| Revision as of 14:30, 11 December 2019 editHunan201p (talk | contribs)Extended confirmed users20,357 edits Undid revision 930149544 by DerekHistorian (talk) Removed original research, which contains nothing linking Haplogroup N to "Mongoloid".Tag: Undo← Previous edit | Latest revision as of 04:53, 6 January 2025 edit undoAngelusVastator3456 (talk | contribs)Extended confirmed users3,353 edits →History of the concept: new sourceTag: Visual edit | ||
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| {{Short description|Outdated grouping of human beings}} | |||
| {{Other uses}} | {{Other uses}} | ||
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| '''Mongoloid''' ({{IPAc-en|ˈ|m|ɒ|ŋ|g|ə|ˌ|l|ɔɪ|d}})<ref>''Mongoloid.'' (2012). Dictionary.com. Retrieved September 3, 2012, from .</ref> is an ] of various peoples indigenous to large parts of ], the ], and some regions in ] and ]. The term is derived from a now-disproven theory of biological race.<ref>{{cite book|author=Templeton, A.|year=2016|chapter=Evolution and Notions of Human Race|editor1=Losos, J.|editor2=Lenski, R. |title=How Evolution Shapes Our Lives: Essays on Biology and Society|pages=346–361|place=Princeton; Oxford|publisher=Princeton University Press|doi=10.2307/j.ctv7h0s6j.26}}</ref> In the past, other terms such as "] race", "yellow", "Asiatic" and "]" have been used as synonyms. | |||
| {{short description|Grouping of people native to Asia, America, and the Pacific Islands proposed as one of three races by Georges Cuvier}} | |||
| {{MeyersLexikonEthnographicMap}} | |||
| '''Mongoloid''' ({{IPAc-en|ˈ|m|ɒ|ŋ|.|g|ə|.|l|ɔɪ|d}}<ref>''Mongoloid.'' (2012). Dictionary.com. Retrieved September 3, 2012, from .</ref><ref>For a contrast with the "Europoid" or ] see footnote No. 4 of page 58-59 in Beckwith, Christopher. (2009). ''Empires of the Silk Road: a History of Central Eurasia from the Bronze Age to the Present''. Princeton and Oxford: Princeton University Press. {{ISBN|978-0-691-13589-2}}.</ref>) is a grouping of various people indigenous to ], ], ], ], ], and the ]. It is one of the traditional three races<!--Reynolds & Lieberman (1996), underneath the 2nd paragraph, of page 107, used the phrase "Traditional 'Races'," in bold text.--> first introduced in the 1780s by members of the ],<ref name="Göttingen"> | |||
| *{{harvnb|Baum|2006|pp=84–85}}: "Finally, Christoph Meiners (1747–1810), the University of Göttingen “popular philosopher” and historian, first gave the term Caucasian racial meaning in his Grundriss der Geschichte der Menschheit (Outline of the History of Humanity, 1785)… Meiners pursued this “Göttingen program” of inquiry in extensive historical-anthropological writings, which included two editions of his Outline of the History of Humanity and numerous articles in Göttingisches Historisches Magazin" | |||
| *{{cite book|author=William R. Woodward|title=Hermann Lotze: An Intellectual Biography|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=7pzVCQAAQBAJ&pg=PA260|date=9 June 2015|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-1-316-29785-8|pages=260|quote=...the five human races identified by Johann Friedrich Blumenbach – Negroes, American Indians, Malaysians, Mongolians, and Caucasians. He chose to rely on Blumenbach, leader of the Göttingen school of comparative anatomy}}; also at | |||
| *{{cite book|author=Nicolaas A. Rupke|title=Göttingen and the Development of the Natural Sciences|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=tO6fAAAAMAAJ|year=2002|publisher=Wallstein-Verlag|isbn=978-3-89244-611-8|quote=For it was at Gottingen in this period that the outlines of a system of classification were laid down in a manner that still shapes the way in which we attempt to comprehend the different varieties of humankind — including usage of such terms as "Caucasian". }} | |||
| *{{cite book|author=Charles Simon-Aaron|title=The Atlantic Slave Trade: Empire, Enlightenment, and the Cult of the Unthinking Negro|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=tnLaAAAAMAAJ|year=2008|publisher=Edwin Mellen Press|isbn=978-0-7734-5197-1|quote=Here, Blumenbach placed the white European at the apex of the human family; he even gave the European a new name — i.e., Caucasian. This relationship also inspired the academic labors of Karl Otfried Muller, C. Meiners and K.A. Heumann, the more important thinkers at Gottingen for our project. (This list is not intended to be exhaustive). }} | |||
| *{{cite book|title=RACAR, Revue D'art Canadienne: Canadian Art Review|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=REXrAAAAMAAJ|year=2004|publisher=Society for the Promotion of Art History Publications in Canada|quote=It is in the context of the shift to the human as both subject and object that Foucault has placed the "invention" of the human sciences, and it is also in this context that the various human histories as conceived and taught at Gottingen — from the theories of race proposed by Christoph Meiners and Johann Friedrich Blumenbach (who would coin the word "Caucasian" in the 1790s) to new theories of history as interpreted by Johann Christoph Gatterer and August Ludwig von Schlozer to a new art history as conceived by Fiorillo — can be considered.}}</ref> the other two groups being ] and ].<ref name="Reynolds 1996">{{cite book |last=Reynolds |first=Larry |title=Race and other misadventures : essays in honor of Ashley Montagu in his ninetieth year |series=Reynolds series in sociology |publisher=General Hall |location=Dix Hills, N.Y |year=1996 | isbn=978-1-882289-35-6 | oclc=35302420 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=5DLrgG_MflgC&pg=PA107 |access-date=1 December 2018 |page=107 |quote=One of the most enduring schemes of "racial" designation divides the peoples of the world into three large categories crudely conceptualized as ... this scheme was advocated by Georges Cuvier (1769-1832), one of the most influential figures in the history of French science, although it was ...}}</ref> | |||
| Individuals within these populations often share certain associated ] traits, such as ]s, ], ] and ]. The concept of ''Mongoloid'' races is historical referring to a grouping of human beings historically regarded as a biological ]. | |||
| Epicanthic folds and oblique ]s are common among Mongoloid individuals. Most exhibit the ] from birth to about age four years.<ref name="Mongolian Spot"> DrGreen.com</ref><ref> – English information of Mongolian spot, written by Hironao NUMABE, M.D., Tokyo Medical University.</ref> Mongoloids in general have straight, black hair and dark brown almond-shaped eyes, and have relatively flatter faces in comparison to those of Caucasoid and Negroid skulls.<ref name="Montagu, A. 1951">Montagu, A. (1951). An introduction to physical anthropology: A revised second edition. Charles C. Thomas Publisher: Springfield, Illinois, USA.</ref> | |||
| Due to covering a large and diverse population, from ] to ], the Mongoloid classification is difficult, but Mongoloids are generally considered to share some similar skeletal and dental features.<!--The information about what Bradley J. Adams said is in the 1st, 2nd and 3rd sentences of the second paragraph of page 44.--><ref>Adams, Bradley J. (2007). Forensic Anthropology. USA: ]. Page 44. {{ISBN|978-0-7910-9198-2}} Retrieved June 12, 2017, from </ref> | |||
| The term ''Mongoloid'' has had a second usage referencing ], now generally regarded as highly offensive.<ref name="Smay and Armelagos">{{cite web |last1=Smay |first1=Diana |last2=Armelagos |first2=George |publisher=Emory University |title=Galileo Wept: A Critical Assessment of the Use of Race in Forensic Anthropology |url=http://www.anthropology.emory.edu/FACULTY/ANTGA/Web%20Site/PDFs/Galileo%20Wept-%20A%20Critical%20Assessment%20of%20the%20Use%20of%20Race%20in%20Forensic%20Anthropology.pdf }}</ref><ref name="Lieberman">{{cite journal |last=Lieberman |first=Leonard |title=Out of Our Skulls: Caucasoid, Mongoloid, Negroid? |doi=10.1111/an.1997.38.9.56 |volume=38 |issue=9 |journal=Anthropology News |pages=56 |year=1997}}</ref><ref name="Templeton">{{cite web |last=Templeton |first=Alan R. |work=Washington University |title=Human Races: A Genetic and Evolutionary Perspective |url=http://www.realfuture.org/GIST/Readings/Templeton(1998).pdf |publisher=Realfuture.org}}</ref><ref name="Keevak">Keevak, Michael. "Becoming Yellow: A Short History of Racial Thinking". Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2011. {{ISBN|978-0-691-14031-5}}.</ref> When used in reference to people with Down syndrome, the term "mongol" and related words affect the "...dignity of people of the mongoloid race..."<ref name="MongoliaMission" /> Those affected were often referred to as "Mongoloids" or in terms of "]" or "Mongolian imbecility". | |||
| ==Populations== | |||
| ])</center> | |||
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| | {{legend|#FFA319|Mongoloids|}} || {{legend|#730000|]s|}} | |||
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| According to ], Mongoloid peoples are the most spread out among all human populations since they have stretched almost completely around the earth's surface. From an ]n point of reference, populations range from as far east as ], to as far west as ], ], giving Mongoloid peoples or their descendants a historical presence across four continents. According to the ] (1885–90), peoples included in the Mongoloid race are ], ] & ], ] & ], ] & ], ], ], ], ]n, ], and ].<ref>'']'', 4th edition, 1885–90.</ref> | |||
| In 1856, the "Mongolian" race, using a narrow definition which did not include either the "Malay" or the "American" races, was the second most populous race in the world behind the Caucasian race.<!--This is in the bottom-left data table of page 77.--><ref>Warren, D.M. (1856). <u>A System of Physical Geography</u>. Philadelphia: H. Cowperthwait & Co. pp. 77.</ref> In 1881, the Mongoloid race, using a broad definition which included both Malays<!--bottom of page 57--> and indigenous Americans,<!--page 66--> was the most populous race on Earth,<!--The 1881 statement is in the second paragraph on page 57 of Winchell (1881).--><ref>Winchell, A. (1881). <u>Preadamites; or A Demonstration of the Existence of Men Before Adam; (3rd ed.)</u>. Chicago: S.C. Griggs and Company; London: Trubner & Co. pp. 57.</ref> and it was still the most populous race on Earth in the year 1892, using a narrow definition which did not include either the "Malayan" or the "American" races.<!--In the fifth line of page 239 of Berg & Wendt (2014), it says that the statement about the "most numerous race" is dated to the year 1892, so Berg & Wendt is being used as a secondary source. The statement about the "most numerous race" is found on page 239 about three-quarters of the way down the page. The text indicating that the "Malayan" and "American" races were not being grouped with the "Mongoloid" race in this definition is in the middle and bottom of page 239.--><ref>Berg, M. & Wendt, S. (2014). ''Racism in the Modern World: Historical Perspectives on Cultural Transfer and Adaptation''. Berghahn Books. pp. 239. {{ISBN|978-1-78238-086-3}}</ref> | |||
