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{{short description|Cool weather staple grain, animal feed}}
{{Taxobox
{{good article}}
| color = lightgreen
{{About|the common cereal}}
| name = Oat
{{Redirect|Oats|other cultivated and wild species of the ]|Avena}}
| image = Avena-sativa.jpg
{{Speciesbox
| image_width = 250px
| image = AvenaSativa3.jpg
| image_caption = Closeup of oat kernels
| image_caption =
| regnum = ]
| image_alt = Oat plants with ]s
| divisio = ]
| genus = Avena
| classis = ]
| ordo = ] | species = sativa
| familia = ] | authority = ] (1753)
| genus = '']''
| species = '''''A. sativa'''''
| binomial = ''Avena sativa''
| binomial_authority = ] (1753)
}} }}
The '''Oat''' (''Avena sativa'') is a species of ], and the ]s of this ]. They are used for food for ] and as fodder for ]s, especially ] and ]s. Oat ] is used as animal bedding and sometimes as animal feed.


The '''oat''' ('''''Avena sativa'''''), sometimes called the '''common oat''', is a ] of ] grown for its seed, which is known by the same name (usually in the plural). Oats appear to have been ] as a ], as their seeds resembled those of other cereals closely enough for them to be included by early cultivators. Oats tolerate cold winters less well than cereals such as ], ], and ], but need less summer heat and more rain, making them important in areas such as Northwest Europe that have cool wet summers. They can tolerate low-nutrient and acid soils. Oats grow thickly and vigorously, allowing them to outcompete many weeds, and compared to other cereals are relatively free from diseases.
Since oats are unsuitable for making bread, they are often served as a ] made from crushed or ], ], and are also baked into ] (oatcakes) together with ]. As oat ] or oatmeal, they are also used in a variety of other baked goods and cold cereals, and as an ingredient in ] and ]. Oats may also be consumed raw, and cookies with raw oats are quickly becoming popular. Oats are also occasionally used in ] for ] ]. '']'' is one variety brewed using a percentage of oats for the ].


Oats are used for human consumption as ], including as ] or ]. Global production is dominated by Canada and Russia; global trade is a small part of production, most of the grain being consumed within the producing countries. Oats are a ]-rich food associated with lower blood ] and reduced risk of human ] when consumed regularly. One of the most common uses of oats is as ] feed; the crop can also be grown as groundcover and ploughed in as a green manure.
Oats also have non-food uses. Oat straw is also used in ] making, and it is the favourite filling for ] pillows. Oat extract can be used to soothe the skin conditions, e.g. in baths, skin products, etc.


== Origins ==
A now obsolete ] name for the plant was ''haver'' (still used in most other ]), surviving in the name of the ] feeding bag '']''. In contrast with the names of the other grains, "oat" is usually used in the plural.


==Distribution== === Phylogeny ===
{{agricultural production box
|plant=Oats
|year=2005
|country1={{RUS}} | amount1=5.1
|country2= {{CAN}} |amount2= 3.3
|country3= {{USA}} |amount3= 1.7
|country4= {{POL}} |amount4= 1.3
|country5= {{FIN}} |amount5= 1.2
|country6= {{AUS}}|amount6= 1.1
|country7= {{GER}} |amount7= 1.0
|country8= {{BLR}} |amount8= 0.8
|country9= {{CHN}} |amount9= 0.8
|country10= {{UKR}} |amount10= 0.8
|world=24.6
}}


]
Oats are native to ] and appear to have been domesticated relatively late. They are now grown throughout the ] zones. They have a lower summer heat requirement and greater tolerance of ] than other cereals like ], ] or ], so are particularly important in areas with cool, wet summers such as northwest ], even being grown successfully in ]. Oats are an ], and can be planted either in the fall (for late summer harvest) or in the spring (for early ] harvest).


] using molecular DNA and morphological evidence places the oat genus '']'' in the ] subfamily. That subfamily includes the cereals ], ], and ]; they are in the ] tribe, while ''Avena'' is in the ], along with grasses such as '']'' and '']''.<ref name="Soreng-2017">{{cite journal |last1=Soreng |first1=Robert J. |last2=Peterson |first2=Paul M. |last3=Romaschenko |first3=Konstantin |last4=Davidse |first4=Gerrit |last5=Teisher |first5=Jordan K. |last6=Clark |first6=Lynn G. |last7=Barberá |first7=Patricia |last8=Gillespie |first8=Lynn J. |last9=Zuloaga |first9=Fernando O. |display-authors=6 |title=A worldwide phylogenetic classification of the Poaceae (Gramineae) II: An update and a comparison of two 2015 classifications |journal=Journal of Systematics and Evolution |volume=55 |issue=4 |date=2017 |doi=10.1111/jse.12262 |pages=259–290 |hdl=10261/240149 |hdl-access=free}}</ref> The wild ancestor of ''Avena sativa'' and the closely related minor crop – '']'' – is '']'', a naturally ] wild oat, one that has its ] in six sets of ]s. ] shows that the ancestral forms of ''A. sterilis'' grew in the ] of the Near East.<ref name="Burger-2008">{{cite journal |issue=2 |year=2008 |pages=113–122 |last1=Burger |first1=Jutta C. |last2=Chapman |first2=Mark A. |last3=Burke |first3=John M. |volume=95 |s2cid=8521495 |pmid=21632337 |doi=10.3732/ajb.95.2.113 |title=Molecular insights into the evolution of crop plants |journal=American Journal of Botany |doi-access=free}}</ref><ref name="Zhou-1999">{{cite journal |last1=Zhou |first1=X. |last2=Jellen |first2=E.N. |last3=Murphy |first3=J.P. |year=1999 |title=Progenitor germplasm of domesticated hexaploid oat |url= |journal=] |volume=39 |issue=4 |pages=1208–1214 |s2cid=8521495 |pmid=21632337 |doi=10.2135/cropsci1999.0011183x003900040042x}}</ref>
Historical attitudes towards oats vary. In ] they were considered an inferior grain, because they cannot be made into bread but only "inferior" foods such as porridge or oatcakes, and because they are associated with poorer areas where wheat cannot be grown, with less sun, more rain and less fertile soil, and where as a consequence the people were literally poorer. In ] they were, and still are, held in high esteem, as a mainstay of the national diet. A traditional saying in England is that "oats are only fit to be fed to horses and Scotsmen", to which the Scottish riposte is "and England has the finest horses, and Scotland the finest men". ] notoriously defined ''oats'' in his ''Dictionary'' as "a grain, which in England is generally given to horses, but in Scotland supports the people". While frequently seen as derogatory, this is no less than the literal truth. Oats are so central to traditional Scottish cuisine that the ] word "corn" refers to oats (as opposed to it meaning ] in England and ] in ] and ]). Oats grown in Scotland command a premium price throughout the ] as a result of these traditions.


Analysis of maternal lineages of 25 ''Avena'' species using ] and ] showed that ''A. sativa''{{'s}} hexaploid genome derives from three ] oat species (each with two sets of chromosomes); the sets are dubbed A, B, C, and D. The diploid species are the CC ''A. ventricosa'', the AA ''A. canariensis'', and the AA ''A. longiglumis'', along with two tetraploid oats (each with four sets), namely the AACC ''A. insularis'' and the AABB ''A. agadiriana''. Tetraploids were formed as much as 10.6 ], and hexaploids as much as 7.4 mya.<ref name="Fu-2018">{{cite journal |last=Fu |first=Yong-Bi |title=Oat evolution revealed in the maternal lineages of 25 ''Avena'' species |journal=Scientific Reports |volume=8 |issue=1 |date=2018 |page=4252 |pmid=29523798 |pmc=5844911 |doi=10.1038/s41598-018-22478-4 |bibcode=2018NatSR...8.4252F }}<!--paper is CC-by-SA--></ref>{{-}}
The discovery of the healthy cholesterol-lowering properties has led to wider appreciation of oats as human food.


=== Domestication ===
==Health==
Oats are generally considered healthy, or ], being touted commercially as nutritious.


Genomic study suggests that the hulled variety and the naked variety ''A. sativa var. nuda'' diverged around 51,200 years ago, long before ]. This implies that the two varieties were domesticated independently.<ref name="Nan-2022">{{cite journal |last1=Nan |first1=Jinsheng |last2=Ling |first2=Yu |last3=An |first3=Jianghong |last4=Wang |first4=Ting |last5=Chai |first5=Mingna |last6=Fu |first6=Jun |last7=Wang |first7=Gaochao |last8=Yang |first8=Cai |last9=Yang |first9=Yan |last10=Han |first10=Bing |title=Genome resequencing reveals independent domestication and breeding improvement of naked oat |journal=GigaScience |volume=12 |date=2022-12-28 |pmid=37524540 |pmc=10390318 |doi=10.1093/gigascience/giad061}}</ref>
]
=== Soluble Fibre ===
Oat ] is the outer casing of the oat. Its consumption is believed to lower ] ("bad") ], and possibly to reduce the risk of ].


