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Margaret Sanger
Sanger in 1922
Born	Margaret Louise Higgins (1879-09-14)September 14, 1879 Corning, New York, U.S.
Died	September 6, 1966(1966-09-06) (aged 86) Tucson, Arizona, U.S.
Occupation(s)	Social reformer, sex educator, writer, nurse
Spouses	William Sanger ​ ​(m. 1902; div. 1921)​ James Noah H. Slee ​ ​(m. 1922; died 1943)​
Children	3
Relatives	Ethel Byrne (sister) Bob Higgins (brother) Alexander C. Sanger (grandson)

Margaret Higgins Sanger (born Margaret Louise Higgins; September 14, 1879 – September 6, 1966), also known as Margaret Sanger Slee, was an American birth control activist, sex educator, writer, and nurse. Sanger popularized the term "birth control", opened the first birth control clinic in the United States, and established organizations that evolved into the Planned Parenthood Federation of America.

Sanger's activism was influenced by her childhood: her mother conceived 18 times, and had 11 live births, before dying at the age 49. Sanger worked as a nurse in poor New York City neighborhoods, and witnessed many desperate women who were unable to limit the size of their family due to the Comstock Act, which effectively outlawed contraceptives and even information about contraception. Based on her experiences, she resolved to enable women to have a more equal footing in society, to avoid abortions, and to lead healthier lives—leading her to focus on family planning. Sanger wrote and distributed many pamphlets, periodicals, and books.

In 1914, Sanger was arrested for publishing her book Family Limitation. She fled to Britain for a year to escape prosecution. In 1916, Sanger opened a birth control clinic, the first in the U.S., with an all-female staff. After an undercover policewoman bought a copy of her pamphlet on family planning, Sanger was arrested for distributing information on contraception. Her subsequent trial and appeal brought nationwide attention to her cause. In 1921, Sanger founded the American Birth Control League, which later became the Planned Parenthood Federation of America. She also opened a clinic in Harlem which had an all African American advisory council and employed African American doctors, nurses and social workers. In 1929, she formed the National Committee on Federal Legislation for Birth Control, which served as the focal point of her lobbying efforts to legalize contraception in the United States.

Later in life, she remained active and served as president of the International Planned Parenthood Federation. In the 1950s, she collaborated with philanthropists and scientists to develop the first combined birth control pill. Sanger supported eugenics, including negative eugenics, which has led to criticism. Some historians believe her support of negative eugenics, a popular stance at that time, was a rhetorical tool rather than a personal conviction. Due to her connection with Planned Parenthood, Sanger is frequently criticized by opponents of abortion. Sanger died in 1966, living to see a Planned Parenthood affiliate win the 1965 Supreme Court case Griswold v. Connecticut, which made contraceptives legal throughout the country. Sanger is regarded as a founder and leader of the birth control movement.

Early life

Sanger was born Margaret Louise Higgins in 1879 in Corning, New York, to Irish Catholic parents—a "free-thinking" stonemason father, Michael Hennessey Higgins, and Anne Purcell Higgins. Michael had immigrated to the United States aged fourteen, joining the Army in the Civil War as a drummer aged fifteen. Upon leaving the army, he studied medicine and phrenology but ultimately became a stonecutter, chiseling angels and saints on tombstones. Michael became an atheist and an activist for women's suffrage and free public education.

Anne accompanied her family to Canada during the Great Famine. She married Michael in 1869. In 22 years, Anne Higgins conceived 18 times, giving birth to 11 live babies before dying at the age of 49. Sanger was the sixth of 11 surviving children, spending her early years in a bustling household.

Supported by her two older sisters, Margaret Higgins attended Claverack College and Hudson River Institute, before enrolling in 1900 at White Plains Hospital as a student nurse. In 1902, she married architect William Sanger, giving up her education. Suffering from consumption (recurring active tubercular), Margaret Sanger had three children, and the five settled down to a quiet life in Westchester, New York. Margaret would become a member of an Episcopal Church which would later hold her funeral service.

Social activism

In 1911, after a fire destroyed their home in Hastings-on-Hudson, the Sangers abandoned the suburbs for a new life in New York City. Margaret Sanger worked as a visiting nurse in the slums of the East Side, while her husband worked as an architect and a house painter. The couple became active in local socialist politics. She joined the Women's Committee of the New York Socialist party, took part in the labor actions of the Industrial Workers of the World (including the notable 1912 Lawrence textile strike and the 1913 Paterson silk strike) and became involved with local intellectuals, left-wing artists, socialists and social activists, including John Reed, Upton Sinclair, Mabel Dodge and Emma Goldman.

Sanger's political interests, her emerging feminism and her nursing experience led her to write two series of columns on sex education which were titled "What Every Mother Should Know" (1911–12) and "What Every Girl Should Know" (1912–13) for the socialist magazine New York Call. By the standards of the day, Sanger's articles were extremely frank in their discussion of sexuality, and many New York Call readers were outraged by them. Other readers, however, praised the series for its candor. One stated that the series contained "a purer morality than whole libraries full of hypocritical cant about modesty". Both were published in book form in 1916.

During her work among working-class immigrant women, Sanger met women who underwent frequent childbirth, miscarriages and self-induced abortions for lack of information on how to avoid unwanted pregnancy. Access to contraceptive information was prohibited on grounds of obscenity by the 1873 federal Comstock law and a host of state laws. Seeking to help these women, Sanger visited public libraries, but was unable to find information on contraception. These problems were epitomized in a story that Sanger would later recount in her speeches: while Sanger was working as a nurse, she was called to the apartment of a woman, "Sadie Sachs", who had become extremely ill due to a self-induced abortion. Afterward, Sadie begged the attending doctor to tell her how she could prevent this from happening again, to which the doctor simply advised her to remain abstinent. His exact words and actions, apparently, were to laugh and say "You want your cake while you eat it too, do you? Well it can't be done. I'll tell you the only sure thing to do .... Tell Jake to sleep on the roof." A few months later, Sanger was called back to Sadie's apartment—only this time, Sadie died shortly after Sanger arrived. She had attempted yet another self-induced abortion. Sanger would sometimes end the story by saying, "I threw my nursing bag in the corner and announced ... that I would never take another case until I had made it possible for working women in America to have the knowledge to control birth"; Sanger biographer Ellen Chesler concluded that Sachs may have been "an imaginative, dramatic composite".

This story—along with Sanger's 1904 rescue of her unwanted niece Olive Byrne from the snowbank in which she had been left—marks the beginning of Sanger's commitment to spare women from the pursuit of dangerous and illegal abortions. Sanger opposed abortion, but primarily as a societal ill and public health danger which would disappear if women were able to prevent unwanted pregnancy.

Sanger became estranged from her husband in 1913, and the couple's divorce was finalized in 1921.

Given the connection between contraception and working-class empowerment, Sanger came to believe that only by liberating women from the risk of unwanted pregnancy would fundamental social change take place. She launched a campaign to challenge governmental censorship of contraceptive information through confrontational actions. In 1914, Sanger launched The Woman Rebel, an eight-page monthly newsletter which promoted contraception using the slogan "No Gods, No Masters". Sanger, collaborating with anarchist friends, popularized the term "birth control" as a more candid alternative to euphemisms such as "family limitation"; the term "birth control" was suggested in 1914 by a young friend, Otto Bobsein. Sanger proclaimed that each woman should be "the absolute mistress of her own body."

In these early years of Sanger's activism, she viewed birth control as a free-speech issue, and when she started publishing The Woman Rebel, one of her goals was to provoke a legal challenge to the federal anti-obscenity laws which banned dissemination of information about contraception. Though postal authorities suppressed five of its seven issues, Sanger continued publication, all the while preparing Family Limitation, another challenge to anti-birth control laws. This 16-page pamphlet contained detailed and precise information and graphic descriptions of various contraceptive methods. In August 1914, Margaret Sanger was indicted for violating postal obscenity laws by sending The Woman Rebel through the postal system. Rather than stand trial, she fled to England.

Sanger spent much of her 1914 exile in England, where contact with British neo-Malthusians—such as Charles Vickery Drysdale and Bessie Drysdale— helped refine her socioeconomic justifications for birth control. She shared their concern that over-population led to poverty, famine and war. At the Fifth International Neo-Malthusian Conference in 1922, she was the first woman to chair a session. She organized the Sixth International Neo-Malthusian and Birth-Control Conference that took place in New York in 1925. Over-population would remain a concern of hers for the rest of her life.

During her 1914 trip to England, she was also profoundly influenced by the liberation theories of Havelock Ellis, under whose tutelage she sought not just to make sexual intercourse safer for women but more pleasurable. Around this time, she met Marie Stopes, who had run into Sanger after she had just given a talk on birth control at a Fabian Society meeting. Stopes showed Sanger her writings and sought her advice about a chapter on contraception.