| The first use of the term ''Mongolian race'' was by ] in 1785, who divided humanity into two races he labeled "Tartar-Caucasians" and "Mongolians".<ref name="Painter">{{cite web |first=Nell Irvin |last=Painter |authorlink=Nell Irvin Painter |publisher=Yale University |title=Why White People are Called Caucasian? |year=2003 |accessdate=September 27, 2007 |url=http://www.yale.edu/glc/events/race/Painter.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131020105628/http://www.yale.edu/glc/events/race/Painter.pdf |archive-date=October 20, 2013 |url-status=dead |df=mdy-all}} Keevak. Becoming Yellow, pp. 74–77</ref><!-- page 34 --> | |||
| ] said that he borrowed the term ''Mongolian'' from Christoph Meiners to describe the race he designated "second, includes that part of Asia beyond the Ganges and below the river ], which looks toward the south, together with the islands and the greater part of these countries which is now called Australian".<!--p.99--><ref name="Blumtreat">Blumenbach, Johann. "The Anthropological Treatise of Johann Friedrich Blumenbach". London: Longman Green, 1865.</ref> | |||
| In 1861, ] added the Australian as a secondary race (subrace) of the principal race of Mongolian.<!--p.282--><ref name="Deniker">Deniker, Joseph. ''The Races of Man: An Outline of Anthropology and Ethnography'' C. Scribner's Sons: New York, 1900. {{ISBN|0-8369-5932-9}}</ref> ] defined the extent of the Mongolian race, "by the yellow the Altaic, Mongol, Finnish and Tartar branches".<!--p.146--><ref name="Gob">{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/?id=JeM_1BCeffAC |year=1915 |publisher=Putnam |last=Gobineau |first=Arthur |title=The Inequality of Human Races |accessdate=2007-10-18 |isbn=978-0-86527-430-3}}</ref><!--p.8--><ref name="anthroGob">DiPiero, Thomas. ''White Men Aren't'' gid/s work Duke University Press, 2002. {{ISBN|0-8223-2961-1}}</ref> Later, ] used the term ''Mongoloid'' and included American Indians as well as Arctic Native Americans.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://aleph0.clarku.edu/huxley/SM3/GeoDis.html |title=Huxley, Thomas, On the Geographical Distribution of the Chief Modifications of Mankind. 1870. August 14, 2006 |publisher=Aleph0.clarku.edu |accessdate=2013-12-15}}</ref> Other terms were proposed, such as ''Mesochroi'' (middle color),<ref>James Dallas, "On the Primary Divisions and Geographical Distributions of Mankind", 1886 ''Royal Anthropological Institute of Great Britain and Ireland'', p.304-30. James describes this as "equivalent to Professor Huxley's Mongoloid division" and as encompassing "Mongols and American Indians"</ref> but ''Mongoloid'' was widely adopted. | |||
| In 1909, a map published based on racial classifications conceived by ] classified inhabitants of ] and parts of ] as ''Mongolo-Dravidians'', people of mixed Mongoloid and ] origin.<ref>{{Cite book |url=https://books.google.com/?id=PwNkQgAACAAJ |title=The Concept of Race in South Asia |first=Peter |last=Robb |date=21 April 1997 |publisher=Oxford University Press |via=Google Books |isbn=978-0-19-564268-1}}</ref> Similarly in 1904, ] claimed the ] of ] were a people of mixed ''Mongolian'' and '']'' racial origins as well as '']'', ''Dravidian'' and ] origins.<ref>http://krex.k-state.edu/dspace/bitstream/handle/2097/32648/StefanSchubert2016.pdf?sequence=1</ref> Howard S. Stoudt in ''The Physical Anthropology of Ceylon'' (1961) and ] in ''The Living Races of Man'' (1966) classified the Sinhalese as partly Mongoloid.<ref name="The Physical Anthropology of Ceyl">{{cite journal |doi=10.1525/aa.1963.65.3.02a00260 |volume=65 |issue=3 |title=: The Physical Anthropology of Ceylon. Howard W. Stoudt. |journal=American Anthropologist |pages=694–695 |year=1963 |last1=Angel |first1=J. Lawrence}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://books.google.com/?id=qepKAAAAYAAJ |title=The living races of man |first1=Carleton Stevens |last1=Coon |first2=Edward E. |last2=Hunt |date=21 April 1966 |publisher=Cape |via=Google Books}}</ref> In 1927, ] classified people from Nepal, Bhutan, Bangladesh, East India, parts of Northeast India, western Myanmar and Sri Lanka as ''East Brachid'', referring to people of mixed ''Indid'' and ''South Mongolid'' origins.<ref>{{cite journal |jstor=29535004 |title=Die Indien-Expedition des Staatlichen Forschungsinstituts für Völkerkunde in Leipzig. 1. Anthropologischer Bericht |first=Egon Frhr. |last=von Eickstedt |date=21 April 2018 |journal=Anthropologischer Anzeiger |volume=4 |issue=3 |pages=208–219}}</ref> ''East Brachid'' is another term for Risley's ''Mongolo-Dravidian''.<ref>{{Cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=dDrYsjGq35wC&printsec=frontcover#v=onepage&q&f=false |title=Anthropology |first1=Ram Nath |last1=Sharma |first2=Rajendra K. |last2=Sharma |date=21 April 1997 |publisher=Atlantic Publishers & Dist |via=Google Books |isbn=978-81-7156-673-0}}</ref> Eickstedt also classified the people of central Myanmar, Yunnan, southern Tibet, Thailand and parts of India as ''Palaungid'' deriving from the name of the ] of Myanmar. The Burmese, Karen, Kachin, Shan, Sri Lankans, Tai, South Chinese, Munda and Juang, among others were classified as having "mixed" with the ''Palaungid'' phenotype according to Eickstedt.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://books.google.com/?id=ykgRAQAAMAAJ |title=Rassenkunde und Rassengeschichte der Menschheit |first=Egon von |last=Eickstedt |date=21 April 2018 |publisher=F. Enke |via=Google Books}}</ref> | |||
| In 1940, anthropologist ] included the American race as part of the Mongoloid race of which he mentioned the ]s of ] and the ] of ].<ref name="Boas" /> Boas also said that, out of the races of the ], the American native had features most similar to the east Asiatic.<ref name="Boas">Boas, F. (1940). ''Race, language, and culture''. New York: Macmillan.</ref> | |||
| In 1981, Elizabeth Smithgall Watts who taught anthropology at ]<ref>Anemone, R. L. (1996). Obituary: Elizabeth Smithgall Watts (1941–1994). In American Journal of Physical Anthropology. (99)221-222. </ref> said that the question of American Indians being a separate race from "Asiatic Mongoloids" is a question of how much genetic difference a population needs from another population to be considered a "major race". She said that even the people who consider American Indians to be a separate race acknowledge that they are genetically closest to "Asians".<!-- This is on page 17 and 18 of the original article, and it is on page 161 to 162 of the 1997 compilation book entitled "The Concept of Race in Natural and Social Science" by E. Nathaniel Gates that includes the original article. --><ref>Watts, E.S. (1981). "The Biological Race Concept and Diseases of Modern Man." In Biocultural Aspects of Disease. New York: Academic Press.</ref> | |||
| In 1983, ], professor of evolutionary processes at the ], said that the inclusion of Native Americans and Pacific Islanders under the Mongoloid race was not recognized by many anthropologists who consider them distinct races.<ref name="Futuyma">Futuyma, Douglas A. Evolutionary Biology. Massachusetts: Sinauer Associates, 1983. p. 520</ref> | |||
| In 1984, Roger J. Lederer, Professor of Biological Sciences at ],<ref>{{cite web |publisher=California State University, Chico |title=University Catalog |accessdate=September 28, 2007 |year=2003 |url=http://www.csuchico.edu/catalog/cat03/programs/biol/faculty.html}}</ref> separately listed the Mongoloid race from Pacific islanders and American Indians when he enumerated the "geographical variants of the same species known as races...we recognize several races, Inuit, American Indians, Mongoloid... Polynesian".<ref>Lederer Roger J. ''Ecology and Field Biology.'' Cummings Publishing Company: California, 1984. {{ISBN|0-8053-5718-1}} p.129</ref> | |||
| In 1995, Dr. ] of the Department of Biological Anthropology at ] used the term ''Mongoloid'' to refer to ], ], ]s, ]s, and Amerindians, classifying Northeast Asians as ''typical Mongoloids'' and all other ''Mongoloid'' groups as ''atypical Mongoloids''.<ref name="Lahr" /> | |||
| === Subraces === | |||
| ] according to ] (1962) | |||
| {| | |||
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| | ] | |||
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| | style="background-color:#5998ff" | | |||
| | Mongoloid | |||
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| | style="background-color:tomato" | | |||
| | ] | |||
| |}]] | |||
| In 1900, ] said the "Mongol race admits two varieties or subraces: ] or Northern Mongolian... and Southern Mongolian".<ref name="Deniker" /><!--p.293--> | |||
| ] (1948), ] Professor of Anthropology at the ],<!--Kroeber's credentials are cited to the 1st sentence, of the upper-right paragraph above the two columns of text, on page 293, of the Kroeber (1955) source. The other statements are cited to Kroeber (1948).--> referring to the racial classification of mankind on the basis of physical features,<!--The 1st sentence, of the 2nd-to-last paragraph, of page 126, indicates that Kroeber's classification was of race and based on physical features.--> said that there are basically "three grand divisions."<!--This is in the 1st sentence, of the 2nd-to-last paragraph, of page 131. The word "basically" is a rewording of the Kroeber's phrase, "On the basic view."--> Kroeber indicated that, within the three-part classification, the Mongoloid, the ], and the ] are the three "primary racial stocks of mankind."<!--On page 133, the 1st sentence from the caption of Figure 6, said, "Outline distribution of the primary racial stocks of mankind according to the threefold classification." In the middle of Figure 6, the labels next to rectangles are: "NEGROID," "MONGOLOID," and "CAUCASIAN."--> Kroeber said that the following are the divisions of the Mongoloid stock: the "Mongolian proper of ]," the "] of the ]," and the "]."<!--This is in the 1st sentence, of the last paragraph, of page 136.--> Kroeber alternatively referred to the divisions of the Mongoloid stock as the following: "Asiatic Mongoloids," "Oceanic Mongoloids," and "American Mongoloids."<!--In Figure 8, titled "RELATIONSHIP OF HUMAN RACES," on page 140, in the large, upper-right circle, Kroeber put small circles with the following terms inside of them: "American Indians," "Oceanic Mongoloids," and "Asiatic Mongoloids." In the last sentence, of the 2nd paragraph, of page 137, Kroeber said, "Among the American Mongoloids, the Eskimo appear to be the most particularized sub-variety, according to almost all anthropometrists."--> Kroeber said that the differences among the three divisions of the Mongoloid stock are not very large.<!--This is in the 2nd sentence, of the last paragraph, of page 136.--> Kroeber said that the Malaysian and the American Indian are generalized type peoples<!--This is in the 2nd and 3rd sentences, of the 1st paragraph, of page 137.--> while the Mongolian proper is the most extreme or pronounced form.<!--This is in the 3rd sentence, of the last paragraph, of page 136.--> Kroeber said that the original Mongoloid stock must be regarded as being more like the current Malaysians, the current American Indians, or an intermediate type between these two.<!--This is in the 2nd sentence, of the 1st paragraph, of page 137.--> Kroeber said that it is from these generalized type peoples, who kept more nearly the ancient type, that peoples such as the ] gradually ], who added the ], and a "certain generic refinement of physique."