Oats are thought to have emerged as a ]. This means that they are derived from what was considered a weed of the primary ] domesticates such as wheat. They survived as a ] by having grains that ] people found hard to distinguish from the primary crop.<ref name="Zhou-1999"/>
After reports found that oats can help lower cholesterol, an "oat bran craze" swept the U.S. in the late 1980s, peaking in ], when potato chips with added oat bran were marketed. The food fad was short-lived and faded by the early 1990s. The popularity of oatmeal and other oat products again increased after the January ] decision by the ] (FDA) when it issued its final rule allowing a ] to be made on the labels of foods containing "soluble fiber" from whole oats (oat bran, oat flour and rolled oats), noting that 3 grams of soluble fiber daily from these foods, in conjunction with a diet low in "saturated fat" and "cholesterol", and "low fat" may reduce the risk of heart disease. In order to qualify for the health claim, the whole oat-containing food must provide at least 0.75 grams of soluble fiber per serving. The soluble fiber in whole oats comprise a class of polysaccharides known as ]


Oats were cultivated for some thousands of years before they were domesticated. A granary from the ], about 11,400 to 11,200 years ago in the ] in the Middle East contained a large number of wild oat grains (120,000 seeds of ''A. sterilis''). The find implies ]. Domesticated oat grains first appear in the archaeological record in Europe around 3000 years ago.<ref name="Zhou-1999" /><ref name="Nan-2022" /><ref name="Weiss-2006">{{cite journal |last1=Weiss |first1=Ehud |last2=Kislev |first2=Mordechai E. |last3=Hartmann |first3=Anat |title=Autonomous Cultivation Before Domestication |journal=Science |volume=312 |issue=5780 |date=2006-06-16 |doi=10.1126/science.1127235 |pages=1608–1610 |pmid=16778044 }}</ref>
Beta-D-glucans, usually referred to as beta-glucans, comprise a class of non-digestible polysaccharides widely found in nature in such sources as oats, barley, yeast, bacteria, algae and mushrooms. In oats, barley and other cereal grains, they are located primarily in the endosperm cell wall.


== Description ==
Oat beta-glucan is a soluble fiber. It is a viscous polysaccharide made up of units of the sugar D-glucose. Oat beta-glucan is comprised of mixed-linkage polysaccharides. This means that the bonds between the D-glucose or D-glucopyranosyl units are either beta-1, 3 linkages or beta-1, 4 linkages. This type of beta-glucan is also referred to as a mixed-linkage (1→3), (1→4)-beta-D-glucan. The (1→3)-linkages break up the uniform structure of the beta-D-glucan molecule and make it soluble and flexible. In comparison, the nondigestible polysaccharide ] is also a beta-glucan but is non-soluble. The reason that it is non-soluble is that cellulose consists only of (1→4)-beta-D-linkages. The percentages of beta-glucan in the various whole oat products are: oat bran, greater than 5.5% and up to 23.0%; rolled oats, about 4%; whole oat flour about 4%.


The oat is a tall stout grass, a member of the family ]; it can grow to a height of {{convert|1.8|m|ft}}. The leaves are long, narrow, and pointed, and grow upwards; they can be some {{convert|15|to|40|cm|in}} in length, and around {{convert|5|to|15|mm|in}} in width. At the top of the stem, the plant branches into a loose cluster or ] of ]s. These contain the ] flowers, which mature into the oat seeds or grains.<ref name="RBGKew">{{cite web |title=Avena sativa: Common oat |url=https://www.kew.org/plants/common-oat |publisher=Royal Botanic Gardens Kew |access-date=2 May 2024}}</ref> Botanically the grain is a ], as the wall of the fruit is fused on to the actual seed. Like other cereal grains, the caryopsis contains the outer husk or ], the starchy food store or ] which occupies most of the seed, and the protein-rich ] which if planted in soil can grow into a new plant.<ref name="Arendt-2013">{{cite book |last1=Arendt |first1=Elke K. |last2=Zannini |first2=Emanuele |title=Cereal Grains for the Food and Beverage Industries |chapter=Oats |publisher=Elsevier |date=2013 |isbn=978-0-85709-413-1 |doi=10.1533/9780857098924.243 |page=243–283e}}</ref>
Oats after corn (maize) has the highest ] content of any cereal, e.g., >10 percent for oats and as high as 17 percent for some maize cultivars compared to about 2-3 percent for wheat and most other cereals. The polar ] content of oats(about 8-17% glycolipid and 10-20% phospholipid or a total of about 33% ) is greater than that of other cereals since much of the lipid fraction is contained within the ].


<gallery class=center mode=nolines widths=180 heights=180>
=== Protein ===
File:The British grasses and sedges (1858) (14760840811).jpg|Botanical illustration
{{nutritionalvalue | name=Oats | kJ=1628 | protein=17 g | fat=7 g | carbs=66 g | fiber=11 g | iron_mg=5 | magnesium_mg=177 | thamin_mg=0.8 | pantothenic_mg=1.3 | folate_ug=56 | opt1n=β-glucan (soluble fiber)&nbsp; | opt1v=4 g | source_usda=1 | right=1 }}
File:Avena-sativa.jpg|Oat ]s, containing the small wind-pollinated flowers
Oat is the only cereal containing a ] or ]-like protein, avenalins, as the major (80%) storage protein. Globulins are characterized by water solubility; because of this property, oats may be turned into milk but not into bread. The more typical cereal proteins, such as ] are "prolamines." The minor protein of oat is a prolamine: avenin.
File:Avena sativa MHNT.BOT.2015.2.33.jpg|Panicle with spikelets containing seeds
File:Memoir (18277049629) (cropped).jpg|1 ''A. sterilis'', 2 ''A. sativa'', spikelet and base of outer grain of both cultivated species
</gallery>


== Agronomy ==
Oat protein is nearly equivalent in quality to ] which has been shown by the ] to be the equal to meat, milk, and egg protein. The protein content of the hull-less oat kernel (]) ranges from 12–24%, the highest among cereals. {Radomir Lasztity. 1999. The chemistry of oats. In: Cereal Chemistry. Akademiai Kiado(English)}


=== Celiac Disease === === Cultivation ===
], or celiac disease, from Greek "koiliakos", meaning "suffering in the bowels", is a disease often associated with ingestion of ], or more specifically a group of proteins labelled ], or more commonly, ].


Oats are ]s best grown in ] regions.<ref name="RBGKew"/> They tolerate cold winters less well than wheat, ], or barley; they are harmed by sustained cold below {{convert|20|F|C|order=flip}}.<ref>{{cite web |last=Bliss |first=Rosalie Marion |title=Hardy Oats Stand the Cold |url=https://www.ars.usda.gov/news-events/news/research-news/2005/hardy-oats-stand-the-cold/ |publisher=USDA Agricultural Research Service |access-date=21 July 2024}}</ref> They have a lower summer heat requirement and greater tolerance of (and need for) rain than the other cereals mentioned, so they are particularly important in areas with cool, wet summers, such as Northwest Europe.<ref name="RBGKew"/><ref>{{cite web |title=Oat Growth Guide |url=https://www.hutton.ac.uk/sites/default/files/files/publications/Oat-Growth-Guide.pdf |publisher=] |access-date=2 May 2024}}</ref>
Oats lack many of the ] found in wheat; however, oats do contain avenin. Avenin is a prolamine which is toxic to the intestinal submucosa and can trigger a reaction in some celiacs.


Oats can grow in most fertile, drained soils, being tolerant of a wide variety of soil types. Although better yields are achieved at a soil pH of 5.3 to 5.7, oats can tolerate soils with a pH as low as 4.5. They are better able to grow in low-nutrient soils than wheat or ], but generally are less tolerant of high soil salinity than other cereals.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Forsberg |first=Robert A. |title=The Oat Crop |date=1995 |publisher=] |isbn=978-0-412-37310-7 |location=Suffolk |pages=223–224}}</ref>
Additionally, oats are frequently processed near wheat, barley and other grains such that they become contaminated with other glutens. Because of this, the ]:n ] officially lists them as a crop containing gluten. Oats from ] and ], where less wheat is grown, are less likely to be contaminated in this way.


<gallery mode=packed heights=160>
Oats are part of gluten free diet in, for example, Finland and Sweden. In both of these countries there are "pure oat" products in the market.
File:Havreskjering Fossheim Lindahl.jpeg|Harvest in ], Norway, {{circa}} 1890
File:Harvesting oats in Brastad.jpg|Harvesting oats in ], Sweden, 2021
</gallery>


=== Weeds, pests, and diseases ===
==Agronomy==
Oats are sown in the spring, as soon as the soil can be worked. An early start is crucial to good yields as oats will go dormant during the summer heat. Oats are cold-tolerant and will be unaffected by late frosts or snow. Typically about 100 kg/hectare (about 2 bushels per acre) are sown, either broadcast or drilled in 150 mm (6 inch) rows. Lower rates are used when ] with a ]. Somewhat higher rates can be used on the best soils. Excessive sowing rates will lead to problems with lodging and may reduce yields.


{{main|List of oat diseases}}
]


] ]]
Winter oats may be grown as an off-season ] and plowed under in the spring as a ].


Oats can outcompete many weeds, as they grow thickly (with many leafy shoots) and vigorously, but are still subject to some ]s. Control can be by herbicides, or by ] with measures such as sowing seed that is free of weeds.<ref>{{cite web |title=Oats: weeds and integrated weed management |url=https://www.agric.wa.gov.au/hay-production/oats-weeds-and-integrated-weed-management?nopaging=1 |publisher=Government of Western Australia |access-date=2 May 2024}}</ref>
Oats remove substantial amounts of ] from the soil. If the straw is removed from the soil rather than being ploughed back, there will also be removal of large quantities of ]. Usually 50-100 kg/hectare (50-100 pounds per acre) of nitrogen in the form of ] or ] is sufficient. A sufficient amount of nitrogen is particularly important for plant height and hence straw quality and yield. When the prior-year crop was a legume, or where ample manure is applied, nitrogen rates can be reduced somewhat.


