products even in the times of adversity.<ref name=olivelleds89/> | |||
| *]<ref name="Sherring 1977"/> | |||
| *Bengali ]<ref name="Sherring 1977"/> | |||
| *]<ref>{{Cite book |first=André |last=Wink|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=bCVyhH5VDjAC |title=Al-Hind, the Making of the Indo-Islamic World: The slave kings and the Islamic conquest, 11th–13th centuries|date=1990 |publisher=E.J. Brill|isbn=978-90-04-09249-5 }}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=WFfVAAAAMAAJ |title=Bhāratīya sāhitya, Volume 19|date=1974 |publisher=Agra University. K.M. Institute of Hindi Studies and Linguistics.}}</ref> ( Though they are generally not accepted as Brahmins) | |||
| *] – Nepali Bahuns<ref name="Sherring 1977"/><ref>{{Cite book |last=Chaturvedi |first=Shyam lal (Rai bahadur) |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=91ACAAAAMAAJ |title=In Fraternity with Nepal, An Account of the Activities Under the Auspices of the Wider Life Movement for the Furtherance and Consolidation of the Indo-Nepalese Cultural Fellowship |page=65|date=1945|language=en}}</ref> | |||
| The Pancha ] Brahmins reside to the south of the Vindhya mountain range.<ref name="JGL_2002"/> The term "Dravida" too has territorial, linguistic and ethnological connotations, referring to southern India, the Dravidian people, and to the Dravidian languages of southern India.{{sfnp|Narasimhacharya|1999|p=8}} The Pancha Dravida Brahmins are: | |||
| The Apastamba Dharmasutra asserts in verse 1.20.10 that trade is generally not sanctioned for Brahmins, but in the times of adversity he may do so.<ref name=olivelleds31/> The chapter 1.20 of Apastamba, states Olivelle, forbids the trade of the following under any circumstances: human beings, meat, skins, weapons, barren cows, sesame seeds, pepper, and merits.<ref name=olivelleds31>Patrick Olivelle (1999), Dharmasutras, Oxford University Press, {{ISBN|978-0-19-283882-7}}, page 31</ref> | |||
| * Karnataka (]) | |||
| * Tailanga (]) | |||
| * Dravida (Brahmins of ] and ]) | |||
| * Maharashtraka (]s) | |||
| * Gurjara (])<ref>{{cite book|title=Abu in Bombay State: A Scientific Study of the Problem|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=BM8BAAAAMAAJ&q=pancha+dravida+gurjara+rajasthan|quote=It is interesting to note here that the Brahmin groups of Marwar and Mewar belong to the Gurjara group of the Pancha Dravida division|first=A V|last=Pandya|publisher=Charutar Vidya Mandal|year=1952|page=29}}</ref> | |||
| ==Role in the society == | |||
| The 1st millennium CE Dharmasastras, that followed the Dharmasutras contain similar recommendations on occupations for a Brahmin, both in prosperous or normal times, and in the times of adversity.<ref>Patrick Olivelle (2005), Manu's Code of Law, Oxford University Press, {{ISBN|978-0-19-517146-4}}, pages 124–126</ref> The widely studied Manusmriti, for example, states: | |||
| ===Vedic duties=== | |||
| {{Quote| | |||
| The ] and ] texts of Hinduism describe the expectations, duties and role of Brahmins. | |||
| Except during a time of adversity, a Brahmin ought to sustain himself by following a livelihood that causes little or no harm to creatures. He should gather wealth just sufficient for his subsistence through irreproachable activities that are specific to him, without fatiguing his body. – 4.2–4.3 | |||
| According to Kulkarni, the Grhya-sutras state that ], Adhyayana (studying the vedas and teaching), dana pratigraha (accepting and giving gifts) are the "peculiar duties and privileges of brahmins".<ref>{{cite journal |author=Kulkarni, A.R. |year=1964 |title=Social and Economic Position of Brahmins in Maharashtra in the Age of Shivaji |journal=Proceedings of the Indian History Congress |volume=26 |pages=66–67 |jstor=44140322}}</ref> John Bussanich states that the ethical precepts set for Brahmins, in ancient Indian texts, are similar to Greek virtue-ethics, that "Manu's dharmic Brahmin can be compared to Aristotle's man of practical wisdom",<ref>John Bussanich (2014), Ancient Ethics (Editors: Jörg Hardy and George Rudebusch), Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, {{ISBN|978-3-89971-629-0}}, pages 38, 33–52, Quote: "Affinities with Greek virtue ethics are also noteworthy. Manu's dharmic Brahmin can be compared to Aristotle's man of practical wisdom, who exercises moral authority because he feels the proper emotions and judges difficult situations correctly, when moral rules and maxims are unavailable".</ref> and that "the virtuous Brahmin is not unlike the Platonic-Aristotelian philosopher" with the difference that the latter was not sacerdotal.<ref>John Bussanich (2014), Ancient Ethics (Editors: Jörg Hardy and George Rudebusch), Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, {{ISBN|978-3-89971-629-0}}, pages 44–45</ref> | |||
| He must never follow a worldly occupation for the sake of livelihood, but subsist by means of a pure, upright and honest livelihood proper to a Brahmin. One who seeks happiness should become supremely content and self controlled, for happiness is rooted in contentment and its opposite is the root of unhappiness. – 4.11–4.12 | |||
| |Manusmriti|Translated by Patrick Olivelle<ref>Patrick Olivelle (2005), Manu's Code of Law, Oxford University Press, {{ISBN|978-0-19-517146-4}}, page 124</ref>}} | |||
| The Brahmins were expected to perform all six Vedic duties as opposed to other ] who performed three. | |||
| ] | |||
| {| class="wikitable" | |||
| The Manusmriti recommends that a Brahmin's occupation must never involve forbidden activities such as producing or trading poison, weapons, meat, trapping birds and others.<ref name=olivellems211/> It also lists six occupations that it deems proper for a Brahmin: teaching, studying, offering yajna, officiating at yajna, giving gifts and accepting gifts.<ref name=olivellems211>Patrick Olivelle (2005), Manu's Code of Law, Oxford University Press, {{ISBN|978-0-19-517146-4}}, pages 125, 211–212</ref> Of these, states Manusmriti, three which provide a Brahmin with a livelihood are teaching, officiating at yajna, and accepting gifts.<ref name=olivellems212>Patrick Olivelle (2005), Manu's Code of Law, Oxford University Press, {{ISBN|978-0-19-517146-4}}, page 212</ref> The text states that teaching is best, and ranks the accepting of gifts as the lowest of the six.<ref name=olivellems211/> In the times of adversity, Manusmriti recommends that a Brahmin may live by engaging in the occupations of the warrior class, or agriculture or cattle herding or trade.<ref name=olivellems212/> Of these, Manusmriti in verses 10.83–10.84 recommends a Brahmin should avoid agriculture if possible because, according to Olivelle translation, agriculture "involves injury to living beings and dependence of others" when the plow digs the ground and injures the creatures that live in the soil.<ref name=olivellems212/><ref>Patrick Olivelle (2011), Ascetics and Brahmins: Studies in Ideologies and Institutions, Anthem, {{ISBN|978-0-85728-432-7}}, page 39</ref> However, adds Manusmriti, even in the times of adversity, a Brahmin must never trade or produce poison, weapons, meat, soma, liquor, perfume, milk and milk products, molasses, captured animals or birds, beeswax, sesame seeds or roots.<ref name=olivellems212/> | |||
| |+ Vedic duties of twice-born Varnas<ref name="ludo14">{{cite book|author=Ludo Rocher|editor=Donald R. Davis Jr.|title=Studies in Hindu Law and Dharmaśāstra|chapter=9.Caste and occupation in classical India: The normative texts|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=dziNBAAAQBAJ&pg=PA205|year=2014|publisher=Anthem Press|pages=205–206|isbn=9781783083152}}</ref> | |||
| |- | |||
| ! !!''Adhyayan''<br />(Study Vedas)!!''Yajana''<br />(performing sacrifice for<br /> one's own benefit)!!Dana<br />(Giving Gifts)!!Adhyapana<br />(Teaching Vedas)!!Yaajana<br />(Acting as Priest<br />for sacrifice)!!''Pratigraha'' (accepting gifts) | |||
| |- | |||
| | Brahmin|| ✓ || ✓ || ✓ || ✓ ||✓ ||✓ | |||
| |- | |||
| | Kshatriya|| ✓ || ✓ || ✓ || No||No||No | |||
| |- | |||
| | Vaishya|| ✓ || ✓ || ✓ || No||No||No | |||
| |- | |||
| |- | |||
| |} | |||
| ===Actual occupations=== | ===Actual occupations=== | ||
