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| {{Short description|Track and field organization (1972–1976)}} | |||
| {{ |
{{More citations needed|date=May 2015}} | ||
| The '''International Track Association''' ('''ITA''') was a professional track and field organization that existed in the United States from 1972 to 1976. | The '''International Track Association''' ('''ITA''') was a professional track and field organization that existed in the United States from 1972 to 1976. | ||
| The ITA initially attracted many of the big track and field stars of the day to run in its meets and initially garnered much attention for its meets. However, a lack of television money and the inability to attract new stars after the 1976 Olympics led to its downfall. | The ITA initially attracted many of the big track and field stars of the day to run in its meets and initially garnered much attention for its meets. However, a lack of television money and the inability to attract new stars after the 1976 Olympics led to its downfall. ITA's President Michael F O'Hara announced the league folding August 1976.<ref name="newspapers.com">The Times, Munster, Indiana August 26, 1976. Retrieved Jan 16, 2021</ref><ref name="Statesman Journal 1976">Statesman Journal, Salem, Oregon, August 26, 1976. Retrieved Jan 16, 2021</ref> | ||
| ==Formation== | ==Formation== | ||
| The International Track Association (ITA) was formed in 1972 after the ]. The ITA brought professionalism, defined as athletes making an income from their athletic performance, to the sport of ]. The aim of the ITA was to have a series of meets involving about 50 top athletes forming a track and field tour similar to those existing in golf and tennis. The meets were initially scheduled only in the |
The International Track Association (ITA) was formed in 1972 after the ]. The ITA brought professionalism, defined as athletes making an income from their athletic performance, to the sport of ]. The aim of the ITA was to have a series of meets involving about 50 top athletes forming a track and field tour similar to those existing in golf and tennis. The meets were initially scheduled only in the US and Canada but future expansion was envisaged to include meets in Europe and the Far East.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://sportsillustrated.cnn.com/vault/article/magazine/MAG1086850/index.htm |accessdate=March 19, 2013 |url-status=dead |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20111110094518/http://sportsillustrated.cnn.com/vault/article/magazine/MAG1086850/index.htm |archivedate=November 10, 2011|title=Citius, Altius, Opulentius|date=December 11, 1972|last1=Jares|first1=Joe}}</ref> | ||
| Prior to the formation of the ITA, track and field athletes were amateur athletes, so required by the ] creed of the day.<ref name=usa>{{cite web|url=http://usatoday30.usatoday.com/olympics/owg98/osytr01.htm |title=Symbols and traditions |publisher=Usatoday30.usatoday.com |date=1999-07-12 |accessdate=2015-05-18}}</ref> |
Prior to the formation of the ITA, all track and field athletes were required to maintain status as "amateur" athletes, so required by the ] creed of the day.<ref name=usa>{{cite web|url=http://usatoday30.usatoday.com/olympics/owg98/osytr01.htm |title=Symbols and traditions |publisher=Usatoday30.usatoday.com |date=1999-07-12 |accessdate=2015-05-18}}</ref> This meant any compensation that they may have received from their sport was "under the table." As a result, many American athletes' careers were frequently cut short shortly after their subsidized participation at the collegiate level ended, while ] and other international athletes frequently had their careers extended, subsidized ostensibly by participation in the Army or police forces. Pressure from the athletes had been mounting for years to find an answer. '']'' discussed the subject with its cover article "Take the Money and Run" in November 1971.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.trackandfieldnews.com/index.php/archivemenu/28-covers/134-past-covers-1967 |title=Past Covers 1971 |publisher=Trackandfieldnews.com |date= |accessdate=2015-05-18 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150416055315/https://www.trackandfieldnews.com/index.php/archivemenu/28-covers/134-past-covers-1967 |archive-date=2015-04-16 |url-status=dead }}</ref> | ||