Sanger returned from England in October 1915 to face trial. Before the December trial, her five-year old daughter died of pneumonia. She was offered a plea bargain, but refused, because she wanted to use the trial as a forum to advocate for the right of women to control their own destiny. The prosecutor dropped the charges.

Early in 1915, Margaret Sanger's estranged husband, William Sanger, gave a copy of Family Limitation to a representative of anti-vice politician Anthony Comstock. William Sanger was tried and convicted, spending thirty days in jail while attracting interest in birth control as an issue of civil liberty. Margaret's second husband, Noah Slee, also lent his help to her life's work. In 1928, Slee would smuggle diaphragms into New York through Canada in boxes labeled as 3-In-One Oil. He later became the first legal manufacturer of diaphragms in the United States.

Birth control movement

Some countries in northwestern Europe had more liberal policies towards contraception than the United States at the time, and when Sanger visited a Dutch birth control clinic in 1915, she learned about diaphragms and became convinced that they were a more effective means of contraception than the suppositories and douches that she had been distributing back in the United States. Diaphragms were generally unavailable in the United States due to the Comstock Act, so Sanger and others began importing them from Europe, in defiance of United States law.

On October 16, 1916, Sanger opened a family planning and birth control clinic at 46 Amboy Street in the Brownsville neighborhood of the Brooklyn borough of New York, the first in the United States. Nine days after the clinic opened, Sanger was arrested for giving a birth control pamphlet to an undercover policewoman.. After she bailed out of jail, she continued assisting women in the clinic until the police arrested her a second time. Sanger and her sister, Ethel Byrne, were charged with distributing contraceptives, in violation of New York state law. Sanger and Byrne went to trial in January 1917. Byrne was convicted and sentenced to 30 days in a workhouse but went on a hunger strike. She was force-fed, the first woman hunger striker in the US to be so treated. Only when Sanger pledged that Byrne would never break the law was she pardoned after ten days. Sanger was convicted; the trial judge held that women did not have "the right to copulate with a feeling of security that there will be no resulting conception." Sanger was offered a more lenient sentence if she promised to not break the law again, but she refused and said: "I cannot respect the law as it exists today." She was sentenced to 30 days in a workhouse. An initial appeal was rejected, but in a subsequent court proceeding in 1918, the birth control movement won a victory when Judge Frederick E. Crane of the New York Court of Appeals issued a ruling which allowed doctors to prescribe contraception. The publicity surrounding Sanger's arrest, trial, and appeal sparked birth control activism across the United States and earned the support of numerous donors, who would provide her with funding and support for future endeavors.

In February 1917, Sanger began publishing the monthly periodical Birth Control Review. In 1920–21, and intermittently until his death in 1946, she had a love affair with the English novelist H.G. Wells. In 1922, she married her second husband, James Noah H. Slee.

American Birth Control League

After World War I, Sanger shifted away from radical politics, and she founded the American Birth Control League (ABCL) in 1921 to enlarge her base of supporters to include the middle class. The founding principles of the ABCL were as follows:

We hold that children should be (1) Conceived in love; (2) Born of the mother's conscious desire; (3) And only begotten under conditions which render possible the heritage of health. Therefore we hold that every woman must possess the power and freedom to prevent conception except when these conditions can be satisfied.

Sanger's appeal of her conviction for the Brownsville clinic secured a 1918 court ruling that exempted physicians from the law prohibiting the distribution of contraceptive information to women—provided it was prescribed for medical reason). To exploit this loophole, she established the Clinical Research Bureau (CRB) in 1923. The CRB was the first legal birth control clinic in the United States, staffed entirely by female doctors and social workers. The clinic received extensive funding from John D. Rockefeller Jr. and his family, who continued to make anonymous donations to Sanger's causes in subsequent decades.

In 1922, Sanger traveled to China. In China, she observed that the primary method of family planning was female infanticide, and she later worked with Pearl Buck to establish a family planning clinic in Shanghai. Her visit fueled the belief among elites in Nationalist-era China that the use of contraception would improve the "quality" of the Chinese people and resulted in many newspaper articles addressing the benefits and shortcomings of birth control. Also following Sanger's visit, a wide range of texts on birth control and population issues were imported into China. Chinese feminists inspired by Sanger's visit went on to be significantly involved in the subsequent Chinese debates on birth control and eugenics. Sanger introduced Carbizone birth control tablets to China. During the visit, Sanger encouraged the use of female birth control in part because of her view that frequent use of condoms or the withdrawal method would cause men to develop nervous disorders.

Sanger also visited Korea and Japan. Sanger ultimately visited Japan six times, working with Japanese feminist Kato Shidzue to promote birth control.

In 1928, conflict within the birth control movement leadership led Sanger to resign as the president of the ABCL and take full control of the CRB, renaming it the Birth Control Clinical Research Bureau (BCCRB), marking the beginning of a schism that would last until 1938.

Sanger invested a great deal of effort communicating with the general public. From 1916 onward, she frequently lectured (in churches, women's clubs, homes, and theaters) to workers, churchmen, liberals, socialists, scientists, and upper-class women. She once lectured on birth control to the women's auxiliary of the Ku Klux Klan (KKK) in Silver Lake, New Jersey. In her autobiography, she justified her decision to address them by writing "Always to me any aroused group was a good group," meaning that she was willing to seek common ground with anyone who might help promote legalization and awareness of birth-control. She described the experience as "weird" and reported that she had the impression that the audience were all half-wits, and, therefore, spoke to them in the simplest possible language, as if she were talking to children.

She wrote several books in the 1920s which had a nationwide impact in promoting the cause of birth control. Between 1920 and 1926, 567,000 copies of Woman and the New Race and The Pivot of Civilization were sold. She also wrote two autobiographies designed to promote the cause. The first, My Fight for Birth Control, was published in 1931 and the second, more promotional version, Margaret Sanger: An Autobiography, was published in 1938.

During the 1920s, Sanger received hundreds of thousands of letters, many of them written in desperation by women begging for information on how to prevent unwanted pregnancies. Five hundred of these letters were compiled into the 1928 book, Motherhood in Bondage.

Work with the African American community

Sanger worked with African American leaders and professionals who saw a need for birth control in their communities. In 1929, James H. Hubert, a Black social worker and the leader of New York's Urban League, asked Sanger to open a clinic in Harlem. Sanger secured funding from the Julius Rosenwald Fund and opened the clinic, staffed with Black doctors, in 1930. The clinic was directed by an all African American advisory board consisting of 15 Black doctors, nurses, clergy, journalists, and social workers; the clinic also employed black doctors, nurses, and social workers. The clinic was publicized in the African American press as well as in Black churches, and it received the approval of W.E.B. Du Bois, the co-founder of the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP) and the editor of its magazine, The Crisis.

Sanger did not tolerate bigotry among her staff, nor would she tolerate any refusal to work within interracial projects. Sanger's work with minorities earned praise from Coretta and Martin Luther King Jr.; when he was not able to attend his Margaret Sanger award ceremony, in May 1966, Mrs. King read her husband's acceptance speech that praised Sanger, but first said her own words: "Because of dedication, her deep convictions, and for her suffering for what she believed in, I would like to say that I am proud to be a woman tonight."

From 1939 to 1942, Sanger was an honorary delegate of the Birth Control Federation of America, which included a supervisory role—alongside Mary Lasker and Clarence Gamble—in the Negro Project, an effort to deliver information about birth control to poor Black people. Sanger advised Gamble on the utility of hiring a Black physician for the Negro Project. She also advised him on the importance of reaching out to Black ministers, writing:

The ministers work is also important and also he should be trained, perhaps by the Federation as to our ideals and the goal that we hope to reach. We do not want word to go out that we want to exterminate the Negro population and the minister is the man who can straighten out that idea if it ever occurs to any of their more rebellious members.

New York University's Margaret Sanger Papers Project says that though the letter would have been meant to avoid the mistaken notion that the Negro Project was a racist campaign, detractors of Sanger, such as Angela Davis, have interpreted the passage "as evidence that she led a calculated effort to reduce the Black population against its will". Others, such as Charles Valenza, state that Davis' interpretation is based on a misreading of Sanger's words. He believes that Sanger wanted to overcome the fear of some black people that birth control was "the white man's way of reducing the black population".

Planned Parenthood era

In 1929, Sanger formed the National Committee on Federal Legislation for Birth Control in order to lobby for legislation to overturn restrictions on contraception. That effort failed to achieve success, so Sanger ordered a diaphragm from Japan in 1932, in order to provoke a decisive battle in the courts. The diaphragm was confiscated by the United States government, and Sanger's subsequent legal challenge led to a 1936 court decision which overturned an important provision of the Comstock laws which prohibited physicians from obtaining contraceptives. This court victory motivated the American Medical Association in 1937 to adopt contraception as a normal medical service and a key component of medical school curriculums.