<!--This is in the 3rd sentence, of the 1st paragraph, of page 137.--> Kroeber said that, according to most ], the ] is the most particularized sub-variety out of the American Mongoloids.<!--This is in the last sentence, of the 2nd paragraph, of page 137.--> Kroeber said that in the East Indies, and in particular the ], there can at times be distinguished a less specifically Mongoloid strain, which has been called the "]Malaysian," and a more specifically Mongoloid strain, which has been called the "]Malaysian."<!--This is in the 1st sentence, of the 2nd paragraph, of page 137.--> Kroeber said that ] appear to have primary Mongoloid connections by way of the Malaysians.<!--This is in the last sentence, of the 4th paragraph, of page 138.--> Kroeber said that the Mongoloid element of Polynesians is not a specialized Mongoloid.<!--This is in the 4th sentence, of the last paragraph, of page 139.--> Kroeber said that the Mongoloid element in Polynesians appears to be larger than the definite Caucasian strain in Polynesians.<!--This is in the 3rd and 4th sentences, of the last paragraph, of page 139.--> Speaking of Polynesians, Kroeber said that there are locally possible minor Negroid absorptions, as the ancestral Polynesians had to pass by or through ]es which are presently ] Negroid to get to the central ].<!--This is in the 2nd-to-last sentence, of the last paragraph, of page 139.--><ref>] (1955). History of Anthropological Thought. ''Yearbook of Anthropology.'' ]. Page 293. .</ref><!--Kroeber's credentials are cited to Kroeber (1955). The other statements are cited to Kroeber (1948).--><ref>] (1948). ''Anthropology: Race, Language, Culture, Psychology, Prehistory.'' ]: ]. Pages 126, 131, 133, & 137-140. .</ref> | |||
| Archaeologist ] claims that the vast majority of people in Southeast Asia, the region he calls the "clinal Mongoloid-Australoid zone", are Southern Mongoloids but have a high degree of ] admixture.<!--p.89,92--><ref name="Bellwood">Bellwood, Peter. (2007).<!--The first edition was on 1985. This edition was on 2007.--> ''Pre-History of the Indo-Malaysian Archipelago.'' Australian National University Press. Pages 75, 76,<!--Pages 75 & 76 are the pages for the information about keratin in the skin.--> 89 & 92. {{ISBN|978-1-921313-11-0}} Retrieved February 12, 2017, from </ref> However more recent studies find no evidence of a "high degree of Australoid admixture". Southeast Asians are both morphologically and genetically very close to other Mongoloids in East Asia and only some show minor genetic admixture, mostly on their maternal side.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Paul|first=Kathleen|last2=Schmitz|first2=Kirk|last3=Heim|first3=Kelly|last4=Pilloud|first4=Marin|title=Sinodonty, Sundadonty, and the Beringian Standstill model: Issues of timing and migrations into the New World|url=https://www.academia.edu/25746335|language=en}}</ref><ref>Reconstructing Austronesian population history in Island Southeast Asia - Lipson et al. (https://www.biorxiv.org/content/biorxiv/early/2014/05/27/005603.full.pdf)</ref> | |||
| Akazawa Takeru, professor of anthropology at the International Research Center for Japanese Studies, ], said that there are Neo-Mongoloids and Paleo-Mongoloids. Akazawa said Neo-Mongoloids have "extreme Mongoloid, cold-adapted features" and they include the ], ] and ]. In contrast, Akazawa said Paleo-Mongoloids are less cold-adapted. He said ], ], ], ] and the ] were Paleo-Mongoloid.<ref name="Takeru">Takeru Akazawa and Emóke J.E. Sathmåry. Prehistoric Mongoloid dispersals. New York, Oxford University Press, 1996.</ref> | |||
| Human skeletal remains in Southeast Asia show the gradual replacement of the indigenous ] by Southern Mongoloids from Southern China.<!--This gradual replacement is in the second paragraph of page 76. The first paragraph of page 74 said Southern Mongoloids originate from Southern China. The second paragraph of page 74 said that the Australo-Melanesians were indigenous to Southeast Asia.--> No skeletal remains in Southeast Asia dated to the ] epoch have been unearthed that would classified as being indisputably Mongoloid, although skeletal remains dated to this epoch have been found with Mongoloid traits.<!--This is in the first sentence of the last paragraph of page 76.--> Skeletal remains in Southeast Asia dated to the Pleistocene epoch with Mongoloid traits indicate that Mongoloid admixture from areas north of Southeast Asia was already taking place at this time.<!--This is in the first sentence of the first paragraph of page 77.--> This trend toward an increasingly Mongoloid skeletal character in Southeast Asia continued during the later ] epoch as an increasing number of the skeletal remains dated to the last 7,000 years are classified as having "Southern Mongoloid skeletal material" relative to the earlier epochs.<!--This is in the first sentence of the second paragraph of page 77.--> The dental evidence that pre-historic Southeast Asian skeletal remains are of the ] dental type, and the dental evidence that Southeast Asians, including ]s, are of the sundadont dental type supports the idea that it was sundadont Southern Mongoloids from Southern China whose gene flow was making Southeast Asia more Mongoloid instead of the sinodont Northeast Asian Mongoloids from farther north.<!--This is in the bottom paragraph of page 77. The first paragraph of page 74 said Southern Mongoloids originate from Southern China.--> Most of the Southern Mongoloids' gradual replacement of the indigenous Australo-Melanesians in Southeast Asia, a process done by "replacing Australo-Melanesian hunter-gatherers or assimilating populations of 'Proto-Malays'", was done "within the historical period".<!--This is in the second paragraph of page 77.--> After the "gradual and complex replacement" of the indigenous Australo-Melanesians by Southern Mongoloids in Southeast Asia,<!--The "gradual and complex" quote is in the second paragraph of page 74--> the only remaining indigenous Australo-Melanesian population in Southeast Asia at the present time are the Negritos of Thailand, Malaysia, the Philippines and the Andaman Islands.<!--This is in the third paragraph of page 74.--> The concept which is "he important concept" here is that the gradual replacement of Australo-Melanesians by Southern Mongoloids in Southeast Asia was a gradual change in the ] between these two populations.<!--This is in the second paragraph of page 76.--><ref>Tarling, N. (1992). The Cambridge History of Southeast Asia: From Early Times to c. 1800 (Vol. 1). United Kingdom: Cambridge University Press. 74-77.</ref> | |||
| {{Gallery cleanup}} | |||
| <gallery class="center"> | |||
| LA2-NSRW-1-0149.jpg|Asiatic types in a book from 1914 | |||
| NSRW Natives of North America.png|Natives of North America in a book from 1914 | |||
| NSRW Natives of South America.png|Natives of South America in a book from 1914 | |||
| COLLECTIE TROPENMUSEUM Studioportret van een Dajak in krijgskleding TMnr 60033041.jpg|] man from ], ] in 1900s | |||
| Femme Maori 1998-23050-173.jpg|Young ] woman with traditional tattoos from ] (Aotearoa) | |||
| Sea sami man.jpg|Sea ] man from the ] region of ]{{Note|a}} | |||
| Чаепитие калмыков.jpg|], 19th century ], ] | |||
| </gallery> | |||
| ===Native Americans=== | |||
| ] man]] | |||
| In 1876, ] said that Native Americans were Mongoloids,<!--Peschel listed every group which he classified as Mongoloids in the first sentence of the third paragraph of page 347.--> and Peschel said that the Mongoloid features of Native Americans was evidence that Native Americans populated the Americas from Asia by way of the ].<!--In the first and second sentences of the third paragraph of page 402, Peschel said, "But the proof that the aborigines of America took this road consists in their Mongoloid characters. In the last chapter it was shown that the Asiatic and American tribes of Behring's Straits are so much alike as to be mistaken for one another." In the third sentence of the first paragraph of page 401, Peschel made his claim explicit that the Native Americans came from Asians who crossed the Bering Strait when Peschel said, "We therefore prefer to assume that at the time which the Asiatics passed over into America, Behring's Straits already possessed their present character."--> Peschel said that some Native American tribes differ from Mongols in having a high nose bridge rather than a snub nose,<!--This information is in the third and fourth sentences of the first paragraph of page 405.--> but Peschel said that this different type of nose is not something shared by all Native Americans, so it cannot be considered a racial characteristic.<!--This information is in the last sentence of the first paragraph of page 405.--> Peschel said that Malays and Polynesians<!--Peschel groups Polynesians with the broader category of Malays. Peschel breaks Malays down into "Polynesian Malays" (a term used in the 1st sentence of the 2nd paragraph of pg. 348) and "Asiatic Malays" (a term used in the 1st sentence of the 3rd paragraph of pg. 354).--> were Mongoloids due to their physical traits.<!--In the first, second and third sentences of the first paragraph of page 369, Peschel said, "We believe, with Moritz Wagner, that the shape of the skull, the form and colour of the face, as well as the whole physical constitution of the Malay race, is so nearly allied to the Mongolian that, in similar apparel, the two races are hardly distinguishable. We shall therefore not be contradicted if we class the Malay race among the Mongoloid nations. Yet their linguistic characters entitle them to a separate place." When Peschel said that the linguistic characters of Malays "entitle them to a separate place", Peschel did not mean make Malays not Mongoloid. Peschel makes his thoughts about language being grounds for subdivision of Mongoloids clear in the second-to-last and last sentences of the third paragraph of page 347, when Peschel said, "Their (Peschel is referring to Mongoloids) other characters occur in so many gradations that local types pass into one another, as will be shown in each group. The linguistic characters alone afford grounds for subdivision."--> Peschel said that the race of the ] was not clear.<!--Although Peschel talked about the Ainu in Chapter V in his section about Mongoloids, Peschel said in the first sentence of the second paragraph of page 387, "This chapter is not a description of a new group of the Mongolian family, but a candid confession that the system which we set forth is given in an incomplete condition..." Furthermore, Peschel said in the first sentence of the third paragraph of page 388, "It is far more difficult to define the position of the third race, which has given itself the name of Aino, or Ainu, the people."--><ref>Peschel, O. (1876). The Races of Man and Their Geographical Distribution. London: Henry S. King & Co. Pages 347, 348, 354, 369, 387, 388, 401, 402 & 405. Retrieved January 15, 2017, from .</ref> | |||