| The ITA was the brainchild of Michael O'Hara who had gained experience in the sports of basketball and ice hockey of creating new rival leagues in competition to existing established leagues, namely the ] and the ] respectively.<ref name="ita_book">{{cite book|url=https://books.google. |
The ITA was the brainchild of Michael O'Hara who had gained experience in the sports of basketball and ice hockey of creating new rival leagues in competition to existing established leagues, namely the ] and the ] respectively.<ref name="ita_book">{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=oBAlRrvBsu0C&q=professional+track+and+field+ita&pg=PA122|title=The End of Amateurism in American Track and Field|author=Joseph M Turrini|publisher=]|date=2010|isbn=978-0-252-03515-9}}</ref> | ||
| The ITA was officially launched on October 25, 1972. It received immediate hostility from the then governing body in the United States for track and field the ]. The AAU banned all athletes and officials who took part in ITA competitions and put pressure on television companies not to televise the ITA meets. The athletes were also banned from competing in any ]. To help protect the athletes from retribution by the AAU if the venture failed, O'Hara placed them on negative covenant contracts – here they promised not to run for anyone else rather than to run for the ITA – with the contracts only going into legal effect if the venture took off.<ref name="ita_book"/> | The ITA was officially launched on October 25, 1972. It received immediate hostility from the then governing body in the United States for track and field the ]. The AAU banned all athletes and officials who took part in ITA competitions and put pressure on television companies not to televise the ITA meets. The athletes were also banned from competing in any ]. To help protect the athletes from retribution by the AAU if the venture failed, O'Hara placed them on negative covenant contracts – here they promised not to run for anyone else rather than to run for the ITA – with the contracts only going into legal effect if the venture took off.<ref name="ita_book"/> | ||
| Line 16: | Line 17: | ||
| ==Athletics competition== | ==Athletics competition== | ||
| The ITA signed many of the top track and field athletes of the day including notably:<ref>{{cite web|url=http://sportsillustrated.cnn.com/vault/article/magazine/MAG1087227/index.htm |accessdate=March 19, 2013 | |
The ITA signed many of the top track and field athletes of the day including notably:<ref>{{cite web|url=http://sportsillustrated.cnn.com/vault/article/magazine/MAG1087227/index.htm |accessdate=March 19, 2013 |url-status=dead |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20131029210836/http://sportsillustrated.cnn.com/vault/article/magazine/MAG1087227/index.htm |archivedate=October 29, 2013|title=The Pros Come Up A Little Short|date=April 2, 1972|last1=Reid|first1=Ron|publisher=Sports Illustrated}}</ref> | ||
| * ], 1500 m/ miler runner – who also acted as a publicist; | * ], 1500 m/ miler runner – who also acted as a publicist; | ||
| * ], pole vaulter; | * ], pole vaulter; | ||
| Line 24: | Line 25: | ||
| * ], 1500 m /miler runner; | * ], 1500 m /miler runner; | ||
| * ], 1500 m/miler runner; | * ], 1500 m/miler runner; | ||
| * ], long-distance runner |
* ], long-distance runner who also acted as master of ceremonies for the meets. | ||
| The first ITA meet happened on March 3, 1973 in ]'s ] and it saw immediate success with three indoor world bests: | The first ITA meet happened on March 3, 1973 in ]'s ] and it saw immediate success with three indoor world bests:<ref>Sports Illustrated, Vault. Retrieved Jan 16, 2021</ref> | ||
| * 100 m by Warren Edmonson; | * 100 m by Warren Edmonson at 10.2; | ||
| * 600 m by Lee Evans; | * 600 m by Lee Evans at 1:16.7; | ||
| * high jump by {{Ill|John Radetich|de}}. | * high jump by {{Ill|John Radetich|de}} at 7'-4 3/4". | ||
| These records, like all those recorded by the openly-professional ITA athletes, would never be ratified as world records by the world governing body for track and field at the time, the ], because they were achieved by professional athletes in competitions IAAF did not sanction.<ref name="ita_book"/> | |||