Oats are relatively free from diseases. Nonetheless, they suffer from some leaf diseases, such as stem rust (]) and crown rust (]).<ref name="Pratap-2014">{{ Cite book |year=2014 |location=] |publisher=] |first2=Jitendra |first1=Aditya |last2=Kumar |last1=Pratap |volume=2 : Achievements and impacts |title=Alien Gene Transfer in Crop Plants |id={{ISBN|978-1-4614-9572-7}} |doi=10.1007/978-1-4614-9572-7 |isbn=978-1-4614-9571-0 |s2cid=26278759 |lccn=2013957869 |oclc=870451823 |page=51}}</ref>
The vigorous growth habit of oats will tend to choke out most weeds. A few tall ] weeds, such as ], ] and ] (velvetleaf), can occasionally be a problem as they complicate harvest. These can be controlled with a modest application of a broadleaf herbicide such as ] while the weeds are still small.
Crown rust infection can greatly reduce photosynthesis and overall physiological activities of oat leaves, thereby reducing growth and crop yield.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Nazareno |first1=Eric S. |last2=Li |first2=Feng |last3=Smith |first3=Madeleine |last4=Park |first4=Robert F. |last5=Kianian |first5=Shahryar F. |last6=Figueroa |first6=Melania |date=May 2018 |title=Puccinia coronata f. sp. avenae : a threat to global oat production |journal=Molecular Plant Pathology |volume=19 |issue=5 |pages=1047–1060 |doi=10.1111/mpp.12608 |pmc=6638059 |pmid=28846186}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.ars.usda.gov/Main/docs.htm?docid=9919 |title=Oat crown rust |date=18 April 2008 |access-date=15 November 2015 |website=Cereal Disease Laboratory |publisher=United States Department of Agriculture{{!}} Agricultural Research Service}}</ref>


Oats are attacked by ]s and by insects including aphids, armyworms, cockchafers, grasshoppers, thrips, and wireworms. Most of these pests are not specific to oats, and only occasionally cause significant damage to oat crops.{{cn|date=August 2024}}
Modern harvest technique is a matter of available equipment, local tradition, and priorities. Best yields are attained by ], cutting the plants at about 10 cm (4 inches) above ground and putting them into windrows with the grain all oriented the same way, just before the grain is completely ripe. The windrows are left to dry in the sun for several days before being combined using a dummy head. Then the straw is baled.


=== Processing ===
Oats can also be left standing until completely ripe and then combined with a grain head. This will lead to greater field losses as the grain falls from the heads and to harvesting losses as the grain is threshed out by the reel. Without a draper head, there will also be somewhat more damage to the straw since it will not be properly oriented as it enters the throat of the ]. Overall yield loss is 10-15% compared to proper swathing.


] oats, ready to cook ]]
Late ] and early 20th century harvesting was performed using a ]. Oats were gathered into shocks and then collected and run through a stationary ].


Harvested oats go through multiple stages of milling. The first stage is cleaning, to remove seeds of other plants, stones and any other extraneous materials. Next is dehulling to remove the indigestible bran, leaving the seed or "]". Heating denatures ]s in the seed that would make it go sour or rancid; the grain is then dried to minimise the risk of spoilage by bacteria and fungi. There may follow numerous stages of cutting or grinding the grain, depending on which sort of product is required. For oatmeal (oat flour), the grain is ground to a specified fineness. For home use such as making ], oats are often rolled flat to make them quicker to cook.<ref name="Decker-2014">{{cite journal | last1=Decker | first1=Eric A. | last2=Rose | first2=Devin J. | last3=Stewart | first3=Derek | title=Processing of oats and the impact of processing operations on nutrition and health benefits | journal=British Journal of Nutrition | volume=112 | issue=S2 | date=2014 | doi=10.1017/S000711451400227X | pages=S58–S64| pmid=25267246 }}</ref>
Earlier harvest involved cutting with a scythe or sickle, and threshing under the feet of cattle.


Oat flour can be ground for small scale use by pulsing ] or old-fashioned (not quick) oats in a ] or spice mill.<ref name="Galvin-2011">{{cite book |last1=Galvin |first1=Meg |last2=Romine |first2=Stepfanie |title=The SparkPeople Cookbook |publisher=] |publication-place=Carlsbad, California |date=2011 |isbn=978-1-4019-3132-2 |oclc=709682714 |page=98}}</ref>
A good yield is typically about 3000 kg/hectare (100 bushels/acre) of grain and two tonnes of straw.


== Trivia == == Production and trade ==
* The eruption of ] caused a change in world ] resulting in a ] and the "]" in ], during which time the price of oats rose dramatically, for example in the ] from 12 to 92 ] per ]. This led to the starvation of many ]s, which in turn led to ] problems, which ] attempted to solve by inventing the ], the direct precursor to the ].


{| class="wikitable" style="float:right; clear:right; width:14em; text-align:center; margin-right:1em;"
* Bodybuilders may be known to eat copious amounts of oats to get adequate carbohydrate.
|+ Oats production – 2022
|-
! style="background:#ddf; |Country
! style="background:#ddf; |Millions of ]s
|-
| {{CAN}} || 5.2
|-
| {{RUS}} || 4.5
|-
| {{AUS}} || 1.7
|-
| {{POL}} || 1.5
|-
| {{BRA}} || 1.3
|-
| {{FIN}} || 1.2
|-
| {{UK}} || 1.1
|-
| '''World''' || '''26.4'''
|-
|colspan=2|<small>Source: ] of the United Nations</small><ref name="UN FAOSTAT-2024">{{cite web |url=http://www.fao.org/faostat/en/#data/QC |title=Oats production in 2022, Crops/Regions/World list/Production Quantity/Year (pick lists) |year=2024 |publisher=UN Food and Agriculture Organization, Corporate Statistical Database (FAOSTAT) |access-date=29 May 2024}}</ref>
|}


In 2022, global production of oats was 26 million tonnes, led by Canada with 20% of the total and Russia with 17% (table). This compares to over 100 million tonnes for ], for example.<ref name="UN FAOSTAT-2024"/> Global trade represents a modest percentage of production, less than 10%, most of the grain being consumed within producing countries. The main exporter is Canada, followed by Sweden and Finland; the US is the main importer.<ref name="Webster-2016">{{cite book |last=Webster |first=Francis |title=Oats |publisher=] |date=2016 |isbn=978-0-12-810452-1 |pages=1–10 |url=https://www.google.co.uk/books/edition/Oats/HhIvDAAAQBAJ&pg=PA5}}</ref>
==See also==
*]
*]
*]


Oats ] are traded in US dollars in quantities of 5000 bushels on the ] and have delivery dates in March, May, July, September, and December.<ref>{{cite web |title=Oats |url=https://www.deposits.org/dictionary/term/oats/ |publisher=Deposits.org |access-date=2 May 2024}}</ref>
==External links==
*
*
*