| In 1926,<!--The date of the trip is in the first sentence of the second paragraph of page 12.--> ] went on a journey that focused on "''anthropological and archaeological matters''" wherein Hrdlička traveled to the ] and places in Alaska.<!--The second and third paragraphs of page 12 say where Hrdlička went on his trip. The third paragraph mentions "Juneau", "Seward", "Nenana", "Tanana" and "Anchorage" which are places in Alaska.--> Hrdlička saw the conditions related to "''the possibilities of the Mongoloid migrations through the Bering Sea''", and Hrdlička concluded that these Mongoloid migrations were "''so easy as to have been inevitable''".<!--This information is in the first and second sentences of the last paragraph of page 12.--> Hrdlička concluded that Eskimos and American Indians come from a "''common Mongoloid stem''" which ] from the ].<!--This information is in the second sentence of the last paragraph of page 12. The word "concluded" is a rewording of the source text's phrase "was convinced".--><ref>Abbot, C.G. (1927). Report of the Acting Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution: For the Year Ending June 30, 1927. Washington: Government Printing Office. Page 12.<!--There is more than one page 12 in the Google Books document, because there is more than one yearly report. This page 12 refers to page 12 of the 1927 yearly report. Page 12 of the 1927 yearly report is approximately in the middle of Google Books document.--> Retrieved January 13, 2017, from .</ref> | |||
| In 1998, Jack D. Forbes, professor of Native American Studies and Anthropology at the ], said that the racial type of the indigenous people of the Americas does not fall into the Mongoloid racial category.<ref name="Forbes" /> Forbes said that due to the various physical traits indigenous Americans exhibit, some with "head shapes which seem hardly distinct from many Europeans", indigenous Americans must have either been formed from a mixture of Mongoloid and Caucasoid races or they descend from the ancestral, common type of both Mongoloid and Caucasoid races.<ref name="Forbes">Forbes, J.D. (1998). KENNEWICK MAN:A LEGAL HISTORICAL ANALYSIS. American Indian Review.</ref> According from the National geographic, Native Americans also West Eurasian Origins Oldest human genome reveals less of an East Asian ancestry than thought. Nearly one-third of Native American genes come from an early West Eurasian people linked to the ancestors of Middle Easterners and Europeans, with the remaining two thirds deriving from early East Asian populations, rather than entirely from East Asians as previously thought, according to a newly sequenced genome. Based on the arm bone of a 24,000-year-old Siberian youth, the research could uncover new origins for America's indigenous peoples, as well as stir up fresh debate on Native American identities, experts say. Although these claims are controversial.<ref></ref> | |||
| Christos Stavrianos et al. (2012), of the Department of Endodology (]) at ],<!--Stavrianos's credentials are above the page number at the bottom of page 159.--> said that ] on two distinct continents, yet due to ] and ] sharing many physical traits in common due to common ancestry, some ]s classify them together as Mongoloids while other anthropologists, due to their differing traits, classify them as two separate races: the East Asian, and the Native American.<!--This is in the 1st and 2nd sentences, of the 3rd paragraph, of the right column, of page 160. Written here, the word "due," in the phrase "yet due to," is done to reword of the causal relationship in the source between the source's 1st and 2nd sentences, of the 3rd paragraph, of the right column, of page 160, indicated by the source's word "Therefore," which starts the 2nd sentence, of that paragraph. --> Stavrianos said that the truth is that Mongoloids include various ] groups, ]s, and Native Americans.<!--This is in the last sentence, of the 2nd paragraph, of the right column, of page 160. The phrase "the truth is" is a rewording of the source's phrase "In truth."--> Stavrianos said that Mongoloids are referred to as the "East Asian ethnic group" these days.<!--This is in the 2nd-to-last sentence, of the 2nd paragraph, of the right column, of page 160.--> Using the term "East Asian" to mean Mongoloids, Stavrianos said that the "East Asian" is a major racial group.<!--This is in the 1st sentence, of the 2nd paragraph, of the right column, of page 160. The 1st sentence of the same paragraph mentions three major racial groups: the "white," the "black," and the "East Asian," and Stavrianos explains the what was meant by these terms in the same paragraph. The 2nd sentence of the same paragraph, which states, "The white group is also been referred as the Caucasoids people," explains what Stavrianos meant by "white." The 5th sentence of the same paragraph, which states, "The black group is also, referred as the Negroid," explains what Stavrianos meant by "black." The 2nd-to-last sentence of the same paragraph, which states "Mongoloid people have been variously described as red or yellow and now a days are referred as the East Asian ethnic group," explains what Stavrianos meant by "East Asian." Therefore, in the 1st sentence of the same paragraph, Stavrianos's usage of the term "East Asian" meant Mongoloids, including Native Americans, as opposed to just East Asians, and excluding Native Americans, which is the way Stavrianos confusingly uses the term "East Asian peoples" in the next paragraph.--><ref>Stavrianos, C. et al. (2012). Facial Anatomy and Mapping Across Races. ''Research Journal of Medical Sciences, 6''(4). Page 160. .</ref> | |||
| ===Finns and Sami=== | |||
| ] were previously considered by some scholars to be partly Mongoloid, dating to claims by ]. Finns (and other Finno-Ugrians in Europe) are now considered typically European.{{citation needed|date=November 2019}} Less than 10% of Finnish genes are shared with ] populations. Nevertheless, about 60% of Finnish genes are from a single ancient Northeastern European population.<ref></ref><ref>{{cite journal |display-authors=2 |last1=Lazaridis |first1=Iosif |last2=Patterson |first2=Nick |last3=Mittnik |first3=Alissa |last4=Renaud |first4=Gabriel |last5=Mallick |first5=Swapan |last6=Kirsanow |first6=Karola |last7=Sudmant |first7=Peter H. |last8=Schraiber |first8=Joshua G. |last9=Castellano |first9=Sergi |last10=Lipson |first10=Mark |last11=Berger |first11=Bonnie |last12=Economou |first12=Christos |last13=Bollongino |first13=Ruth |last14=Fu |first14=Qiaomei |last15=Bos |first15=Kirsten I. |last16=Nordenfelt |first16=Susanne |last17=Li |first17=Heng |last18=de Filippo |first18=Cesare |last19=Prüfer |first19=Kay |last20=Sawyer |first20=Susanna |last21=Posth |first21=Cosimo |last22=Haak |first22=Wolfgang |last23=Hallgren |first23=Fredrik |last24=Fornander |first24=Elin |last25=Rohland |first25=Nadin |last26=Delsate |first26=Dominique |last27=Francken |first27=Michael |last28=Guinet |first28=Jean-Michel |last29=Wahl |first29=Joachim |last30=Ayodo |first30=George |last31=Babiker |first31=Hamza A. |last32=Bailliet |first32=Graciela |last33=Balanovska |first33=Elena |last34=Balanovsky |first34=Oleg |last35=Barrantes |first35=Ramiro |last36=Bedoya |first36=Gabriel |last37=Ben-Ami |first37=Haim |last38=Bene |first38=Judit |last39=Berrada |first39=Fouad |last40=Bravi |first40=Claudio M. |last41=Brisighelli |first41=Francesca |last42=Busby |first42=George B. J. |last43=Cali |first43=Francesco |last44=Churnosov |first44=Mikhail |last45=Cole |first45=David E. C. |last46=Corach |first46=Daniel |last47=Damba |first47=Larissa |last48=van Driem |first48=George |last49=Dryomov |first49=Stanislav |last50=Dugoujon |first50=Jean-Michel |last51=Fedorova |first51=Sardana A. |last52=Gallego Romero |first52=Irene |last53=Gubina |first53=Marina |last54=Hammer |first54=Michael |last55=Henn |first55=Brenna M. |last56=Hervig |first56=Tor |last57=Hodoglugil |first57=Ugur |last58=Jha |first58=Aashish R. |last59=Karachanak-Yankova |first59=Sena |last60=Khusainova |first60=Rita |last61=Khusnutdinova |first61=Elza |last62=Kittles |first62=Rick |last63=Kivisild |first63=Toomas |last64=Klitz |first64=William |last65=Kučinskas |first65=Vaidutis |last66=Kushniarevich |first66=Alena |last67=Laredj |first67=Leila |last68=Litvinov |first68=Sergey |last69=Loukidis |first69=Theologos |last70=Mahley |first70=Robert W. |last71=Melegh |first71=Béla |last72=Metspalu |first72=Ene |last73=Molina |first73=Julio |last74=Mountain |first74=Joanna |last75=Näkkäläjärvi |first75=Klemetti |last76=Nesheva |first76=Desislava |last77=Nyambo |first77=Thomas |last78=Osipova |first78=Ludmila |last79=Parik |first79=Jüri |last80=Platonov |first80=Fedor |last81=Posukh |first81=Olga |last82=Romano |first82=Valentino |last83=Rothhammer |first83=Francisco |last84=Rudan |first84=Igor |last85=Ruizbakiev |first85=Ruslan |last86=Sahakyan |first86=Hovhannes |last87=Sajantila |first87=Antti |last88=Salas |first88=Antonio |last89=Starikovskaya |first89=Elena B. |last90=Tarekegn |first90=Ayele |last91=Toncheva |first91=Draga |last92=Turdikulova |first92=Shahlo |last93=Uktveryte |first93=Ingrida |last94=Utevska |first94=Olga |last95=Vasquez |first95=René |last96=Villena |first96=Mercedes |last97=Voevoda |first97=Mikhail |last98=Winkler |first98=Cheryl A. |last99=Yepiskoposyan |first99=Levon |last100=Zalloua |first100=Pierre |last101=Zemunik |first101=Tatijana |last102=Cooper |first102=Alan |last103=Capelli |first103=Cristian |last104=Thomas |first104=Mark G. |last105=Ruiz-Linares |first105=Andres |last106=Tishkoff |first106=Sarah A. |last107=Singh |first107=Lalji |last108=Thangaraj |first108=Kumarasamy |last109=Villems |first109=Richard |last110=Comas |first110=David |last111=Sukernik |first111=Rem |last112=Metspalu |first112=Mait |last113=Meyer |first113=Matthias |last114=Eichler |first114=Evan E. |last115=Burger |first115=Joachim |last116=Slatkin |first116=Montgomery |last117=Pääbo |first117=Svante |last118=Kelso |first118=Janet |last119=Reich |first119=David |last120=Krause |first120=Johannes |title=Ancient human genomes suggest three ancestral populations for present-day Europeans |journal=Nature |date=18 September 2014 |volume=513 |issue=7518 |pages=409–413 |doi=10.1038/nature13673 |pmid=25230663 |arxiv=1312.6639 |pmc=4170574 |bibcode=2014Natur.513..409L}}</ref> | |||
| The ] of the ] were included as ''Mongoloid'' because of their genes, origin and physical appearance,<ref name="Beckman2001">{{cite journal |author1=L.E. Beckman |author2=K. Sjoberg |author3=S. Eriksson |author4=L. Beckman |year=2001 |title=Haemochromatosis gene mutations in Finns, Swedes and Swedish Saamis |journal=Human Heredity |volume=52 |pages=110–112 |pmid=11474212 |issue=2 |doi=10.1159/000053362}}</ref> although dating perhaps to as far back as the Bronze-age many of the indigenous people have received some ] genes through mixing of the local population between the ]n people and the aboriginals in the ] region.{{Ref|a|1}} | |||
| === Turkic peoples === | |||
| {{Main|Turkic peoples}} | |||
| All the Turkic peoples native to Central Asia are of mixed ] and Mongoloid origin.{{citation needed|date=October 2019}} Turkic people display a great variety of ethnic types.<ref name="Turkic people" /> They possess physical features ranging from ] to ]. Mongoloid and Caucasoid facial structure is common among many Turkic groups, such as ], ], ], ], ].{{citation needed|date=October 2019}} Historically, the ] classification of the Turkic peoples was sometimes given as "]". The Turanid ] or so-called "minor race", was situated at the boundary of the distribution of the Mongoloid and ] "great races".<ref>, {{ISBN|0-306-41777-4}}, p.32.</ref><ref>''American anthropologist'', American Anthropological Association, Anthropological Society of Washington (Washington, D.C,), 1984 v. 86, nos. 3-4, p. 741.</ref> | |||
