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{{Short description|Copper-bearing shale deposit in Central Europe}}
{{Infobox rockunit {{Infobox rockunit
| name = Kupferschiefer | name = Kupferschiefer
| image = Kupferschiefer Erzlineal.jpg | image = Kupferschiefer Erzlineal.jpg
| caption = Kupferschiefer with ] vein | caption = Sample of shale with ] vein from the Kupferschiefer
| type = ] | type = ]
| age = ]<br>{{fossil range|258.9|255.7}} | age = ]<br>{{fossil range|258.9|255.7}}
| period = Wuchiapingian | period = Wuchiapingian
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| coordinates = {{coord|51.0|N|10.0|E|display=inline,title}} | coordinates = {{coord|51.0|N|10.0|E|display=inline,title}}
| paleocoordinates = {{coord|15.3|N|22.6|E|display=inline}} | paleocoordinates = {{coord|15.3|N|22.6|E|display=inline}}
| unitof = ], or ] | unitof = ]
| subunits = | subunits =
| underlies = ] | underlies = ]
| overlies = ]<br>&nbsp;] | overlies = ]
| thickness = Typically {{convert|30|to|60|cm|in}}<br>Max. {{convert|2|m|ft|abbr=on}} | thickness = Typically {{convert|30|to|60|cm|in}}<br>Max. {{convert|2|m|ft|abbr=on}}
| extent = ] | extent = ]
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}} }}


The '''Kupferschiefer''' (] for '''Copper Shale''', also called '''Copper Slate''')<ref name=MinDatSangerhausen1/><ref name=MinDatSangerhausen2/> or '''Kupfermergel''' (Copper Marl), (T1 or Z1)<ref name=Kiel_p4/> is an extensive and remarkable ] in northern Europe. The thin formation is typically {{convert|30|to|60|cm|in}} and maximum {{convert|2|m|ft}} thick, but extends over an area of {{convert|600000|km2|sqmi}} across the ]. The Kupferschiefer can be found in ] or in the subsurface straddling six countries, including parts of the southern ]. The lateral equivalent outcropping in England is called ]. The '''Kupferschiefer''' (] for '''Copper Shale''', '''Copper Schist''' or '''Copper Slate''')<ref name=MinDatSangerhausen1/><ref name=MinDatSangerhausen2/> or '''Kupfermergel''' (Copper Marl), (T1 or Z1)<ref name=Kiel_p4/> is an extensive and remarkable sedimentary unit in Central Europe. The relatively monotonous succession is typically {{convert|30|to|60|cm|in}} and maximum {{convert|2|m|ft}} thick, but extends over an area of {{convert|600000|km2|sqmi}} across the ]. The Kupferschiefer can be found in ] or in the subsurface straddling six countries, including parts of the southern ]. The lateral equivalent outcropping in England is called ].


Some authors consider the formation a ] of the ], but due to its distinctive nature the Kupferschiefer is generally regarded as a separate stratigraphic unit at the base of the ], overlying the ]. The formation has been dated to 257.3 ± 1.6 Ma, placing it in the ] stage of the ]. Despite its distinctive nature, the Kupferschiefer is not ranked as a formation but is officially declared a sub-unit of the ], the lowest formation of the Zechstein Group, overlying the ]. The unit has been dated to 257.3 ± 1.6 Ma, placing it in the ] stage of the ].


The Kupferschiefer comprises ]s, ] ]s, ]s and ]s deposited mostly in an open marine setting, with the borders of its extension deposited in a shallow marine ]. At time of deposition, the area what is now northern Europe was covered by an enclosed sea; the Zechstein sea, characterized by ] conditions. The Kupferschiefer comprises ]s, ] ]s, ]s and ]s deposited mostly in an open marine setting, with the borders of its extension deposited in a shallow marine ]. At time of deposition, the area what is now northern Europe was covered by an enclosed sea; the Zechstein sea, characterized by ] conditions.


The Kupferschiefer is renowned for hosting one of the most important copper deposits in the world, which were mined at least since 1199 AD. Other mineral resources found in the formation include ], ], ] and ]. The Kupferschiefer is renowned for hosting one of the most important copper deposits in the world, which were mined at least since 1199 AD. Other mineral resources found in the unit include ], ], ] and ].


The formation is also an important formation in ]; having provided fossils of the earliest ] ]s, the ancestors to modern ]s and extinct ]s, as well as ]s, many fossil fish, including '']'' and '']'', flora and other fossils. Famous finds from the formation include '']'', '']'', '']'' and '']''. The Kupferschiefer is also an important ]; having provided fossils of early ] ]s, the ancestors to modern ]s and extinct ]s, as well as ]s, many fossil fish, including '']'', '']'' and '']'', flora and other fossils. Famous finds from the unit include '']'', '']'', '']'' and '']''.


== Description == == Description ==
], ]]] ], ]]]
The Kupferschiefer is a regional stratigraphic unit stretching across an area of {{convert|600000|km2|sqmi}} in the ] of north-central Europe. The thin formation is typically {{convert|30|to|60|cm|in}} thick. In the Rossenray 2 shaft, the formation reaches a maximum thickness of {{convert|2|m|ft}}.<ref name=Bachmayer1983_p101>Bachmayer & Malzahn, 1983, p.101</ref> The formation overlies the ] of the ] and forms the basal unit of the ].<ref name=Kiel_p2>Paleo-ecosystems, p.2</ref> In some parts of the stratigraphy, the Kupferschiefer is underlain by the ], an organic-lean thin limestone unit.<ref name=Kiel_p22/> Some authors consider the formation a ] of the ], but due to its distinctive nature, the unit is commonly regarded as a separate formation. The formation is overlain by the ].<ref name=Kiel_p4/> The Kupferschiefer is a regional stratigraphic unit stretching across an area of {{convert|600000|km2|sqmi}} in the ] of north-central Europe. The unit is typically {{convert|30|to|60|cm|in}} thick. In the Rossenray 2 shaft, the unit reaches a maximum thickness of {{convert|2|m|ft}}.<ref name=Bachmayer1983_p101>Bachmayer & Malzahn, 1983, p.101</ref> The Kupferschiefer unconformably overlies various formations of the ] and the ] and forms the basal unit of the ].<ref name=Kiel_p2>Paleo-ecosystems, p.2</ref> In some parts of the Zechstein Basin, the Kupferschiefer is underlain by the ], an organic-lean thin limestone unit.<ref name=Kiel_p22/> Despite its distinctive nature, the Kupferschiefer is not ranked as a formation but is officially declared a sub-unit of the ], the lowest formation of the Zechstein Group. The Kupferschiefer is overlain by the ] sub-unit of the Werra Formation.<ref name=Kiel_p4/>


The formation has been dated to 257.3 ± 1.6 Ma, placing it in the ] stage of the ].<ref name=Ezcurra2014b>Ezcurra et al., 2014b</ref> The age of the formation corresponds to the Ilinskoe part of the ] of European Russia and the ] of the ] of ].<ref name=Tsuji2008_p1112>Tsuji & Müller, 2008, p.1112</ref> The unit has been dated to 257.3 ± 1.6 Ma, placing it in the ] stage of the ].<ref name=Ezcurra2014b>Ezcurra et al., 2014b</ref> The age of the unit corresponds to the Ilinskoe part of the ] of European Russia and the ] of the ] of ].<ref name=Tsuji2008_p1112>Tsuji & Müller, 2008, p.1112</ref>