== Genomics ==

=== Genome ===

''Avena sativa'' is an ] species with three ancestral ] (2''n''=6''x''=42; AACCDD).<ref name="Marone-2022"/><ref name="Park-2022b">{{Cite journal |year=2022 |issue=11 |last1=Park |first1=R. F. |last2=Boshoff |first2=W. H. P. |last3=Cabral |first3=A. L. |last4=Chong |first4=J. |last5=Martinelli |first5=J. A. |last6=McMullen |first6=M. S. |last7=Fetch |first7=J. W. Mitchell |last8=Paczos-Grzęda |first8=E. |last9=Prats |first9=E. |last10=Roake |first10=J. |last11=Sowa |first11=S. |last12=Ziems |first12=L. |last13=Singh |first13=D. |display-authors=6 |pages=3709–3734 |s2cid=249381794 |doi=10.1007/s00122-022-04121-z |id=RFP {{ORCID |0000-0002-9145-5371}} |title=Breeding oat for resistance to the crown rust pathogen ''Puccinia coronata'' f. sp. ''avenae'': achievements and prospects |journal=Theoretical and Applied Genetics |volume=135 |pmid=35665827 |pmc=9729147 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Latta |first1=Robert G. |last2=Bekele |first2=Wubishet A. |last3=Wight |first3=Charlene P. |last4=Tinker |first4=Nicholas A. |title=Comparative linkage mapping of diploid, tetraploid, and hexaploid ''Avena'' species suggests extensive chromosome rearrangement in ancestral diploids |journal=] |date=23 August 2019 |volume=9 |issue=1 |pages=12298 |s2cid=201283146 |id=CPW {{ORCID |0000-0003-1410-5631}} |doi=10.1038/s41598-019-48639-7 |pmid=31444367 |pmc=6707241 |bibcode=2019NatSR...912298L}}</ref> As a result, the genome is large (12.6 Gb, 1C-value=12.85) and complex.<ref name="Kole-2020">{{Cite book |year=2020 |pages=133–169 |title=Genomic Designing of Climate-Smart Cereal Crops |s2cid=211554462 |doi=10.1007/978-3-319-93381-8 |isbn=978-3-319-93380-1 |editor-last1=Kole |editor-first1=Chittaranjan }}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Yan |first1=Honghai |last2=Martin |first2=Sara L. |last3=Bekele |first3=Wubishet A. |last4=Latta |first4=Robert G. |last5=Diederichsen |first5=Axel |last6=Peng |first6=Yuanying |last7=Tinker |first7=Nicholas A. |date=2016-01-17 |title=Genome size variation in the genus ''Avena'' |journal=] |volume=59 |issue=3 |pages=209–220 |s2cid=22267641 |doi=10.1139/gen-2015-0132 |pmid=26881940 |hdl=1807/71262 |hdl-access=free }}</ref> Cultivated hexaploid oat has a unique mosaic chromosome architecture that is the result of numerous translocations between the three subgenomes.<ref name="Marone-2022">{{Cite journal |language=en |year=2022 |publisher=BioMed Central |volume=18 |issue=128 | first2=Harmeet |first1=Marina |first3=Curtis |last3=Pozniak |last2=Singh |last1=Marone |journal=Plant Methods |issn=1746-4811 |s2cid=254152395 |title=A technical guide to TRITEX, a computational pipeline for chromosome-scale sequence assembly of plant genomes |page=128 |doi=10.1186/s13007-022-00964-1 |pmid=36461065 |pmc=9719158 |doi-access=free}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Kamal |first1=Nadia |last2=Tsardakas Renhuldt |first2=Nikos |last3=Bentzer |first3=Johan |last4=Gundlach |first4=Heidrun |last5=Haberer |first5=Georg |last6=Juhász |first6=Angéla |last7=Lux |first7=Thomas |last8=Bose |first8=Utpal |last9=Tye-Din |first9=Jason A. |last10=Lang |first10=Daniel |last11=van Gessel |first11=Nico |last12=Reski |first12=Ralf |last13=Fu |first13=Yong-Bi |last14=Spégel |first14=Peter |last15=Ceplitis |first15=Alf |display-authors=6 |date=2022-06-01 |title=The mosaic oat genome gives insights into a uniquely healthy cereal crop |journal=] |language=en |volume=606 |issue=7912 |pages=113–119 |doi=10.1038/s41586-022-04732-y |s2cid=248890897 |issn=1476-4687 |pmc=9159951 |pmid=35585233 |bibcode=2022Natur.606..113K}}
</ref> These translocations may cause breeding barriers and incompatibilities when crossing varieties with different chromosomal architecture. Hence, oat breeding and the crossing of desired traits has been hampered by the lack of a reference genome assembly. In May 2022, a fully annotated reference genome sequence of ''Avena sativa'' was reported.<ref name="Marone-2022" /> The AA subgenome is presumed to be derived from ''Avena longiglumis'' and the CCDD from the tetraploid '']''.<ref name="Marone-2022"/>

=== Genetics and breeding ===

Species of ''Avena'' can ], and genes ] (brought in) from other "A" genome species have contributed many valuable traits, like resistance to ].<ref name="Ye-2021">{{Cite journal |issue=1 |year=2021 |volume=14 |pages=27–39 |last1=Ye |first1=Chu-Yu |last2=Fan |first2=Longjiang |s2cid=229342158 |doi=10.1016/j.molp.2020.12.013 |title=Orphan Crops and their Wild Relatives in the Genomic Era |journal=Molecular Plant |pmid=33346062 |doi-access=free}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Maughan |first1=Peter J. |last2=Lee |first2=Rebekah |last3=Walstead |first3=Rachel |last4=Vickerstaff |first4=Robert J. |last5=Fogarty |first5=Melissa C. |last6=Brouwer |first6=Cory R. |last7=Reid |first7=Robert R. |last8=Jay |first8=Jeremy J. |last9=Bekele |first9=Wubishet A. |last10=Jackson |first10=Eric W. |last11=Tinker |first11=Nicholas A. |last12=Langdon |first12=Tim |last13=Schlueter |first13=Jessica A. |last14=Jellen |first14=Eric N. |display-authors=6 |title=Genomic insights from the first chromosome-scale assemblies of oat (''Avena'' spp.) diploid species |journal=BMC Biology |date=22 November 2019 |volume=17 |issue=1 |pages=92 |s2cid=208225185 |doi=10.1186/s12915-019-0712-y |pmid=31757219 |pmc=6874827 |doi-access=free }}</ref> {{ Visible anchor |Pc98 }} is one such trait, introgressed from ], conferring ] (ASR) against ''Pca''.<ref name="Park-2022a">{{cite journal |year=2022 |publisher=Springer Science and Business Media |display-authors=6 |first13=D. |first12=L. |first11=S. |first10=J. |first9=E. |first8=E. |first7=J. |first6=M. |first5=J. |first4=J. |first3=A. |first2=W. |first1=R. |last13=Singh |last7=Fetch |last6=McMullen |last5=Martinelli |last4=Chong |last3=Cabral |last2=Boshoff |last12=Ziems |last11=Sowa |last10=Roake |last9=Prats |last8=Paczos |last1=Park |journal=Theoretical and Applied Genetics |issn=0040-5752 |doi=10.1007/s00122-022-04121-z |title=Breeding oat for resistance to the crown rust pathogen ''Puccinia coronata'' f. sp. ''avenae'': achievements and prospects |series=Breeding towards Agricultural Sustainability |volume=135 |issue=11 |pages=3709–3734 |pmid=35665827 |pmc=9729147 |s2cid=249381794 |doi-access=free }}</ref>

It is possible to hybridize oats with grasses in other genera, allowing plant breeders the ready introgression of traits. In contrast to ], oats sometimes retain ] from ] or ] after such crosses. These wide crosses are typically made to generate ] breeding material; the rapid loss of the alien chromosomes from the unrelated pollen donor results in a plant with only a single set of chromosomes (a ]).<ref name="Thondehaalmath-2021">{{Cite journal |year=2021 |issue=13 |volume=72 |last1=Thondehaalmath |first1=Tejas |last2=Kulaar |first2=Dilsher Singh |last3=Bondada |first3=Ramesh |last4=Maruthachalam |first4=Ravi |s2cid=242417200 |doi=10.1093/jxb/erab161 |pages=4646–4662 |title=Understanding and exploiting uniparental genome elimination in plants: insights from ''Arabidopsis thaliana'' |journal=Journal of Experimental Botany |pmid=33851980 |id=RB {{ORCID |0000-0002-8869-1947}}. RM {{ORCID |0000-0003-0036-3330}}}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |issn=0032-0889 |volume=125 |issue=3 |pages=1216–1227 |last1=Kynast |first1=Ralf G. |last2=Riera-Lizarazu |first2=Oscar |last3=Vales |first3=M. Isabel |last4=Okagaki |first4=Ron J. |last5=Maquieira |first5=Silvia B. |last6=Chen |first6=Gang |last7=Ananiev |first7=Evgueni V |last8=Odland |first8=Wade E |last9=Russell |first9=Charles D. |last10=Stec |first10=Adrian O. |display-authors=6 |title=A complete set of maize individual chromosome additions to the oat genome |journal=] |date=2001 |doi=10.1104/pp.125.3.1216 |s2cid=22852580 |pmid=11244103 |pmc=65602}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |year=2017 |last1=Ishii |first1=Takayoshi |title=Oat |publisher=Springer New York |publication-place=New York |isbn=978-1-4939-6680-6 |issn=1064-3745 |pages=31–42 |s2cid=23707249 |doi=10.1007/978-1-4939-6682-0_3 |chapter=Wide Hybridization Between Oat and Pearl Millet |series=Methods in Molecular Biology |volume=1536 |pmid=28132141 }}</ref>

The addition lines with alien chromosomes can be used as a source for novel traits in oats. For example, research on oat-maize-addition lines has been used to map genes involved in ]. To obtain ] inheritance of these novel traits, ] lines have been established, where maize chromosome segments have been introgressed into the oat genome. This potentially transfers thousands of genes from a species that is distantly related, but is not considered a ] technique.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Halford |first=Nigel G. |title=Legislation governing genetically modified and genome-edited crops in Europe: the need for change |journal=Journal of the Science of Food and Agriculture |date=2019-01-15 |pmid=29952140 |pmc=6492171 |bibcode=2019JSFA...99....8H |doi=10.1002/jsfa.9227 |issn=0022-5142 |volume=99 |issue=1 |pages=8–12 }}</ref>

A 2013 study applied ] and found five major groupings, namely commercial ]s and four ] groups.<ref name="Riaz-2016" >{{ Cite journal |issue=3 |year=2016 |publisher=Springer Science and Business Media |volume=64 |last1=Riaz |first1=Adnan |last2=Hathorn |first2=Adrian |last3=Dinglasan |first3=Eric |last4=Ziems |first4=Laura |last5=Richard |first5=Cecile |last6=Singh |first6=Dharmendra |last7=Mitrofanova |first7=Olga |last8=Afanasenko |first8=Olga |last9=Aitken |first9=Elizabeth |last10=Godwin |first10=Ian |last11=Hickey |first11=Lee |display-authors=6 |pages=531–544 |doi=10.1007/s10722-016-0380-5 |title=Into the vault of the Vavilov wheats: old diversity for new alleles |journal=Genetic Resources and Crop Evolution |s2cid=254499298 |issn=0925-9864 }}</ref><ref>{{ cite journal |issue=6 |year=2013 |publisher=Springer Science and Business Media LLC |last1=Montilla-Bascón |first1=G. |last2=Sánchez-Martín |first2=J. |last3=Rispail |first3=N. |last4=Rubiales |first4=D. |last5=Mur |first5=L. |last6=Langdon |first6=T. |last7=Griffiths |first7=I. |last8=Howarth |first8=C. |last9=Prats |first9=E. |display-authors=6 |title=Genetic Diversity and Population Structure Among Oat Cultivars and Landraces |journal=Plant Molecular Biology Reporter |volume=31 |issn=0735-9640 |eissn=1572-9818 |doi=10.1007/s11105-013-0598-8 |pages=1305–1314 |hdl=10261/95010 |s2cid=18581328 |hdl-access=free }}
</ref>