| ], a proponent of Advaita Vedanta, was born into a Brahmin family. His disciple, Adi Shankara, is credited with unifying and establishing the main currents of thought in Hinduism.<ref>Johannes de Kruijf and Ajaya Sahoo (2014), Indian Transnationalism Online: New Perspectives on Diaspora, {{ISBN|978-1-4724-1913-2}}, page 105, Quote: "In other words, according to Adi Shankara's argument, the philosophy of Advaita Vedanta stood over and above all other forms of Hinduism and encapsulated them. This then united Hinduism; (...) Another of Adi Shankara's important undertakings which contributed to the unification of Hinduism was his founding of a number of monastic centers."</ref><ref>''Shankara'', Student's Encyclopædia Britannica – India (2000), Volume 4, Encyclopædia Britannica (UK) Publishing, {{ISBN|978-0-85229-760-5}}, page 379, Quote: "Shankaracharya, philosopher and theologian, most renowned exponent of the Advaita Vedanta school of philosophy, from whose doctrines the main currents of modern Indian thought are derived."<br />David Crystal (2004), The Penguin Encyclopedia, Penguin Books, page 1353, Quote: " is the most famous exponent of Advaita Vedanta school of Hindu philosophy and the source of the main currents of modern Hindu thought."</ref><ref>Christophe Jaffrelot (1998), The Hindu Nationalist Movement in India, Columbia University Press, {{ISBN|978-0-231-10335-0}}, page 2, Quote: "The main current of Hinduism – if not the only one – which became formalized in a way that approximates to an ecclesiastical structure was that of Shankara".</ref>]] | |||
| {{See also|Brahmin zamindaris}} | |||
| ] a proponent of ], was born in a Brahmin family, and is credited with unifying and establishing the main currents of thought in ].<ref>Johannes de Kruijf and Ajaya Sahoo (2014), Indian Transnationalism Online: New Perspectives on Diaspora, {{ISBN|978-1-4724-1913-2}}, page 105, Quote: "In other words, according to Adi Shankara's argument, the philosophy of Advaita Vedanta stood over and above all other forms of Hinduism and encapsulated them. This then united Hinduism; (...) Another of Adi Shankara's important undertakings which contributed to the unification of Hinduism was his founding of a number of monastic centers."</ref><ref>''Shankara'', Student's Encyclopædia Britannica - India (2000), Volume 4, Encyclopædia Britannica (UK) Publishing, {{ISBN|978-0-85229-760-5}}, page 379, Quote: "Shankaracharya, philosopher and theologian, most renowned exponent of the Advaita Vedanta school of philosophy, from whose doctrines the main currents of modern Indian thought are derived."<br>David Crystal (2004), The Penguin Encyclopedia, Penguin Books, page 1353, Quote: " is the most famous exponent of Advaita Vedanta school of Hindu philosophy and the source of the main currents of modern Hindu thought."</ref><ref>Christophe Jaffrelot (1998), The Hindu Nationalist Movement in India, Columbia University Press, {{ISBN|978-0-231-10335-0}}, page 2, Quote: "The main current of Hinduism - if not the only one - which became formalized in a way that approximates to an ecclesiastical structure was that of Shankara".</ref>]] | |||
| Historical records, state scholars, suggest that Brahmin varna was not limited to a particular status or priest and teaching profession.<ref name="ghurye15"/><ref name="David Shulman 1989 page 111"/><ref name=baileymabbett114/> Historical records from mid 1st millennium CE and later, suggest Brahmins were agriculturalists and warriors in medieval India, quite often instead of as exception.<ref name="ghurye15"/><ref name="David Shulman 1989 page 111"/> Donkin and other scholars state that ] records frequently mention Brahmin merchants "carried on trade in horses, elephants and pearls" and transported goods throughout medieval India before the 14th-century.<ref>RA Donkin (1998), Beyond Price: Pearls and Pearl-fishing, American Philosophical Society, {{ISBN|978-0-87169-224-5}}, page 166</ref><ref>SC Malik (1986), Determinants of Social Status in India, Indian Institute of Advanced Study, {{ISBN|978-81-208-0073-1}}, page 121</ref> | Historical records, state scholars, suggest that Brahmin varna was not limited to a particular status or priest and the teaching profession.<ref name="ghurye15"/><ref name="David Shulman 1989 page 111"/><ref name=baileymabbett114/> ], a Brahmin born in 375 BCE, was an ancient Indian polymath who was active as a teacher, author, strategist, philosopher, economist, jurist, and royal advisor, who assisted the first Mauryan emperor ] in his rise to power and is widely credited for having played an important role in the establishment of the ].<ref>{{cite book |first=Thomas R. |last=Trautmann |author-link=Thomas Trautmann |title=Kauṭilya and the Arthaśāstra: a statistical investigation of the authorship and evolution of the text |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=v3iDAAAAMAAJ |year=1971 |publisher=Brill |pages=11–13}}</ref> Historical records from mid 1st millennium CE and later, suggest Brahmins were agriculturalists and warriors in medieval India, quite often instead of as exception.<ref name="ghurye15"/><ref name="David Shulman 1989 page 111"/> Donkin and other scholars state that ] records frequently mention Brahmin merchants who "carried on trade in horses, elephants and pearls" and transported goods throughout medieval India before the 14th-century.<ref>RA Donkin (1998), Beyond Price: Pearls and Pearl-fishing, American Philosophical Society, {{ISBN|978-0-87169-224-5}}, page 166</ref><ref>SC Malik (1986), Determinants of Social Status in India, Indian Institute of Advanced Study, {{ISBN|978-81-208-0073-1}}, page 121</ref> | ||
| The ] |
The ] depicts Brahmins as the most prestigious and elite non-Buddhist figures.<ref name="baileymabbett114"/> They mention them parading their learning. The Pali Canon and other ] such as the ''Jataka Tales'' also record the livelihood of Brahmins to have included being farmers, handicraft workers and artisans such as carpentry and architecture.<ref name=baileymabbett114/><ref>Stella Kramrisch (1994), Exploring India's Sacred Art, Editor: Stella Miller, Motilal Banarsidass, {{ISBN|978-81-208-1208-6}}, pages 60–64</ref> Buddhist sources extensively attest, state Greg Bailey and Ian Mabbett, that Brahmins were "supporting themselves not by religious practice, but employment in all manner of secular occupations", in the classical period of India.<ref name=baileymabbett114>Greg Bailey and Ian Mabbett (2006), The Sociology of Early Buddhism, Cambridge University Press, {{ISBN|978-0-521-02521-8}}, pages 113–115 with footnotes</ref> Some of the Brahmin occupations mentioned in the Buddhist texts such as '']'' and '']'' are very lowly.<ref name=baileymabbett114/> The '']'' too mention Brahmin farmers.<ref name="baileymabbett114"/><ref>{{cite journal | last=RITSCHL | first=Eva | title=Brahmanische Bauern. Zur Theorie und Praxis der brahmanischen Ständeordnung im alten Indien | journal=Altorientalische Forschungen | publisher=Walter de Gruyter GmbH | volume=7 | issue=JG | year=1980 | doi=10.1524/aofo.1980.7.jg.177 | pages=177–187 | s2cid=201725661 |language=de|issn=0232-8461 }}</ref> | ||
| According to Haidar and Sardar, |