The Kupferschiefer contains up to 30% organic matter,<ref name=GZHannover/> with variations across its extent. The basinal facies shows values of between 5 and 25% ], while the marginal facies of the formation present values up to 7% TOC and swell facies are much poorer in organic matter with values below 1%.<ref name=Kiel_p22>Paleo-ecosystems, p.22</ref> The Kupferschiefer contains up to 30% organic matter,<ref name=GZHannover/> with variations across its extent. The basinal facies shows values of between 5 and 25% ], while the marginal facies present values up to 7% TOC and swell facies are much poorer in organic matter with values below 1%.<ref name=Kiel_p22>Paleo-ecosystems, p.22</ref>


=== Basin history === === Basin history ===
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=== Depositional environment === === Depositional environment ===
The Kupferschiefer was deposited in a ] setting,<ref name=Kiel_p4>Paleo-ecosystems, p.4</ref> in a deep enclosed basin, covered by the Zechstein sea that was present on the paleocontinent ], the northern part of ].<ref name=Kiel_p7>Paleo-ecosystems, p.7</ref> The basin possibly had periodic connections to the ].<ref name=Kiel_p6>Paleo-ecosystems, p.6</ref> Sedimentation rates during Kupferschiefer deposition were low, estimated at {{convert|5|mm|in}} per thousand years.<ref name=FWSchwarzerPhilipp> at ].org</ref> The Kupferschiefer was deposited in a ] setting,<ref name=Kiel_p4>Paleo-ecosystems, p.4</ref> in a deep enclosed basin, covered by the Zechstein sea that was present on the paleocontinent ], the northern part of ].<ref name=Kiel_p7>Paleo-ecosystems, p.7</ref> The basin possibly had periodic connections to the ].<ref name=Kiel_p6>Paleo-ecosystems, p.6</ref> Sedimentation rates during Kupferschiefer deposition were low, estimated at {{convert|5|mm|in}} per thousand years.<ref name=FWSchwarzerPhilipp> at ].org</ref>


The climate of the Late Permian was extremely variable, with polar icecaps present near the south pole and hot and arid conditions prevailing in the tropic and paleotemperate regions of the northern and southern hemispheres.<ref name=Kiel_p9>Paleo-ecosystems, p.9</ref> The Zechstein sea in the Late Permian was located at paleolatitudes around 15 to 16 degrees north.<ref name=FWGlucksbrunn/> Large areas of Pangea were covered by ]s and arid conditions also prevailed near the Zechstein sea of the time.<ref name=Kiel_p10>Paleo-ecosystems, p.10</ref> The climate of the Late Permian was extremely variable, with polar icecaps present near the south pole and hot and arid conditions prevailing in the tropic and paleotemperate regions of the northern and southern hemispheres.<ref name=Kiel_p9>Paleo-ecosystems, p.9</ref> The Zechstein sea in the Late Permian was located at paleolatitudes around 15 to 16 degrees north.<ref name=FWGlucksbrunn/> Large areas of Pangea were covered by ]s and arid conditions also prevailed near the Zechstein sea of the time.<ref name=Kiel_p10>Paleo-ecosystems, p.10</ref>
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] oxygen ] analysis has revealed that the Late Permian was characterized by a drastic increase in global temperatures, accompanied by a strong rise of ]. The rise in oxygen isotope values was possibly related to an increase in volcanic activity.<ref name=Kiel_p11>Paleo-ecosystems, p.11</ref> The ], the biggest extinction event in geologic history, is thought to have been caused mostly by large volcanic provinces of the ]. ] oxygen ] analysis has revealed that the Late Permian was characterized by a drastic increase in global temperatures, accompanied by a strong rise of ]. The rise in oxygen isotope values was possibly related to an increase in volcanic activity.<ref name=Kiel_p11>Paleo-ecosystems, p.11</ref> The ], the biggest extinction event in geologic history, is thought to have been caused mostly by large volcanic provinces of the ].


{{clear left}}

{{clearleft}}


== Mining == == Mining ==
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Many minerals have been found in the ] district of ],<ref name=MinDatSangerhausen1> at ]</ref><ref name=MinDatSangerhausen2> at ]</ref> which produced 619,200 tonnes of copper and 3,102 tonnes of silver as of 2012, with 860,000; respectively 4,650 tonnes as remaining proven reserves.<ref name=Borg2012_p458/> Many minerals have been found in the ] district of ],<ref name=MinDatSangerhausen1> at ]</ref><ref name=MinDatSangerhausen2> at ]</ref> which produced 619,200 tonnes of copper and 3,102 tonnes of silver as of 2012, with 860,000; respectively 4,650 tonnes as remaining proven reserves.<ref name=Borg2012_p458/>


In the Spremberg-Graustein-Schleife mining area, stretching across the ] ] ] and ] in Saxony, the Kupferschiefer is estimated to contain 130 million tonnes of ore, of which 1,486,000 tonnes of copper,<ref name=Borg2012_p458/> with a copper content of 1.47%. The mining district is about {{convert|15|×|3|km|mi}} and the formation lies at a depth between {{convert|980|and|1580|m|ft}}.<ref name=KSL>{{de icon}} </ref> In the Spremberg-Graustein-Schleife mining area, stretching across the ] ] ] and ] in Saxony, the Kupferschiefer is estimated to contain 130 million tonnes of ore, of which 1,486,000 tonnes of copper,<ref name=Borg2012_p458/> with a copper content of 1.47%. The mining district is about {{convert|15|×|3|km|mi}} and the copper-bearing beds lie at a depth between {{convert|980|and|1580|m|ft}}.<ref name=KSL>{{in lang|de}} </ref>


The Kupferschiefer contains up to 3% copper, 10 ] of ] and up to 3000 ppm ].<ref name=GZHannover>{{de icon}} </ref> The Kupferschiefer contains up to 3% copper, 10 ] of ] and up to 3000 ppm ].<ref name=GZHannover>{{in lang|de}} </ref>


The "Im Lochborn" mine, mining from the Kupferschiefer,<ref name=Borg2012_p456>Borg et al., 2012, p.456</ref> located in ], ] is the ] of the mineral ],<ref name=MinDatBieber> at ]</ref> a ] ] named after the location.<ref name=MinDatBieberite> at ]</ref> The mineral ], a ] ], also has the mine as type locality.<ref name=MinDatRoesslerite> at ]</ref> The "Im Lochborn" mine, mining from the Kupferschiefer,<ref name=Borg2012_p456>Borg et al., 2012, p.456</ref> located in ], ] is the ] of the mineral ],<ref name=MinDatBieber> at ]</ref> a ] ] named after the location.<ref name=MinDatBieberite> at ]</ref> The mineral ], a ] ], also has the mine as type locality.<ref name=MinDatRoesslerite> at ]</ref>