This 1936 contraception court victory was the culmination of Sanger's birth control efforts, and she took the opportunity, now in her late 50s, to move to Tucson, Arizona, intending to play a less critical role in the birth control movement. In spite of her original intentions, she remained active in the movement through the 1950s.

In 1937, Sanger became chairman of the newly formed Birth Control Council of America, and attempted to resolve the schism between the ABCL and the BCCRB. Her efforts were successful, and the two organizations merged in 1939 as the Birth Control Federation of America. Although Sanger continued in the role of president, she no longer wielded the same power as she had in the early years of the movement, and in 1942, more conservative forces within the organization changed the name to Planned Parenthood Federation of America, a name Sanger objected to because she considered it too euphemistic.

In 1948, Sanger helped found the International Committee on Planned Parenthood, which evolved into the International Planned Parenthood Federation in 1952, and soon became the world's largest non-governmental international women's health, family planning and birth control organization. Sanger was the organization's first president and served in that role until she was 80 years old.

In the early 1950s, Sanger encouraged philanthropist Katharine McCormick to provide funding for biologist Gregory Pincus to develop the first combined birth control pill which was eventually sold under the name Enovid. Pincus had recruited John Rock, Harvard gynecologist, to investigate clinical use of progesterone to prevent ovulation. Pincus would often say that he never could have done it without Sanger, McCormick, and Rock.

Death

Sanger died of congestive heart failure in 1966 in Tucson, Arizona, aged 86, about a year after the U.S. Supreme Court's landmark decision in Griswold v. Connecticut, which struck down state laws prohibiting birth control in the United States. The plaintiff in that case, Estelle Griswold, was the director of the Connecticut affiliate of Planned Parenthood. Sanger was Episcopalian and her funeral was held at St. Philip's in the Hills Episcopal Church. Sanger is buried in Fishkill, New York, next to her sister, Nan Higgins, and her second husband, Noah Slee. One of her surviving brothers was College Football Hall of Fame player and Pennsylvania State University Head Football coach Bob Higgins.

Views

Sexuality

While researching information on contraception, Sanger read treatises on sexuality including The Psychology of Sex by the English psychologist Havelock Ellis and was heavily influenced by it. While traveling in Europe in 1914, Sanger met Ellis. Influenced by Ellis, Sanger adopted his view of sexuality as a powerful, liberating force. This view provided another argument in favor of birth control, because it would enable women to fully enjoy sexual relations without fear of unwanted pregnancy. Sanger also believed that sexuality, along with birth control, should be discussed with more candor, and praised Ellis for his efforts in this direction. She also blamed Christianity for the suppression of such discussions.

Sanger opposed excessive sexual indulgence. She wrote that "every normal man and woman has the power to control and direct his sexual impulse. Men and women who have it in control and constantly use their brain cells thinking deeply, are never sensual." Sanger said that birth control would elevate women away from the position of being objects of lust and elevate sex away from an activity that was purely being engaged in for the purpose of satisfying lust, saying that birth control "denies that sex should be reduced to the position of sensual lust, or that woman should permit herself to be the instrument of its satisfaction." Sanger wrote that masturbation was dangerous. She stated: "In my personal experience as a trained nurse while attending persons afflicted with various and often revolting diseases, no matter what their ailments, I never found anyone so repulsive as the chronic masturbator. It would not be difficult to fill page upon page of heart-rending confessions made by young girls, whose lives were blighted by this pernicious habit, always begun so innocently." She believed that women had the ability to control their sexual impulses and should utilize that control to avoid sex outside of relationships marked by "confidence and respect". She believed that exercising such control would lead to the "strongest and most sacred passion". Sanger maintained links with affiliates of the British Society for the Study of Sex Psychology (which contained a number of high-profile gay men and sexual reformers as members), and gave a speech to the group on the issue of sexual continence. She later praised Ellis for clarifying "the question of homosexuals ... making the thing a—not exactly a perverted thing, but a thing that a person is born with different kinds of eyes, different kinds of structures and so forth ... that he didn't make all homosexuals perverts—and I thought he helped clarify that to the medical profession and to the scientists of the world as perhaps one of the first ones to do that.

Although she did not promote excessive sex, Sanger did believe that women should "control their own bodies". She developed the concept of the "feminine spirit," theorizing that the internal urge of womanhood causes desires for freedom. Sanger said that it was futile to attempt to restrict this freedom and controlling fertility. The most efficient action, she said, would be to align these internal desires with human law and give women access to contraception.

Freedom of speech

Sanger opposed censorship throughout her career. Sanger grew up in a home where orator Robert Ingersoll was admired. During the early years of her activism, Sanger viewed birth control primarily as a free-speech issue, rather than as a feminist issue, and when she started publishing The Woman Rebel in 1914, she did so with the express goal of provoking a legal challenge to the Comstock laws banning dissemination of information about contraception. In New York, Emma Goldman introduced Sanger to members of the Free Speech League, such as Edward Bliss Foote and Theodore Schroeder, and subsequently the League provided funding and advice to help Sanger with legal battles.

Over the course of her career, Sanger was arrested at least eight times for expressing her views during an era in which speaking publicly about contraception was illegal. Numerous times in her career, local government officials prevented Sanger from speaking by shuttering a facility or threatening her hosts. In Boston in 1929, city officials under the leadership of James Curley threatened to arrest her if she spoke. In response she stood on stage, silent, with a gag over her mouth, while her speech was read by Arthur M. Schlesinger, Sr.

Eugenics

After World War I, Sanger saw a societal need to limit births by those least able to afford children: the affluent and educated already limited their childbearing, while the poor and uneducated lacked access to contraception and information about birth control. Here she found an area of overlap with eugenicists because she felt they both sought to "assist the race toward the elimination of the unfit."

In the early 1900's, eugenics was a popular movement, promoted by several organizations, led by intellectuals and scientists, and funded by corporate sponsors. Sanger's view of eugenics was influenced by British eugenicist Havelock Ellis and H. G. Wells, with whom she formed a close, lasting friendship. Other colleagues of Sanger who endorsed eugenic viewpoints included W.E.B. Du Bois and Winston Churchill (who attended the first ABCL conference in 1921).

She did not base her eugenic viewpoints on race or ethnicity. Academic Carole McCann wrote "although Sanger articulated birth control in terms of racial betterment and, like most old-stock Americans, supported restricted immigration, she always defined fitness in individual rather than racial terms." Sanger stressed limiting the number of births, and to live within one's economic ability to raise and support healthy children, which in her view would lead to a betterment of society and the human race. In contrast to her emphasis on the health and well-being of individual women, Charles Davenport—a prominent leader of the eugenics movement—viewed eugenics as a means to ensure continued dominance of the white race. Sanger was a proponent of negative eugenics, which aimed to improve human hereditary traits through social intervention by reducing the reproduction of those who were considered unfit.

She distinguished herself from other eugenicists, by writing "eugenists [sic] imply or insist that a woman's first duty is to the state; we contend that her duty to herself is her duty to the state. We maintain that a woman possessing an adequate knowledge of her reproductive functions is the best judge of the time and conditions under which her child should be brought into the world. We further maintain that it is her right, regardless of all other considerations, to determine whether she shall bear children or not, and how many children she shall bear if she chooses to become a mother."

While Sanger didn't explicitly traffic in racist language, academic Peter C. Engelman (author of A History of the Birth Control Movement in America) noted that "Sanger quite effortlessly looked the other way when others spouted racist speech. She had no reservations about relying on flawed and overtly racist works to serve her own propaganda needs." KKK member Lothrop Stoddard was a founding director of the ABCL and contributed to its publications. Biographer Ellen Chesler commented: "Margaret Sanger was never herself a racist, but she lived in a profoundly bigoted society, and her failure to repudiate prejudice unequivocally—especially when it was manifest among proponents of her cause—has haunted her ever since."

In "The Morality of Birth Control", a 1921 speech, she divided society into three groups: the "educated and informed" class that regulated the size of their families, the "intelligent and responsible" who desired to control their families in spite of lacking the means or the knowledge, and the "irresponsible and reckless people" whose religious scruples "prevent their exercising control over their numbers". Sanger concludes, "There is no doubt in the minds of all thinking people that the procreation of this group should be stopped."

Sanger's eugenics policies included an exclusionary immigration policy, free access to birth control methods, and full family planning autonomy for the able-minded, as well as compulsory segregation or sterilization for the "profoundly retarded". Sanger wrote, "we believe that the community could or should send to the lethal chamber the defective progeny resulting from irresponsible and unintelligent breeding." In The Pivot of Civilization she criticized certain charity organizations for providing free obstetric and immediate post-birth care to indigent women without also providing information about birth control nor any assistance in raising or educating the children. By such charities, she wrote, "The poor woman is taught how to have her seventh child, when what she wants to know is how to avoid bringing into the world her eighth."