According to Haidar and Sardar, unlike the Mughal Empire in Northern India, Brahmins figured prominently in the administration of ]. Under ] Telugu ] Brahmins served in many different roles such as accountants, ministers, in the revenue administration, and in the judicial service.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Haidar|first1=Navina Najat|last2=Sardar|first2=Marika|title=Sultans of Deccan Indian 1500–1700|date=2015|publisher=Museum Of Metropolitan Art |location=New Haven, CT, US|isbn=978-0-300-21110-8|pages=11–12|edition=1|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=oi4nBwAAQBAJ |access-date=20 April 2016}}</ref> The Deccan sultanates also heavily recruited ] at different levels of their administration.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Gordon|first1=Stewart|title=Cambridge History of India: The Marathas 1600–1818|date=1993|publisher=Cambridge University press|location=Cambridge, UK|isbn=978-0-521-26883-7|page=16|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=iHK-BhVXOU4C&q=deshastha&pg=PR9}}</ref> During the days of ] in the 17th and 18th century, the occupation of ] ranged from being state administrators, being warriors to being de facto rulers as ].<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=SYOSHaZnBy8C&pg=PA129 |title=The Satara Raj, 1818–1848: A Study in History, Administration, and Culture – Sumitra Kulkarni |access-date=23 March 2013|isbn=978-81-7099-581-4 |year=1995 |last1=Kulkarni |first1=Sumitra |publisher=Mittal Publications }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/285248/India/46988/Rise-of-the-peshwas |title=India : Rise of the peshwas - Britannica Online Encyclopedia |publisher=Britannica.com |date=8 November 2011 |access-date=23 March 2013 |archive-date=26 April 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130426031917/http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/285248/India/46988/Rise-of-the-peshwas |url-status=live }}</ref> | ||
| After the collapse of Maratha empire, Brahmins in Maharashtra region were quick to take advantage of opportunities opened up by the new British rulers.They were the first community to take up Western education and therefore dominated lower level of British administration in the 19th century<ref>{{cite book|last1=Hanlon|first1=Rosilind|title=Caste, Conflict and Ideology: Mahatma Jotirao Phule and low caste protest in nineteenth-century Western India|date=1985|publisher=Cambridge University Press.|location=Cambridge, UK|isbn=0 |
After the collapse of Maratha empire, Brahmins in Maharashtra region were quick to take advantage of opportunities opened up by the new British rulers. They were the first community to take up Western education and therefore dominated lower level of British administration in the 19th century.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Hanlon|first1=Rosilind|title=Caste, Conflict and Ideology: Mahatma Jotirao Phule and low caste protest in nineteenth-century Western India|date=1985|publisher=Cambridge University Press.|location=Cambridge, UK|isbn=0-521-52308-7|pages=122–123|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=5kMrsTj1NeYC&q=phule+vedas&pg=PR9|access-date=11 August 2016}}</ref> Similarly, the Tamil Brahmins were also quick to take up English education during British colonial rule and dominate government service and law.<ref name="Seal1971">{{cite book|author=Anil Seal|title=The Emergence of Indian Nationalism: Competition and Collaboration in the Later Nineteenth Century|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=xV84AAAAIAAJ&pg=PR13|date=2 September 1971|publisher=CUP Archive|isbn=978-0-521-09652-2|page=98}}</ref> | ||
| Eric Bellman states that during the Islamic Mughal Empire era Brahmins served as advisers to the Mughals, later to the British Raj.<ref name=bellmanwsj/> The ] recruited from the Brahmin communities of the present day Uttar |
Eric Bellman states that during the Islamic Mughal Empire era Brahmins served as advisers to the Mughals, later to the British Raj.<ref name=bellmanwsj/> The ] also recruited ]s (soldiers) from the Brahmin communities of ] and ] (in the present day Uttar Pradesh)<ref name="Pandey2002">{{cite book|author=Gyanendra Pandey|title=The Ascendancy of the Congress in Uttar Pradesh: Class, Community and Nation in Northern India, 1920–1940|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Nxmed64K7d8C&pg=PP10|year=2002|publisher=Anthem Press|isbn=978-1-84331-057-0|page=6}}</ref> for the ].<ref name="Omissi2016">{{cite book|author=David Omissi|title=The Sepoy and the Raj: The Indian Army, 1860-1940|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=suG-DAAAQBAJ&pg=PP1|date=27 July 2016|publisher=Springer|isbn=978-1-349-14768-7|page=4}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last1=Groseclose|first1=Barbara|title=British sculpture and the Company Raj : church monuments and public statuary in Madras, Calcutta, and Bombay to 1858|date=1994|publisher=University of Delaware Press|location=Newark, Del.|isbn=0-87413-406-4|page=67|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=dR6F_ZdieAUC&pg=PA67 |access-date=20 April 2016}}</ref> Many Brahmins, in other parts of South Asia lived like other varna, engaged in all sorts of professions. Among Nepalese Hindus, for example, Niels Gutschow and Axel Michaels report the actual observed professions of Brahmins from 18th- to early 20th-century included being temple priests, ministers, merchants, farmers, potters, masons, carpenters, coppersmiths, stone workers, barbers, and gardeners, among others.<ref>Niels Gutschow and Axel Michaels (2008), Bel-Frucht und Lendentuch: Mädchen und Jungen in Bhaktapur Nepal, Otto Harrassowitz Verlag, pages 23 (table), for context and details see 16–36</ref> | ||
| Other 20th-century surveys, such as in the state of ], recorded that the primary occupation of almost all Brahmin families surveyed was neither priestly nor Vedas-related, but like other varnas, ranged from crop farming (80 per cent of Brahmins), dairy, service, labour such as cooking, and other occupations.<ref name=noormohammad45/><ref>Ramesh Bairy (2010), Being Brahmin, Being Modern, Routledge, {{ISBN|978-0-415-58576-7}}, pages 86–89</ref> The survey reported that the Brahmin families involved in agriculture as their primary occupation in modern times plough the land themselves, many supplementing their income by selling their |
Other 20th-century surveys, such as in the state of ], recorded that the primary occupation of almost all Brahmin families surveyed was neither priestly nor Vedas-related, but like other varnas, ranged from crop farming (80 per cent of Brahmins), dairy, service, labour such as cooking, and other occupations.<ref name=noormohammad45/><ref>Ramesh Bairy (2010), Being Brahmin, Being Modern, Routledge, {{ISBN|978-0-415-58576-7}}, pages 86–89</ref> The survey reported that the Brahmin families involved in agriculture as their primary occupation in modern times plough the land themselves, many supplementing their income by selling their labour services to other farmers.<ref name=noormohammad45>Noor Mohammad (1992), New Dimensions in Agricultural Geography, Volume 3, Concept Publishers, {{ISBN|81-7022-403-9}}, pages 45, 42–48</ref><ref>G Shah (2004), Caste and Democratic Politics in India, Anthem, {{ISBN|978-1-84331-085-3}}, page 40</ref> | ||
| == |
==Bhakti movement and Social Reform movements== | ||
| ], a Brahmin, founded ] |
], a Brahmin, who founded ]]] | ||
| Many of the prominent thinkers and earliest champions of the ] were Brahmins, a movement that encouraged a direct relationship of an individual with a personal god.<ref>Sheldon Pollock (2009), The Language of the Gods in the World of Men, University of California Press, {{ISBN|978-0520260030}}, pages 423-431</ref><ref name=bhakti2/> Among the many Brahmins who nurtured the ] were ], ], ] and ] of Vaishnavism,<ref name=bhakti2>{{cite book|author=Oliver Leaman|title=Eastern Philosophy: Key Readings|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=vK-GAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA251|year=2002|publisher=Routledge|isbn=978-1-134-68919-4|page=251}};<br>{{cite book|author=S. M. Srinivasa Chari|title=Vaiṣṇavism: Its Philosophy, Theology, and Religious Discipline|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=evmiLInyxBMC |year=1994|publisher=Motilal Banarsidass |isbn=978-81-208-1098-3|pages=32–33}}</ref> ], another devotional poet ].<ref name=ronald>Ronald McGregor (1984), Hindi literature from its beginnings to the nineteenth century, Otto Harrassowitz Verlag, {{ISBN|978-3-447-02413-6}}, pages 42–44</ref><ref name=william>William Pinch (1996), Peasants and Monks in British India, University of California Press, {{ISBN|978-0-520-20061-6}}, pages 53–89</ref> Born in a Brahmin family,<ref name=ronald/><ref name=lorenzen>], Who Invented Hinduism: Essays on Religion in History, {{ISBN|978-81-902272-6-1}}, pages 104–106</ref> Ramananda welcomed everyone to spiritual pursuits without discriminating anyone by gender, class, caste or religion (such as Muslims).