=== Poland === === Poland ===
Two main Kupferschiefer mining areas in Poland are the North-Sudetic trough, with 212,894 tonnes of copper and 756.7 tonnes of silver mined as of 2012 and an estimated remaining reserves of 1,460,000 tonnes of copper, and the Fore-Sudetic monocline, with more than 20,000,000 tonnes of copper and more than 14,085 tonnes of silver mined since 1949. Main mining districts in Poland are the Głogów industrial district, the Lubichów and Grodziec fields, and the Konrad, Lena, Lubin, Nowy Kosciół, Polkowice, Rudna and Sieroszowice mines.<ref name=Borg2012_p458/> The latter mine<ref name=MinDatSieroszowice> at ]</ref> is the type locality for the silver-] amalgame, ].<ref name=MinDatEugenite> at ]</ref> The Polkowice mine is the type locality for two rare ] and ]-bearing ] minerals;<ref name=MinDatPolkowice> at ]</ref> ], named after the mine,<ref name=MinDatPolkovicite> at ]</ref> and ].<ref name=MinDatMorozeviczite> at ]</ref> Two main Kupferschiefer mining areas in Poland are the North-Sudetic trough, with 212,894 tonnes of copper and 756.7 tonnes of silver mined as of 2012 and an estimated remaining reserves of 1,460,000 tonnes of copper, and the Fore-Sudetic monocline, with more than 20,000,000 tonnes of copper and more than 14,085 tonnes of silver mined since 1949. Main mining districts in Poland are the Głogów industrial district, the Lubichów and Grodziec fields, and the Konrad, Lena, Lubin, Nowy Kosciół, Polkowice, Rudna and Sieroszowice mines.<ref name=Borg2012_p458/> The latter mine<ref name=MinDatSieroszowice> at ]</ref> is the type locality for the silver-] amalgame, ].<ref name=MinDatEugenite> at ]</ref> The Polkowice mine is the type locality for two rare ] and ]-bearing ] minerals;<ref name=MinDatPolkowice> at ]</ref> ], named after the mine,<ref name=MinDatPolkovicite> at ]</ref> and ].<ref name=MinDatMorozeviczite> at ]</ref>


== Paleontological significance == == Paleontological significance ==
The Kupferschiefer has provided unique fossils of an early reptile; '']'' belonging to the ], as well as ]ia, fish, an insect and fossil flora. The Kupferschiefer has provided unique fossils of an early reptile; '']'' belonging to the ], as well as ]ia, fish, an insect and fossil flora.


As of 2014, at least 28 ''Protorosaurus speneri'' specimens are known from the Kupferschiefer in the states of Thuringia and Hesse in central Germany.<ref name=Ezcurra2014a_p7>Ezcurra et al., 2014a, p.7</ref> The ] for the species is Glücksbrunn, Heidelberg, near ] in Thuringia.<ref name=FWGlucksbrunn> at ].org</ref><ref name=Ezcurra2016_p22>Ezcurra, 2016, p.22</ref> The type locality for '']'' is ] in ].<ref name=Tsuji2008>Tsuji & Müller, 2008</ref><ref name=FWWalkenried> at ].org</ref> Fossils of both species were found containing ] pebbles in their guts.<ref name=Munk1993_p171>Munk & Kues, 1993, p.171</ref><ref name=Munk1993_p172>Munk & Kues, 1993, p.172</ref> As of 2014, at least 28 ''Protorosaurus speneri'' specimens are known from the Kupferschiefer in the states of Thuringia and Hesse in central Germany.<ref name=Ezcurra2014a_p7>Ezcurra et al., 2014a, p.7</ref> The ] for the species is Glücksbrunn, Heidelberg, near ] in Thuringia.<ref name=FWGlucksbrunn> at ].org</ref><ref name=Ezcurra2016_p22>Ezcurra, 2016, p.22</ref> The type locality for '']'' is ] in ].<ref name=Tsuji2008>Tsuji & Müller, 2008</ref><ref name=FWWalkenried> at ].org</ref> Fossils of both species were found containing ] pebbles in their guts.<ref name=Munk1993_p171>Munk & Kues, 1993, p.171</ref><ref name=Munk1993_p172>Munk & Kues, 1993, p.172</ref>


Fossil fish of the species ''{{ill|Palaeoniscum freieslebeni|de}}'' are abundantly found in different locations in the Kupferschiefer. The ] of the "Eisleben Shale Fish", or "Kupferschiefer ]" refers to {{ill|Johann Karl Freiesleben|de}}, the {{ill|Berghauptmann|de}} (mining inspection director) of ].<ref name=BernburgPfreieslebeni>{{de icon}} at ]</ref> Other fish found in the Kupferschiefer include '']'', '']'', '']'', '']'', '']'', '']'', and two species of '']'' and '']''. Fossil fish of the species ''{{ill|Palaeoniscum freieslebeni|de}}'' are abundantly found in different locations in the Kupferschiefer. The ] of the "Eisleben Shale Fish", or "Kupferschiefer ]" refers to ], the {{ill|Berghauptmann|de}} (mining inspection director) of ].<ref name=BernburgPfreieslebeni>{{in lang|de}} at ]</ref> Other fish found in the Kupferschiefer include '']'', '']'', '']'', '']'', '']'', '']'', and two species of '']'' and '']''.