In personal correspondence, she expressed her sadness about the aggressive and lethal Nazi eugenics program, and donated to the American Council Against Nazi Propaganda. Sanger believed that self-determining motherhood was the only unshakable foundation for "racial betterment". Initially she advocated that the responsibility for birth control should remain with able-minded individual parents rather than the state. Later, she proposed that "Permits for parenthood shall be issued upon application by city, county, or state authorities to married couples," but added that the requirement should be implemented by state advocacy and reward for complying, not enforced by punishing anyone for violating it. Some historians believe her support of negative eugenics, a popular stance at that time, was a rhetorical tool rather than a personal conviction.

Abortion

While Sanger's primary focus was on contraception, she also wanted to prevent so-called back-alley abortions, which were common because abortions were illegal in the U.S. in the early 20th century. She believed that, while abortion may be a viable option in life-threatening situations for the pregnant, it should generally be avoided—and she considered contraception the only practical way to avoid them.

Sanger opposed abortion and sharply distinguished it from birth control. She believed that the latter is a fundamental right of women, and the former is a shameful crime. In 1916, when she opened her first birth control clinic, she was employing harsh rhetoric against abortion. Flyers she distributed to women exhorted them in all capitals: "Do not kill, do not take life, but prevent." Sanger's patients at that time were told "that abortion was the wrong way—no matter how early it was performed it was taking life; that contraception was the better way, the safer way—it took a little time, a little trouble, but it was well worth while in the long run, because life had not yet begun." Sanger consistently distanced herself from any calls for legal access to abortion, arguing that legal access to contraceptives would remove the need for abortion.

While Sanger condemned abortion as a method of family limitation, she was not opposed to abortion intended to save a woman's life. In 1932, Sanger directed the Clinical Research Bureau to start referring patients to hospitals for therapeutic abortions when indicated by an examining physician. She also advocated for birth control so that the pregnancies that led to therapeutic abortions could be prevented in the first place.

Legacy

Sanger's writings are curated by two universities: New York University's history department maintains the Margaret Sanger Papers Project, and Smith College's Sophia Smith Collection maintains the Margaret Sanger Papers collection.

Several biographers have documented Sanger's life, including David Kennedy, whose Birth Control in America: The Career of Margaret Sanger (1970), which won the Bancroft Prize and the John Gilmary Shea Prize. She is also the subject of the television films Portrait of a Rebel: The Remarkable Mrs. Sanger (1980), and Choices of the Heart: The Margaret Sanger Story (1995). In 2013, the American cartoonist Peter Bagge published Woman Rebel, a full-length graphic-novel biography of Sanger. In 2016, Sabrina Jones published the graphic novel "Our Lady of Birth Control: A Cartoonist's Encounter With Margaret Sanger."

Today, Sanger, along with Emma Goldman and Mary Dennett, is viewed as a founder and leader of the birth control movement. Tens of millions of women have made use of Planned Parenthood services; and hundreds of millions of women around the globe have relied on birth control pills. Due to her connection with Planned Parenthood, many who oppose abortion attack Sanger by highlighting her views on eugenics. Reacting to criticisms of Sanger's endorsement of eugenics, in 2020 Planned Parenthood took steps to distance itself from their founder by removing some mentions of Sanger on their website, and renaming the Planned Parenthood building on Bleecker Street (which previously was named after Sanger). Sanger biographer Ellen Chesner wrote an opinion piece in the New York Times objecting to those actions.

Sanger has been recognized with numerous honors. Between 1953 and 1963, Sanger was nominated for the Nobel Peace Prize 31 times. In 1957, the American Humanist Association named her Humanist of the Year. In 1966, Planned Parenthood began issuing its Margaret Sanger Awards annually to honor "individuals of distinction in recognition of excellence and leadership in furthering reproductive health and reproductive rights". The 1979 artwork The Dinner Party features a place setting for her. In 1981, Sanger was inducted into the National Women's Hall of Fame. In 1976, she was inducted into the first class of the Steuben County (NY) Hall of Fame. In 1993, the United States National Park Service designated the Margaret Sanger Clinic—where she provided birth-control services in New York in the mid-twentieth century—as a National Historic Landmark. Government authorities and other institutions have memorialized Sanger by dedicating several landmarks in her name, including a residential building on the Stony Brook University campus, a room in Wellesley College's library, and Margaret Sanger Square in New York City's Noho area. There is a Margaret Sanger Lane in Plattsburgh, New York and an Allée Margaret Sanger in Saint-Nazaire, France. There is a bust of Sanger in the National Portrait Gallery, which was a gift from Cordelia Scaife May. Her speech "Children's Era", given in 1925, is listed as #81 in American Rhetoric's Top 100 Speeches of the 20th Century. Sanger was an inspiration for Wonder Woman, the comic-book character introduced by William Marston in 1941. Sanger, a crater in the northern hemisphere of Venus, takes its name from Margaret Sanger.

Works

Books and pamphlets

• What Every Mother Should Know – Originally published in 1911 or 1912, based on a series of articles Sanger published in 1911 in the New York Call, which were, in turn, based on a set of lectures Sanger gave to groups of Socialist party women in 1910–1911. Multiple editions published through the 1920s, by Max N. Maisel and Sincere Publishing, with the title What Every Mother Should Know, or how six little children were taught the truth ... Online Archived September 2, 2022, at the Wayback Machine (1921 edition, Michigan State University)
• Family Limitation – Originally published 1914 as a 16-page pamphlet; also published in several later editions. Online Archived September 2, 2022, at the Wayback Machine (1917, 6th edition, Michigan State University); Online (1920 English edition, Bakunin Press, revised by author from 9th American edition);
• What Every Girl Should Know – Originally published 1916 by Max N. Maisel; 91 pages; also published in several later editions. Online Archived September 2, 2022, at the Wayback Machine (1920 edition); Online Archived September 2, 2022, at the Wayback Machine (1922 ed., Michigan State University)
• Fight for Birth Control. New York. 1916. LCCN 2003558097.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link) Pamphlet.
• The Case for Birth Control: A Supplementary Brief and Statement of Facts – May 1917, published to provide information to the court in a legal proceeding. Online (Internet Archive)
• Woman and the New Race, 1920, Truth Publishing, foreword by Havelock Ellis. Online Archived March 13, 2007, at the Wayback Machine (Harvard University); Online (Project Gutenberg); Online (Internet Archive); Audio on Archive.org
• Debate on Birth Control – 1921, text of a debate between Sanger, Theodore Roosevelt, Winter Russell, George Bernard Shaw, Robert L. Wolf, and Emma Sargent Russell. Published as issue 208 of Little Blue Book series by Haldeman-Julius Co. Online Archived September 2, 2022, at the Wayback Machine (1921, Michigan State University)
• The Pivot of Civilization, 1922, Brentanos. Online (1922, Project Gutenberg); Online (1922, Google Books)
• Motherhood in Bondage, 1928, Brentanos. Online (Google Books).
• My Fight for Birth Control. Farrar & Rinehart. 1931. ASIN B000OJV0RE. Memoir.
• An Autobiography. New York: Cooper Square Press. 1938. ISBN 0-8154-1015-8.

Periodicals

• The Woman Rebel – Seven issues published monthly from March 1914 to August 1914. Sanger was publisher and editor. Sample article The Woman Rebel, Vol. 1, No. 4, June 1914, 25, Margaret Sanger Microfilm, C16:0539.
• Birth Control Review – Published monthly from February 1917 to 1940. Sanger was editor until 1929, when she resigned from the ABCL. Not to be confused with Birth Control News, published by the London-based Society for Constructive Birth Control and Racial Progress.

Collections and anthologies

• Sanger, Margaret, The Selected Papers of Margaret Sanger, Volume 1: The Woman Rebel, 1900–1928, Esther Katz, Cathy Moran Hajo, Peter Engelman (eds.), University of Illinois Press, 2003
• Sanger, Margaret, The Selected Papers of Margaret Sanger, Volume 2: Birth Control Comes of Age, 1928–1939, Esther Katz, Cathy Moran Hajo, Peter Engelman (eds.), University of Illinois Press, 2007
• Sanger, Margaret, The Selected Papers of Margaret Sanger, Volume 3: The Politics of Planned Parenthood, 1939–1966, Esther Katz, Cathy Moran Hajo, Peter Engelman (eds.), University of Illinois Press, 2010
• Works by Margaret Sanger at Project Gutenberg
• The Margaret Sanger Papers at Smith College Archived May 27, 2011, at the Wayback Machine
• The Margaret Sanger Papers Project at New York University
• McElderry, Michael J. (1976). "Margaret Sanger: A Register of Her Papers in the Library of Congress". Manuscript Division, Library of Congress. Archived from the original on March 29, 2009. Retrieved March 30, 2009.
• Correspondence between Sanger and McCormick, from The Pill Archived February 28, 2017, at the Wayback Machine documentary movie; supplementary material, PBS, American Experience (producers). Online.