<ref name=lorenzen/><ref name=larsonvair>Gerald James Larson (1995), India's Agony Over Religion, State University of New York Press, {{ISBN|978-0-7914-2412-4}}, page 116</ref><ref name=julia>Julia Leslie (1996), Myth and Mythmaking: Continuous Evolution in Indian Tradition, Routledge, {{ISBN|978-0-7007-0303-6}}, pages 117–119</ref> He composed his spiritual message in poems, using widely spoken vernacular language rather than Sanskrit, to make it widely accessible. His ideas also influenced the founders of ] in 15th century, and his verses and he are mentioned in the Sikh scripture ].<ref>Winnand Callewaert (2015), The Hagiographies of Anantadas: The Bhakti Poets of North India, Routledge, {{ISBN|978-1-138-86246-3}}, pages 405–407</ref> The Hindu tradition recognises him as the founder of the Hindu ],<ref name=schomer>Schomer and McLeod (1987), The Sants: Studies in a Devotional Tradition of India, Motilal Banarsidass, {{ISBN|978-81-208-0277-3}}, pages 4–6</ref> the largest ] renunciant community in Asia in modern times.<ref name=selva>Selva Raj and William Harman (2007), Dealing with Deities: The Ritual Vow in South Asia, State University of New York Press, {{ISBN|978-0-7914-6708-4}}, pages 165–166</ref><ref name=lochtefeld553>James G Lochtefeld (2002), The Illustrated Encyclopedia of Hinduism: N-Z, Rosen Publishing, {{ISBN|978-0-8239-3180-4}}, pages 553–554</ref> | |||
| Many of the prominent thinkers and earliest champions of the ] were Brahmins, a movement that encouraged a direct relationship of an individual with a personal god.<ref>Sheldon Pollock (2009), The Language of the Gods in the World of Men, University of California Press, {{ISBN|978-0520260030}}, pages 423–431</ref><ref name=bhakti2/> Among the many Brahmins who nurtured the Bhakti movement were ], ], ] and ] of Vaishnavism,<ref name=bhakti2>{{cite book|author=Oliver Leaman|title=Eastern Philosophy: Key Readings|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=vK-GAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA251|year=2002|publisher=Routledge|isbn=978-1-134-68919-4|page=251}};<br />{{cite book|author=S. M. Srinivasa Chari|title=Vaiṣṇavism: Its Philosophy, Theology, and Religious Discipline|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=evmiLInyxBMC |year=1994|publisher=Motilal Banarsidass |isbn=978-81-208-1098-3|pages=32–33}}</ref> ], another devotional poet ].<ref name=ronald>Ronald McGregor (1984), Hindi literature from its beginnings to the nineteenth century, Otto Harrassowitz Verlag, {{ISBN|978-3-447-02413-6}}, pages 42–44</ref><ref name=william>William Pinch (1996), '''', University of California Press, {{ISBN|978-0-520-20061-6}}, pages 53–89</ref> Born in a Brahmin family,<ref name=ronald/><ref name=lorenzen>], Who Invented Hinduism: Essays on Religion in History, {{ISBN|978-81-902272-6-1}}, pages 104–106</ref> Ramananda welcomed everyone to spiritual pursuits without discriminating anyone by gender, class, caste or religion (such as Muslims).<ref name=lorenzen/><ref name=larsonvair>Gerald James Larson (1995), India's Agony Over Religion, State University of New York Press, {{ISBN|978-0-7914-2412-4}}, page 116</ref><ref name=julia>Julia Leslie (1996), Myth and Mythmaking: Continuous Evolution in Indian Tradition, Routledge, {{ISBN|978-0-7007-0303-6}}, pages 117–119</ref> He composed his spiritual message in poems, using widely spoken vernacular language rather than Sanskrit, to make it widely accessible. The Hindu tradition recognises him as the founder of the Hindu ],<ref name=schomer>Schomer and McLeod (1987), The Sants: Studies in a Devotional Tradition of India, Motilal Banarsidass, {{ISBN|978-81-208-0277-3}}, pages 4–6</ref> the largest ] renunciant community in Asia in modern times.<ref name=selva>Selva Raj and William Harman (2007), Dealing with Deities: The Ritual Vow in South Asia, State University of New York Press, {{ISBN|978-0-7914-6708-4}}, pages 165–166</ref><ref name=lochtefeld553>James G Lochtefeld (2002), The Illustrated Encyclopedia of Hinduism: N-Z, Rosen Publishing, {{ISBN|978-0-8239-3180-4}}, pages 553–554</ref> | |||
| Other medieval era Brahmins who led spiritual movement without social or gender discrimination included ] (9th-century female poet), ] (12th-century Lingayatism), ] (13th-century Bhakti poet), ] (16th-century Vaishnava poet), among others.<ref>John Stratton Hawley (2015), A Storm of Songs: India and the Idea of the Bhakti Movement, Harvard University Press, {{ISBN|978-0-674-18746-7}}, pages 304–310</ref><ref>Rachel McDermott (2001), Singing to the Goddess: Poems to Kālī and Umā from Bengal, Oxford University Press, {{ISBN|978-0-19-513434-6}}, pages 8–9</ref><ref name="autogenerated2"> {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070926224314/http://www.orissa.gov.in/e-magazine/Orissareview/may2005/engpdf/mahima_dharma_bhima_bhoi_biswanathbaba.pdf |date=26 September 2007 }}, An Orissa movement by Brahmin Mukunda Das (2005)</ref> | |||
| Other medieval era Brahmins who led spiritual movements without social or gender discrimination included ] (9th-century female poet), ] (12th-century Lingayatism), ] (13th-century Bhakti poet), ] (16th-century Vaishnava poet), ] (14th-century Vaishnava saint) were among others.<ref>John Stratton Hawley (2015), A Storm of Songs: India and the Idea of the Bhakti Movement, Harvard University Press, {{ISBN|978-0-674-18746-7}}, pages 304–310</ref><ref>Rachel McDermott (2001), Singing to the Goddess: Poems to Kālī and Umā from Bengal, Oxford University Press, {{ISBN|978-0-19-513434-6}}, pages 8–9</ref><ref name="autogenerated2"> {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070926224314/http://www.orissa.gov.in/e-magazine/Orissareview/may2005/engpdf/mahima_dharma_bhima_bhoi_biswanathbaba.pdf |date=26 September 2007 }}, An Orissa movement by Brahmin Mukunda Das (2005)</ref> | |||
| Many 18th and 19th century Brahmins are credited with religious movements that criticised idolatry. For example, the Brahmins ] led ] and ] led the ].<ref>Noel Salmond (2004), Hindu iconoclasts: Rammohun Roy, Dayananda Sarasvati and nineteenth-century polemics against idolatry, Wilfrid Laurier Univ. Press, {{ISBN|0-88920-419-5}}, pages 65–68</ref><ref>Dorothy Figueira (2002), Aryans, Jews, Brahmins: Theorizing Authority through Myths of Identity, State University of New York Press, {{ISBN|978-0-7914-5531-9}}, pages 90–117</ref> | |||
| Many 18th and 19th century Brahmins are credited with religious movements that criticised ]. For example, the Brahmins ] led ] and ] led the ].<ref>Noel Salmond (2004), Hindu iconoclasts: Rammohun Roy, Dayananda Sarasvati and nineteenth-century polemics against idolatry, Wilfrid Laurier Univ. Press, {{ISBN|0-88920-419-5}}, pages 65–68</ref><ref>Dorothy Figueira (2002), Aryans, Jews, Brahmins: Theorizing Authority through Myths of Identity, State University of New York Press, {{ISBN|978-0-7914-5531-9}}, pages 90–117</ref> | |||
| ===Modern demographics and economic condition=== | |||
| According to 2007 reports, Brahmins in India are about five percent of its total population.<ref name=bellmanwsj>Eric Bellman, , '']'' (Dec. 29, 2007)</ref><ref name=outlookbgraph>{{cite web|url=http://www.outlookindia.com/article/brahmins-in-india/234783|title=Brahmins In India |publisher= Outlook India |year= 2007}}</ref> The Himalayan states of ] (20%) and ] (14%) have the highest percentage of Brahmin population relative to respective state's total Hindus.<ref name=outlookbgraph/>Also, the participation of brahmins in present government is very high. | |||
| ==Outside the Indian subcontinent== | |||
| According to a '']'' report, an estimated 65 percent of the Brahmin households in India, with about 40 million people, lived on less than $100 a month in 2004; this number dropped to about 50% in 2007.<ref name=bellmanwsj/> Brahmins have also included wealthier and politically successful members.<ref>P Mishra (2002), Temptations of the West: How to Be Modern in India, Pakistan, Tibet, and Beyond, Macmillan, {{ISBN|978-0-312-42641-5}}, page 179</ref> | |||
| {{further|Hinduism in Southeast Asia}} | |||