=== Fossil content === === Fossil content ===
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! Group !! Fossils !! Image !! Notes ! Group !! Fossils !! Image !! Notes
|- |-
| ] || '']'' || ] || align=center | <ref name=Ezcurra2014a_p7/> | ] || '']'' || ]|| align="center" | <ref name=Ezcurra2014a_p7/>
|- |-
| rowspan=2 | ] || '']'' || ] || align=center | <ref name=Weichelt1930>Weichelt, 1930</ref> | rowspan=2 | ] || '']'' || ]|| align="center" | <ref name=Weichelt1930>Weichelt, 1930</ref>
|- |-
| '']'' || || align=center | <ref name=Bulanov2015_p1357>Bulanov & Sennikov, 2015, p.1357</ref> | '']'' || || align=center | <ref name=Bulanov2015_p1357>Bulanov & Sennikov, 2015, p.1357</ref>
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| ]ia || '']'' || || align=center | <ref name=Tsuji2008/> | ]ia || '']'' || || align=center | <ref name=Tsuji2008/>
|- |-
| rowspan=18 | Fish || rowspan=3 | '']'' || ] || rowspan=3 align=center | <ref name=GZHannover/> | rowspan=18 | Fish || rowspan=3 | '']'' || ] || rowspan=3 align=center | <ref name=GZHannover/>
|- |-
| ] | ]
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| ] | ]
|- |-
| '']'' || ] || align=center | <ref name=FWRichelsdorf> at ].org</ref> | '']'' || ] || align=center | <ref name=FWRichelsdorf> at ].org</ref>
|- |-
| '']'' || ] || align=center | <ref name=FWWolfsberg> at ].org</ref> | '']'' || ] || align=center | <ref name=FWWolfsberg> at ].org</ref>
|- |-
| '']'', '']'' || rowspan=2 | ] || align=center | <ref name=FWMansfeldDresden> at ].org</ref><ref name=FWFreieslebenschacht> at ].org</ref><ref name=Brandt2009_p16>Brandt, 2009, p.16</ref> | '']'', '']'' || rowspan=2 | ] || align=center | <ref name=FWMansfeldDresden> at ].org</ref><ref name=FWFreieslebenschacht> at ].org</ref><ref name=Brandt2009_p16>Brandt, 2009, p.16</ref>
|- |-
| '']'' || align=center | <ref name=FWLonau> at ].org</ref> | '']'' || align=center | <ref name=FWLonau> at ].org</ref>
|- |-
| '']'', '']'' || ] || align=center | <ref name=FWRichelsdorf/> | '']'', '']'' || ] || align=center | <ref name=FWRichelsdorf/>
|- |-
| '']'' || || align=center | <ref name=FWHasbergen2> at ].org</ref> | '']'' || || align=center | <ref name=FWHasbergen2> at ].org</ref>
|- |-
| '']'' || || align=center | <ref name=FWRichelsdorf/> | '']'' || || align=center | <ref name=FWRichelsdorf/>
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| '']'' || || align=center | <ref name=FWRichelsdorf/> | '']'' || || align=center | <ref name=FWRichelsdorf/>
|- |-
| '']'' || || align=center | <ref name=FWBodental> at ].org</ref> | '']'' || || align=center | <ref name=FWBodental> at ].org</ref>
|- |-
| '']'' || || align=center | <ref name=FWHasbergen> at ].org</ref> | '']'' || || align=center | <ref name=FWHasbergen> at ].org</ref>
|- |-
| '']'' || || align=center | <ref name=FWRichelsdorf/> | '']'' || || align=center | <ref name=FWRichelsdorf/>
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| '']'' || || align=center | <ref name=FWRichelsdorf/> | '']'' || || align=center | <ref name=FWRichelsdorf/>
|- |-
| '']'' || || align=center | <ref name=FWHasbergen3> at ].org</ref> | '']'' || || align=center | <ref name=FWHasbergen3> at ].org</ref>
|- |-
| '']'' || || align=center | <ref name=Bachmayer1983_p101/><ref name=FWRichelsdorfMountains> at ].org</ref> | '']'' || || align=center | <ref name=Bachmayer1983_p101/><ref name=FWRichelsdorfMountains> at ].org</ref>
|- |-
| ]s || '']'' || || align=center | <ref name=Guthörl1965_p229>Guthörl, 1965, p.229</ref><ref name=FWRossenray> at ].org</ref> | ]s || '']'' || || align=center | <ref name=Guthörl1965_p229>Guthörl, 1965, p.229</ref><ref name=FWRossenray> at ].org</ref>
|- |-
| rowspan=2 | ]s || '']'' || || align=center | <ref name=FWHasbergen/> | rowspan=2 | ]s || '']'' || || align=center | <ref name=FWHasbergen/>
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| '']'' || || align=center | <ref name=FWHasbergen2/> | '']'' || || align=center | <ref name=FWHasbergen2/>
|- |-
| rowspan=2 | ]s || '']'' || || align=center | <ref name=FWMerzenberg> at ].org</ref> | rowspan=2 | ]s || '']'' || || align=center | <ref name=FWMerzenberg> at ].org</ref>
|- |-
| '']'' || || align=center | <ref name=FWHasbergen2/> | '']'' || || align=center | <ref name=FWHasbergen2/>
|- |-
| rowspan=5 | Macroflora || '']'' || ] || align=center | <ref name=Bachmayer1983_p101/> | rowspan=5 | Macroflora || '']'' || || align=center | <ref name=Bachmayer1983_p101/>
|- |-
| '']'' || ] || align=center | <ref name=Bachmayer1983_p101/> | '']'' || ] || align=center | <ref name=Bachmayer1983_p101/>
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| '']'', '']'', '']'', '']'', '']'', '']'', '']'', '']'' || || align=center | <ref name=Bachmayer1983_p101/> | '']'', '']'', '']'', '']'', '']'', '']'', '']'', '']'' || || align=center | <ref name=Bachmayer1983_p101/>
|- |-
| ] || '']'', '']'', '']'', '']'', '']'', '']'', '']'', '']'', '']'', '']'', '']'', '']'' || || align=center | <ref name=Grebe1957>Grebe, 1957</ref><ref name=FWKampLintfort> at ].org</ref> | ] || '']'', '']'', '']'', '']'', '']'', '']'', '']'', '']'', '']'', '']'', '']'', '']'' || || align=center | <ref name=Grebe1957>Grebe, 1957</ref><ref name=FWKampLintfort> at ].org</ref>
|- |-
|} |}

== Geologic maps ==
''Zechstein in blue''

<gallery mode="packed" heights="180px">
File:Geomap Rhoen.jpg|Rhoen
File:Thuringian Forest Geology.png|Thuringian Forest
File:Geomap Thur-Franc-Vogtl-SM.png|Thuringian-Franconian mountains
File:Elm Asse Dorm geol.png|Eastern Brunswick
</gallery>


== See also == == See also ==
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== References == == References ==
{{reflist|20em}} {{Reflist|20em}}


=== Bibliography === === Bibliography ===
;Geology ;Geology
* {{cite LSA |last=Borg |first=Gregor |last2=Piestrzyński |first2=Adam |last3=Bachmann |first3=Gerhard H. |last4=Püttmann |first4=Wilhelm |last5=Walther |first5=Sabine |last6=Fiedler |first6=Marco |year=2012 |title=An Overview of the European Kupferschiefer Deposits |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/285769737_An_overview_of_the_European_Kupferschiefer_deposits |journal=], Inc. Special Publication |volume=16 |pages=455–486 |accessdate=2019-03-14}} * {{citation |last1=Borg |first1=Gregor |last2=Piestrzyński |first2=Adam |last3=Bachmann |first3=Gerhard H. |last4=Püttmann |first4=Wilhelm |last5=Walther |first5=Sabine |last6=Fiedler |first6=Marco |year=2012 |title=An Overview of the European Kupferschiefer Deposits |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/285769737 |journal=Society of Economic Geologists, Inc. Special Publication |volume=16 |pages=455–486 |accessdate=2019-03-14}}
* {{cite LSA |last=Jowett |first=E. Craig |year=1986 |title=Genesis of Kupferschiefer Cu-Ag Deposits by Convective Flow of Rotliegende Brines during Triassic Rifting |url=http://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/download?doi=10.1.1.873.8027&rep=rep1&type=pdf |journal=] |volume=81 |pages=1823–1837 |accessdate=2019-03-14}} * {{citation |last=Jowett |first=E. Craig |year=1986 |title=Genesis of Kupferschiefer Cu-Ag Deposits by Convective Flow of Rotliegende Brines during Triassic Rifting |url=http://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/download?doi=10.1.1.873.8027&rep=rep1&type=pdf |journal=] |volume=81 |issue=8 |pages=1823–1837 |doi=10.2113/gsecongeo.81.8.1823 |bibcode=1986EcGeo..81.1823J |citeseerx=10.1.1.873.8027 |accessdate=2019-03-14}}
* {{cite LSA |last=Wagner |first=Thomas |last2=Okrusch |first2=Martin |last3=Weyer |first3=Stefan |last4=Lorenz |first4=Joachim |last5=Lahaye |first5=Yann |last6=Taubald |first6=Heiner |last7=Schmit |first7=Ralf T. |year=2010 |title=The role of the Kupferschiefer in the formation of hydrothermal base metal mineralization in the Spessart ore district, Germany: insight from detailed sulfur isotope studies |url=https://core.ac.uk/download/pdf/159152006.pdf |journal=] |volume=45 |pages=217–239 |accessdate=2019-03-14}} * {{citation |last1=Wagner |first1=Thomas |last2=Okrusch |first2=Martin |last3=Weyer |first3=Stefan |last4=Lorenz |first4=Joachim |last5=Lahaye |first5=Yann |last6=Taubald |first6=Heiner |last7=Schmit |first7=Ralf T. |year=2010 |title=The role of the Kupferschiefer in the formation of hydrothermal base metal mineralization in the Spessart ore district, Germany: insight from detailed sulfur isotope studies |url=https://core.ac.uk/download/pdf/159152006.pdf |journal=] |volume=45 |issue=3 |pages=217–239 |doi=10.1007/s00126-009-0270-2 |bibcode=2010MinDe..45..217W |accessdate=2019-03-14}}
* {{cite LSA |last=Zientek |first=Michael L. |last2=Oszczepalski |first2=Sławomir |last3=Parks |first3=Heather L. |last4=Bliss |first4=James D. |last5=Borg |first5=Gregor |last6=Box |first6=Stephen E. |last7=Denning |first7=Paul D. |last8=Hayes |first8=Timothy S. |last9=Spieth and Cliff D. Taylor |first9=Volker |year=2015 |title=Assessment of Undiscovered Copper Resources Associated with the Permian Kupferschiefer, Southern Permian Basin, Europe |url=https://pubs.usgs.gov/sir/2010/5090/u/pdf/sir2010-5090-U.pdf |publisher=] |pages=1–95 |accessdate=2019-03-14}} * {{citation |last1=Zientek |first1=Michael L. |last2=Oszczepalski |first2=Sławomir |last3=Parks |first3=Heather L. |last4=Bliss |first4=James D. |last5=Borg |first5=Gregor |last6=Box |first6=Stephen E. |last7=Denning |first7=Paul D. |last8=Hayes |first8=Timothy S. |last9=Spieth and Cliff D. Taylor |first9=Volker |year=2015 |title=Assessment of Undiscovered Copper Resources Associated with the Permian Kupferschiefer, Southern Permian Basin, Europe |url=https://pubs.usgs.gov/sir/2010/5090/u/pdf/sir2010-5090-U.pdf |publisher=] |pages=1–95 |accessdate=2019-03-14}}
* {{cite LSA |last=N. |first=N |year=s.a |title=Paleo-ecosystems: upper Permian Kupferschiefer |url=https://www.geochemie.ifg.uni-kiel.de/de/lehrmaterialien/master/wintersemester/palaeooekosysteme-mnf-geow-mwps4/kupferschiefer.pdf |publisher=] |pages=1–73 |accessdate=2019-03-14}} * {{citation |last=N. |first=N |year= |title=Paleo-ecosystems: upper Permian Kupferschiefer |url=https://www.geochemie.ifg.uni-kiel.de/de/lehrmaterialien/master/wintersemester/palaeooekosysteme-mnf-geow-mwps4/kupferschiefer.pdf |publisher=] |pages=1–73 |accessdate=2019-03-14}}