| The attraction to the athletes of the ITA was not only the prize money but also the freedom to pursue other commercial opportunities, like advertising, that were denied to them if they stayed an amateur. | The attraction to the athletes of the ITA was not only the prize money but also the freedom to pursue other commercial opportunities, like endoresement advertising, that were denied to them if they stayed an amateur. | ||
| On March 30, 1973, the ITA meet was in ] with Leon Coleman winning the 60 yard hurdles in 7.14; Wyomia Tyus-Simburg winning the 60 yard dash in 6.8 and Warren Edmonson in 6.1; Kip Keino won the 2-mile in 8:46.0; Lee Evans won the 500 yard in 57.5; and Brian Oldfield the SP with 68'-8 1/2" | |||
| During its existence, the ITA saw much high-quality competition including 34 world bests. Of particular note were Brian Oldfield's indoor and outdoor records in the ]. The indoor record happened on 4 April 1975 in ]. Oldfield achieved a distance of 72'6 1/2" (22.1107) m. The outdoor record happened on 10 May that year in ]. Here Oldfield achieved the remarkable distance of 75'0" (22.860 m). He also had another put of 73' 1" (22.25 m).<ref>Progression of IAAF World Records 2011 Edition, Editor Imre Matrahazi, IAAF Athletics, p 184.</ref> The official world record at the time was 71'8 1/2" (21.85 m) by Terry Albritton.<ref>Progression of IAAF World Records 2011 Edition, Editor Imre Matrahazi, IAAF Athletics, p 183.</ref> This put was voted by ] as their outstanding single performance of 1975. Other notable world bests achieved indoors included those by John Radetich in the high jump and ] in the pole vault. | During its existence, the ITA saw much high-quality competition including 34 world bests. Of particular note were Brian Oldfield's indoor and outdoor records in the ]. The indoor record happened on 4 April 1975 in ]. Oldfield achieved a distance of 72'6 1/2" (22.1107) m. The outdoor record happened on 10 May that year in ]. Here Oldfield achieved the remarkable distance of 75'0" (22.860 m). He also had another put of 73' 1" (22.25 m).<ref>Progression of IAAF World Records 2011 Edition, Editor Imre Matrahazi, IAAF Athletics, p 184.</ref> The official world record at the time was 71'8 1/2" (21.85 m) by Terry Albritton.<ref>Progression of IAAF World Records 2011 Edition, Editor Imre Matrahazi, IAAF Athletics, p 183.</ref> This put was voted by ] as their outstanding single performance of 1975. Other notable world bests achieved indoors included those by John Radetich in the high jump and ] in the pole vault. | ||
| Though |
Though there was undoubtedly high-quality competition, there was also much competition that was inferior to that seen in the amateur meets of the time.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://sportsillustrated.cnn.com/vault/article/magazine/MAG1089582/index.htm |accessdate=March 19, 2013 |url-status=dead |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20121217002239/http://sportsillustrated.cnn.com/vault/article/magazine/MAG1089582/index.htm |archivedate=December 17, 2012|title=Three For The Money|last1=Reid|first1=Rod|date=March 3, 1973|publisher=Sports Illustrated}}</ref> The meets often also had novelty events, for example having the shot putter Brian Oldfield racing against female sprinters over 30 m. In the short-term this attracted spectators but longer-term it damaged the credibility of the ITA. The lack of female athletes and female events in general was also damaging. One famous female athlete who personally suffered from this lack of competition was ] who had been tempted out of retirement to run for the ITA and was unbeaten in their 1974 season.<ref name="ita_book"/> | ||
| ] Hall of Famer ] competed and won several ] competitions. Hayes best performance was a 4.3 altitude-aided mark.<ref>SHR1, Pro Football 40 Yard Dash, PDF Pages 5 & 6 of 6. Retrieved Jan 16 2021</ref> | |||
| Middle Distance Runner and Olympian ] competed from 1974 to 1976 on the tour.<ref name="newspapers.com"/> | |||
| Hurdler and Olympian ] competed on the tour several years and beat Lance Babb in ITA's final competition. Milburn held the professional record in the sprint hurdles at 13.0.<ref name="Statesman Journal 1976"/> | |||
| ==Rivalries== | ==Rivalries== | ||
| The ITA spectators were promised the renewal of popular track and field rivalries of the day that would lead to new record performances. The rivalry between ] and ] in the pole vault was added extra spice by their well-known personal animosity. ] versus ] in the 1500 m/mile was another such rivalry, though thankfully restricted solely to the athletic competition in their case.<ref> |