| The Turkic people live in central, eastern, northern, and western Asia as well as parts of eastern Europe.<ref name="Turkic people">, ], Online Academic Edition, 2010</ref> The term "Turkic" represents a broad ] of peoples including existing societies such as ], ], ], ], ], ], ], ], ], ], ], ], ], ], ], ], ], ], ], ], ], and ] and as well as ] such as ], ], ], ], ], ], ], ], ], ], ], ]es, ], and possibly ], ] and the ].<ref name="Turkic people" /><ref name="Pritsak O 1982">] & ]: ''Khazarian Hebrew Documents of the Tenth Century'', Ithaca: Cornell Univ. Press, 1982.</ref><ref>" {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130922063332/http://education.yahoo.com/reference/encyclopedia/entry/Timur |date=2013-09-22 }}", The ], Sixth Edition, 2001–05, ].</ref><ref>] article: , Online Edition, 2007.</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Walton |first1=Linda |title=World History: Journeys from Past to Present |page=210 |date=2013 |ref=https://books.google.com/books?id=Os-g5vLFfBcC&pg=PA210&lpg=PA210&dq=tabgach+turkic&source=bl&ots=BmDhsU24hp&sig=a7chSDegS4kzcRRNAYQdWvutNvA&hl=sv&sa=X&ei=IaCpVPCaNMbMygPFg4KQCw&ved=0CDwQ6AEwBDgK#v=onepage&q=tabgach%20turkic&f=false}}</ref> | |||
| ===Iranians=== | |||
| Ohkura et al. (1984) analyzed 18 ] in two ]: the ] population, and the Guilanian population.<!--The Mazandaranian and Guilanian populations being two Iranian populations is in the 1st sentence of the article's abstract, which is on the 1st page, page 27. The statement about the study analyzing 18 genetic polymorphic traits in these two populations is in the 1st sentence, of the last paragraph, of the left column, of page 37.--> Ohkura said, "Finally, it can be concluded that the Mazandaranian and Guilanian populations in Iran show genetic influence of both Mongoloid and ] populations. However, it seems that the Mongolian influence is stronger than the Caucasian."<!--This is in the 1st and 2nd sentences, of the 3rd paragraph, of the right column, of page 37. --><ref>Ohkura, K. et al. (1984). Distribution of Polymorphic Traits in Mazandaranian and Guilanian in Iran. ''Human Heredity, (34)''1. Pages 27 and 37. .</ref> | |||
| Boris A. Malyarchuk et al. (2002)<!--The middle initial of his name, "A," is under the article's title, where the authors are listed, on page 434.--> extracted the ] from a ] of 25 ] from ],<!--This is in the 1st sentence, of the 3rd paragraph, of the left column, of page 435.--> a population which Malyarchuk referred to as "Eastern Iranians."<!--In Table 2, on page 436, there are two Iranian groups: "Western Iranians," and "Eastern Iranians." The superscript 2 in that data table, next to the term "Western Iranians," refers to the "Note" at the bottom of the data table. The "Note" at the bottom of the data table indicates that the data for "Western Iranians" comes from another study, Richards et al. (2000). The sample of 25 Persians, therefore, is the sample referred to by the term "Eastern Iranians."--> Out of the population of Eastern Iranians studied, Malyarchuk said that 20% had Mongoloid ].<!--This is in the last sentence, of the last paragraph, of the right column, of page 435.--> Out of the population of Eastern Iranians studied, Malyarchuk indicated that the distribution of Mongoloid mtDNA groups was: 4.0% ], 4.0% ], 4.0% ], and 8.0% ].<!--The Mongoloid mtDNA groups are listed in the 2nd sentence, of the 1st paragraph, of the right column, of page 435. The percentages for different mtDNA groups for Eastern Iranians is shown in Table 2 on page 436. The word "Distribution" is written in the title of Table 2 on page 436.--> Unlike Eastern Iranians, Malyarchuk said that the "Western Iranians" completely lack a Mongoloid component in their DNA.<!--This is in the 2nd sentence, of the 2nd paragraph, of the left column, of page 436.--> Malyarchuk said that the difference between Western and Eastern Iranians does not conflict with the historical data, because it is known that only the ] and ] parts of Iran were part of the ethnic lands of Persians.<!--This is in the 3rd sentence, of the 1st paragraph, of the right column, of page 436.--> Malyarchuk said that populations of an origin other than Persian lived in the ] and southeastern parts of Iran since ancient times, such as ], ], ], ], ].<!--This is in the 3rd sentence, of the 1st paragraph, of the right column, of page 436. The word "another" in the 3rd sentence after the word "but" refers to something other than "Persians," which is mentioned before the word "but" in that sentence.--> Malyarchuk said that the decline in the frequency of the Mongoloid component in the ]s of ]ns going westward, from 60% in ], ], and ] to 20% in Eastern Iranians, and ], most likely has to do with the process of settling of the ].<!--This is in the last sentence, of the 2nd paragraph, of the left column, of page 436.--><ref>Malyarchuk, B.A. et al. (2002). Mitochondrial DNA Polymorphism in Populations of the Caspian Region and Southeastern Europe. ''Genetika, 38''(4). .</ref> On their Y-DNA haplogroups Eastern Iranians shows significant percentages of Siberian and East Asian related haplogroups related with Mongoloid. Iranian groups have a presence of ], ], ] in varying frequencies depending on the ethnic group.<ref></ref><ref></ref> | |||
| Rubin, Barnett R. (2002) The ] are an Iranian speaking ethnic group that lives in ], ], ] Genetically, the Hazara are a mixture of west Eurasian and eastern Eurasian components. | |||
| *{{cite journal | last1 = Quintana-Murci | first1 = Lluís |date=May 2004 | title = Where West Meets East: The Complex mtDNA Landscape of the Southwest and Central Asian Corridor | url = | journal = American Journal of Human Genetics | volume = 74 | issue = 5| pages = 834–35 | displayauthors = etal | pmid = 15077202 | doi = 10.1086/383236 | pmc=1181978}} | |||
| *Debets, G. F. (1970) ''Physical Anthropology of Afghanistan: I–II'' (translated from Russian) Peabody Museum of Archaeology and Ethnology, Cambridge, Mass., {{OCLC|90304}} | |||
| *Rubin, Barnett R. (2002) ''The Fragmentation of Afghanistan: State Formation and Collapse in the international system'' Yale University Press, New Haven, Conn., page 30, {{ISBN|0-300-05963-9}}</ref><ref name="Jochelson">Jochelson, Waldemar (1928) ''Peoples of Asiatic Russia'' American Museum of Natural History, New York, p. 33, {{OCLC|187466893}}, also available in microfiche edition</ref> While it has been found that "at least third to half of their chromosomes are of East Asian origin, PCA places them between East Asia and Caucasus/Middle East/Europe clusters".<ref name="ncbi.nlm.nih.gov">{{Cite journal|pmc=3314501 |title=Afghanistan's Ethnic Groups Share a Y-Chromosomal Heritage Structured by Historical Events |pmid=22470552 |doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0034288 |volume=7 |issue=3 |year=2012 |pages=e34288 |journal=PLoS ONE | last1 = Haber | first1 = M | last2 = Platt | first2 = DE | last3 = Ashrafian Bonab | first3 = M | display-authors = etal|bibcode=2012PLoSO...734288H }}</ref> Genetic research suggests that the Hazaras of Afghanistan cluster closely with the ] population of the country, while both groups are at a notable distance from Afghanistan's ] and ] populations.<ref name="ncbi.nlm.nih.gov" /> There is evidence of both a patrimonial and maternal relation to ] and ].<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Rosenberg | first1 = Noah A. |date=December 2002 | title = Genetic Structure of Human Populations | url = | journal = Science |series=New Series | volume = 298 | issue = 5602| pages = 2381–85 | author-separator = | displayauthors = etal | doi=10.1126/science.1078311 | pmid=12493913| bibcode = 2002Sci...298.2381R }}</ref> | |||
| (Quintana-Murci 2004) East Asian male and female ancestry is supported by studies in ] as well. East Asian maternal haplogroups (mtDNA) make up about 35%, which are virtually absent from bordering populations, suggesting that the male descendants of Turkic and Mongolian peoples, were accompanied by women of East Asian ancestry.<ref>{{Cite journal|pmc=1181978 |title=Where West Meets East: The Complex mtDNA Landscape of the Southwest and Central Asian Corridor |date= May 2004|pmid=15077202 |doi=10.1086/383236 |volume=74 |issue=5 |pages=827–45 |journal=The American Journal of Human Genetics | last1 = Quintana-Murci | first1 = L | last2 = Chaix | first2 = R | last3 = Wells | first3 = RS | display-authors = etal }}</ref> Women of Non-East Asian ] in Hazaras are at about 65%, most which are West Eurasians and some South Asian.<ref>{{cite journal | pmc=1181978 | pmid=15077202 | doi=10.1086/383236 | volume=74 |issue = 5| title=Figure 1: Where west meets east: the complex mtDNA landscape of the southwest and Central Asian corridor | date=May 2004 | journal=Am. J. Hum. Genet. | pages=827–45 | last1 = Quintana-Murci | first1 = L | last2 = Chaix | first2 = R | last3 = Wells | first3 = RS | display-authors = etal }}</ref> | |||
| The most frequent paternal haplogroups found amongst the Pakistani Hazara were ] at 40%(10/25) and ] at 32%<ref>{{cite journal |title=Molecular Genealogy of a Mongol Queen's Family and Her Possible Kinship with Genghis Khan |journal=PLOS ONE |volume=11 |issue=9 |pages=e0161622 |date=14 September 2016 |doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0161622 |pmid=27627454 |pmc=5023095 |last1=Lkhagvasuren |first1=Gavaachimed |last2=Shin |first2=Heejin |last3=Lee |first3=Si Eun |last4=Tumen |first4=Dashtseveg |last5=Kim |first5=Jae-Hyun |last6=Kim |first6=Kyung-Yong |last7=Kim |first7=Kijeong |last8=Park |first8=Ae Ja |last9=Lee |first9=Ho Woon |last10=Kim |first10=Mi Jin |last11=Choi |first11=Jaesung |last12=Choi |first12=Jee-Hye |last13=Min |first13=Na Young |last14=Lee |first14=Kwang-Ho |bibcode=2016PLoSO..1161622L }} | |||
| "Eastern Russian Tatars, Bashkirs, and Pakistani Hazara were found to carry R1b-M343 at unusually high frequencies of 12.65%, 46.07%, and 32%, respectively, compared to other regions of Eastern Asia, which rarely have this haplotype"</ref> (8/25). | |||
| Hideo Matsumoto (2009) said that Iranians are "basically Caucasoid with a northern Mongoloid admixture."<!--This information is in the last sentence, of the 3rd paragraph, of the left column, of page 74.--> Matsumoto said that ] marker genes ab3st, characterizing the northern Mongoloid, and afb1b3, characterizing the southern Mongoloid, are specific to the Mongoloid.<!--The information about the genes being specific to the Mongoloid is in the last sentence, before the semicolon, of the 1st paragraph, of the left column, of page 74. The acronym "Gm" is defined as "immunoglobulin G maker" in the 1st sentence, of the 1st paragraph, of the right column, of page 69. The information about which genes characterize northern and southern Mongoloids is in the 2nd-to-last and last sentences of the caption on page 72. In the 1st sentence, of the last paragraph, of the left column, of page 70, Matsumoto said, "...Mongoloid populations can be divided into 2 groups, the northern and southern groups."--> Matsumoto indicated that, in the ] ethnic group in ], the gene frequency of ab3st is 8.5% and the gene frequency of afb1b3 is 2.6%. Matsumoto indicated that, in the Giranian ethnic group in Iran, the gene frequency of ab3st is 8.8% and the gene frequency of afb1b3 is 1.8%.<!--This information is in page 76, in Table 4, which is a data table continued from page 75.--><ref name="Matsumoto2009">Matsumoto, H. (2009). The origin of the Japanese race based on genetic markers of immunoglobulin G. ''Proceedings of the Japan Academy, (85)''2. Pages 69, 72, 74 & 75. .</ref> | |||