;Paleontology ;Paleontology
* {{cite LSA |last=Bachmayer |first=Friedrich |last2=Malzahn |first2=Erich |year=1983 |title=Der erste Nachweis eines decapoden Krebses im niederrheinischen Kupferschiefer |url=https://www.zobodat.at/pdf/ANNA_85A_0099-0106.pdf |journal=] |volume=85 |pages=99–106 |accessdate=2019-03-14}} * {{citation |last1=Bachmayer |first1=Friedrich |last2=Malzahn |first2=Erich |year=1983 |title=Der erste Nachweis eines decapoden Krebses im niederrheinischen Kupferschiefer |url=https://www.zobodat.at/pdf/ANNA_85A_0099-0106.pdf |journal=] |volume=85 |pages=99–106 |accessdate=2019-03-14}}
* {{cite LSA |last=Bauer |first=Kathleen |last2=Kustatscher |first2=Evelyn |last3=Krings |first3=Michael |year=2013 |title=The ginkgophytes from the German Kupferschiefer (Permian), with considerations on the taxonomic history and use of Baiera and Sphenobaiera |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/244484271_The_ginkgophytes_from_the_German_Kupferschiefer_Permian_with_considerations_on_the_taxonomic_history_and_use_of_Baiera_and_Sphenobaiera |journal=] |volume=88 |pages=539–556 |accessdate=2019-03-14}} * {{citation |last1=Bauer |first1=Kathleen |last2=Kustatscher |first2=Evelyn |last3=Krings |first3=Michael |year=2013 |title=The ginkgophytes from the German Kupferschiefer (Permian), with considerations on the taxonomic history and use of Baiera and Sphenobaiera |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/244484271 |journal=] |volume=88 |pages=539–556 |doi=10.3140/bull.geosci.1394 |accessdate=2019-03-14}}
* {{cite LSA |last=Brandt |first=Silvio |year=2009 |title=Über Neufunde von ''Janassa korni'' (WEIGELT), einen petalodonten Elasmobranchier aus dem Kupferschiefer (Ober-Perm) von Eisle - ben und Sangerhausen (Sachsen-Anhalt) (About new finds and informations of the petalodontid ''Janassa korni'' from the Kupferschiefer (Upper Permian) of Eisleben and Sangerhausen, Germany) |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/275037522_Uber_Neufunde_von_Janassa_korni_WEIGELT_einen_petalodonten_Elasmobranchier_aus_dem_Kupferschiefer_Ober-Perm_von_Eisle_-_ben_und_Sangerhausen_Sachsen-Anhalt_About_new_finds_and_informations_of_the_peta |journal=Veröffentlichungen Naturhist. Museum Schleusingen |volume=24 |pages=15–26 |accessdate=2019-03-14}} * {{citation |last=Brandt |first=Silvio |year=2009 |title=Über Neufunde von ''Janassa korni'' (WEIGELT), einen petalodonten Elasmobranchier aus dem Kupferschiefer (Ober-Perm) von Eisle - ben und Sangerhausen (Sachsen-Anhalt) (About new finds and informations of the petalodontid ''Janassa korni'' from the Kupferschiefer (Upper Permian) of Eisleben and Sangerhausen, Germany) |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/275037522 |journal=Veröffentlichungen Naturhist. Museum Schleusingen |volume=24 |pages=15–26 |accessdate=2019-03-14}}
* {{cite LSA |last=Bulanov |first=V. V. |last2=Sennikov |first2=A. G. |year=2015 |title=''Glaurung schneideri'' gen. et sp. nov., a new weigeltisaurid (Reptilia) from the Kupfershiefer (sic) (Upper Permian) of Germany |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/284156665_Glaurung_schneideri_gen_et_sp_nov_a_New_Weigeltisaurid_Reptilia_from_the_Kupfershiefer_Upper_Permian_of_Germany |journal=] |volume=49 |issue=12 |pages=1353–1364 |accessdate=2019-03-14}} * {{citation |last1=Bulanov |first1=V. V. |last2=Sennikov |first2=A. G. |year=2015 |title=''Glaurung schneideri'' gen. et sp. nov., a new weigeltisaurid (Reptilia) from the Kupfershiefer (sic) (Upper Permian) of Germany |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/284156665 |journal=] |volume=49 |issue=12 |pages=1353–1364 |doi=10.1134/S0031030115120035 |bibcode=2015PalJ...49.1353B |accessdate=2019-03-14}}
* {{cite LSA |last=Diedrich |first=C.G |year=2009 |title=A coelacanthid-rich site at Hasbergen (NW Germany): taphonomy and palaeoenvironment of a first systematic excavation in the Kupferschiefer (Upper Permian, Lopingian) |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/226641158_A_coelacanthid-rich_site_at_Hasbergen_NW_Germany_taphonomy_and_palaeoenvironment_of_a_first_systematic_excavation_in_the_Kupferschiefer_Upper_Permian_Lopingian |journal=] |volume=89 |pages=67–94 |accessdate=2019-03-14}} * {{citation |last=Diedrich |first=C.G |year=2009 |title=A coelacanthid-rich site at Hasbergen (NW Germany): taphonomy and palaeoenvironment of a first systematic excavation in the Kupferschiefer (Upper Permian, Lopingian) |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/226641158 |journal=] |volume=89 |issue=1–2 |pages=67–94 |doi=10.1007/s12549-009-0004-6 |bibcode=2009PdPe...89...67D |accessdate=2019-03-14}}
* {{cite LSA |last=Ezcurra |first=Martín D |year=2016 |title=The phylogenetic relationships of basal archosauromorphs, with an emphasis on the systematics of proterosuchian archosauriforms |url=https://peerj.com/articles/1778.pdf |journal=] |volume=4e1778 |pages=1–385 |accessdate=2019-03-14}} * {{citation |last=Ezcurra |first=Martín D |year=2016 |title=The phylogenetic relationships of basal archosauromorphs, with an emphasis on the systematics of proterosuchian archosauriforms |url=https://peerj.com/articles/1778.pdf |journal=] |volume=4e1778 |pages=1–385 |accessdate=2019-03-14 }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171202061459/https://peerj.com/articles/1778.pdf |date=2017-12-02 }}
* {{cite LSA |last=Ezcurra |first=Martín D. |last2=Scheyer |first2=Torsten M. |last3=Butler |first3=Richard J. |year=2014a |title=The Origin and Early Evolution of Sauria: Reassessing the Permian Saurian Fossil Record and the Timing of the Crocodile-Lizard Divergence |url=https://journals.plos.org/plosone/article/file?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0089165&type=printable |journal=] |volume=9 |pages=1–36 |accessdate=2019-03-14}} * {{citation |last1=Ezcurra |first1=Martín D. |last2=Scheyer |first2=Torsten M. |last3=Butler |first3=Richard J. |year=2014a |title=The Origin and Early Evolution of Sauria: Reassessing the Permian Saurian Fossil Record and the Timing of the Crocodile-Lizard Divergence |journal=] |volume=9 |issue=2 |pages=1–36 |doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0089165 |doi-access=free |pmid=24586565 |pmc=3937355 |bibcode=2014PLoSO...989165E }}
* {{cite LSA |last=Ezcurra |first=Martín D. |last2=Scheyer |first2=Torsten M. |last3=Butler |first3=Richard J. |year=2014b |title=Correction: The Origin and Early Evolution of Sauria: Reassessing the Permian Saurian Fossil Record and the Timing of the Crocodile-Lizard Divergence |url=https://journals.plos.org/plosone/article/file?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0097828&type=printable |journal=] |volume=9 |pages=1 |accessdate=2019-03-14}} * {{citation |last1=Ezcurra |first1=Martín D. |last2=Scheyer |first2=Torsten M. |last3=Butler |first3=Richard J. |year=2014b |title=Correction: The Origin and Early Evolution of Sauria: Reassessing the Permian Saurian Fossil Record and the Timing of the Crocodile-Lizard Divergence |journal=] |volume=9 |issue=5 |pages=1 |doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0097828 |doi-access=free |bibcode=2014PLoSO...997828. }}
* {{cite LSA |last=Grebe |first=H |year=1957 |title=Zur Mikroflora des niederrheinischen Zechsteins |journal=] |volume=73 |pages=51–74}} * {{citation |last=Grebe |first=H |year=1957 |title=Zur Mikroflora des niederrheinischen Zechsteins |journal=] |volume=73 |pages=51–74}}
* {{cite LSA |last=Guthörl |first=P |year=1965 |title=Zur Arthropoden-Fauna des Karbons und Perms. 21. ''Protereisma rossenrayensis'' n. sp., ein Ephemeropteren-Fund (Insecta) aus dem niederrheinischen Zechstein |url=https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007%2FBF02990167 |journal=] |volume=39 |pages=229–233 |accessdate=2019-03-14}} * {{citation |last=Guthörl |first=P |year=1965 |title=Zur Arthropoden-Fauna des Karbons und Perms. 21. ''Protereisma rossenrayensis'' n. sp., ein Ephemeropteren-Fund (Insecta) aus dem niederrheinischen Zechstein |url=https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007%2FBF02990167 |journal=] |volume=39 |pages=229–233 |doi=10.1007/BF02990167 |accessdate=2019-03-14}}
* {{cite LSA |last=Munk |first=W. |last2=Sues |first2=H.-P. |year=1993 |title=Gut contents of ''Parasaurus'' (Pareiasauria) and ''Protorosaurus'' (Archosauromorpha) from the Kupferschiefer (Upper Permian) of Hessen, Germany |url=https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Hans-Dieter_Sues/publication/225548282_Gut_contents_ofParasaurusPareiasauria_andProtorosaurusArchosauromorpha_from_the_Kupferschiefer_Upper_Permian_of_Hessen_Germany/links/5485fa600cf289302e2b6bf3/Gut-contents-of-Parasaurus-Pareiasauria-and-Protorosaurus-Archosauromorpha-from-the-Kupferschiefer-Upper-Permian-of-Hessen-Germany.pdf |journal=] |volume=67 |pages=169–176 |accessdate=2019-03-14}} * {{citation |last1=Munk |first1=W. |last2=Sues |first2=H.-P. |year=1993 |title=Gut contents of ''Parasaurus'' (Pareiasauria) and ''Protorosaurus'' (Archosauromorpha) from the Kupferschiefer (Upper Permian) of Hessen, Germany |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/225548282 |journal=] |volume=67 |issue=1–2 |pages=169–176 |doi=10.1007/BF02985876 |bibcode=1993PalZ...67..169K |accessdate=2019-03-14}}
* {{cite LSA |last=Tsuji |first=L.A. |last2=Müller |first2=J. |year=2008 |title=A Re-evaluation of ''Parasaurus geinitzi'', the first named pareiasaur (Amniota, Parareptilia) |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/233652817_A_re-evaluation_of_Parasaurus_geinitzi_the_first_named_pareiasaur_Amniota_Parareptilia |journal=] |volume=45 |pages=1111–1121 |accessdate=2019-03-14}} * {{citation |last1=Tsuji |first1=L.A. |last2=Müller |first2=J. |year=2008 |title=A Re-evaluation of ''Parasaurus geinitzi'', the first named pareiasaur (Amniota, Parareptilia) |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/233652817 |journal=] |volume=45 |issue=10 |pages=1111–1121 |doi=10.1139/E08-060 |bibcode=2008CaJES..45.1111T |accessdate=2019-03-14}}