The ITA spectators were promised the renewal of popular track and field rivalries of the day that would lead to new record performances. The rivalry between ] and ] in the pole vault was added extra spice by their well-known personal animosity. ] versus ] in the 1500 m/mile was another such rivalry, though thankfully restricted solely to the athletic competition in their case.<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://news.google.com/newspapers?nid=1817&dat=19730206&id=lQ4fAAAAIBAJ&sjid=MZwEAAAAIBAJ&pg=5802,882776 |title = The Tuscaloosa News - Google News Archive Search |archive-url=https://archive.today/20130411013753/http://news.google.com/newspapers?nid=1817&dat=19730206&id=lQ4fAAAAIBAJ&sjid=MZwEAAAAIBAJ&pg=5802,882776 |archive-date=11 April 2013 |url-status=dead}}</ref> However, injury and a lack of form for Ryan and Keino's retirement meant that ] would domininate the event. This became typical of many other events where there was less and less meaningful competition. | ||
| ==End== | ==End== | ||
| The ITA successfully delivered 51 meets during its existence watched by |
The ITA successfully delivered 51 meets during its existence watched by 500,000 spectators and 300 million television viewers. However, the venture struggled from organizational difficulties as well as spotty participation from its star athletes.<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://sportsillustrated.cnn.com/vault/article/magazine/MAG1089674/index.htm |title = Pro track's big TV meet was a bust until tireless Ben - 03.31.75 - SI… |archive-url=https://archive.today/20130410171954/http://sportsillustrated.cnn.com/vault/article/magazine/MAG1089674/index.htm |archive-date=10 April 2013 |url-status=dead}}</ref> | ||
| Ultimately, the ITA suffered because it could not attract enough television money and the money received through ticket sales was not enough to sustain it. Television companies had been reluctant to support the ITA because of their wish not to offend the AAU and not to be seen to damage American chances at the next Olympics.<ref name="ita_book"/> | Ultimately, the ITA suffered because it could not attract enough television money and the money received through ticket sales was not enough to sustain it. Television companies had been reluctant to support the ITA because of their wish not to offend the AAU and not to be seen to damage American chances at the next Olympics.<ref name="ita_book"/> | ||
| The death knell came at the end of 1976 when |
The death knell came at the end of 1976 when the ITA was unable to sign any new stars after the ]. A particular blow was the failure to sign three New Zealand middle-distance running stars, ], ] and ].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://brianoldfield.com/Articles/Rise%20and%20Fall%20of%20ITA.pdf|title=An Historical Study of the Rise and Fall of the International Track Association 1972-76|author=Paul H. Heyse|publisher=Brianoldfield.com|date=1993|access-date=2013-03-19|archive-date=2013-10-29|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131029184441/http://brianoldfield.com/Articles/Rise%20and%20Fall%20of%20ITA.pdf|url-status=dead}}</ref> | ||
| Athletes had become more reluctant to turn professional when it became clear that they could often earn more from under-the-table payments when competing at so-called amateur meets than they could from money earned openly at the ITA meets. For example, the high jumper ] is quoted as saying in explanation of why he would not sign, "Why take a cut in salary?"<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.athleticscholarships.net/history-of-track-and-field.htm |title=The History Of Track And Field. Where Running Started |publisher=Athleticscholarships.net |date= |accessdate=2015-05-18}}</ref> | Athletes had become more reluctant to turn professional when it became clear that they could often earn more from under-the-table payments when competing at so-called amateur meets than they could from money earned openly at the ITA meets. For example, the high jumper ] is quoted as saying in explanation of why he would not sign, "Why take a cut in salary?"<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.athleticscholarships.net/history-of-track-and-field.htm |title=The History Of Track And Field. Where Running Started |publisher=Athleticscholarships.net |date= 10 June 2010|accessdate=2015-05-18}}</ref> | ||