| ===Mestizos=== | |||
| {{See also|Casta|Spanish colonization of the Americas}} | |||
| ] is 53.9% ] and 36.7% ], according to ].<ref>]. (2017). ]. .</ref>]] | |||
| ] (1946) said that ] has proceeded, nearly to completion, the combination of two distinct races to create a new type, the so-called mestizo. Cook said that the process ] between a native, Mongoloid stock, and an invading Caucasian group.<!--This is in the 1st and 2nd sentences, of page 81, of Cook (1946).--><ref>Cook, S.F. (1946). Human Sacrifice and Warfare as Factors in the Demography of Pre-Colonial Mexico. ''Human Biology, 18''(2). Page 81. .</ref><!--Listing 20, at the top of page 754, of Borah (1975), is the listing for "Human Sacrifice and Warfare as Factors in the Demography of Pre-Colonial Mexico," showing Sherburne Friend Cook, referred to as "S. F. COOK" in Cook (1946), is the author of Cook (1946).--><ref>Borah, W. (1975). Sherburne Friend Cook (1896-1974). ''The Hispanic American Historical Review, 55''(4). Page 754. .</ref> | |||
| Katz and Suchey (1986) did a study that used males who were ] at the ].<!--This is in the 1st sentence, of the 1st paragraph, of the right column, of page 429.--> The study said that, based on physical appearance, it separated the ] who had a Mongoloid appearance from those who had a ] physical appearance, with the Mongoloid groups comprising the "Mexican category."<!--This is in the 2nd sentence, of the 1st paragraph, of the right column, of page 430.--> The study said that it paid attention to facial shape, hair form and ], ], and ].<!--This is in the 3rd sentence, of the 1st paragraph, of the right column, of page 430.--> The study said that its "Mexican category" was a category of individuals showing a heavy Mongoloid racial component in combination with Mexican ancestry.<!--This is in the last sentence, of the 1st paragraph, of the right column, of page 430. The information that the Mexican category was a category of individuals is in the 1st sentence, of the 3rd paragraph, of the left column, of page 430.--><ref>Katz, D. & Suchey, J.D. (1986). Age Determination of the Male ]. ''American Journal of Physical Anthropology, 69''(4). Page 430. .</ref> | |||
| García‐Ramos et al. (2003) and Soto-Vega et al. (2004) both said that mestizos are "a complex ] of European (Caucasian) and American native inhabitants (Mongoloid)."<!--This information is in García‐Ramos et al., in the 2nd sentence, of the 2nd paragraph, of the "Introduction" section.--><ref>García‐Ramos, G. et al. (2003). HLA class II genotypes in Mexican Mestizo patientswith myasthenia gravis. ''European Journal of Neurology, 10''(6). .</ref><!--This information is in Soto-Vega et al., in the 2nd sentence, of the 2nd paragraph, of the left column, of page 212, which is page 2/5 of the PDF document.--><ref>Soto-Vega, E. et al. (2004). Class I and class II MHC polymorphisms in Mexican patients with Behçet’s disease. ''Immunology Letters, 93''(2-3). Page 212. .</ref> | |||
| Ramírez-Cervantes et al. (2015) said that ] are "a complex mixture of European (Caucasian) and Native American (Mongoloid) genetics."<!--This information is in the 1st sentence, of the last paragraph, of the left column, of page 2.--><ref>Ramírez-Cervantes, K.L. et al. (2015). Characteristics and factors related to quality of life in Mexican Mestizo patients with celiac disease. ''BMC Gastroenterology, 15''(4). Page 2. .</i></ref> | |||
| ===South Asians=== | |||
| {{See also|genetics and archaeogenetics of South Asia}} | |||
| Hideo Matsumoto (2009) said that ] are basically ], with many of them having Mongoloid admixture, such as ], ] in ], ] in ], ], ] in ], and ] in ].<!--This information is in the 1st sentence, of the 3rd paragraph, of the left column, of page 74. See Table 4, on page 75, to see the "locality" for the populations mentioned by Matsumoto.--> Matsumoto said that only some populations in the India and nearby regions are basically Mongoloid with Caucasoid admixture, such as ], and ] in Assam.<!--This information is in the 2nd sentence, of the 3rd paragraph, of the left column, of page 74. See Table 4, on page 75, to see the "locality" for the populations mentioned by Matsumoto.--> Matsumoto said that ] marker genes ab3st, characterizing the northern Mongoloid, and afb1b3, characterizing the southern Mongoloid, are specific to the Mongoloid.<!--The information about the genes being specific to the Mongoloid is in the last sentence, before the semicolon, of the 1st paragraph, of the left column, of page 74. The acronym "Gm" is defined as "immunoglobulin G maker" in the 1st sentence, of the 1st paragraph, of the right column, of page 69. The information about which genes characterize northern and southern Mongoloids is in the 2nd-to-last and last sentences of the caption on page 72. In the 1st sentence, of the last paragraph, of the left column, of page 70, Matsumoto said, "...Mongoloid populations can be divided into 2 groups, the northern and southern groups."--> For the following populations, Matsumoto indicated the following respective gene frequencies of ab3st and afb1b3: Hindus in India, 4.2% and 7.4%; Tamils in South India, 4.8% and 8.3%; Sinhalese in Sri Lanka, 2.6% and 12.5%; Brahmins in Assam, 8.6% and 12.7%; Nepalese in Nepal, 9.0% and 19.9%; Kalitas in Assam, 6.6% and 36.6%; Muslims in Bangladesh, 4.4% and 35.6%; and Ahom in Assam, 10.0% and 60.4%.<!--This information is in Table 4 on page 75.--><ref name="Matsumoto2009" /> | |||
| Indian Austro-Asiatic speakers have East Asian paternal ] related with Austro-Asiatic speakers of East Asia and Southeast Asia.<ref>Population Genetic Structure in Indian Austroasiatic Speakers: The Role of Landscape Barriers and Sex-Specific Admixture </ref> | |||
| The concept of dividing humankind into the Mongoloid, ], and ] races was introduced in the 1780s by members of the ]. It was further developed by Western scholars in the context of ] ideologies during the age of ].<ref name="AAPARace">{{cite web|author=American Association of Physical Anthropologists|title=AAPA Statement on Race and Racism |website=American Association of Physical Anthropologists|access-date=19 June 2020 |date=27 March 2019 |url=https://physanth.org/about/position-statements/aapa-statement-race-and-racism-2019/}} The organization has since been renamed the ].</ref> With the rise of modern ], the concept of distinct human races in a biological sense has become obsolete. In 2019, the ] stated: "The belief in 'races' as natural aspects of human biology, and the structures of inequality (racism) that emerge from such beliefs, are among the most damaging elements in the human experience both today and in the past."<ref name="AAPARace" /> | |||
| British ethnographer, ] incorrectly classified the people of the ] up to ] as "Mongolo-Dravidian" or the "Bengali type".<ref name="Bengali">{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/?id=QA2OKK0-bdcC |title=The People of India |first1=Herbert |last1=Risley |first2=William |last2=Crooke |date=1999 |publisher=Asian Educational Services|isbn=9788120612655 }}</ref> This racial type included the ], ], ], ] and populations to the north in the Himalayas and was formed, according to Risley, through the intermixing of Mongolian and Dravidian populations.<ref name="Bengali"/> | |||
| The term ''Mongoloid'' has had a second usage referencing people with ], now generally regarded as highly offensive.<ref name="Smay and Armelagos">{{cite web |last1=Smay |first1=Diana |last2=Armelagos |first2=George |publisher=Emory University |title=Galileo Wept: A Critical Assessment of the Use of Race in Forensic Anthropology |url=http://www.anthropology.emory.edu/FACULTY/ANTGA/Web%20Site/PDFs/Galileo%20Wept-%20A%20Critical%20Assessment%20of%20the%20Use%20of%20Race%20in%20Forensic%20Anthropology.pdf |access-date=2012-10-10 |archive-date=2018-08-18 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180818073338/http://www.anthropology.emory.edu/FACULTY/ANTGA/Web%20Site/PDFs/Galileo%20Wept-%20A%20Critical%20Assessment%20of%20the%20Use%20of%20Race%20in%20Forensic%20Anthropology.pdf |url-status=dead }}</ref><ref name="Lieberman">{{cite journal |last=Lieberman |first=Leonard |title=Out of Our Skulls: Caucasoid, Mongoloid, Negroid? |doi=10.1111/an.1997.38.9.56 |volume=38 |issue=9 |journal=Anthropology News |page=56 |year=1997}}</ref><ref name="Templeton">{{cite web |last=Templeton |first=Alan R. |work=Washington University |title=Human Races: A Genetic and Evolutionary Perspective |url=http://www.realfuture.org/GIST/Readings/Templeton(1998).pdf |publisher=Realfuture.org}}</ref><ref name="Keevak">Keevak, Michael. "Becoming Yellow: A Short History of Racial Thinking". Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2011. {{ISBN|978-0-691-14031-5}}.</ref> Those affected were often referred to as "Mongoloids" or in terms of "]" or "Mongolian imbecility". | |||
| In his comparison between the upcountry Sinhalese and the ] of Sri Lanka, Howard S. Stoudt noted that the Sinhalese differed to the Indian Tamils because they were large chested with more Mongoloid faces.<ref name="The Physical Anthropology of Ceyl"/> American physical anthropologist, ] claimed the partial Mongolian ancestry of the Sinhalese people had most likely originated in ].<ref>{{cite web |url=https://books.google.com/?id=qepKAAAAYAAJ |title=The living races of man |first1=Carleton Stevens |last1=Coon |first2=Edward E. |last2=Hunt |date=21 April 1966 |publisher=Cape}}</ref> | |||
| == History of the concept == | == History of the concept == | ||
| === Origins === | |||
| The earliest systematic use of the term was by Blumenbach in ''De generis humani varietate nativa'' (''On the Natural Variety of Mankind'', University of Göttingen, first published in 1775, re-issued with alteration of the title-page in 1776). Blumenbach included East and Southeast Asians, but not Native Americans or Malays, who were each assigned separate categories. | |||
| ''Mongolian'' as a term for race was first introduced in 1785 by ], a scholar at the then modern ]. Meiners divided humanity into two races he labeled "Tartar-Caucasians" and "Mongolians", believing the former to be beautiful, the latter to be "weak in body and spirit, bad, and lacking in virtue".<ref name="Painter">{{cite web |first=Nell Irvin |last=Painter |author-link=Nell Irvin Painter |publisher=Yale University |title=Why White People are Called Caucasian? |year=2003 |access-date=September 27, 2007 |url=http://www.yale.edu/glc/events/race/Painter.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131020105628/http://www.yale.edu/glc/events/race/Painter.pdf |archive-date=October 20, 2013 |url-status=dead |df=mdy-all}}</ref>{{rp|34}} | |||