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Latest revision as of 21:42, 7 January 2025

Copper-bearing shale deposit in Central Europe
Kupferschiefer
Stratigraphic range: Late Permian
258.9–255.7 Ma PreꞒ Ꞓ O S D C P T J K Pg N ↓
Sample of shale with chalcopyrite vein from the Kupferschiefer
TypeMember
Unit ofWerra Formation
UnderliesZechstein Limestone
OverliesRotliegend Group
Area600,000 km (230,000 sq mi)
ThicknessTypically 30 to 60 centimetres (12 to 24 in)
Max. 2 m (6.6 ft)
Lithology
PrimaryBlack shale, marl
OtherMudstone, limestone, copper, zinc, lead, silver, gold, platinum
Location
Coordinates51°00′N 10°00′E / 51.0°N 10.0°E / 51.0; 10.0
Approximate paleocoordinates15°18′N 22°36′E / 15.3°N 22.6°E / 15.3; 22.6
RegionNorth-central Europe
Country Denmark
 Germany
 Lithuania
 Netherlands
 Poland
 Russia (Kaliningrad)
ExtentSouthern Permian Basin
Type section
Named for"Kupfer" = copper, "Schiefer" = shale

Extent of the Zechstein sea, where the Kupferschiefer was deposited

The Kupferschiefer (German for Copper Shale, Copper Schist or Copper Slate) or Kupfermergel (Copper Marl), (T1 or Z1) is an extensive and remarkable sedimentary unit in Central Europe. The relatively monotonous succession is typically 30 to 60 centimetres (12 to 24 in) and maximum 2 metres (6.6 ft) thick, but extends over an area of 600,000 square kilometres (230,000 sq mi) across the Southern Permian Basin. The Kupferschiefer can be found in outcrop or in the subsurface straddling six countries, including parts of the southern North Sea. The lateral equivalent outcropping in England is called Marl Slate.