| The final ITA meet occurred on August 25, 1976 in ]. The final three meets of the 1976 season were cancelled. | The final ITA meet occurred on August 25, 1976 in ]. The final three meets of the 1976 season were cancelled. | ||
| Line 55: | Line 64: | ||
| The main legacy of the ITA was the empowerment it gave athletes to challenge the existing ] by forming a framework for the movement that eventually allowed athletes to get paid for their participation in sport. | The main legacy of the ITA was the empowerment it gave athletes to challenge the existing ] by forming a framework for the movement that eventually allowed athletes to get paid for their participation in sport. | ||
| Many of the ITA's promotional ideas were seen as quirky in their day but are now staples of the |
Many of the ITA's promotional ideas were seen as quirky in their day but are now staples of the World Athletics ], for example, and include such innovations as prize money and a points-standing system over a season-long tour. | ||
| After the ITA's demise, many of the participating athletes sued to regain their "amateur" status in order to continue to participate in the sport. After 1988, the ] voted to allow athletes to be paid for their efforts, ending the amateur limitation on the Olympics.<ref name=usa/> | After the ITA's demise, many of the participating athletes sued to regain their "amateur" status in order to continue to participate in the sport. After 1988, the ] voted to allow athletes to be paid for their efforts if this was allowed by the governing bodies of the individual sports, ending the amateur limitation on the Olympics.<ref name=usa/> | ||
| ==References== | ==References== | ||
| {{Reflist}} | {{Reflist}} | ||
| ] | ] | ||
| ] | |||
| ] | ] | ||
| ] | ] | ||
| ] | |||
Latest revision as of 04:54, 18 December 2024
Track and field organization (1972–1976) | This article needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. Find sources: "International Track Association" – news · newspapers · books · scholar · JSTOR (May 2015) (Learn how and when to remove this message) |
The International Track Association (ITA) was a professional track and field organization that existed in the United States from 1972 to 1976.
The ITA initially attracted many of the big track and field stars of the day to run in its meets and initially garnered much attention for its meets. However, a lack of television money and the inability to attract new stars after the 1976 Olympics led to its downfall. ITA's President Michael F O'Hara announced the league folding August 1976.
Formation
The International Track Association (ITA) was formed in 1972 after the Munich Olympics. The ITA brought professionalism, defined as athletes making an income from their athletic performance, to the sport of track and field. The aim of the ITA was to have a series of meets involving about 50 top athletes forming a track and field tour similar to those existing in golf and tennis. The meets were initially scheduled only in the US and Canada but future expansion was envisaged to include meets in Europe and the Far East.
Prior to the formation of the ITA, all track and field athletes were required to maintain status as "amateur" athletes, so required by the Olympic creed of the day. This meant any compensation that they may have received from their sport was "under the table." As a result, many American athletes' careers were frequently cut short shortly after their subsidized participation at the collegiate level ended, while Eastern Bloc and other international athletes frequently had their careers extended, subsidized ostensibly by participation in the Army or police forces. Pressure from the athletes had been mounting for years to find an answer. Track and Field News discussed the subject with its cover article "Take the Money and Run" in November 1971.
The ITA was the brainchild of Michael O'Hara who had gained experience in the sports of basketball and ice hockey of creating new rival leagues in competition to existing established leagues, namely the American Basketball Association and the World Hockey Association respectively.