Speeches

• Sanger, Margaret, "The Morality of Birth Control" 1921.
• Sanger, Margaret, "The Children's Era" 1925.
• Sanger, Margaret, "Woman and the Future" 1937.

In popular culture

Film

• Choices of the Heart: The Margaret Sanger Story – 1995 television film directed by Paul ShapiroPages displaying wikidata descriptions as a fallback

Graphic novels

• Bagge, Peter (2013). The Woman Rebel: The Margaret Sanger Story. Montréal: Drawn & Quarterly. ISBN 978-1770461260. OCLC 841710267.
• Jones, Sabrina (2016). Our Lady of Birth control: A Cartoonist's Encounter with Margaret Sanger. Berkeley, CA: Soft Skull Press, an imprint of Counterpoint. ISBN 978-1619028111. OCLC 957604758.

See also

• Anthony Comstock – American anti-vice activist (1844–1915)
• Caroline Nelson – Danish-born birth control advocate and radical socialist (1868–1952)
• Fania Mindell – American feminist, activist, and theater artist (1894–1969)
• Feminism – Range of socio-political movements and ideologies
• History of women in the United States – The working Lives of Women in the U.S.
• Kitty Marion – Actress and political activist, Militant Suffragette (1871–1944)
• List of women's rights activists
• Lorenzo Portet – Spanish anarchist (1870–1917)
• Mabel Sine Wadsworth – American birth control activist and women's health educator (1910–2006)
• Margaret Mead – American cultural anthropologist (1901–1978)
• Reproductive rights – Legal rights and freedoms relating to reproduction and reproductive health
• Upton Sinclair – American writer (1878–1968)

Notes

1. They became estranged in 1913, but the divorce was not finalized until 1921.
2. The slogan "No Gods, No Masters" originated in a flyer distributed by the IWW in the 1912 Lawrence textile strike.
3. The first issue of Birth Control Review was published in February 1917.
4. Caption at the bottom of this 1919 issue reads: "Must She Always Plead in Vain? 'You are a nurse—can you tell me? For the children's sake—help me!'"
5. John D. Rockefeller Jr. donated five thousand dollars to her American Birth Control League in 1924, and again in 1925.
6. Date of merger recorded as 1938 (not 1939) in: O'Conner, Karen, Gender and Women's Leadership: A Reference Handbook, p. 743. O'Conner cites Gordon (1976).
7. The Griswold decision struck down one of the remaining contraception-related Comstock laws. However, it only applied to marital relationships. A later case, Eisenstadt v. Baird (1972), extended Griswold to unmarried persons as well.
8. Other important legal battles Sanger engaged in are (1) 1914-1915 federal case United States v Sanger (see article by Shechtman); (2) 1916-1918 New York state case People v. Sanger (see article by Vullo); and (3) 1932 federal case United States v. One Package of Japanese Pessaries
9. A representative anti-abortion publication critical of Sanger is Catholic theologian Angela Franks' Margaret Sanger's Eugenic Legacy: The Control of Female Fertility, McFarland, 2005.
10. Marston was influenced by early feminist thought while in college, and later formed a romantic relationship with Sanger's niece, Olive Byrne.
11. According to Jill Lepore, several Wonder Woman story lines were at least in part inspired by Sanger, such as the character's involvement with labor strikes and various protests.

References

1. Baker 2011, p. 126.
2. Dimitroff, Thomas P.; Janes, Lois S. (1991). History of the Corning-Painted Post area : 200 years in Painted Post country. Corning, N.Y.: Bookmarks. p. 240. ISBN 978-0-912939-00-1. OCLC 26460221.
3. ^ Sanger, Margaret (1938). Margaret Sanger: An Autobiography. W. W. Norton. ISBN 0-486-43492-3. OCLC 00700090.
4. Murphy, John Patrick Michael (January 2000). "Margaret Sanger". Infidels.org. Retrieved March 12, 2012.
5. Rosenberg, Rosalind (2008). Divided Lives: American Women in the Twentieth Century. New York: Hill and Wang. p. 82. ISBN 978-0-8090-1631-0. OCLC 1001927606 – via Google Books preview.
6. Baker 2011, pp. 3, 11.
7. Cooper, James L.; Cooper, Sheila McIsaac, eds. (1973). The Roots of American Feminist Thought. Boston: Allyn and Bacon. p. 219. OCLC 571338996 – via Internet Archive.
8. Sanger et al. 2003, pp. 4–5.
9. "The Universalist Leader". The Universalist Leader. 38 (26). Boston: Universalist Publishing House: 804. 1935. OCLC 565077971 – via Google Books snippet.
10. ^ Baker 2011, p. 307.
11. Chesler 2007, p. 58-90.
12. Baker 2021, p. 65-71. sfn error: no target: CITEREFBaker2021 (help)
13. Chesler 2007, p. 66.
14. Dietrich 2010; Engelman 2011, p. 32; Blanchard 1992, p. 50; Coates 2008, p. 49
15. Endres, Kathleen L., Women's Periodicals in the United States: social and political issues, p. 448; Endres cites Sanger, An Autobiography, pp. 95–96. Endres cites Kennedy 1970, p. 19, as pointing out that some materials on birth control were available in 1913.
16. Goldberg, Michelle (February 7, 2012). "Awakenings: On Margaret Sanger". Thenation.com. Archived from the original on December 5, 2019. Retrieved May 13, 2019.
17. Lader 1955, p. 44–50.
18. Baker 2011, pp. 49–51; Kennedy 1970, pp. 16–18
19. ^ Viney, Wayne; King, D. A. (2003). A History of Psychology: Ideas and Context. Boston: Allyn and Bacon. ISBN 0-205-33582-9.
20. Chesler 2007, p. 63.
21. Jill Lepore, The Secret History of Wonder Woman, 2014, ISBN 0804173400
22. Composite story: Sanger et al. 2003, p. 185 This source identifies the source of Sanger's quote as: "Birth Control", Library of Congress collection of Sanger's papers: microfilm: reel 129: frame 12, April 1916.
23. Streitmatter, Rodger (2001). Voices of Revolution: The Dissident Press in America. New York: Columbia University Press. p. 169. ISBN 0-231-12249-7.
24. Cox 2005, p. 76.
25. Kennedy 1970, pp. 1, 22.
26. Sanger, Margaret, The Autobiography of Margaret Sanger, Mineola, New York: Dover Printing Publications Inc., 2004, pp. 111–112.
27. Chesler 2007, p. 97.
28. Sanger et al. 2003, p. 70.
29. Galvin, Rachel. Margaret Sanger's "Deeds of Terrible Virtue" Archived December 29, 2010, at the Wayback Machine Humanities, National Endowment for the Humanities, September/October 1998, Vol. 19/Number 5.
30. Engelman, Peter C., "Margaret Sanger", article in Encyclopedia of Leadership, Volume 4, George R. Goethals, et al (eds), SAGE, 2004, p. 1382.
    Engelman cites facsimile edited by Alex Baskin, Woman Rebel, New York: Archives of Social History, 1976. Facsimile of original.
31. Katz, Selected Papers of Margaret Sanger, Vol. 1.
32. McCann 2010, pp. 750–51.
33. Douglas, Emily (1970). Margaret Sanger: Pioneer of the Future. Canada: Holt, Rinehart, and Winston. p. 57.
34. ^ Baker 2011, p. 268.
35. Baker 2011, p. 178.
36. Chesler 2007, p. 225, 235, 279.
37. Kennedy 1970, p. 101.
38. Chesler, p. 182. sfn error: no target: CITEREFChesler (help)
39. Green, Stephanie (2015). The Public Lives of Charlotte and Marie Stopes. Routledge. ISBN 978-1317321781 – via Google Books.
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41. Douglas, Emily (1970). Margaret Sanger: Pioneer of the Future. Canada: Holt, Rinehart, and Winston. p. 80.
42. Haight, Anne Lyon (1935). Banned books: informal notes on some books banned for various reasons at various times and in various places. New York: R.R. Bowker Company. p. 65. hdl:2027/uc1.b3921312.
43. "Anthony Comstock Dies in His Crusade". Reading Eagle. Reading, Pennsylvania. September 22, 1915. p. 6.
44. Chesler 2007, p. 255.
45. Quindlen, Anna (2010). Thinking Out Loud: On the Personal, the Political, the Public and the Private. Random House Publishing Group. ISBN 978-0307763556 – via Google Books.
46. "Margaret Sanger—20th Century Hero" (PDF). Planned Parenthood. p. 8. Archived from the original (PDF) on July 10, 2014.
47. Chesler 2007, p. 228, 261, 276.
48. Selected Papers, vol. 1, p. 199.
    Baker 2011, p. 115
49. Cox 2005, p. 7.
50. Margaret Sanger: Pioneer to the Future, p. 109.
51. Engelman 2011, p. 101.
52. "First woman in US given English dose". The Seattle Star. January 27, 1917. p. 1. Retrieved November 16, 2014.
53. "Mrs. Byrne pardoned; pledged to obey law;" (PDF). New York Times. February 2, 1917. Retrieved November 16, 2014.
54. Lepore, Jill (November 14, 2011). "Birthright: What's next for Planned Parenthood?". The New Yorker. Retrieved November 13, 2011.
55. ^ Cox 2005, p. 65.
56. Engelman 2011, pp. 101–3.
57. Vullo, Maria (June 1, 2013). "People v. Sanger & the Birth of Family Planning in America" (PDF). Judicial Notice: A Periodical of New York Court History. 9 (1): 43–57.
58. McCann 2010, p. 751.
59. "The Passionate Friends: H. G. Wells and Margaret Sanger", at the Margaret Sanger Paper Project.
60. Margaret Sanger: Pioneer of the Future pp. 178–80.
61. Freedman, Estelle B., The essential feminist reader, Random House Digital, 2007, p. 211.
62. • "Birth control: What it is, How it works, What it will do", The Proceedings of the First American Birth Control Conference, November 11, 12, 1921, pp. 207–8.
    • The Birth Control Review, Vol. V, No. 12, December 1921, Margaret Sanger (ed.), p. 18.
    • Sanger, Pivot of Civilization, 2001 reprint edited by Michael W. Perry, p. 409.
    These principles were adopted at the first meeting of the ABCL in late 1921.
63. Chesler 2007, p. 273-275.
64. Baker 2011, p. 196.
65. Baker 2011, pp. 196–97
    The Selected Papers, Vol. 2, p. 54.
66. Chesler, pp. 277, 293, 558.
    Harr, John Ensor; Johnson, Peter J. (1988). The Rockefeller Century: Three Generations of America's Greatest Family. New York: Charles Scribner's Sons. pp. 191, 461–462. ISBN 978-0684189369. Crucial, anonymous Rockefeller grants to the Clinical Research Bureau and support for population control.
67. Chesler 2007, p. 425.
68. Sanger et al. 2003, p. 430.
69. ^ Rodriguez 2007, p. 64. sfn error: no target: CITEREFRodriguez2007 (help)
70. Cohen, pp. 64–5.
71. Rodriguez 2007, p. 10. sfn error: no target: CITEREFRodriguez2007 (help)
72. ^ Rodriguez 2007, p. 24. sfn error: no target: CITEREFRodriguez2007 (help)
73. Rodriguez 2007, p. 28. sfn error: no target: CITEREFRodriguez2007 (help)
74. Rodriguez 2007, p. 58. sfn error: no target: CITEREFRodriguez2007 (help)
75. Baker 2011, p. 275
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76. McCann 1994, pp. 177–8
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77. Baker 2011, p. 161.
78. ""Motherhood in Bondage," #6, Winter 1993/4". Margaret Sanger Papers Project. Retrieved April 9, 2011.
79. The number of letters is reported as "a quarter million", "over a million", or "hundreds of thousands" in various sources
80. 500 letters: Cohen, p. 65.
81. Sanger, Margaret (2000). Motherhood in bondage. Columbus: Ohio State University Press. ISBN 0-8142-0837-1.
82. Baker 2011, p. 200.
83. ^ Hajo, Cathy Moran (2010). Birth Control on Main Street: Organizing Clinics in the United States, 1916–1939. University of Illinois Press. p. 85.
84. Wangui Muigai (Spring 2010). "Looking Uptown: Margaret Sanger and the Harlem Branch Birth Control Clinic". The Newsletter. No. #54. The Margaret Sanger Papers Project.
85. Klapper, Melissa R. (2014). Ballots, Babies, and Banners of Peace: American Jewish Women's Activism, 1890–1940. NYU Press. pp. 137–138. ISBN 978-1479850594.
86. "Duboishomesite.org" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on August 23, 2016. Retrieved July 6, 2022.
87. "NAACP History: W.E.B. Dubois". Naacp.org. Archived from the original on March 12, 2016. Retrieved March 11, 2016.
88. "Martin Luther King 's Speech in Honor of WEB Dubois by Norman Markowitz". Politicalaffairs.net. Retrieved March 11, 2016.
89. "The Truth about Margaret Sanger". Planned Parenthood Federation of America. Archived from the original on March 17, 2010.:

    In 1930, Sanger opened a family planning clinic in Harlem that sought to enlist support for contraceptive use and to bring the benefits of family planning to women who were denied access to their city's health and social services. Staffed by a Black physician and a Black social worker, the clinic was endorsed by The Amsterdam News (the powerful local newspaper), the Abyssinian Baptist Church, the Urban League, and the Black community's elder statesman, W. E. B. Du Bois.

90. McCann 1994, pp. 150–4 Bigotry: p. 153.
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91. Planned Parenthood Federation of America (2004). "The Reverend Martin Luther King Jr. Upon Accepting the Planned Parenthood Sanger Award". Archived from the original on July 14, 2014. Retrieved March 11, 2016.
92. Engelman 2011, p. 175
    Birth Control Federation of America Archived December 1, 2008, at the Wayback Machine, The Margaret Sanger Papers Project
    "Birth Control or Race Control? Sanger and the Negro Project". Margaret Sanger Papers Project Newsletter (28). Margaret Sanger Papers Project. November 14, 2002. Retrieved January 25, 2009.
93. Sanger, Margaret (December 10, 1939). "Letter from Margaret Sanger to Dr. C.J. Gamble". Letter to Clarence Gamble. Smith Libraries Exhibits (libex.smith.edu). p. 2. Archived from the original on April 12, 2023. Retrieved December 13, 2024.
94. "The Demonization of Margaret Sanger". Margaret Sanger Papers Project Newsletter (16). 1997. Retrieved November 27, 2016.
95. "Birth Control or Race Control? Sanger and the Negro Project". Margaret Sanger Papers Project Newsletter (28). Margaret Sanger Papers Project. November 14, 2002. Retrieved January 25, 2009.
96. Margaret Sanger Papers Project (April 2010). "Smear-n-Fear". News & Sanger Sightings. New York University. Archived from the original on November 2, 2011.
97. ^ Valenza, C. (1985). "Was Margaret Sanger a racist?". Family Planning Perspectives. 17 (1): 44–46. doi:10.2307/2135230. ISSN 0014-7354. JSTOR 2135230. PMID 3884362.
98. "National Committee on Federal Legislation on Birth Control". NYU Margaret Sanger Papers Project
99. Rose, Melody, Abortion: a documentary and reference guide, ABC-CLIO, 2008, p. 29.
100. ^ "'Biographical Note', Smith College, Margaret Sangers Papers". Asteria.fivecolleges.edu. September 6, 1966. Archived from the original on September 12, 2006. Retrieved March 12, 2012.
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102. The Margaret Sanger Papers (2010). "MSPP > About > Birth Control Organizations > PPFA". Nyu.edu. Retrieved October 17, 2011.
103. Chesler 2007, p. 393.
104. "MSPP / About Sanger / Birth Control Organizations".
105. Ford, Lynne E., Encyclopedia of Women and American Politics, p. 406.
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106. Engelman, Peter, "McCormick, Katharine Dexter", in Encyclopedia of Birth Control, Vern L. Bullough (ed.), ABC-CLIO, 2001, pp. 170–1.
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113. Cox 2005, p. 55.
114. ^ Chesler 2007, p. 13–14.
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121. Margaret Sanger, "What Every Girl Should Know: Sexual Impulse—Part I", December 22, 1912.
122. Bronski, Michael, A Queer History of the United States, Beacon Press, 2011.
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123. Craig, Layne Parish (2013). When Sex Changed: Birth Control Politics and Literature between the World Wars. Rutgers University Press. p. 63. ISBN 978-0-8135-6212-4.
124. McCann 1994, pp. 30–31
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128. "Every Child a Wanted Child", Time, September 16, 1966, p. 96.
129. Kennedy 1970, p. 149.
130. Melody, Michael Edward (1999), Teaching America about sex: marriage guides and sex manuals from the late Victorians to Dr. Ruth, NYU Press, 1999, p. 53 (citing Halberstam, David, The Fifties, Villard. 1993, p. 285).
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131. ^ Kevles, Daniel J. (1985). In the Name of Eugenics: Genetics and the Uses of Human Heredity. University of California Press. pp. 90–96. ISBN 0-520-05763-5.
132. ^ Sanger, Margaret (February 1919). "Birth Control and Racial Betterment". Birth Control Review. 3 (2): 11–12. Retrieved September 20, 2015.
133. Leonard, Thomas C. (2005). Eugenics and Economics in the Progressive Era. Journal of Economic Perspectives. Retrieved January 29, 2022.
134. Freeden, Michael (February 11, 2009). Eugenics and Progressive Thought: a Study in Ideological Affinity. Cambridge University Press. Retrieved January 29, 2022.
135. Edwin Black (November 9, 2003). "Eugenics and the Nazis – the California connection". San Francisco Chronicle. Retrieved February 2, 2017.
136. McCann 1994, p. 104Engelman 2011, p. 48
137. "MSPP / Newsletter / Newsletter #12 (Spring 1996)".
138. Lombardo, Paul A. (2011), A Century of Eugenics in America: From the Indiana Experiment to the Human Genome Era. pp. 74–75.
139. Lewis, David Levering (2001), W. E. B. Du Bois: The Fight for Equality and the American Century 1919–1963, Owl Books. ISBN 978-0-8050-6813-9. p. 223.
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141. McCann 1994, p. 117Engelman 2011, p. 135
142. Chesler 2007, p. 195–6.
143. McCann 1994, pp. 13, 16–21.
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145. Chesler 2007, p. 217.
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147. Engelman 2011, p. 135.
148. Chalmers, David Mark (1986). Hooded Americanism: The History of the Ku Klux Klan. Duke University Press. p. 270. ISBN 978-0-8223-0772-3.
149. Chesler 2007, p. 15.
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152. ^ "The Sanger-Hitler Equation", Margaret Sanger Papers Project Newsletter, #32, Winter 2002/3. New York University Department of History
153. Black, Edwin (2003) . The War Against the Weak: Eugenics and America's Campaign to Create a Master Race. New York: Four Walls Eight Windows. ISBN 1-56858-258-7., p. 251.
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154. ^ "The Pivot of Civilization, by Margaret Sanger". Gutenberg.org. Retrieved June 12, 2020.
155. Sanger, Margaret (1921). "The Eugenic Value of Birth Control Propaganda" (PDF). Birth Control Review. Vol. 5, no. 10. The New York Women's Publishing Company. p. 5 – via The Margaret Sanger Papers Project.