Despite its distinctive nature, the Kupferschiefer is not ranked as a formation but is officially declared a sub-unit of the Werra Formation, the lowest formation of the Zechstein Group, overlying the Rotliegend Group. The unit has been dated to 257.3 ± 1.6 Ma, placing it in the Wuchiapingian stage of the Late Permian.

The Kupferschiefer comprises black shales, bituminous marls, mudstones and limestones deposited mostly in an open marine setting, with the borders of its extension deposited in a shallow marine environment. At time of deposition, the area what is now northern Europe was covered by an enclosed sea; the Zechstein sea, characterized by anoxic conditions.

The Kupferschiefer is renowned for hosting one of the most important copper deposits in the world, which were mined at least since 1199 AD. Other mineral resources found in the unit include zinc, vanadium, lead and silver.

The Kupferschiefer is also an important lagerstätte; having provided fossils of early Archosauromorph reptiles, the ancestors to modern crocodiles and extinct dinosaurs, as well as pareiasaurs, many fossil fish, including Coelacanthus granulatus, Dorypterus hoffmanni and Palaeoniscum freieslebeni, flora and other fossils. Famous finds from the unit include Parasaurus geinitzi, Protorosaurus speneri, Weigeltisaurus jaekeli and Glaurung schneideri.

Description

Stratigraphic succession including the Kupferschiefer in the Kamsdorf mine near Saalfeld, Thuringia

The Kupferschiefer is a regional stratigraphic unit stretching across an area of 600,000 square kilometres (230,000 sq mi) in the Southern Permian Basin of north-central Europe. The unit is typically 30 to 60 centimetres (12 to 24 in) thick. In the Rossenray 2 shaft, the unit reaches a maximum thickness of 2 metres (6.6 ft). The Kupferschiefer unconformably overlies various formations of the Rotliegend Group and the Varsican basement and forms the basal unit of the Zechstein Group. In some parts of the Zechstein Basin, the Kupferschiefer is underlain by the Mutterflöz Limestone, an organic-lean thin limestone unit. Despite its distinctive nature, the Kupferschiefer is not ranked as a formation but is officially declared a sub-unit of the Werra Formation, the lowest formation of the Zechstein Group. The Kupferschiefer is overlain by the Zechstein Limestone sub-unit of the Werra Formation.

The unit has been dated to 257.3 ± 1.6 Ma, placing it in the Wuchiapingian stage of the Late Permian. The age of the unit corresponds to the Ilinskoe part of the Sokolki Assemblage Zone of European Russia and the Tropidostoma Assemblage Zone of the Karoo Basin of South Africa.

The Kupferschiefer contains up to 30% organic matter, with variations across its extent. The basinal facies shows values of between 5 and 25% TOC, while the marginal facies present values up to 7% TOC and swell facies are much poorer in organic matter with values below 1%.

Basin history

Paleogeography of the Late Permian (260 Ma), with Archosauromorpha fossil locations indicated. Note the Zechstein sea is not shown as an inland sea.

Depositional environment

The Kupferschiefer was deposited in a highstand setting, in a deep enclosed basin, covered by the Zechstein sea that was present on the paleocontinent Laurussia, the northern part of Pangea. The basin possibly had periodic connections to the Paleo-Tethys Ocean. Sedimentation rates during Kupferschiefer deposition were low, estimated at 5 millimetres (0.20 in) per thousand years.

The climate of the Late Permian was extremely variable, with polar icecaps present near the south pole and hot and arid conditions prevailing in the tropic and paleotemperate regions of the northern and southern hemispheres. The Zechstein sea in the Late Permian was located at paleolatitudes around 15 to 16 degrees north. Large areas of Pangea were covered by deserts and arid conditions also prevailed near the Zechstein sea of the time.

Apatite oxygen isotope analysis has revealed that the Late Permian was characterized by a drastic increase in global temperatures, accompanied by a strong rise of eustatic sea level. The rise in oxygen isotope values was possibly related to an increase in volcanic activity. The Permian-Triassic extinction event, the biggest extinction event in geologic history, is thought to have been caused mostly by large volcanic provinces of the Siberian Traps.

Mining

Miners extracting copper in Mansfeld

Prehistoric finds of slag and bronze from smelting sites on top of or immediately adjacent to outcropping Kupferschiefer ores at Wettelrode, Mohrungen, and Bottendorf in Central Germany evidence Early to Middle Bronze Age mining of the Kupferschiefer ores. The medieval mining history of the Kupferschiefer ores is documented in written sources since at least 1199 A.D. from the Mansfeld district in Central Germany. The Counts of Mansfeld developed several copper mines, smelters, and a mint at the town of Eisleben, where copper and silver coins were minted from the metals of the Kupferschiefer ores.

Germany

Kupferschiefer from Mansfeld with a vein of bornite

The main mining district of the Kupferschiefer in Germany was Mansfeld Land, which operated from at least 1199 AD, and has provided 2,009,800 tonnes of copper and 11,111 tonnes of silver. The Mansfeld mining district was exhausted in 1990.

Eisleben in the Mansfeld Land is the type locality of two minerals; the nickel-arsenate maucherite, and betekhtinite, a copper-lead-iron sulfide. The latter mineral has a co-type locality in the Ernst-Thälmann shaft, that operated from 1906 to 1962 and produced 260,000 tons of copper; about 10% of the overall production from the Mansfeld area.

Many minerals have been found in the Sangerhausen district of Saxony-Anhalt, which produced 619,200 tonnes of copper and 3,102 tonnes of silver as of 2012, with 860,000; respectively 4,650 tonnes as remaining proven reserves.

In the Spremberg-Graustein-Schleife mining area, stretching across the Brandenburg district Spree-Neiße and Görlitz in Saxony, the Kupferschiefer is estimated to contain 130 million tonnes of ore, of which 1,486,000 tonnes of copper, with a copper content of 1.47%. The mining district is about 15 by 3 kilometres (9.3 mi × 1.9 mi) and the copper-bearing beds lie at a depth between 980 and 1,580 metres (3,220 and 5,180 ft).

The Kupferschiefer contains up to 3% copper, 10 ppm of platina and up to 3000 ppm gold.

The "Im Lochborn" mine, mining from the Kupferschiefer, located in Bieber, Hessen is the type locality of the mineral bieberite, a cobalt sulfate named after the location. The mineral rösslerite, a magnesium arsenate, also has the mine as type locality.