| His more influential Göttingen colleague ] borrowed the term ''Mongolian'' for his division of humanity into five races in the revised 1795 edition of his ''De generis humani varietate nativa'' (''On the Natural Variety of Mankind''). Although Blumenbach's concept of five races later gave rise to ], his arguments were basically anti-racist,<ref>{{cite journal |author=Bhopal R |title=The beautiful skull and Blumenbach's errors: the birth of the scientific concept of race |journal=BMJ |volume=335 |issue=7633 |pages=1308–9 |date=December 2007 |pmid=18156242 |pmc=2151154 |doi=10.1136/bmj.39413.463958.80|quote=Blumenbach's name has been associated with scientific racism, but his arguments actually undermined racism. Blumenbach could not have foreseen the coming abuse of his ideas and classification in the 19th and (first half of the) 20th centuries.}}</ref> since he underlined that humankind as a whole forms one single ''species'',<ref>{{cite book |author=Johann Friedrich Blumenbach|title=Handbuch der Naturgeschichte|page=60|year=1797|quote=Es giebt nur eine Gattung (species) im Menschengeschlecht; und alle uns bekannte Völker aller Zeiten und aller Himmelsstriche können von einer gemeinschaftlichen Stammrasse abstammen. |url=http://www.deutschestextarchiv.de/book/view/blumenbach_naturgeschichte_1797?p=82|access-date=2020-05-24}}</ref> and points out that the transition from one race to another is so gradual that the distinctions between the races presented by him are "very arbitrary".<ref>German: "sehr willkürlich": {{cite book |author=Johann Friedrich Blumenbach|title=Handbuch der Naturgeschichte|page=61|year=1797|quote=Alle diese Verschiedenheiten fließen aber durch so mancherley Abstufungen und Uebergänge so unvermerkt zusammen, daß sich keine andre, als sehr willkürliche Grenzen zwischen ihnen festsetzen lassen. |url=http://www.deutschestextarchiv.de/book/view/blumenbach_naturgeschichte_1797?p=83|access-date=2020-05-24}}</ref> In Blumenbach's concept, the ''Mongolian race'' comprises the peoples living in Asia east of the ], the ] and the ], with the exception of the ], who are considered to be transitional between Caucasian and Ethiopian.<ref name="Bhopal">{{cite journal |last1=Bhopal |first1=Raj |date=22 December 2007 |title=The beautiful skull and Blumenbach's errors: the birth of the scientific concept of race |journal=BMJ |volume=335 |issue=7633 |pages=1308–1309 |doi=10.1136/bmj.39413.463958.80 |pmc=2151154 |pmid=18156242 |doi-access=free}}</ref><ref name="douglas2008ch2">{{cite book |last1=Douglas |first1=Bronwen |url=http://press-files.anu.edu.au/downloads/press/p53561/pdf/ch028.pdf |title=Foreign Bodies: Oceania and the Science of Race 1750-1940 |publisher=ANU E Press |year=2008 |isbn=978-1-921536-00-7 |editor1-last=Douglas |editor1-first=Bronwen |pages=99–156 |chapter='Novus Orbis Australis': Oceania in the science of race, 1750-1850 |editor2-last=Ballard |editor2-first=Chris}}</ref>Of peoples living outside Asia, he includes the "]s" in northern America and the European ], among whom he includes the "]".<ref>{{cite book |author=Johann Friedrich Blumenbach|title=Handbuch der Naturgeschichte|pages=61–62|year=1797|url=http://www.deutschestextarchiv.de/book/view/blumenbach_naturgeschichte_1797?p=83|access-date=2020-05-24}}</ref> | |||
| In 1865, biologist ] presented the views of ] (Huxley was not one of them) as "some imagine their assumed species of mankind were created where we find them... the Mongolians from the ]".<!--p.247--><ref name="HuxEssay">Huxley, Thomas. ''Collected Essays of Thomas Huxley: Man's Place in Nature and Other'' Kessinger Publishing: Montana, 2005. {{ISBN|1-4179-7462-1}}</ref> | |||
| === In the context of scientific racism === | |||
| In 1964, archaeologist ] said that it seemed like the Mongoloid race originated in South China, and he said that it seemed like the Mongoloid race was differentiating itself from other races in the ]. Chang based these thoughts on a skull found in ] and a skull found in ].<!--The source text's 1964 date is located in the first note at the bottom of the first page. The information about Kwang-chih Chang's thoughts is in the first paragraph of page 8. The source text uses "Szechwan" and "Kwangsi" as alternative romanizations of "Sichuan" and "Guangxi".--><ref>Sangvichien, S. (1964). A Preliminary Report on Non-Metrical Characteristics of Neolithic Skeletons Found at Ban Kao, Kanchanaburi. page 8. Retrieved November 11, 2016, from </ref> | |||
| ] map of racial categories from ''On the Geographical Distribution of the Chief Modifications of Mankind'' (1870)<ref name="Huxley">] (1870) ''Journal of the Ethnological Society of London''. Huxley indicates that he has omitted certain areas with complex ethnic compositions that do not fit into his racial paradigm, including much of the Indian subcontinent and Horn of Africa. (Huxley, Thomas (1873). Critiques and Addresses by Thomas Henry Huxley, LL.D., F.R.S. Macmillan and Company. p. 153.) By the late nineteenth century, his Xanthochroi group had been redefined as the ], whereas his Melanochroi became the ]. As such, Huxley's Melanochroi eventually also comprised various other dark Caucasoid populations, including the ] and ]. (Gregory, John Walter (1931). Race as a Political Factor. Watts & Company. p. 19. Retrieved 8 May 2016.)</ref> | |||
| In 1972, physical anthropologist ] said, "From a hyborean group there evolved, in northern Asia, the ancestral strain of the entire specialized Mongoloid family".<ref>Coon, Carleton S. ''The Races of Europe.'' Greenwood: USA, 1972 {{ISBN|0-8371-6328-5}} p.2</ref> In 1962, Coon believed that the Mongoloid "subspecies" existed "during most of the Pleistocene, from 500,000 to 10,000 years ago".<!--Chapter13: The Dead and the Living--><ref name="Coonorigin">Coon, Carleton S. ''The Origin of the Races''. Knopf: Michigan, 1962. {{ISBN|0-394-30142-0}}</ref> According to Coon, the Mongoloid race had not completed its "invasions and expansions" into Southeast Asia, the Americas, and the Pacific Islands until "oward the end of the Pleistocene".<ref name="Coonorigin" /><!--Chapter13: The Dead and the Living--> By this time, Coon hypothesized, the Mongoloid race had become "]".<ref name="Coonorigin" /><!--Chapter13: The Dead and the Living-->{{Verify source|date=September 2012|reason=Does Coon really use the nonce word "sapien" – originating from a misinterpretation of "(Homo) sapiens" as plural – that even Wiktionary refuses to recognise? If so, a must be added to clarify that the error really goes back to Coon and not the Misplaced Pages editor who added this.}} | |||
| ] map of racial categories from ''On the Geographical Distribution of the Chief Modifications of Mankind'' (1870)<ref name="Huxley">] (1870) ''Journal of the Ethnological Society of London''. Huxley indicates that he has omitted certain areas with complex ethnic compositions that do not fit into his racial paradigm, including much of the Indian subcontinent and Horn of Africa. (Huxley, Thomas (1873). Critiques and Addresses by Thomas Henry Huxley, LL.D., F.R.S. Macmillan and Company. p. 153.) By the late nineteenth century, his Xanthochroi group had been redefined as the ], whereas his Melanochroi became the ]. As such, Huxley's Melanochroi eventually also comprised various other dark Caucasoid populations, including the ] and ]. (Gregory, John Walter (1931). Race as a Political Factor. Watts & Company. p. 19. Retrieved 8 May 2016.)</ref> | |||
| {{legend|#a14308|1: ]}} | {{legend|#a14308|1: ]}} | ||
| {{legend|#682b05|2: ]}} | {{legend|#682b05|2: ]}} | ||
| {{legend|#060606|3: ]}} | {{legend|#060606|3: ]}} | ||
| {{legend|#ffcccc|4: ] |
{{legend|#ffcccc|4: ]}} | ||
| {{legend|#328a85|5: ]}} | {{legend|#328a85|5: ]}} | ||
| {{legend|#ff0000|6: ]}} | {{legend|#ff0000|6: ]}} | ||
| {{legend|#efc417|7: ]}} | {{legend|#efc417|7: ]}} | ||
| {{legend|#c6520a|8: |
{{legend|#c6520a|8: Mongoloids A}} | ||
| {{legend|#cb780a|8: |
{{legend|#cb780a|8: Mongoloids B}} | ||
| {{legend|#cb970a|8: |
{{legend|#cb970a|8: Mongoloids C}} | ||
| {{legend|#f9b90d|9: ]}}]] | {{legend|#f9b90d|9: ]}}]] | ||
| Discussions on race among Western scholars during the 19th century took place against the background of the debate between ] and ], the former arguing for a single origin of all humankind, the latter holding that each human race had a specific origin. Monogenists based their arguments either on a literal interpretation of the ] story of ] or on secular research. Since polygenism stressed the perceived differences, it was popular among ], especially ].<ref>Ibram X. Kendi, Stamped from the Beginning. The Definitive History of Racist Ideas in America, New York: Nation Books 2016. {{ISBN|978-1-5685-8464-5}}, chapters 4, 7–12, 14, 16 ''passim''.</ref> | |||
| Mahinder Kumar Bhasin of the Department of Anthropology at the ] suggested in a review of an article referencing Mourant 1983 that "The Caucasoids and the Mongoloid almost certainly became differentiated from one another somewhere in Asia" and that "Another differentiation, which probably took place in Asia, is that of the Australoids, perhaps from a common type before the separation of the Mongoloids".<ref name="bhasin">{{cite journal |url=http://www.krepublishers.com/02-Journals/IJHG/IJHG-06-0-000-000-2006-Web/IJHG-06-3-177-280-2006-Abst-PDF/IJHG-06-3-233-274-2006-000-Bhasin-M-K/IJHG-06-3-233-274-2006-000-Bhasin-M-K-Text.PDF |last=Bhasin |first=M.K. |title=Genetics of Caste and Tribes of India: Indian Population Milieu |journal=Int J Hum Genet |volume=6 |issue=3 |page=244 |year=2006 |accessdate=2007-10-22}}</ref> | |||
| British biologist ], a strong advocate of ] and a monogenist, presented the views of polygenists in 1865: "ome imagine their assumed species of mankind were created where we find them... the Mongolians from the ]".<ref name="HuxEssay">Huxley, Thomas. ''Collected Essays of Thomas Huxley: Man's Place in Nature and Other'' Kessinger Publishing: Montana, 2005. p. 247. {{ISBN|1-4179-7462-1}}</ref> | |||
| Paleo-anthropologist ] and Rachel Caspari characterize "his contention that the Mongoloid race crossed the 'sapiens threshold' first and thereby evolved the furthest".<!--pg. 157--><ref>{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/?id=gjYvEunARoYC |author1=Milford Wolpoff |author2=Rachel Caspari |lastauthoramp=yes |title=Race and Human Evolution: A Fatal Attraction |publisher=Westview Press |year=1998 |isbn=978-0-8133-3546-9}}</ref> | |||
| During the 19th century, diverging opinions were pronounced whether Native Americans or Malays should be included in the grouping which was sometimes called "Mongolian" and sometimes "Mongoloid". For example, D. M. Warren in 1856 used a narrow definition which did not include either the "Malay" or the "American" races,<ref>Warren, D.M. (1856). A System of Physical Geography. Philadelphia: H. Cowperthwait & Co. p. 77.</ref> while Huxley (1870)<ref>{{cite web |url=http://aleph0.clarku.edu/huxley/SM3/GeoDis.html |title=Huxley, Thomas, On the Geographical Distribution of the Chief Modifications of Mankind. 1870. August 14, 2006 |publisher=Aleph0.clarku.edu |access-date=2013-12-15}}</ref> and ] (1881) included both Malays and indigenous Americans.<ref>Winchell, A. (1881). Preadamites; or A Demonstration of the Existence of Men Before Adam; (3rd ed.). Chicago: S.C. Griggs and Company; London: Trubner & Co. pp. 57, 66.</ref> In 1861, ] added the Australian as a secondary race (subrace) of the principal race of Mongolian.<ref name="Deniker">Deniker, Joseph. ''The Races of Man: An Outline of Anthropology and Ethnography'' C. Scribner's Sons: New York, 1900, p.282 {{ISBN|0-8369-5932-9}}</ref> | |||