| ], Indonesia, Brahmins are called ''Pedandas''.<ref>Martin Ramstedt (2003), Hinduism in Modern Indonesia, Routledge, {{ISBN|978-0-7007-1533-6}}, page 256</ref> The role of Brahmin priests, called ''Sulinggih'',<ref>Martin Ramstedt (2003), Hinduism in Modern Indonesia, Routledge, {{ISBN|978-0-7007-1533-6}}, page 80</ref> has been open to both genders since medieval times. A Hindu Brahmin priestess is shown above.]] | |||
| ==In Buddhist and Jaina texts== | |||
| Some Brahmins formed an influential group in Burmese Buddhist kingdoms in 18th- and 19th-century. The court Brahmins were locally called ''Punna''.<ref name="leider"/> During the ], Buddhist kings relied on their court Brahmins to consecrate them to kingship in elaborate ceremonies, and to help resolve political questions.<ref name="leider">{{cite journal |last=Leider |first=Jacques P. |year= 2005|title=Specialists for Ritual, Magic and Devotion: The Court Brahmins of the Konbaung Kings |journal=The Journal of Burma Studies |volume=10 |pages=159–180 |doi=10.1353/jbs.2005.0004|s2cid=162305789 }}</ref> This role of Hindu Brahmins in a Buddhist kingdom, states Leider, may have been because Hindu texts provide guidelines for such social rituals and political ceremonies, while Buddhist texts do not.<ref name="leider"/> | |||
| The term Brahmin appears extensively in ancient and medieval ]s and commentary texts of ] and ]. In Buddhist Pali Canon, such as the '']'' and ''Devadaha Sutta'', first written down about 1st century BCE,<ref name="lopez2004busc1">{{cite book|author=Donald Lopez |title=Buddhist Scriptures |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=6Pd-2IIzip4C |year=2004|publisher=Penguin Books |isbn=978-0-14-190937-0 |pages=xi–xv}}</ref> the Buddha is attributed to be mentioning Jain Brahmins and ascetics, as he describes their ] doctrine and ascetic practices:<ref name= Balcerowicz149/> | |||
| The Brahmins were also consulted in the transmission, development and maintenance of law and justice system outside India.<ref name="leider"/> Hindu ], particularly Manusmriti written by the Prajapati Manu, states Anthony Reid,<ref name=reidseasia/> were "greatly honored in Burma (Myanmar), Siam (Thailand), Cambodia and Java-Bali (Indonesia) as the defining documents of law and order, which kings were obliged to uphold. They were copied, translated and incorporated into local law code, with strict adherence to the original text in Burma and Siam, and a stronger tendency to adapt to local needs in Java (Indonesia)".<ref name=reidseasia>Anthony Reid (1988), Southeast Asia in the Age of Commerce, 1450–1680: The lands below the winds, Yale University Press, {{ISBN|978-0-300-04750-9}}, pages 137–138</ref><ref>Victor Lieberman (2014), Burmese Administrative Cycles, Princeton University Press, {{ISBN|978-0-691-61281-2}}, pages 66–68; Also see discussion of 13th century Wagaru Dhamma-sattha / 11th century Manu Dhammathat manuscripts discussion</ref><ref>On Laws of Manu in 14th century Thailand's ] named after ], see David Wyatt (2003), Thailand: A Short History, Yale University Press, {{ISBN|978-0-300-08475-7}}, page 61;<br />Robert Lingat (1973), The Classical Law of India, University of California Press, {{ISBN|978-0-520-01898-3}}, pages 269–272</ref> | |||
| {{Quote| | |||
| The Blessed One said,<br> | |||
| "There are, o monks, some ascetics and Brahmins who speak thus and are of such opinion: 'Whatever a particular person experiences, whether pleasant or painful, or neither pleasant nor painful, all this has (...) Thus say, o monks, those free of bonds .<br> | |||
| "O ], you ... | |||
| |''Cula Dukkha Kkhandha Sutta''|early Buddhist text, Translated by Piotr Balcerowicz<ref name= Balcerowicz149>{{cite book|author=Piotr Balcerowicz|title=Early Asceticism in India: Ājīvikism and Jainism |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=nfOPCgAAQBAJ&pg=PA149|year=2015|publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-1-317-53853-0 |pages=149–150 with footnote 289 for the original mentioning ''Tapas''}}</ref><ref>Thanissaro Bhikkhu (2005), , M ii.214</ref>}} | |||
| The mythical origins of ] are credited to a Brahmin prince named Kaundinya, who arrived by sea, married a Naga princess living in the flooded lands.<ref name=trevorranges48/><ref>Jonathan Lee and Kathleen Nadeau (2010), Encyclopedia of Asian American Folklore and Folklife, Volume 1, ABC, {{ISBN|978-0-313-35066-5}}, page 1223</ref> Kaudinya founded Kambuja-desa, or Kambuja (transliterated to Kampuchea or Cambodia). Kaundinya introduced Hinduism, particularly Brahma, Vishnu, Shiva and Harihara (half Vishnu, half Shiva), and these ideas grew in southeast Asia in the 1st millennium CE.<ref name=trevorranges48>Trevor Ranges (2010), Cambodia, National Geographic, {{ISBN|978-1-4262-0520-0}}, page 48</ref> | |||
| Modern scholars state that such usage of the term Brahmin in ancient texts does not imply a caste, but simply "masters" (experts), guardian, recluse, preacher or guide of any tradition.<ref name="Jaini2001p123"/><ref name="Jayatilleke2013">{{cite book|author=K N Jayatilleke|title=Early Buddhist Theory of Knowledge|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=6pBTAQAAQBAJ |year=2013|publisher=Routledge|isbn=978-1-134-54287-1|pages=141–154, 219, 241 }}</ref><ref>{{cite book|author=Kailash Chand Jain|title=Lord Mahāvīra and His Times|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=8-TxcO9dfrcC |year=1991|publisher=Motilal Banarsidass |isbn=978-81-208-0805-8 |page=31 }}</ref> An alternate synonym for Brahmin in the Buddhist and other non-Hindu tradition is ''Mahano''.<ref name="Jaini2001p123">{{cite book|author=Padmanabh S. Jaini |title=Collected Papers on Buddhist Studies |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ZlyDot9RyGcC&pg=PA123 |year=2001|publisher=Motilal Banarsidass |isbn=978-81-208-1776-0 |page=123 }}</ref> | |||
| The ''] Balamon'' (Hindu Brahmin Chams) form a majority of the Cham population in ].<ref name="Sơn p.105">Champa and the archaeology of Mỹ Sơn (Vietnam) By Andrew Hardy, Mauro Cucarzi, Patrizia Zolese p.105</ref> | |||
| ==Outside India: Myanmar, Thailand, Cambodia and Indonesia== | |||
| Further information: ] | |||
| Brahmins have been part of the Royal tradition of ], particularly for the consecration and to mark annual land fertility rituals of Buddhist kings. A small Brahmanical temple ], established in 1784 by King ] of Thailand, has been managed by ethnically Thai Brahmins ever since.<ref name=wales54/> The temple hosts ''Phra Phikhanesuan'' (Ganesha), ''Phra Narai'' (Narayana, Vishnu), ''Phra Itsuan'' (Shiva), ], ], ] (''Sakka'') and other Hindu deities.<ref name=wales54>HG Quadritch Wales (1992), , Curzon Press, {{ISBN|978-0-7007-0269-5}}, pages 54–63</ref> The tradition asserts that the Thai Brahmins have roots in Hindu holy city of Varanasi and southern state of Tamil Nadu, go by the title ''Pandita'', and the various annual rites and state ceremonies they conduct has been a blend of Buddhist and Hindu rituals. The ] of the ] is almost entirely conducted by the royal Brahmins.<ref name=wales54/><ref>Boreth Ly (2011), Early Interactions Between South and Southeast Asia (Editors: Pierre-Yves Manguin, A. Mani, Geoff Wade), Institute of Southeast Asian Studies, {{ISBN|978-981-4311-16-8}}, pages 461–475</ref> | |||
| ], Indonesia, Brahmins are called ''Pedandas''.<ref>Martin Ramstedt (2003), Hinduism in Modern Indonesia, Routledge, {{ISBN|978-0-7007-1533-6}}, page 256</ref> The role of Brahmin priests, called ''Sulinggih'',<ref>Martin Ramstedt (2003), Hinduism in Modern Indonesia, Routledge, {{ISBN|978-0-7007-1533-6}}, page 80</ref> has been open to both genders since medieval times. A Hindu Brahmin priestess is shown above.]] | |||
| Some Brahmins formed an influential group in Burmese Buddhist kingdoms in 18th- and 19th-century. The court Brahmins were locally called ''Punna''.<ref name="leider"/> During the ], Buddhist kings relied on their court Brahmins to consecrate them to kingship in elaborate ceremonies, and to help resolve political questions.<ref name="leider">{{cite journal |last=Leider |first=Jacques P. |year= 2005|title=Specialists for Ritual, Magic and Devotion: The Court Brahmins of the Konbaung Kings |journal=The Journal of Burma Studies |volume=10 |pages=159–180 |ref=harv |doi=10.1353/jbs.2005.0004}}</ref> This role of Hindu Brahmins in a Buddhist kingdom, states Leider, may have been because Hindu texts provide guidelines for such social rituals and political ceremonies, while Buddhist texts don't.<ref name="leider"/> | |||