156. Sanger, Margaret (March 27, 1934), "America Needs a Code for Babies", American Weekly, retrieved December 15, 2019 – via The Margaret Sanger Papers Project Regarding punishment, she wrote, in the same essay: "Society could not very well put a couple into jail for having a baby without permission; and in the case of paupers a fine could not be collected. How then should the guilty be punished? By blacklisting? By depravation of certain civil rights, such as the right to vote? If punishment is not practicable, perhaps we can go the other way around and consider awards. If it is wise to pay farmers for not raising cotton or wheat, it may be equally wise to pay certain couples for not having children."
157. "Eugenics and Birth Control | American Experience | PBS". www.pbs.org. Retrieved March 23, 2024.
158. Cox 2005, pp. 3–4.
159. Pollitt, Katha. "Abortion in American History". The Atlantic. Retrieved February 2, 2017.
160. Sanger, Margaret (January 27, 1932). "The Pope's Position on Birth Control". The Nation. Although abortion may be resorted to in order to save the life of the mother, the practice of it merely for limitation of offspring is dangerous and vicious.
161. Sanger, Margaret (1917). Family Limitation (PDF). p. 5. Retrieved March 11, 2016. No one can doubt that there are times where an abortion is justifiable but they can become unnecessary when care is taken to prevent conception. This is the only cure for abortion.
162. ^ Chesler 2007, p. 125.
163. ^ Lader, Lawrence (1995). A Private Matter: RU486 and the Abortion Crisis. Prometheus Books. ISBN 978-1573920124.
164. "Margaret Sanger — Our Founder" (PDF). Planned Parenthood. 2016. Archived from the original (PDF) on October 2, 2019.
165. Sanger, Margaret (1931). My Fight for Birth Control. Farrar & Rinehart. ASIN B0045FG280.
166. At this time several other prominent advocates for birth control, such as Lawrence Lader, Frederick J. Taussig, and William J. Robinson, saw contraception and abortion as being inextricably linked, and were calling for legalization of abortion. See Lader, Lawrence (1995). A Private Matter: RU486 and the Abortion Crisis. Prometheus Books. pp. 36–39. ISBN 9781573920124.; Taussig, Frederick J. (1936). Abortion, Spontaneous and Induced: Medical and Social Aspects. C. V. Mosby. OCLC 00400798.; and Robinson, William J. (1931). Doctor Robinson and Saint Peter: How Dr. Robinson Entered the Heavenly Gates and Became St. Peter's Assistant. Eugenics Publishing Company. ASIN B000R7V5XW.
167. Sanger, Margaret (January 27, 1932). "The Pope's Position on Birth Control". The Nation. 135 (3473): 102–104.
168. Chesler 2007, p. 300–301.
169. Sanger, Margaret (March 1919). "Why Not Birth Control Clinics in America?". American Medicine: 164–167.
170. "NYU Sanger Papers Project web site". Nyu.edu. February 7, 2007. Retrieved March 12, 2012.
171. "Smith College collection web site". Asteria.fivecolleges.edu. Archived from the original on May 27, 2011. Retrieved March 12, 2012.
172. "Portrait of a Rebel: The Remarkable Mrs. Sanger". IMDb.com. April 22, 1980.
173. Choices of the Heart—1995, starring Dana Delany and Henry Czerny, "Choices of the Heart: The Margaret Sanger Story (1995)". IMDb (The Internet Movie Database). March 8, 1995. Retrieved July 29, 2009.
174. "GCD :: Issue :: Woman Rebel: The Margaret Sanger Story". Comics.org.
175. "GCD :: Issue :: Our Lady of Birth Control: A Cartoonist's Encounter with Margaret Sanger". Comics.org.
176. Baker 2011, p. 70.
177. Chesler 2007, p. 144,149,245.
178. Chesler 2007, p. 445,482.
179. Cooper, Melinda (January 20, 2023). "The Anti-Abortion Movement and the Ghost of Margaret Sanger". Dissent. No. Winter 2023. Retrieved January 20, 2023.
180. Marshall, Robert G.; Donovan, Chuck (October 1991). Blessed Are the Barren: The Social Policy of Planned Parenthood. Fort Collins, CO: Ignatius Press. ISBN 978-0-89870-353-5.
181. "Minority Anti-Abortion Movement Gains Steam". NPR.org. NPR. September 24, 2007. Retrieved January 17, 2009.
182. "Planned Parenthood in N.Y. Disavows Margaret Sanger Over Eugenics". The New York Times. July 21, 2020. Retrieved July 21, 2020.
183. Johnson, Alexis McGill (April 17, 2021). "I'm the Head of Planned Parenthood. We're Done Making Excuses for Our Founder". Opinion. The New York Times. ISSN 0362-4331. Retrieved April 17, 2021.
184. Chesner, Ellen (April 20, 2021). "Opinion | Defending Margaret Sanger, Planned Parenthood's Founder". The New York Times. ISSN 0362-4331. Retrieved January 8, 2025.
185. "Nomination Database". Nobel Prize. April 2020.
186. "Rockefeller 3d Wins Sanger Award". The New York Times. October 9, 1967. Archived from the original on November 6, 2012. Retrieved February 14, 2011.
187. Place Settings. Brooklyn Museum. Retrieved on August 6, 2015.
188. "Brooklyn Museum: About". Brooklynmuseum.org.
189. "Sanger, Margaret". National Women's Hall of Fame.
190. "National Historic Landmark Program". Tps.cr.nps.gov. September 14, 1993. Archived from the original on March 18, 2012. Retrieved March 12, 2012.
191. "Friends of the Library Newsletter" (PDF). Wellesley.edu. Archived from the original (PDF) on June 17, 2015. Retrieved March 12, 2012.
192. Kayton, Bruce (2003). Radical Walking Tours of New York City. New York: Seven Stories Press. p. 111. ISBN 1-58322-554-4. Retrieved December 29, 2010.
193. House, Kirk, "Steuben County People on the Maps of Two Worlds," Steuben Echoes 44:4, November 2018.
194. Lauren Hodges (August 27, 2015). "National Portrait Gallery Won't Remove Bust of Planned Parenthood Founder : The Two-Way". NPR. Retrieved June 30, 2016.
195. Michael E. Eidenmuller (February 13, 2009). "Top 100 Speeches of the 20th Century by Rank". American Rhetoric. Retrieved October 27, 2015.
196. "Margaret H Sanger—Women's Political Communication Archives". Archived from the original on November 18, 2016. Retrieved October 27, 2015.
197. ^ Jill Lepore, The Secret History of Wonder Woman, Vintage, 2015.
198. Garner, Dwight (October 23, 2014). "Her Past Unchained: 'The Secret History of Wonder Woman,' by Jill Lepore". The New York Times.
199. "VENUS – Sanger" in Gazetteer of Planetary Nomenclature USGS https://planetarynames.wr.usgs.gov/Feature/5307
200. Coates, p. 48.
     Hoolihan, Christopher (2004), An Annotated Catalogue of the Edward C. Atwater Collection of American Popular Medicine and Health Reform, Vol. 2 (M–Z), University Rochester Press, p. 299.
201. "'Birth Control Review', Margaret Sanger Papers Project, NYU". Nyu.edu. Retrieved March 12, 2012.