The ITA was officially launched on October 25, 1972. It received immediate hostility from the then governing body in the United States for track and field the AAU. The AAU banned all athletes and officials who took part in ITA competitions and put pressure on television companies not to televise the ITA meets. The athletes were also banned from competing in any Olympic Games. To help protect the athletes from retribution by the AAU if the venture failed, O'Hara placed them on negative covenant contracts – here they promised not to run for anyone else rather than to run for the ITA – with the contracts only going into legal effect if the venture took off.
O'Hara for his part tried to smooth relations with the AAU by avoiding scheduling conflicts and promising not to sign-up college athletes.
Athletics competition
The ITA signed many of the top track and field athletes of the day including notably:
- Jim Ryun, 1500 m/ miler runner – who also acted as a publicist;
- Bob Seagren, pole vaulter;
- Lee Evans, 400 m runner;
- Larry James, 400 m runner;
- Brian Oldfield, shot putter;
- Kip Keino, 1500 m /miler runner;
- Ben Jipcho, 1500 m/miler runner;
- Marty Liquori, long-distance runner who also acted as master of ceremonies for the meets.
The first ITA meet happened on March 3, 1973 in Idaho State University's Minidome and it saw immediate success with three indoor world bests:
- 100 m by Warren Edmonson at 10.2;
- 600 m by Lee Evans at 1:16.7;
- high jump by John Radetich [de] at 7'-4 3/4".
These records, like all those recorded by the openly-professional ITA athletes, would never be ratified as world records by the world governing body for track and field at the time, the International Amateur Athletic Federation, because they were achieved by professional athletes in competitions IAAF did not sanction.
The attraction to the athletes of the ITA was not only the prize money but also the freedom to pursue other commercial opportunities, like endoresement advertising, that were denied to them if they stayed an amateur.
On March 30, 1973, the ITA meet was in Portland, Oregon with Leon Coleman winning the 60 yard hurdles in 7.14; Wyomia Tyus-Simburg winning the 60 yard dash in 6.8 and Warren Edmonson in 6.1; Kip Keino won the 2-mile in 8:46.0; Lee Evans won the 500 yard in 57.5; and Brian Oldfield the SP with 68'-8 1/2"
During its existence, the ITA saw much high-quality competition including 34 world bests. Of particular note were Brian Oldfield's indoor and outdoor records in the shot put. The indoor record happened on 4 April 1975 in Daly City, California. Oldfield achieved a distance of 72'6 1/2" (22.1107) m. The outdoor record happened on 10 May that year in El Paso, Texas. Here Oldfield achieved the remarkable distance of 75'0" (22.860 m). He also had another put of 73' 1" (22.25 m). The official world record at the time was 71'8 1/2" (21.85 m) by Terry Albritton. This put was voted by Track and Field News as their outstanding single performance of 1975. Other notable world bests achieved indoors included those by John Radetich in the high jump and Steve Smith in the pole vault.
Though there was undoubtedly high-quality competition, there was also much competition that was inferior to that seen in the amateur meets of the time. The meets often also had novelty events, for example having the shot putter Brian Oldfield racing against female sprinters over 30 m. In the short-term this attracted spectators but longer-term it damaged the credibility of the ITA. The lack of female athletes and female events in general was also damaging. One famous female athlete who personally suffered from this lack of competition was Wyomia Tyus-Simburg who had been tempted out of retirement to run for the ITA and was unbeaten in their 1974 season.
National Football League Hall of Famer Bob Hayes competed and won several 40-yard dash competitions. Hayes best performance was a 4.3 altitude-aided mark.
Middle Distance Runner and Olympian Dave Wottle competed from 1974 to 1976 on the tour.
Hurdler and Olympian Rod Milburn competed on the tour several years and beat Lance Babb in ITA's final competition. Milburn held the professional record in the sprint hurdles at 13.0.
Rivalries
The ITA spectators were promised the renewal of popular track and field rivalries of the day that would lead to new record performances. The rivalry between Bob Seagren and Steve Smith in the pole vault was added extra spice by their well-known personal animosity. Jim Ryun versus Kip Keino in the 1500 m/mile was another such rivalry, though thankfully restricted solely to the athletic competition in their case. However, injury and a lack of form for Ryan and Keino's retirement meant that Ben Jipcho would domininate the event. This became typical of many other events where there was less and less meaningful competition.