== Nutritive value ==

=== Nutrients ===

{{Infobox nutritional value
| name=Uncooked oats
| kJ=1628
| protein=16.9 g
| fat=6.9 g
| satfat=1.21 g
| transfat=
| monofat=2.18 g
| polyfat=2.54 g
| omega3fat=
| omega6fat=
| carbs=66.3 g
| fiber=11.6 g
| calcium_mg=54
| iron_mg=5
| magnesium_mg=177
| phosphorus_mg=523
| potassium_mg=429
| sodium_mg=2
| zinc_mg=4
| manganese_mg=4.9
| thiamin_mg=0.763
| riboflavin_mg=0.139
| niacin_mg=0.961
| pantothenic_mg=1.349
| vitB6_mg=0.12
| folate_ug=56
| water=8 g
| opt1n=]<ref>{{cite web |title=Oat and barley ß-glucans |url=http://www5.agr.gc.ca/resources/prod/doc/misb/fb-ba/nutra/pdf/B-Glucans_Eng.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180513202232/http://www5.agr.gc.ca/resources/prod/doc/misb/fb-ba/nutra/pdf/B-Glucans_Eng.pdf |archive-date=2018-05-13 |url-status=live |publisher=], Government of Canada |access-date=27 July 2019 |date=1 August 2008}}</ref>
| opt1v=4 g
| note=}}

Uncooked oats are 66% ]s, including 11% dietary fiber and 4% ]s, 7% ], 17% ], and 8% water (table). In a reference serving of {{cvt|100|g}}, oats provide {{convert|389|kcal|kJ|lk=on}} and are a rich source (20% or more of the ], DV) of protein (34% DV), ] (44% DV), several ], and numerous ]s, especially ] (213% DV) (table).

=== Health effects ===

Regular consumption of oat products lowers blood levels of ] and total ],<ref name="Whitehead-2014">{{cite journal |last1=Whitehead |first1=Anne|last2=Beck |first2=Eleanor J. |last3=Tosh |first3=Susan |last4=Wolever |first4=Thomas M.S. |title=Cholesterol-lowering effects of oat β-glucan: a meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials |journal=American Journal of Clinical Nutrition |year=2014 |volume=100 |issue=6 |pages=1413–1421 |pmid=25411276 |pmc=5394769 |doi=10.3945/ajcn.114.086108 }}</ref> reducing the risk of ].<ref name="Llanaj-2022">{{cite journal |last1=Llanaj |first1=Erand |last2=Dejanovic |first2=Gordana M. |last3=Valido |first3=Ezra |last4=Bano |first4=Arjola |last5=Gamba |first5=Magda |last6=Kastrati |first6=Lum |last7=Minder |first7=Beatrice |last8=Stojic |first8=Stevan |last9=Voortman |first9=Trudy |last10=Marques-Vidal |first10=Pedro |last11=Stoyanov |first11=Jivko |last12=Metzger |first12=Brandon |last13=Glisic |first13=Marija |last14=Kern |first14=Hua |last15=Muka |first15=Taulant |display-authors=6 |title=Effect of oat supplementation interventions on cardiovascular disease risk markers: a systematic review and meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials |journal=European Journal of Nutrition |volume=61 |issue=4 |pages=1749–1778 |date=June 2022 |pmid=34977959 |pmc=9106631 |doi=10.1007/s00394-021-02763-1}}</ref> The beneficial effect of oat consumption on lowering blood lipids is attributed to ].<ref name="Whitehead-2014"/><ref name="Llanaj-2022"/> Oat consumption can help to reduce ] in ] people.<ref name="Llanaj-2022"/>

The United States ] allows companies to make ] of food products that contain ] from whole oats, as long as the food provides 0.75 grams of soluble fiber per serving.<ref name="US FDA-2015">{{cite web |url=http://www.accessdata.fda.gov/scripts/cdrh/cfdocs/cfcfr/cfrsearch.cfm?fr=101.81 |title=Title 21--Chapter 1, Subchapter B, Part 101 - Food labeling - Specific Requirements for Health Claims, Section 101.81: Health claims: Soluble fiber from certain foods and risk of coronary heart disease |publisher=US Department of Health and Human Services, Food and Drug Administration |date=1 April 2015 |access-date=10 November 2015}}</ref>

== Uses ==

=== As food ===

When used in foods, oats are most commonly ] or crushed into ] or ground into fine oat ]. Oatmeal is chiefly eaten as ], but may also be used in a variety of baked goods, such as ]s (which may be made with coarse ] for a rougher texture), ]s and oat bread. Oats are an ingredient in many cold cereals, in particular ] and ]; the ] introduced ] in 1966.<ref name="QuakerOatsCo">{{Cite web |title=Quaker Oats History |publisher=] |url=https://www.quakeroats.com/about-quaker-oats/quaker-history |access-date=20 July 2024}}</ref> Oats are also used to produce ]s ("]").<ref name="Hitchens-2018">{{cite magazine |last=Hitchens |first=Antonia |date=6 August 2018 |title=Hey, Where's my oat milk? |magazine=] |access-date=10 December 2018 |url=https://www.newyorker.com/magazine/2018/08/06/hey-wheres-my-oat-milk }}</ref> {{As of|2020|9 |alt=As of late 2020 |post=, }} the oat milk market became the second-largest among plant milks in the United States, following ], but exceeding the sales of ].<ref name="Watson-2020">{{cite web |first=Elaine |last=Watson |title=Oatmilk edges past soymilk for #2 slot in US plant-based milk retail market |url=https://www.foodnavigator-usa.com/Article/2020/09/25/Oatmilk-edges-past-soymilk-for-2-slot-in-US-plant-based-milk-retail-market-as-almondmilk-continues-to-drive-category-sales |publisher=William Reed Business Media |access-date=20 December 2020 |date=25 September 2020}}</ref> As a mainstay of ] for centuries, until changes in farming practices in the 1960s, oats were used in many ], including ], a ], and "] and eggs" served with oatbread.<ref>{{cite news |url=https://nation.cymru/culture/food-tales-from-wales/ |title=Food Tales from Wales |first=Carwyn |last=Graves |work=] |date=4 December 2022 |access-date=23 July 2024 }}</ref>

In Britain, oats are sometimes used for brewing beer, such as ] where a percentage of oats, often 30%, is added to the barley for the ].<ref name="BJCP">{{cite web |url=https://www.bjcp.org/style/2021/16/16B/oatmeal-stout/ |website=BJCP |access-date=20 March 2024 |title=Beer Judge Certification Program }}</ref> Oatmeal ], made of ale and oatmeal with spices, was a traditional British drink and a favourite of ].<ref>{{cite book |title=] |page=169 |first=Eliza |last=Smith |author-link=Eliza Smith (writer) |date=1739 }}</ref><ref>{{cite book |title=Food in Early Modern Europe |first=Ken |last=Albala |publisher=Greenwood Publishing Group |date=2003 |isbn=0-313-31962-6 }}</ref>

<gallery class=center mode=nolines widths=180 heights=180>
File:Oatcakes (1).jpg|]s
File:Oat porridge in Ghana.jpg|]
File:Oat milk glass and bottles.jpg|]
File:Jomax Oatmeal Stout (32903939086).jpg|]
</gallery>

=== Animal feed ===

]

Oats are commonly used as feed for horses when extra carbohydrates and the subsequent boost in energy are required. The oat hull may be crushed ("]" or "crimped") to make them easier to digest,<ref>{{Cite web |date=2003-12-29 |title=Oats: The Perfect Horse Feed? |url=https://ker.com/equinews/oats-perfect-horse-feed/ |access-date=2023-06-20 |website=Kentucky Equine Research}}</ref> or may be fed whole. They may be given alone or as part of a blended food pellet. Cattle are also fed oats, either whole or ground into a coarse flour using a ], ], or ]. Oat forage is commonly used to feed all kinds of ruminants, as pasture, straw, hay or silage.<ref>{{Cite web |first1=Valérie |last1=Heuzé |first2=Gilles |last2=Tran |first3=Anne |last3=Boudon |first4 =François |last4=Lebas |title=Oat forage |publisher=], ], Association Française de Zootechnie and FAO |url=https://www.feedipedia.org/node/500 |access-date=27 March 2023 |website=Feedipedia |year=2016 }}</ref>

=== Ground cover ===

Winter oats may be grown as an off-season ] and ploughed under in the spring as a ], or harvested in early summer. They also can be used for pasture; they can be grazed a while, then allowed to head out for grain production, or grazed continuously until other pastures are ready.<ref name="eXtension-2008">{{cite web |access-date=2013-03-27 |date=2008-02-11 |archive-date=2017-11-23 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171123003745/http://articles.extension.org/pages/13262/grazing-of-oat-pastures |url=http://www.extension.org/pages/13262/grazing-of-oat-pastures |title=Grazing of Oat Pastures |publisher=eXtension}}</ref>