Poland

Two main Kupferschiefer mining areas in Poland are the North-Sudetic trough, with 212,894 tonnes of copper and 756.7 tonnes of silver mined as of 2012 and an estimated remaining reserves of 1,460,000 tonnes of copper, and the Fore-Sudetic monocline, with more than 20,000,000 tonnes of copper and more than 14,085 tonnes of silver mined since 1949. Main mining districts in Poland are the Głogów industrial district, the Lubichów and Grodziec fields, and the Konrad, Lena, Lubin, Nowy Kosciół, Polkowice, Rudna and Sieroszowice mines. The latter mine is the type locality for the silver-quicksilver amalgame, eugenite. The Polkowice mine is the type locality for two rare lead and germanium-bearing sulfide minerals; polkovicite, named after the mine, and morozeviczite.

Paleontological significance

The Kupferschiefer has provided unique fossils of an early reptile; Protorosaurus speneri belonging to the Archosauromorpha, as well as Pareiasauria, fish, an insect and fossil flora.

As of 2014, at least 28 Protorosaurus speneri specimens are known from the Kupferschiefer in the states of Thuringia and Hesse in central Germany. The type locality for the species is Glücksbrunn, Heidelberg, near Schweina in Thuringia. The type locality for Parasaurus geinitzi is Walkenried in Lower Saxony. Fossils of both species were found containing quartz pebbles in their guts.

Fossil fish of the species Palaeoniscum freieslebeni [de] are abundantly found in different locations in the Kupferschiefer. The species epithet of the "Eisleben Shale Fish", or "Kupferschiefer Herring" refers to Johann Karl Freiesleben, the Berghauptmann [de] (mining inspection director) of Saxony. Other fish found in the Kupferschiefer include Coelacanthus granulatus, Hopleacanthus richelsdorfensis, Acentrophorus glaphyurus, Menaspis armata, Muensterichthys buergeri, Platysomus striatus, and two species of Janassa and Wodnika.

Fossil content

Group Fossils Image Notes
Archosauromorpha Protorosaurus speneri
Weigeltisauridae Weigeltisaurus jaekeli
Glaurung schneideri
Pareiasauria Parasaurus geinitzi
Fish Palaeoniscum freieslebeni
Coelacanthus granulatus
Hopleacanthus richelsdorfensis
Janassa bituminosa, J. korni
Menaspis armata
Wodnika althausi, W. striatula
Acentrophorus glaphyurus
Dorypterus hoffmanni
Eurysomus macrurus
Globulodus elegans
Muensterichthys buergeri
Platysomus striatus
Pygopterus humboldti
Reticulolepis exsculpta
Acrolepis sp.
Ctenacanthus richelsdorfensis
Insects Protereisma rossenrayensis
Nautiloids Peripetoceras freieslebeni
Pteronautilus seebachianus
Bivalves Aviculopinna prisca
Bakevellia sp.
Macroflora Neocalamites mansfeldicus
Sphenobaiera digitata
Baiera mansfeldensis
Esterella gracilis
Bhenania reichelti, Calipteris martinsi, Pseudovoltzia liebeana, Quadrocladus orobiformis, Q. solmsi, Sphenopteris kukukiana, Ullmannia bronni, U. frumentaria
Pollen Crustaesporites globosus, Illenites cf. bentzi, I. cf. unicus, Jugasporites delasaucei delasaucei, J. delasaucei moersensis, Lueckisporites richteri, L. virkkiae, Nuskoisporites dulhuntyi, Pityosporites granulatus, P. schaubergeri, P. zapfei, Platysaccus papilionis

Geologic maps

Zechstein in blue

  • Rhoen Rhoen
  • Thuringian Forest Thuringian Forest
  • Thuringian-Franconian mountains Thuringian-Franconian mountains
  • Eastern Brunswick Eastern Brunswick

See also

References

  1. ^ Copper slate deposits, Sangerhausen at Mindat.org
  2. ^ Bernard Koenen shafts I and II, Copper slate deposits, Sangerhausen at Mindat.org
  3. ^ Paleo-ecosystems, p.4
  4. ^ Bachmayer & Malzahn, 1983, p.101
  5. Paleo-ecosystems, p.2
  6. ^ Paleo-ecosystems, p.22
  7. Ezcurra et al., 2014b
  8. Tsuji & Müller, 2008, p.1112
  9. ^ (in German) Drama im Kupferschiefermeer
  10. Paleo-ecosystems, p.7
  11. Paleo-ecosystems, p.6
  12. Schwarzer Philipp at Fossilworks.org
  13. Paleo-ecosystems, p.9
  14. ^ Glücksbrunn/Heidelberg near Schweina at Fossilworks.org
  15. Paleo-ecosystems, p.10
  16. Paleo-ecosystems, p.11
  17. Borg et al., 2012, p.457
  18. ^ Borg et al., 2012, p.455
  19. ^ Borg et al., 2012, p.458
  20. Borg et al., 2012, p.475
  21. Eisleben, Mansfeld at Mindat.org
  22. Maucherite at Mindat.org
  23. Betekhtinite at Mindat.org
  24. Ernst-Thälmann shaft, Mansfeld at Mindat.org
  25. (in German) KSL Kupferschiefer Lausitz GmbH
  26. Borg et al., 2012, p.456
  27. "Im Lochborn" mine, Bieber, Hessen at Mindat.org
  28. Bieberite at Mindat.org
  29. Rösslerite at Mindat.org
  30. Sieroszowice mine at Mindat.org
  31. Eugenite at Mindat.org
  32. Polkowice mine at Mindat.org
  33. Polkovicite at Mindat.org
  34. Morozeviczite at Mindat.org
  35. ^ Ezcurra et al., 2014a, p.7
  36. Ezcurra, 2016, p.22
  37. ^ Tsuji & Müller, 2008
  38. Walkenried at Fossilworks.org
  39. Munk & Kues, 1993, p.171
  40. Munk & Kues, 1993, p.172
  41. (in German) Palaeoniscum freieslebeni at Museum Schloss Bernburg
  42. Weichelt, 1930
  43. Bulanov & Sennikov, 2015, p.1357
  44. ^ Richelsdorf (Althaus collection) at Fossilworks.org
  45. Wolfsberg pit at Fossilworks.org
  46. Mansfeld, Dresden collection at Fossilworks.org
  47. Freieslebenschacht at Fossilworks.org
  48. Brandt, 2009, p.16
  49. Lonau at Fossilworks.org
  50. ^ Hasbergen Excavation Planum II at Fossilworks.org
  51. Bodental at Fossilworks.org
  52. ^ Hasbergen Excavation Planum I at Fossilworks.org
  53. Hasbergen Excavation Planum III at Fossilworks.org
  54. Richelsdorf Mountains at Fossilworks.org
  55. Guthörl, 1965, p.229
  56. Rossenray 2 Shaft, 415 m depth, Kamp-Lintfort at Fossilworks.org
  57. Merzenberg, near Milbitz at Fossilworks.org
  58. Bauer et al., 2013, p.546
  59. Bauer et al., 2013, p.549
  60. Grebe, 1957
  61. Kupferschiefer 450 m floor Friedrich Heinrich Mine Kamp-Lintfort Germany at Fossilworks.org

Bibliography

Geology
Paleontology

External links

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