End
The ITA successfully delivered 51 meets during its existence watched by 500,000 spectators and 300 million television viewers. However, the venture struggled from organizational difficulties as well as spotty participation from its star athletes.
Ultimately, the ITA suffered because it could not attract enough television money and the money received through ticket sales was not enough to sustain it. Television companies had been reluctant to support the ITA because of their wish not to offend the AAU and not to be seen to damage American chances at the next Olympics.
The death knell came at the end of 1976 when the ITA was unable to sign any new stars after the Montreal Olympics. A particular blow was the failure to sign three New Zealand middle-distance running stars, John Walker, Dick Quax and Rod Dixon.
Athletes had become more reluctant to turn professional when it became clear that they could often earn more from under-the-table payments when competing at so-called amateur meets than they could from money earned openly at the ITA meets. For example, the high jumper Dwight Stones is quoted as saying in explanation of why he would not sign, "Why take a cut in salary?"
The final ITA meet occurred on August 25, 1976 in Gresham, Oregon. The final three meets of the 1976 season were cancelled.
Legacy
The main legacy of the ITA was the empowerment it gave athletes to challenge the existing shamateurism by forming a framework for the movement that eventually allowed athletes to get paid for their participation in sport.
Many of the ITA's promotional ideas were seen as quirky in their day but are now staples of the World Athletics Diamond League, for example, and include such innovations as prize money and a points-standing system over a season-long tour.
After the ITA's demise, many of the participating athletes sued to regain their "amateur" status in order to continue to participate in the sport. After 1988, the International Olympic Committee voted to allow athletes to be paid for their efforts if this was allowed by the governing bodies of the individual sports, ending the amateur limitation on the Olympics.
References
- ^ The Times, Munster, Indiana August 26, 1976. Retrieved Jan 16, 2021
- ^ Statesman Journal, Salem, Oregon, August 26, 1976. Retrieved Jan 16, 2021
- Jares, Joe (December 11, 1972). "Citius, Altius, Opulentius". Archived from the original on November 10, 2011. Retrieved March 19, 2013.
- ^ "Symbols and traditions". Usatoday30.usatoday.com. 1999-07-12. Retrieved 2015-05-18.
- "Past Covers 1971". Trackandfieldnews.com. Archived from the original on 2015-04-16. Retrieved 2015-05-18.
- ^ Joseph M Turrini (2010). The End of Amateurism in American Track and Field. University of Illinois Press. ISBN 978-0-252-03515-9.
- Reid, Ron (April 2, 1972). "The Pros Come Up A Little Short". Sports Illustrated. Archived from the original on October 29, 2013. Retrieved March 19, 2013.
- Sports Illustrated, Vault. Retrieved Jan 16, 2021
- Progression of IAAF World Records 2011 Edition, Editor Imre Matrahazi, IAAF Athletics, p 184.
- Progression of IAAF World Records 2011 Edition, Editor Imre Matrahazi, IAAF Athletics, p 183.
- Reid, Rod (March 3, 1973). "Three For The Money". Sports Illustrated. Archived from the original on December 17, 2012. Retrieved March 19, 2013.
- SHR1, Pro Football 40 Yard Dash, PDF Pages 5 & 6 of 6. Retrieved Jan 16 2021
- "The Tuscaloosa News - Google News Archive Search". Archived from the original on 11 April 2013.
- "Pro track's big TV meet was a bust until tireless Ben - 03.31.75 - SI…". Archived from the original on 10 April 2013.
- Paul H. Heyse (1993). "An Historical Study of the Rise and Fall of the International Track Association 1972-76" (PDF). Brianoldfield.com. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2013-10-29. Retrieved 2013-03-19.
- "The History Of Track And Field. Where Running Started". Athleticscholarships.net. 10 June 2010. Retrieved 2015-05-18.