=== Other uses ===

Oat ] is used as animal bedding; it absorbs liquids better than wheat straw.<ref>{{cite web |title=Alternative Bedding Materials |url=https://www.fas.scot/downloads/alternative-bedding-materials/ |publisher=Farm Advisory Service |access-date=2 May 2024}}</ref> The straw can be used for making ], small decorative woven figures.<ref>{{cite web |title=Lancashire fringe (corn dolly) |url=https://www.reading.ac.uk/adlib/Details/collect/15882 |publisher=University of Reading |access-date=2 May 2024}}</ref> Tied in a muslin bag, oat straw has been used to soften bath water.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Barbano |first1=Paul |title=Since prehistoric times oat grass has been a major source of food for animals and humans |url=https://www.capegazette.com/article/prehistoric-times-oat-grass-has-been-major-source-food-animals-and-humans/199531 |publisher=Cape Gazette |access-date=2 May 2024 |date=18 March 2020}}</ref>

== Celiac disease ==

{{main|Oat sensitivity|Gluten-related disorders}}

] is a permanent ] triggered by ] proteins.<ref name="Biesiekierski-2017">{{cite journal| last=Biesiekierski |first=J.R. |title=What is gluten? |journal=Journal of Gastroenterology and Hepatology |year=2017 |volume=32 |issue=Supplement 1 |pages=78–81 |pmid=28244676 |doi=10.1111/jgh.13703 |s2cid=6493455 |type=Review |quote=Similar proteins to the gliadin found in wheat exist as secalin in rye, hordein in barley, and avenins in oats and are collectively referred to as "gluten." Derivatives of these grains such as triticale and malt and other ancient wheat varieties such as spelt and kamut also contain gluten. The gluten found in all of these grains has been identified as the component capable of triggering the immune-mediated disorder, coeliac disease.| doi-access=free }}{{open access}}</ref><ref name="La Vieille-2016">{{cite journal |last1=La Vieille |first1=Sébastien |last2=Pulido |first2=Olga M. |last3=Abbott |first3=Michael |last4=Koerner |first4=Terence B. |last5=Godefroy |first5=Samuel |title=Celiac Disease and Gluten-Free Oats: A Canadian Position Based on a Literature Review |journal=Canadian Journal of Gastroenterology and Hepatology |volume=2016 |date=2016 |pmid=27446825 |pmc=4904695 |doi=10.1155/2016/1870305 |doi-access=free |pages=1–10}}</ref><ref name="Comino-2015"/><ref name="Fric-2011">{{cite journal |last1=Fric |first1=Premysl |last2=Gabrovska |first2=Dana |last3=Nevoral |first3=Jiri |title=Celiac disease, gluten-free diet, and oats: Nutrition Reviews©, Vol. 69, No. 2 |journal=Nutrition Reviews |volume=69 |issue=2 |date=2011 |doi=10.1111/j.1753-4887.2010.00368.x |pages=107–115|pmid=21294744 }}</ref> It almost always occurs in genetically predisposed people, having a prevalence of about 1% in the ].<ref name="Biesiekierski-2017"/><ref name="Tovoli-2015">{{cite journal |last=Tovoli |first=Francesco |title=Clinical and diagnostic aspects of gluten related disorders |journal=World Journal of Clinical Cases |volume=3 |issue=3 |date=2015 |pages=275–284 |issn=2307-8960 |pmid=25789300 |pmc=4360499 |doi=10.12998/wjcc.v3.i3.275 |doi-access=free }}</ref><ref name="Lamacchia-2014">{{cite journal |last1=Lamacchia |first1=Carmela |last2=Camarca |first2=Alessandra |last3=Picascia |first3=Stefania |last4=Di Luccia |first4=Aldo |last5=Gianfrani |first5=Carmen |title=Cereal-Based Gluten-Free Food: How to Reconcile Nutritional and Technological Properties of Wheat Proteins with Safety for Celiac Disease Patients |journal=Nutrients |volume=6 |issue=2 |date=2014-01-29 |pmid=24481131 |pmc=3942718 |doi=10.3390/nu6020575 |doi-access=free |pages=575–590}}</ref> Oat products are frequently contaminated by other gluten-containing grains, mainly wheat and ], requiring caution in the use of oats if people are sensitive to the gluten in those grains.<ref name="La Vieille-2016"/><ref name="Comino-2015">{{cite journal |last1=Comino |first1=Isabel |last2=Moreno |first2=Mde L. |last3=Sousa |first3=C. |title=Role of oats in celiac disease |journal=World Journal of Gastroenterology |volume=21 |issue=41 |date=2015 |pages=11825–11831 |issn=1007-9327 |pmid=26557006 |pmc=4631980 |doi=10.3748/wjg.v21.i41.11825 |doi-access=free }}</ref><ref name="Penagini-2013">{{cite journal |last1=Penagini |first1=Francesca |last2=Dilillo |first2=Dario |last3=Meneghin |first3=Fabio |last4=Mameli |first4=Chiara |last5=Fabiano |first5=Valentina |last6=Zuccotti |first6=Gian |title=Gluten-Free Diet in Children: An Approach to a Nutritionally Adequate and Balanced Diet |journal=Nutrients |volume=5 |issue=11 |date=2013-11-18 |pmid=24253052 |pmc=3847748 |doi=10.3390/nu5114553 |doi-access=free |pages=4553–4565}}</ref><ref name="de Souza-2016">{{cite journal |last1=de Souza |first1=M. Cristina P. |last2=Deschênes |first2=Marie-Eve |last3=Laurencelle |first3=Suzanne |last4=Godet |first4=Patrick |last5=Roy |first5=Claude C. |last6=Djilali-Saiah |first6=Idriss |title=Pure Oats as Part of the Canadian Gluten-Free Diet in Celiac Disease: The Need to Revisit the Issue |journal=Canadian Journal of Gastroenterology and Hepatology |volume=2016 |date=2016 |pmid=27446824 |pmc=4904650 |doi=10.1155/2016/1576360 |doi-access=free |pages=1–8}}</ref> For example, ] often contains only a small proportion of oats alongside wheat or other cereals.<ref name="Sontag-Strohm-2008">{{cite book |last1=Sontag-Strohm |first1=Tuula |last2=Lehtinen |first2=Pekka |last3=Kaukovirta-Norja |first3=Anu |title=Gluten-Free Cereal Products and Beverages |chapter=Oat products and their current status in the celiac diet |publisher=Elsevier |date=2008 |isbn=978-0-12-373739-7 |doi=10.1016/b978-012373739-7.50010-1 |pages=191–202}}</ref> Use of pure oats in a ] offers improved nutritional value,<ref name="Comino-2015"/><ref name="Pinto-Sánchez-2017">{{cite journal |last1=Pinto-Sánchez |first1=María Inés |last2=Causada-Calo |first2=Natalia |last3=Bercik |first3=Premysl |last4=Ford |first4=Alexander C. |last5=Murray |first5=Joseph A. |last6=Armstrong |first6=David |last7=Semrad |first7=Carol |last8=Kupfer |first8=Sonia S. |last9=Alaedini |first9=Armin |last10=Moayyedi |first10=Paul |last11=Leffler |first11=Daniel A. |last12=Verdú |first12=Elena F. |last13=Green |first13=Peter |display-authors=6 |title=Safety of Adding Oats to a Gluten-Free Diet for Patients With Celiac Disease: Systematic Review and Meta-analysis of Clinical and Observational Studies |journal=Gastroenterology |volume=153 |issue=2 |date=2017 |doi=10.1053/j.gastro.2017.04.009 |pages=395–409.e3|pmid=28431885 }}</ref> but remains controversial because a small proportion of people with celiac disease react to pure oats.<ref name="La Vieille-2016"/><ref name="Ciacci-2015">{{cite journal |last1=Ciacci |first1=Carolina |last2=Ciclitira |first2=Paul |last3=Hadjivassiliou |first3=Marios |last4=Kaukinen |first4=Katri |last5=Ludvigsson |first5=Jonas F. |last6=McGough |first6=Norma |last7=Sanders |first7=David S. |last8=Woodward |first8=Jeremy |last9=Leonard |first9=Jonathan N. |last10=Swift |first10=Gillian L. |display-authors=6 |title=The gluten-free diet and its current application in coeliac disease and dermatitis herpetiformis |journal=United European Gastroenterology Journal |volume=3 |issue=2 |date=2015 |pmid=25922672 |pmc=4406897 |doi=10.1177/2050640614559263 |pages=121–135}}</ref>

== In human culture ==

In his 1755 ''Dictionary of the English Language'', ] defined oats as "A grain, which in England is generally given to horses, but in Scotland supports the people."<ref>{{cite web |last1=Johnson |first1=Samuel |author1-link=Samuel Johnson |title=Oats |url=https://johnsonsdictionaryonline.com/views/search.php?term=oats |website=Samuel Johnson's Dictionary Online |access-date=20 July 2024 |date=1755}}</ref>

] is the first line of a traditional folksong (1380 in the ]), recorded in different forms from 1870. Similar songs are recorded from France, Canada, Belgium, Sweden, and Italy.<ref>{{cite web |title=Oats and Beans and Barley Grows |url=http://www.joe-offer.com/folkinfo/songs/12.html |website=Joe-offer.com |access-date=3 May 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150918173339/http://www.joe-offer.com/folkinfo/songs/12.html |archive-date=18 September 2015 |url-status=live}}</ref>

In ], oats are associated with ], as in the idioms "sowing one's (wild) oats", meaning having many sexual partners in one's youth,<ref>{{cite web |title=sow one's (wild) oats: idiom |url=https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/sow%20one%27s%20%28wild%29%20oats |publisher=] |access-date=3 May 2024}}</ref> and "getting your oats", meaning having sex regularly.<ref>{{cite web |title=to get your oats |url=https://www.collinsdictionary.com/dictionary/english/to-get-your-oats |publisher=Collins |access-date=3 May 2024}}</ref>

== References ==

{{reflist}}


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{{Cereals}} {{Cereals}}
{{Agriculture country lists}}
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Latest revision as of 04:15, 4 December 2024

Cool weather staple grain, animal feed

This article is about the common cereal. For other uses, see Oat (disambiguation). "Oats" redirects here. For other cultivated and wild species of the genus, see Avena.