| ==Demographics== | |||
| The Brahmins were also consulted in the transmission, development and maintenance of law and justice system outside India.<ref name="leider"/> Hindu ], particularly Manusmriti written by the Brahmin Manu, states Anthony Reid,<ref name=reidseasia/> were "greatly honored in Burma (Myanmar), Siam (Thailand), Cambodia and Java-Bali (Indonesia) as the defining documents of law and order, which kings were obliged to uphold. They were copied, translated and incorporated into local law code, with strict adherence to the original text in Burma and Siam, and a stronger tendency to adapt to local needs in Java (Indonesia)".<ref name=reidseasia>Anthony Reid (1988), Southeast Asia in the Age of Commerce, 1450–1680: The lands below the winds, Yale University Press, {{ISBN|978-0-300-04750-9}}, pages 137–138</ref><ref>Victor Lieberman (2014), Burmese Administrative Cycles, Princeton University Press, {{ISBN|978-0-691-61281-2}}, pages 66–68; Also see discussion of 13th century Wagaru Dhamma-sattha / 11th century Manu Dhammathat manuscripts discussion</ref><ref>On Laws of Manu in 14th century Thailand's ] named after ], see David Wyatt (2003), Thailand: A Short History, Yale University Press, {{ISBN|978-0-300-08475-7}}, page 61;<br>Robert Lingat (1973), The Classical Law of India, University of California Press, {{ISBN|978-0-520-01898-3}}, pages 269–272</ref> | |||
| ] | |||
| According to 2007 reports, Brahmins in India are about 5% of its total population, and back then were numbering 56 million.<ref name="bellmanwsj">{{cite news |last1=Bellman |first1=Eric |title=Reversal of Fortune Isolates India's Brahmins |url=https://www.wsj.com/articles/SB119889387595256961 |access-date=21 June 2022 |newspaper=] |date=30 December 2007 |archive-date=10 June 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220610055905/https://www.wsj.com/articles/SB119889387595256961 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name="outlookbgraph">{{cite magazine|url=http://www.outlookindia.com/article/brahmins-in-india/234783 |title=Brahmins In India |magazine=Outlook India |date=4 June 2007 |access-date=21 June 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140531222946/https://www.outlookindia.com/article/brahmins-in-india/234783 |archive-date=31 May 2014}}</ref> | |||
| The mythical origins of ] are credited to a Brahmin prince named Kaundinya, who arrived by sea, married a Naga princess living in the flooded lands.<ref name=trevorranges48/><ref>Jonathan Lee and Kathleen Nadeau (2010), Encyclopedia of Asian American Folklore and Folklife, Volume 1, ABC, {{ISBN|978-0-313-35066-5}}, page 1223</ref> Kaudinya founded Kambuja-desa, or Kambuja (transliterated to Kampuchea or Cambodia). Kaundinya introduced Hinduism, particularly Brahma, Vishnu, Shiva and Harihara (half Vishnu, half Shiva), and these ideas grew in southeast Asia in the 1st millennium CE.<ref name=trevorranges48>Trevor Ranges (2010), Cambodia, National Geographic, {{ISBN|978-1-4262-0520-0}}, page 48</ref> | |||
| The Himalayan states of ] (20%) and ] (14%) have the highest percentage of Brahmin population relative to respective state's total Hindus, followed by ] (12%), ] (11%), ] (10%), in other states the Brahmins being less than 10% of the population, the lowest being in the southern states of ], ] and ], where they form 1%.<ref name="outlookbgraph" /> | |||
| According to the Center for the Study of Developing Societies, in 2004 about 65% of Brahmin households in India earned less than $100 a month compared to 89% of ], 91% of ] and 86% of Muslims.<ref name="bellmanwsj" /> | |||
| Brahmins have been part of the Royal tradition of ], particularly for the consecration and to mark annual land fertility rituals of Buddhist kings. A small Brahmanical temple ], established in 1784 by King ] of Thailand, has been managed by ethnically Thai Brahmins ever since.<ref name=wales54/> The temple hosts ''Phra Phikhanesuan'' (Ganesha), ''Phra Narai'' (Narayana, Vishnu), ''Phra Itsuan'' (Shiva), ], ], ] (''Sakka'') and other Hindu deities.<ref name=wales54>HG Quadritch Wales (1992), , Curzon Press, {{ISBN|978-0-7007-0269-5}}, pages 54–63</ref> The tradition asserts that the Thai Brahmins have roots in Hindu holy city of Varanasi and southern state of Tamil Nadu, go by the title ''Pandita'', and the various annual rites and state ceremonies they conduct has been a blend of Buddhist and Hindu rituals.<ref name=wales54/><ref>Boreth Ly (2011), Early Interactions Between South and Southeast Asia (Editors: Pierre-Yves Manguin, A. Mani, Geoff Wade), Institute of Southeast Asian Studies, {{ISBN|978-981-4311-16-8}}, pages 461–475</ref> | |||
| ==See also== | ==See also== | ||
| {{ |
{{Div col}} | ||
| *] | *] | ||
| *] | *] | ||
| *] | |||
| *] | *] | ||
| *] | |||
| * ] and ] | |||
| *] | |||
| *] | |||
| {{div col end}} | {{div col end}} | ||
| ==References== | ==References== | ||
| {{Reflist|30em}} | {{Reflist|30em}} | ||
| ==Sources== | |||
| {{refbegin}} | |||
| <!-- --> | |||
| * {{cite book | last =Narasimhacharya | first =Ramanujapuram | year =1999 | title =The Buddha-Dhamma, Or, the Life and Teachings of the Buddha | publisher =Asian Educational Services}} | |||
| {{refend}} | |||
| ==Further reading== | ==Further reading== | ||
| Line 164: | Line 185: | ||
| ==External links== | ==External links== | ||
| {{Commons category|Brahmins}} | {{Commons category|Brahmins}} | ||
| {{Wikiquote}} | |||
| * , Andhra Pradesh Brahmin Welfare Corp., Ltd., | |||
| * , An appeal and record of colonial era conflict in Bengal | * , An appeal and record of colonial era conflict in Bengal | ||
| * , Friedrich Ruckert ( |
* , Friedrich Ruckert (translated from German by Charles Brooks) | ||
| {{Brahmin communities}} | |||
| {{Authority control}} | |||
| ] | ] | ||
| ] | ] | ||
| ] | ] | ||
| ] | ] | ||
| ] | |||
| ] | |||
Latest revision as of 05:38, 10 January 2025
Varna in Hinduism, one of four castes Not to be confused with Brahman (a metaphysical concept in Hinduism), Brahma (a Hindu god), Brahmana (a layer of text in the Vedas), or Brahmi script. For other uses, see Brahmin (disambiguation).
%27_(11151912296).jpg)
Brahmin (/ˈbrɑːmɪn/; Sanskrit: ब्राह्मण, romanized: brāhmaṇa) is a varna (caste) within Hindu society. The other three varnas are the Kshatriya, Vaishya, and Shudra. The traditional occupation of Brahmins is that of priesthood (purohit, pandit, or pujari) at Hindu temples or at socio-religious ceremonies, and the performing of rite of passage rituals, such as solemnising a wedding with hymns and prayers.
Traditionally, Brahmins are accorded the highest ritual status of the four social classes, and they also served as spiritual teachers (guru or acharya). In practice, Indian texts suggest that some Brahmins historically also became agriculturalists, warriors, traders, and had also held other occupations in the Indian subcontinent.
Origin and history
A Brahmin soldier
Four ascetic Brahmins from Gandhara, 2nd century.jpg)
A Brahmin family, 9th century. Prambanan, Indonesia.
A Brahmin standing praying in the corner of the streets. India, 1863.
Brahmin Officers from 1st Brahmans Infantry Regiment
Maharaja Lakhmeshwar Singh statue
Ancient Indian economist and military strategist Chanakya
It seems likely that Kannauj and Middle country was the place of origin of majority of migrating Brahmins throughout the medieval centuries. Coming from Kannauj is a frequent claim among Brahmins in areas distant from Madhyadesha or Ganges heartland.
Generic meaning of the term "Brahmin"
The term Brahmin appears extensively in ancient and medieval Sutras and commentary texts of Buddhism and Jainism. Modern scholars state that such usage of the term Brahmin in ancient texts does not imply a caste, but simply "masters" (experts), guardian, recluse, preacher or guide of any tradition. An alternate synonym for Brahmin in the Buddhist and other non-Hindu tradition is Mahano.