Bibliography

• Bagge, Peter (2013). Woman Rebel. The Margaret Sanger Story. Montreal: Drawn and Quarterly. ISBN 978-1-77046-126-0.
• Baker, Jean (2011). Margaret Sanger: A Life of Passion. New York: Hill and Wang. ISBN 978-1-4299-6897-3. OCLC 863501288, 1150293235.
• Black, Edwin (2012), War Against the Weak: Eugenics and America's Campaign to Create a Master Race, Washington, DC: Dialog Press, ISBN 978-0-914153-29-0
• Blanchard, Margaret (1992), Revolutionary Sparks: Freedom of Expression in Modern America, New York: Oxford University Press, ISBN 978-0-19-505436-1
• Bronski, Michael (2011), A Queer History of the United States, Boston: Beacon Press, ISBN 978-0-8070-4439-1
• Buchanan, Paul (2009), American Women's Rights Movement: A Chronology of Events and of Opportunities from 1600 to 2008, Boston: Branden Books, ISBN 978-0-8283-2160-0
• Chesler, Ellen (2007), Woman of Valor: Margaret Sanger and the Birth Control Movement in America, New York: Simon and Schuster, ISBN 978-1-4165-4076-2
• Coates, Patricia (2008), Margaret Sanger and the Origin of the Birth Control Movement, 1910–1930: The Concept of Women's Sexual Autonomy, Lewiston, New York: Edwin Mellen Press, ISBN 978-0-7734-5099-8
• Cohen, Warren (2009). Profiles in Humanity: The Battle for Peace, Freedom, Equality, and Human Rights. Lanham, MD: Rowman & Littlefield. ISBN 978-0-7425-6703-0. OCLC 434016837.
• Coigney, Virginia (1969), Margaret Sanger: Rebel With a Cause, Doubleday
• Cox, Vicki (2005). Margaret Sanger: Rebel for Women's Rights. Philadelphia: Chelsea House Publishers. ISBN 978-1-4381-0759-2. OCLC 613206381.
• Craig, Layne (2013), When Sex Changed Birth Control Politics and Literature between the World Wars, Rutgers University Press, ISBN 978-0-8135-6212-4
• Dietrich, Alicia (2010), "What Every Girl Should Know: The Birth Control Movement in the 1910s", Cultural Compass at the Harry Ransom Center
• Engelman, Peter (2011). A History of the Birth Control Movement in America. Santa Barbara, CA: Praeger. ISBN 978-0-313-36510-2. OCLC 728097821.
• Franks, Angela (2005), Margaret Sanger's eugenic legacy the control of female fertility, Jefferson, N.C: McFarland, ISBN 978-0-7864-5404-4
• Freedman, Estelle (2007), The essential feminist reader, New York: Modern Library, ISBN 978-0-8129-7460-7
• Gordon, Linda (1976), Woman's body, woman's right: a social history of birth control in America, New York: Grossman, ISBN 978-0-670-77817-1
• Gray, Madeline (1979), Margaret Sanger: a biography of the champion of birth control, New York: R. Marek, ISBN 978-0-399-90019-8
• Hajo, Cathy (2010), Birth control on main street: organizing clinics in the United States, 1916–1939, Urbana: University of Illinois Press, ISBN 978-0-252-07725-8
• Hale, Robert (April 11, 1925). "The child who was mother to a woman". Profiles. The New Yorker. Vol. 1, no. 8. pp. 11–12.
• Hitchcock, Susan (2008), Roe v. Wade: Protecting a Woman's Right to Choose, New York: Chelsea, ISBN 978-1-4381-0342-6
• Katz, Esther (2000), "Sanger, Margaret", American National Biography Online, New York: Oxford University Press
• Kennedy, David (1970). Birth Control in America: The Career of Margaret Sanger. New Haven: Yale University Press. ISBN 978-0-300-01202-6. OCLC 70781307.
• Kevles, Daniel (1985), In the name of eugenics: genetics and the uses of human heredity, Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press, ISBN 978-0-520-05763-0
• Lader, Lawrence (1955). The Margaret Sanger Story and the Fight for Birth Control. Garden City, NY: Doubleday. OCLC 910372158. Reprinted: The Margaret Sanger story and the fight for birth control. Westport, CT: Greenwood Press. 1975. ISBN 978-0-8371-7076-3. OCLC 703034.
• Lader, Lawrence and Meltzer, Milton (1969), Margaret Sanger: pioneer of birth control, Crowell
• McCann, Carole R (1994). Birth control politics in the United States, 1916-1945. Cornell University Press. ISBN 978-0-8014-8612-8. OCLC 988564989.
• McCann, Carole (2010). "Women as Leaders in the Contraceptive Movement". In O'Connor, Karen (ed.). Gender and Women's Leadership: A Reference Handbook. Vol. 2. Thousand Oaks, Calif: SAGE Reference. ISBN 978-1-84972-763-1. OCLC 568741234.
• Reed, Miriam (2003), Margaret Sanger: her life in her words, Fort Lee, NJ: Barricade Books, ISBN 978-1-56980-255-7
• Rodriguez, Sarah Mellors (2023). Reproductive realities in modern China: birth control and abortion, 1911–2021. Cambridge, United Kingdom: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-1-009-02733-5. OCLC 1366057905.
• Rosenbaum, Judith (2011), "The Call to Action: Margaret Sanger, the Brownsville Jewish Women, and Political Activism", in Kaplan, Marion; Moore, Deborah (eds.), Gender and Jewish history, Bloomington: Indiana University Press, ISBN 978-0-253-22263-3
• Rosenberg, Rosalind (2008), Divided Lives: American women in the twentieth century, New York: Hill and Wang, ISBN 978-0-8090-1631-0
• Sanger, Margaret (1919). "Birth Control and Racial Betterment". Birth Control Review. Vol. 3, no. 2. The New York Women's Publishing Company. pp. 11–12 – via The Margaret Sanger Papers Project.
• Sanger, Margaret (1922), The Pivot of Civilization, New York: Brentano's, ISBN 978-0-8277-2004-6
• Sanger, Margaret (1938), Autobiography of Margaret Sanger, City: Dover Publications, ISBN 978-0-486-12083-6
• Sanger, Margaret; Katz, Esther; Hajo, Cathy Moran; Engelman, Peter C (2003). The selected papers of Margaret Sanger. Vol. V. 1: The Woman Rebel 1900–1928. University of Illinois Press. ISBN 0-252-02737-X. OCLC 773147056.
• Shone, Steve J. (2019). "Margaret Sanger: The Scientist of Human Salvation". Women of Liberty. Studies in Critical Social Sciences. Vol. 135. Brill Publishers. pp. 239–262. doi:10.1163/9789004393226_010. ISBN 978-90-04-39045-4. S2CID 211982781.
• Valenza, Charles (1985), "Was Margaret Sanger a Racist?", Family Planning Perspectives, 17 (1), Guttmacher Institute: 44–46, doi:10.2307/2135230, JSTOR 2135230, PMID 3884362
• Viney, Wayne; King, D. A. (2003), A history of psychology: ideas and context, Boston: Allyn and Bacon, ISBN 978-0-205-33582-4

Historiography

• Dinger, Sandi L. (1998). "Sanger, Margaret". In Amico, Eleanor B. (ed.). Reader's Guide to Women's Studies. Chicago: Fitzroy Dearborn Publishers. pp. 505–506. ISBN 978-1884964770. OCLC 906760335.

External links

• Resources in your library
• Resources in other libraries

• Works by Margaret Sanger at Project Gutenberg
• Works by or about Margaret Sanger at the Internet Archive
• Works by Margaret Sanger at LibriVox (public domain audiobooks)
• Works by Margaret Sanger at Open Library
• Margaret Sanger Papers Archived May 27, 2011, at the Wayback Machine at the Sophia Smith Collection, Smith College
• Interview Archived April 8, 2019, at the Wayback Machine conducted by Mike Wallace, September 21, 1957. Hosted at the Harry Ransom Center.
• Michals, Debra "Margaret Sanger". National Women's History Museum. 2017.
• Opposition claims about Margaret Sanger. Planned Parenthood. 2021.

• 1879 births
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