Oat
Oat plants with inflorescences
Scientific classification Edit this classification
Kingdom: Plantae
Clade: Tracheophytes
Clade: Angiosperms
Clade: Monocots
Clade: Commelinids
Order: Poales
Family: Poaceae
Subfamily: Pooideae
Genus: Avena
Species: A. sativa
Binomial name
Avena sativa
L. (1753)

The oat (Avena sativa), sometimes called the common oat, is a species of cereal grain grown for its seed, which is known by the same name (usually in the plural). Oats appear to have been domesticated as a secondary crop, as their seeds resembled those of other cereals closely enough for them to be included by early cultivators. Oats tolerate cold winters less well than cereals such as wheat, barley, and rye, but need less summer heat and more rain, making them important in areas such as Northwest Europe that have cool wet summers. They can tolerate low-nutrient and acid soils. Oats grow thickly and vigorously, allowing them to outcompete many weeds, and compared to other cereals are relatively free from diseases.

Oats are used for human consumption as oatmeal, including as steel cut oats or rolled oats. Global production is dominated by Canada and Russia; global trade is a small part of production, most of the grain being consumed within the producing countries. Oats are a nutrient-rich food associated with lower blood cholesterol and reduced risk of human heart disease when consumed regularly. One of the most common uses of oats is as livestock feed; the crop can also be grown as groundcover and ploughed in as a green manure.

Origins

Phylogeny

Oat ancestry, showing how hexaploid species including the common oat Avena sativa derive from diploid and tetraploid species

Phylogenetic analysis using molecular DNA and morphological evidence places the oat genus Avena in the Pooideae subfamily. That subfamily includes the cereals wheat, barley, and rye; they are in the Triticeae tribe, while Avena is in the Poeae, along with grasses such as Briza and Agrostis. The wild ancestor of Avena sativa and the closely related minor crop – A. byzantina – is A. sterilis, a naturally hexaploid wild oat, one that has its DNA in six sets of chromosomes. Genetic evidence shows that the ancestral forms of A. sterilis grew in the Fertile Crescent of the Near East.

Analysis of maternal lineages of 25 Avena species using chloroplast and mitochondrial DNA showed that A. sativa's hexaploid genome derives from three diploid oat species (each with two sets of chromosomes); the sets are dubbed A, B, C, and D. The diploid species are the CC A. ventricosa, the AA A. canariensis, and the AA A. longiglumis, along with two tetraploid oats (each with four sets), namely the AACC A. insularis and the AABB A. agadiriana. Tetraploids were formed as much as 10.6 mya, and hexaploids as much as 7.4 mya.

Domestication

Genomic study suggests that the hulled variety and the naked variety A. sativa var. nuda diverged around 51,200 years ago, long before domestication. This implies that the two varieties were domesticated independently.

Oats are thought to have emerged as a secondary crop. This means that they are derived from what was considered a weed of the primary cereal domesticates such as wheat. They survived as a Vavilovian mimic by having grains that Neolithic people found hard to distinguish from the primary crop.

Oats were cultivated for some thousands of years before they were domesticated. A granary from the Pre-Pottery Neolithic, about 11,400 to 11,200 years ago in the Jordan Valley in the Middle East contained a large number of wild oat grains (120,000 seeds of A. sterilis). The find implies intentional cultivation. Domesticated oat grains first appear in the archaeological record in Europe around 3000 years ago.

Description

The oat is a tall stout grass, a member of the family Poaceae; it can grow to a height of 1.8 metres (5.9 ft). The leaves are long, narrow, and pointed, and grow upwards; they can be some 15 to 40 centimetres (5.9 to 15.7 in) in length, and around 5 to 15 millimetres (0.20 to 0.59 in) in width. At the top of the stem, the plant branches into a loose cluster or panicle of spikelets. These contain the wind-pollinated flowers, which mature into the oat seeds or grains. Botanically the grain is a caryopsis, as the wall of the fruit is fused on to the actual seed. Like other cereal grains, the caryopsis contains the outer husk or bran, the starchy food store or endosperm which occupies most of the seed, and the protein-rich germ which if planted in soil can grow into a new plant.

  • Botanical illustration Botanical illustration
  • Oat spikelets, containing the small wind-pollinated flowers Oat spikelets, containing the small wind-pollinated flowers
  • Panicle with spikelets containing seeds Panicle with spikelets containing seeds
  • 1 A. sterilis, 2 A. sativa, spikelet and base of outer grain of both cultivated species 1 A. sterilis, 2 A. sativa, spikelet and base of outer grain of both cultivated species

Agronomy

Cultivation

Oats are annual plants best grown in temperate regions. They tolerate cold winters less well than wheat, rye, or barley; they are harmed by sustained cold below −7 °C (20 °F). They have a lower summer heat requirement and greater tolerance of (and need for) rain than the other cereals mentioned, so they are particularly important in areas with cool, wet summers, such as Northwest Europe.

Oats can grow in most fertile, drained soils, being tolerant of a wide variety of soil types. Although better yields are achieved at a soil pH of 5.3 to 5.7, oats can tolerate soils with a pH as low as 4.5. They are better able to grow in low-nutrient soils than wheat or maize, but generally are less tolerant of high soil salinity than other cereals.

  • Harvest in Jølster, Norway, c. 1890 Harvest in Jølster, Norway, c. 1890
  • Harvesting oats in Brastad, Sweden, 2021 Harvesting oats in Brastad, Sweden, 2021

Weeds, pests, and diseases

Main article: List of oat diseases
Oat leaf infected with crown rust

Oats can outcompete many weeds, as they grow thickly (with many leafy shoots) and vigorously, but are still subject to some broadleaf weeds. Control can be by herbicides, or by integrated pest management with measures such as sowing seed that is free of weeds.

Oats are relatively free from diseases. Nonetheless, they suffer from some leaf diseases, such as stem rust (Puccinia graminis f. sp. avenae) and crown rust (P. coronata var. avenae). Crown rust infection can greatly reduce photosynthesis and overall physiological activities of oat leaves, thereby reducing growth and crop yield.

Oats are attacked by nematodes and by insects including aphids, armyworms, cockchafers, grasshoppers, thrips, and wireworms. Most of these pests are not specific to oats, and only occasionally cause significant damage to oat crops.

Processing

Fully-processed porridge oats, ready to cook

Harvested oats go through multiple stages of milling. The first stage is cleaning, to remove seeds of other plants, stones and any other extraneous materials. Next is dehulling to remove the indigestible bran, leaving the seed or "groat". Heating denatures enzymes in the seed that would make it go sour or rancid; the grain is then dried to minimise the risk of spoilage by bacteria and fungi. There may follow numerous stages of cutting or grinding the grain, depending on which sort of product is required. For oatmeal (oat flour), the grain is ground to a specified fineness. For home use such as making porridge, oats are often rolled flat to make them quicker to cook.

Oat flour can be ground for small scale use by pulsing rolled oats or old-fashioned (not quick) oats in a food processor or spice mill.

Production and trade

Oats production – 2022
Country Millions of tonnes
 Canada 5.2
 Russia 4.5
 Australia 1.7
 Poland 1.5
 Brazil 1.3
 Finland 1.2
 United Kingdom 1.1
World 26.4
Source: FAOSTAT of the United Nations

In 2022, global production of oats was 26 million tonnes, led by Canada with 20% of the total and Russia with 17% (table). This compares to over 100 million tonnes for wheat, for example. Global trade represents a modest percentage of production, less than 10%, most of the grain being consumed within producing countries. The main exporter is Canada, followed by Sweden and Finland; the US is the main importer.

Oats futures are traded in US dollars in quantities of 5000 bushels on the Chicago Board of Trade and have delivery dates in March, May, July, September, and December.

Genomics

Genome

Avena sativa is an allohexaploid species with three ancestral genomes (2n=6x=42; AACCDD). As a result, the genome is large (12.6 Gb, 1C-value=12.85) and complex. Cultivated hexaploid oat has a unique mosaic chromosome architecture that is the result of numerous translocations between the three subgenomes. These translocations may cause breeding barriers and incompatibilities when crossing varieties with different chromosomal architecture. Hence, oat breeding and the crossing of desired traits has been hampered by the lack of a reference genome assembly. In May 2022, a fully annotated reference genome sequence of Avena sativa was reported. The AA subgenome is presumed to be derived from Avena longiglumis and the CCDD from the tetraploid Avena insularis.