Strabo cites Megasthenes, highlighting two Indian philosophical schools Sramana and Brahmana:
Megasthenes makes a different division of the philosophers, saying that they are of two kinds, one of which he calls the Brachmanes, and the other the Sarmanes...
— Strabo XV. 1. 58-60
Patrick Olivelle states that both Buddhist and Brahmanical literature repeatedly define "Brahmin" not in terms of family of birth, but in terms of personal qualities. These virtues and characteristics mirror the values cherished in Hinduism during the Sannyasa stage of life, or the life of renunciation for spiritual pursuits. Brahmins, states Olivelle, were the social class from which most ascetics came. The term Brahmin in Indian texts has also signified someone who is good and virtuous, not just someone of priestly class.
Purusha sukta
The earliest inferred reference to "Brahmin" as a possible social class is in the Rigveda, occurs once, and the hymn is called Purusha Sukta. According to a hymn in Mandala 10, Rigveda 10.90.11-2, Brahmins are described as having emerged from the mouth of Purusha, being that part of the body from which words emerge.
The Purusha Sukta varna verse is now generally considered to have been inserted at a later date into the Vedic text, possibly as a charter myth. Stephanie Jamison and Joel Brereton, a professor of Sanskrit and Religious studies, state, "there is no evidence in the Rigveda for an elaborate, much-subdivided and overarching caste system", and "the varna system seems to be embryonic in the Rigveda and, both then and later, a social ideal rather than a social reality".
According to Vijay Nath, in the Markandeya Purana (250 CE), there are references to Brahmins who were born into the families of Raksasas. He posits that this is an indication that some Brahmins are immigrants and some are also mixed.
Gupta era
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According to Abraham Eraly, "Brahmin as a varna hardly had any presence in historical records before the Gupta Empire era" (3rd century to 6th century CE), when Buddhism dominated the land. "No Brahmin, no sacrifice, no ritualistic act of any kind ever, even once, is referred to" in any Indian texts between third century BCE and the late first century CE. He also states that "The absence of literary and material evidence, however, does not mean that Brahmanical culture did not exist at that time, but only that it had no elite patronage and was largely confined to rural folk, and therefore went unrecorded in history". Their role as priests and repository of sacred knowledge, as well as their importance in the practice of Vedic Shrauta rituals, grew during the Gupta Empire era and thereafter.
However, the knowledge about actual history of Brahmins or other varnas of Hinduism in and after the first millennium is fragmentary and preliminary, with little that is from verifiable records or archaeological evidence, and much that is constructed from ahistorical Sanskrit works and fiction. Michael Witzel writes:
Current research in the area is fragmentary. The state of our knowledge of this fundamental subject is preliminary, at best. Most Sanskrit works are a-historic or, at least, not especially interested in presenting a chronological account of India's history. When we actually encounter history, such as in Rajatarangini or in the Gopalavamsavali of Nepal, the texts do not deal with brahmins in great detail.
Gauda and Dravida Brahmins
According to Kalhana's Rajatarangini (12th cent. CE) and Sahyadrikhanda (5th–13th cent. CE) of Skandapurana, Brahmins are broadly classified into two groups based on geography. The northern Pancha Gauda group comprises five Brahmin communities, as mentioned in the text, residing north of the Vindhya mountain range. Historically, the Vindhya mountain range formed the southern boundary of the Āryāvarta, the territory of the ancient Indo-Aryan peoples, and Gauda has territorial, ethnographic and linguistic connotations. Linguistically, the term "Gauda" refers to the Sanskrit-derived languages of northern India. The Pancha Gauda Brahmins are:
Subcastes of Gaur Brahmins are:
- Sanadhya
- Paliwal
Subcastes of Kanyakubja Brahmins are:
- Jujhatiya Brahmin
- Saryupareen Brahmin
- Bengali Kulin Brahmin
- Anavil Brahmins ( Though they are generally not accepted as Brahmins)
- Khas Brahmins – Nepali Bahuns
The Pancha Dravida Brahmins reside to the south of the Vindhya mountain range. The term "Dravida" too has territorial, linguistic and ethnological connotations, referring to southern India, the Dravidian people, and to the Dravidian languages of southern India. The Pancha Dravida Brahmins are:
- Karnataka (Karnataka Brahmins)
- Tailanga (Telugu Brahmins)
- Dravida (Brahmins of Tamil Nadu and Kerala)
- Maharashtraka (Maharashtrian Brahmins)
- Gurjara (Gujarati)
Role in the society
Vedic duties
The Dharmasutra and Dharmashastra texts of Hinduism describe the expectations, duties and role of Brahmins.
According to Kulkarni, the Grhya-sutras state that Yajna, Adhyayana (studying the vedas and teaching), dana pratigraha (accepting and giving gifts) are the "peculiar duties and privileges of brahmins". John Bussanich states that the ethical precepts set for Brahmins, in ancient Indian texts, are similar to Greek virtue-ethics, that "Manu's dharmic Brahmin can be compared to Aristotle's man of practical wisdom", and that "the virtuous Brahmin is not unlike the Platonic-Aristotelian philosopher" with the difference that the latter was not sacerdotal.
The Brahmins were expected to perform all six Vedic duties as opposed to other twice-borns who performed three.
| Adhyayan (Study Vedas) |
Yajana (performing sacrifice for one's own benefit) |
Dana (Giving Gifts) |
Adhyapana (Teaching Vedas) |
Yaajana (Acting as Priest for sacrifice) |
Pratigraha (accepting gifts) | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Brahmin | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ |
| Kshatriya | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | No | No | No |
| Vaishya | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | No | No | No |
Actual occupations
Historical records, state scholars, suggest that Brahmin varna was not limited to a particular status or priest and the teaching profession. Chanakya, a Brahmin born in 375 BCE, was an ancient Indian polymath who was active as a teacher, author, strategist, philosopher, economist, jurist, and royal advisor, who assisted the first Mauryan emperor Chandragupta Maurya in his rise to power and is widely credited for having played an important role in the establishment of the Maurya Empire. Historical records from mid 1st millennium CE and later, suggest Brahmins were agriculturalists and warriors in medieval India, quite often instead of as exception. Donkin and other scholars state that Hoysala Empire records frequently mention Brahmin merchants who "carried on trade in horses, elephants and pearls" and transported goods throughout medieval India before the 14th-century.
The Pāli Canon depicts Brahmins as the most prestigious and elite non-Buddhist figures. They mention them parading their learning. The Pali Canon and other Buddhist texts such as the Jataka Tales also record the livelihood of Brahmins to have included being farmers, handicraft workers and artisans such as carpentry and architecture. Buddhist sources extensively attest, state Greg Bailey and Ian Mabbett, that Brahmins were "supporting themselves not by religious practice, but employment in all manner of secular occupations", in the classical period of India. Some of the Brahmin occupations mentioned in the Buddhist texts such as Jatakas and Sutta Nipata are very lowly. The Dharmasutras too mention Brahmin farmers.
According to Haidar and Sardar, unlike the Mughal Empire in Northern India, Brahmins figured prominently in the administration of Deccan sultanates. Under Golconda Sultanate Telugu Niyogi Brahmins served in many different roles such as accountants, ministers, in the revenue administration, and in the judicial service. The Deccan sultanates also heavily recruited Marathi Brahmins at different levels of their administration. During the days of Maratha Empire in the 17th and 18th century, the occupation of Marathi Brahmins ranged from being state administrators, being warriors to being de facto rulers as Peshwa. After the collapse of Maratha empire, Brahmins in Maharashtra region were quick to take advantage of opportunities opened up by the new British rulers. They were the first community to take up Western education and therefore dominated lower level of British administration in the 19th century. Similarly, the Tamil Brahmins were also quick to take up English education during British colonial rule and dominate government service and law.
Eric Bellman states that during the Islamic Mughal Empire era Brahmins served as advisers to the Mughals, later to the British Raj. The East India Company also recruited sepoys (soldiers) from the Brahmin communities of Bihar and Awadh (in the present day Uttar Pradesh) for the Bengal army. Many Brahmins, in other parts of South Asia lived like other varna, engaged in all sorts of professions. Among Nepalese Hindus, for example, Niels Gutschow and Axel Michaels report the actual observed professions of Brahmins from 18th- to early 20th-century included being temple priests, ministers, merchants, farmers, potters, masons, carpenters, coppersmiths, stone workers, barbers, and gardeners, among others.