Genetics and breeding

Species of Avena can hybridize, and genes introgressed (brought in) from other "A" genome species have contributed many valuable traits, like resistance to oat crown rust. Pc98 is one such trait, introgressed from A. sterilis CAV 1979, conferring all stage resistance (ASR) against Pca.

It is possible to hybridize oats with grasses in other genera, allowing plant breeders the ready introgression of traits. In contrast to wheat, oats sometimes retain chromosomes from maize or pearl millet after such crosses. These wide crosses are typically made to generate doubled haploid breeding material; the rapid loss of the alien chromosomes from the unrelated pollen donor results in a plant with only a single set of chromosomes (a haploid).

The addition lines with alien chromosomes can be used as a source for novel traits in oats. For example, research on oat-maize-addition lines has been used to map genes involved in C4 photosynthesis. To obtain Mendelian inheritance of these novel traits, radiation hybrid lines have been established, where maize chromosome segments have been introgressed into the oat genome. This potentially transfers thousands of genes from a species that is distantly related, but is not considered a GMO technique.

A 2013 study applied simple sequence repeat and found five major groupings, namely commercial cultivars and four landrace groups.

Nutritive value

Nutrients

Uncooked oats
Nutritional value per 100 g (3.5 oz)
Energy1,628 kJ (389 kcal)
Carbohydrates66.3 g
Dietary fiber11.6 g
Fat6.9 g
Saturated1.21 g
Monounsaturated2.18 g
Polyunsaturated2.54 g
Protein16.9 g
Vitamins and minerals
VitaminsQuantity %DV
Thiamine (B1)64% 0.763 mg
Riboflavin (B2)11% 0.139 mg
Niacin (B3)6% 0.961 mg
Pantothenic acid (B5)27% 1.349 mg
Vitamin B67% 0.12 mg
Folate (B9)14% 56 μg
MineralsQuantity %DV
Calcium4% 54 mg
Iron28% 5 mg
Magnesium42% 177 mg
Manganese213% 4.9 mg
Phosphorus42% 523 mg
Potassium14% 429 mg
Sodium0% 2 mg
Zinc36% 4 mg
Other constituentsQuantity
Water8 g
β-glucans (soluble fiber) 4 g

USDA FoodData Central entry
Percentages estimated using US recommendations for adults, except for potassium, which is estimated based on expert recommendation from the National Academies.

Uncooked oats are 66% carbohydrates, including 11% dietary fiber and 4% beta-glucans, 7% fat, 17% protein, and 8% water (table). In a reference serving of 100 g (3.5 oz), oats provide 389 kilocalories (1,630 kJ) and are a rich source (20% or more of the Daily Value, DV) of protein (34% DV), dietary fiber (44% DV), several B vitamins, and numerous dietary minerals, especially manganese (213% DV) (table).

Health effects

Regular consumption of oat products lowers blood levels of low-density lipoprotein and total cholesterol, reducing the risk of cardiovascular disease. The beneficial effect of oat consumption on lowering blood lipids is attributed to oat beta-glucan. Oat consumption can help to reduce body mass index in obese people.

The United States Food and Drug Administration allows companies to make health claims on labels of food products that contain soluble fiber from whole oats, as long as the food provides 0.75 grams of soluble fiber per serving.

Uses

As food

When used in foods, oats are most commonly rolled or crushed into oatmeal or ground into fine oat flour. Oatmeal is chiefly eaten as porridge, but may also be used in a variety of baked goods, such as oatcakes (which may be made with coarse steel-cut oats for a rougher texture), oatmeal cookies and oat bread. Oats are an ingredient in many cold cereals, in particular muesli and granola; the Quaker Oats Company introduced instant oatmeal in 1966. Oats are also used to produce milk substitutes ("oat milk"). As of late 2020, the oat milk market became the second-largest among plant milks in the United States, following almond milk, but exceeding the sales of soy milk. As a mainstay of West Wales for centuries, until changes in farming practices in the 1960s, oats were used in many traditional Welsh dishes, including laverbread, a Welsh breakfast, and "cockles and eggs" served with oatbread.

In Britain, oats are sometimes used for brewing beer, such as oatmeal stout where a percentage of oats, often 30%, is added to the barley for the wort. Oatmeal caudle, made of ale and oatmeal with spices, was a traditional British drink and a favourite of Oliver Cromwell.

Animal feed

A commercially prepared grain mix for horses, with crimped maize, oats, and barley mixed with molasses and pelleted supplement

Oats are commonly used as feed for horses when extra carbohydrates and the subsequent boost in energy are required. The oat hull may be crushed ("rolled" or "crimped") to make them easier to digest, or may be fed whole. They may be given alone or as part of a blended food pellet. Cattle are also fed oats, either whole or ground into a coarse flour using a roller mill, burr mill, or hammermill. Oat forage is commonly used to feed all kinds of ruminants, as pasture, straw, hay or silage.

Ground cover

Winter oats may be grown as an off-season groundcover and ploughed under in the spring as a green fertilizer, or harvested in early summer. They also can be used for pasture; they can be grazed a while, then allowed to head out for grain production, or grazed continuously until other pastures are ready.

Other uses

Oat straw is used as animal bedding; it absorbs liquids better than wheat straw. The straw can be used for making corn dollies, small decorative woven figures. Tied in a muslin bag, oat straw has been used to soften bath water.

Celiac disease

Main articles: Oat sensitivity and Gluten-related disorders

Celiac (or coeliac) disease is a permanent autoimmune disease triggered by gluten proteins. It almost always occurs in genetically predisposed people, having a prevalence of about 1% in the developed world. Oat products are frequently contaminated by other gluten-containing grains, mainly wheat and barley, requiring caution in the use of oats if people are sensitive to the gluten in those grains. For example, oat bread often contains only a small proportion of oats alongside wheat or other cereals. Use of pure oats in a gluten-free diet offers improved nutritional value, but remains controversial because a small proportion of people with celiac disease react to pure oats.

In human culture

In his 1755 Dictionary of the English Language, Samuel Johnson defined oats as "A grain, which in England is generally given to horses, but in Scotland supports the people."

"Oats and Beans and Barley Grow" is the first line of a traditional folksong (1380 in the Roud Folk Song Index), recorded in different forms from 1870. Similar songs are recorded from France, Canada, Belgium, Sweden, and Italy.

In English, oats are associated with sexual intercourse, as in the idioms "sowing one's (wild) oats", meaning having many sexual partners in one's youth, and "getting your oats", meaning having sex regularly.

References

  1. Soreng, Robert J.; Peterson, Paul M.; Romaschenko, Konstantin; Davidse, Gerrit; Teisher, Jordan K.; Clark, Lynn G.; et al. (2017). "A worldwide phylogenetic classification of the Poaceae (Gramineae) II: An update and a comparison of two 2015 classifications". Journal of Systematics and Evolution. 55 (4): 259–290. doi:10.1111/jse.12262. hdl:10261/240149.
  2. Burger, Jutta C.; Chapman, Mark A.; Burke, John M. (2008). "Molecular insights into the evolution of crop plants". American Journal of Botany. 95 (2): 113–122. doi:10.3732/ajb.95.2.113. PMID 21632337. S2CID 8521495.
  3. ^ Zhou, X.; Jellen, E.N.; Murphy, J.P. (1999). "Progenitor germplasm of domesticated hexaploid oat". Crop Science. 39 (4): 1208–1214. doi:10.2135/cropsci1999.0011183x003900040042x. PMID 21632337. S2CID 8521495.
  4. Fu, Yong-Bi (2018). "Oat evolution revealed in the maternal lineages of 25 Avena species". Scientific Reports. 8 (1): 4252. Bibcode:2018NatSR...8.4252F. doi:10.1038/s41598-018-22478-4. PMC 5844911. PMID 29523798.
  5. ^ Nan, Jinsheng; Ling, Yu; An, Jianghong; Wang, Ting; Chai, Mingna; Fu, Jun; Wang, Gaochao; Yang, Cai; Yang, Yan; Han, Bing (2022-12-28). "Genome resequencing reveals independent domestication and breeding improvement of naked oat". GigaScience. 12. doi:10.1093/gigascience/giad061. PMC 10390318. PMID 37524540.
  6. Weiss, Ehud; Kislev, Mordechai E.; Hartmann, Anat (2006-06-16). "Autonomous Cultivation Before Domestication". Science. 312 (5780): 1608–1610. doi:10.1126/science.1127235. PMID 16778044.
  7. ^ "Avena sativa: Common oat". Royal Botanic Gardens Kew. Retrieved 2 May 2024.
  8. Arendt, Elke K.; Zannini, Emanuele (2013). "Oats". Cereal Grains for the Food and Beverage Industries. Elsevier. p. 243–283e. doi:10.1533/9780857098924.243. ISBN 978-0-85709-413-1.
  9. Bliss, Rosalie Marion. "Hardy Oats Stand the Cold". USDA Agricultural Research Service. Retrieved 21 July 2024.
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  11. Forsberg, Robert A. (1995). The Oat Crop. Suffolk: Chapman & Hall. pp. 223–224. ISBN 978-0-412-37310-7.
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  13. Pratap, Aditya; Kumar, Jitendra (2014). Alien Gene Transfer in Crop Plants. Vol. 2 : Achievements and impacts. New York, NY: Springer Science+Business Media. p. 51. doi:10.1007/978-1-4614-9572-7. ISBN 978-1-4614-9571-0. LCCN 2013957869. OCLC 870451823. S2CID 26278759. ISBN 978-1-4614-9572-7.
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