Other 20th-century surveys, such as in the state of Uttar Pradesh, recorded that the primary occupation of almost all Brahmin families surveyed was neither priestly nor Vedas-related, but like other varnas, ranged from crop farming (80 per cent of Brahmins), dairy, service, labour such as cooking, and other occupations. The survey reported that the Brahmin families involved in agriculture as their primary occupation in modern times plough the land themselves, many supplementing their income by selling their labour services to other farmers.
Bhakti movement and Social Reform movements
Many of the prominent thinkers and earliest champions of the Bhakti movement were Brahmins, a movement that encouraged a direct relationship of an individual with a personal god. Among the many Brahmins who nurtured the Bhakti movement were Ramanuja, Nimbarka, Vallabha and Madhvacharya of Vaishnavism, Ramananda, another devotional poet sant. Born in a Brahmin family, Ramananda welcomed everyone to spiritual pursuits without discriminating anyone by gender, class, caste or religion (such as Muslims). He composed his spiritual message in poems, using widely spoken vernacular language rather than Sanskrit, to make it widely accessible. The Hindu tradition recognises him as the founder of the Hindu Ramanandi Sampradaya, the largest monastic renunciant community in Asia in modern times.
Other medieval era Brahmins who led spiritual movements without social or gender discrimination included Andal (9th-century female poet), Basava (12th-century Lingayatism), Dnyaneshwar (13th-century Bhakti poet), Vallabha Acharya (16th-century Vaishnava poet), Chaitanya Mahaprabhu (14th-century Vaishnava saint) were among others.
Many 18th and 19th century Brahmins are credited with religious movements that criticised idolatry. For example, the Brahmins Raja Ram Mohan Roy led Brahmo Samaj and Dayananda Saraswati led the Arya Samaj.
Outside the Indian subcontinent
Further information: Hinduism in Southeast Asia_met_offergereedschap_Bali_TMnr_10001214.jpg)
Some Brahmins formed an influential group in Burmese Buddhist kingdoms in 18th- and 19th-century. The court Brahmins were locally called Punna. During the Konbaung dynasty, Buddhist kings relied on their court Brahmins to consecrate them to kingship in elaborate ceremonies, and to help resolve political questions. This role of Hindu Brahmins in a Buddhist kingdom, states Leider, may have been because Hindu texts provide guidelines for such social rituals and political ceremonies, while Buddhist texts do not.
The Brahmins were also consulted in the transmission, development and maintenance of law and justice system outside India. Hindu Dharmasastras, particularly Manusmriti written by the Prajapati Manu, states Anthony Reid, were "greatly honored in Burma (Myanmar), Siam (Thailand), Cambodia and Java-Bali (Indonesia) as the defining documents of law and order, which kings were obliged to uphold. They were copied, translated and incorporated into local law code, with strict adherence to the original text in Burma and Siam, and a stronger tendency to adapt to local needs in Java (Indonesia)".
The mythical origins of Cambodia are credited to a Brahmin prince named Kaundinya, who arrived by sea, married a Naga princess living in the flooded lands. Kaudinya founded Kambuja-desa, or Kambuja (transliterated to Kampuchea or Cambodia). Kaundinya introduced Hinduism, particularly Brahma, Vishnu, Shiva and Harihara (half Vishnu, half Shiva), and these ideas grew in southeast Asia in the 1st millennium CE.
The Chams Balamon (Hindu Brahmin Chams) form a majority of the Cham population in Vietnam.
Brahmins have been part of the Royal tradition of Thailand, particularly for the consecration and to mark annual land fertility rituals of Buddhist kings. A small Brahmanical temple Devasathan, established in 1784 by King Rama I of Thailand, has been managed by ethnically Thai Brahmins ever since. The temple hosts Phra Phikhanesuan (Ganesha), Phra Narai (Narayana, Vishnu), Phra Itsuan (Shiva), Uma, Brahma, Indra (Sakka) and other Hindu deities. The tradition asserts that the Thai Brahmins have roots in Hindu holy city of Varanasi and southern state of Tamil Nadu, go by the title Pandita, and the various annual rites and state ceremonies they conduct has been a blend of Buddhist and Hindu rituals. The coronation ceremony of the Thai king is almost entirely conducted by the royal Brahmins.
Demographics
16–20% 12–16% 9–12% 4–8% 1–4% 0–1%
According to 2007 reports, Brahmins in India are about 5% of its total population, and back then were numbering 56 million.
The Himalayan states of Uttarakhand (20%) and Himachal Pradesh (14%) have the highest percentage of Brahmin population relative to respective state's total Hindus, followed by Delhi (12%), Jammu Kashmir (11%), Uttar Pradesh (10%), in other states the Brahmins being less than 10% of the population, the lowest being in the southern states of Andhra Pradesh, Tamil Nadu and Kerala, where they form 1%.
According to the Center for the Study of Developing Societies, in 2004 about 65% of Brahmin households in India earned less than $100 a month compared to 89% of Scheduled Tribes, 91% of Scheduled Castes and 86% of Muslims.
See also
- Viswa Brahman Diwas
- Vedic priesthood
- Brahmavarta
- List of Brahmins
- List of Brahmin dynasties and states
- 1st Brahman Regiment and 3rd Brahman Regiment
- Brahmin Tamil
- Historical Vedic religion
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At the top were the Brahmins(priests), then the Kshatriyas(warriors), then the vaishya(the merchant class which only in India had a place of honor in Asia), next were the sudras(farmers), and finally the pariah(untouchables), or those who did the dirty defiling work
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The four varnas are the brahmins (brahmanas—priests, teachers); kshatriyas (ksatriyas—administrators, rulers); vaishyas (vaisyas—farmers, bankers, business people); and shudras(laborers, artisans)
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Varna are the four major social divisions: the Brahmin priest class, the Kshatriya warrior/ administrator class, the Vaishya merchant/farmer class, and the Shudra laborer class.
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- ^ Anthony Reid (1988), Southeast Asia in the Age of Commerce, 1450–1680: The lands below the winds, Yale University Press, ISBN 978-0-300-04750-9, pages 137–138
- Victor Lieberman (2014), Burmese Administrative Cycles, Princeton University Press, ISBN 978-0-691-61281-2, pages 66–68; Also see discussion of 13th century Wagaru Dhamma-sattha / 11th century Manu Dhammathat manuscripts discussion
- On Laws of Manu in 14th century Thailand's Ayuthia kingdom named after Ayodhya, see David Wyatt (2003), Thailand: A Short History, Yale University Press, ISBN 978-0-300-08475-7, page 61;
Robert Lingat (1973), The Classical Law of India, University of California Press, ISBN 978-0-520-01898-3, pages 269–272 - ^ Trevor Ranges (2010), Cambodia, National Geographic, ISBN 978-1-4262-0520-0, page 48
- Jonathan Lee and Kathleen Nadeau (2010), Encyclopedia of Asian American Folklore and Folklife, Volume 1, ABC, ISBN 978-0-313-35066-5, page 1223
- Champa and the archaeology of Mỹ Sơn (Vietnam) By Andrew Hardy, Mauro Cucarzi, Patrizia Zolese p.105
- ^ HG Quadritch Wales (1992), Siamese State Ceremonies, Curzon Press, ISBN 978-0-7007-0269-5, pages 54–63
- Boreth Ly (2011), Early Interactions Between South and Southeast Asia (Editors: Pierre-Yves Manguin, A. Mani, Geoff Wade), Institute of Southeast Asian Studies, ISBN 978-981-4311-16-8, pages 461–475
- ^ "Brahmins In India". Outlook India. 4 June 2007. Archived from the original on 31 May 2014. Retrieved 21 June 2022.
Sources
- Narasimhacharya, Ramanujapuram (1999). The Buddha-Dhamma, Or, the Life and Teachings of the Buddha. Asian Educational Services.
Further reading
- Baldev Upadhyaya, Kashi Ki Panditya Parampara, Sharda Sansthan, Varanasi, 1985.
- Christopher Alan Bayly, Rulers, Townsmen, and Bazaars: North Indian Society in the Age of British Expansion, 1770–1870, Cambridge University Press, 1983.
- Anand A. Yang, Bazaar India: Markets, Society, and the Colonial State in Bihar, University of California Press, 1999.
- M. N. Srinivas, Social Change in Modern India, Orient Longman, Delhi, 1995.
External links
- Brahmins and Pariah, An appeal and record of colonial era conflict in Bengal
- The wisdom of the Brahmin, Friedrich Ruckert (translated from German by Charles Brooks)
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