| ], professor of evolutionary processes at the ], said the Mongoloid race "diverged 41,000 years ago" from a Mongoloid and Caucasoid group which diverged from Negroids "110,000 years ago".<!--p.522--><ref name="Futuyma" /> | |||
| In his ''Essai sur l'inégalité des races humaines'' (''Essay on the Inequality of the Human Races'', published 1853–55), which would later influence ], the French ] ] defined three races which he called "white", "black", and "yellow". His "yellow race", corresponding to other writers' "Mongoloid race", consisted of "the Altaic, Mongol, Finnish and Tartar branches".<ref name="Gob">{{cite book |url=https://archive.org/details/inequalityhuman00gobigoog |year=1915 |publisher=Putnam |last=Gobineau |first=Arthur |title=The Inequality of Human Races |access-date=2007-10-18|page=146|isbn=978-0-86527-430-3}}</ref><ref name="anthroGob">DiPiero, Thomas. ''White Men Aren't'' gid/s work Duke University Press, 2002, p.8 {{ISBN|0-8223-2961-1}}</ref> While he saw the "white race" as superior, he claimed that the "yellow race" was physically and intellectually mediocre but had an extremely strong materialism that allowed them to achieve certain results.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Blue |first=Gregory |title=Gobineau on China: Race Theory, the "Yellow Peril" and the Critique of Modernity" |journal=] |volume=10 |issue=1 |pages=93–139 | year=1999 |jstor=20078751 |doi=10.1353/jwh.2005.0003 |s2cid=143762514 }}</ref>{{rp|100}} | |||
| In 1996, professor of anthropology, Akazawa Takeru of the International Research Center for Japanese Studies, ], said Mongoloids originated in ] during the "]".<ref name="Takeru" /> | |||
| {{MeyersLexikonEthnographicMap}} | |||
| In 1999, Peter Brown of the Department of Anthropology and Paleoanthropology at the ] evaluated three sites with early East Asian ] skeletal remains (Liujiang, ], ], China; Shandingdong Man of (but not ]) ]'s Upper Cave; and ] in ]) dated to between 10,175 and 33,200 years ago, and finds lack of support for the conventional designation of skeletons from this period as "Proto-Mongoloid". He stated that "The colonisation of the Americas by 11 kyr indicates an earlier date for the appearance of distinctively East Asian features, however, the earliest unequivocal evidence for anatomically East Asian people on the Asian mainland remains at 7000 years BP." He saw this as "possibility that migration across the Bering Strait went in two directions and the first morphological Mongoloids evolved in the Americas."<ref>{{cite web |author=Peter Brown |publisher=Department of Anthropology and Paleoanthropology, University of New England |title=The First Modern East Asians? another Look at Upper Cave 101, Liujiang, and Minatogawa |year=1999 |accessdate=2007-09-23 |url=http://www.peterbrown-palaeoanthropology.net/brown99.pdf |work=K. Omoto (ed.) Interdisciplinary Perspectives on the Origins of the Japanese, International Research Center for Japanese Studies: Kyoto |pages=105–130}}</ref> | |||
| According to the ] (1885–90), peoples included in the Mongoloid race are ], ] and ], ] and ], ] and ], ], ], ], ]n, ], and ].<ref>'']'', 4th ed., 1885–90.</ref> | |||
| In 1909, a map published based on racial classifications in South Asia conceived by ] classified inhabitants of ] and parts of ] as ''Mongolo-Dravidians'', people of mixed Mongoloid and ] origin.<ref>{{Cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=PwNkQgAACAAJ |title=The Concept of Race in South Asia |first=Peter |last=Robb |date= 1997 |publisher=Oxford University Press |via=Google Books |isbn=978-0-19-564268-1}}</ref> Similarly in 1904, ] claimed the ] of ] were a people of mixed ''Mongolian'' and '']'' racial origins as well as '']'', ''Dravidian'' and ] origins.<ref>Schubert, Stefan Andi (2016). ''''. {{page needed|date=March 2023}} MA thesis, Kansas State University.</ref> Howard S. Stoudt in ''The Physical Anthropology of Ceylon'' (1961) and ] in ''The Living Races of Man'' (1966) classified the Sinhalese as partly Mongoloid.<ref name="The Physical Anthropology of Ceyl">{{cite journal |doi=10.1525/aa.1963.65.3.02a00260 |volume=65 |issue=3 |title=The Physical Anthropology of Ceylon. Howard W. Stoudt. |journal=American Anthropologist |pages=694–695 |year=1963 |last1=Angel |first1=J. Lawrence|doi-access=free }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=qepKAAAAYAAJ |title=The living races of man |first1=Carleton Stevens |last1=Coon |first2=Edward E. |last2=Hunt |author1-link=Carleton S. Coon |author2-link=Edward Eyre Hunt Jr. |date=21 April 1966 |publisher=Cape |via=Google Books}}</ref> | |||
| A 2011 book about ] stated, based on physical appearance, not accounting for ], there are considered to exist four basic ancestry groups into which someone can be placed: "the ]n group (']'), the ] group (']'), the ]n group ('Mongoloid'), and the ]n group (']')."<!--This information is in the last paragraph of page 126 and the top of page 127.--><ref>Black, Sue & Ferguson, Eilidh. (2011). '']: 2000 to 2010. ], ] & ]: ].'' Pages 126 & 127. .</ref> | |||
| German ] ], an influential proponent of ''Rassenkunde'' (racial studies) in ], classified people from Nepal, Bhutan, Bangladesh, East India, parts of Northeast India, western Myanmar and Sri Lanka as ''East Brachid'', referring to people of mixed ''Indid'' and ''South Mongolid'' origins.<ref>{{cite journal |jstor=29535004 |title=Die Indien-Expedition des Staatlichen Forschungsinstituts für Völkerkunde in Leipzig. 1. Anthropologischer Bericht |first=Egon Frhr. |last=von Eickstedt |date=21 April 2018 |journal=Anthropologischer Anzeiger |volume=4 |issue=3 |pages=208–219}}</ref> Eickstedt also classified the people of central Myanmar, Yunnan, southern Tibet, Thailand and parts of India as ''Palaungid'' deriving from the name of the ] of Myanmar. He also classified the Burmese, Karen, Kachin, Shan, Sri Lankans, Tai, South Chinese, Munda and Juang, and others as having "mixed" with the ''Palaungid'' phenotype.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ykgRAQAAMAAJ |title=Rassenkunde und Rassengeschichte der Menschheit |first=Egon von |last=Eickstedt |date=21 April 2018 |publisher=F. Enke |via=Google Books}}</ref> | |||
| {| border=1 cellpadding=3 width="100%" class="wikitable" | |||
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| !colspan="10"|] on ] Five Classes, (1842) | |||
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| {| border=1 cellpadding=3 width="100%" class="wikitable" | |||
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| !colspan="10" style="text-align:left;"|I. The ] or ] | |||
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| |<p>I. In the ], the head is of the most symmetrical shape, almost round; the forehead of moderate extent; the ] rather narrow, without any projection, but having a direction downwards from the ] of the frontal bone; the ] well rounded; the front teeth of both jaws placed perpendicularly. The face is of an oval shape, and straight; the features moderately prominent; the forehead arched; nose narrow, and slightly arched, or at least with the bridge somewhat convex; cheek-bones not projecting; mouth small, with the lips slightly turned out, particularly the lower one; chin full and round. The Caucasians are of ], from the ] and ], some of whom are as ] as African ]es, to the ] and ], and ], who are ], with ] and light ]. In this class are comprised the ancient and modern inhabitants of ] (except the ] and ]), the ancient and modern inhabitants of ], as far as the ], the Belurtagh, and the ], such as the ], ], ] and ], ], ], ]ns, ], ], ], and ], the ], and ] properly so called, the ], the ], ], ], and ]; the ], and throughout the ], the ] and ], the ], and the ], or ancient people of the ]. To these we need hardly add the ] and other parts of the world. The complexion of this class of people seems to depend very much upon climate and the degree of solar heat to which they are exposed; for they are all, without exception, born with ], and become dark only as they grow up, and are more ]. Their colour is found to deepen by regular gradation from the furthest north, where the people of this race are very fair, through the ] people of the ], and of ], ], ], ], and the swarthy ], till the gradation ends with the ] of the ] and ], and of ] ]. White seems to be the characteristic of the race, but it is everywhere subject to the influence of climate. The Caucasians are therefore properly enough called the ], though some of them are perfectly black. Their hair, whether ] or ], is always long and lank, and never ] like that of the ]es.</p> | |||
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| Commenting on the situation of the United States in the early 20th century, ] said that the notion of the whole world being composed of three distinct races, Caucasoid, Mongoloid, and Negroid, seemed credible because of the history of ] with most immigrants coming from three areas, ], ], and ]. This made the point of view of three races appear to be "true, natural, and inescapable".<ref name="Lieberman1997">{{cite web|author=Lieberman, L.|author-link=Leonard Lieberman|year=1997|title="Race" 1997 and 2001: A Race Odyssey|publisher=]|page=2|url=http://s3.amazonaws.com/rdcms-aaa/files/production/public/FileDownloads/pdfs/cmtes/commissions/aec/upload/A_Race_Odyssey.pdf}}</ref> | |||
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| !colspan="10" style="text-align:left;"|II. The Mongolian Class | |||
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| |<p>II. The MONGOLIAN CLASS has the head almost square; the ] projecting; the nose flat; the ]s and the space between the eyebrows nearly on the same horizontal plane with the cheek-bones; the arches of the eyebrows scarcely to be perceived; the nostrils narrow; the chin slightly prominent. The face is broad and flat, with the parts imperfectly distinguished; the space between the eyes flat and very broad; nose flat; cheeks projecting, round, and narrow; the linear opening of the eyelids extending towards the temples; the ] of the eye sunk towards the nose, and the upper eyelid at that part continued into the lower by a rounded sweep. The complexion is generally ], which is sometimes very slight, and approaching to yellow, or what is called ]; and none of this class are known to be ]. The iris of their eyes is black; their ], straight, and strong, but seldom curled, or in great abundance; and they have little or no ]. In this class are comprised the numerous tribes that occupy the ], ], ] and ]; the ] and ]; the ], ], and ]; the ] and the ] of the ], and the ], who live along the shores of the ], in ] and ]. The colour of the class is influenced in a slight degree by climate; those of them, and those parts of the body most ] and the air, being the darkest.<sup>*</sup></p> | |||
| In 1950, ] published their statement '']''. It condemned all forms of ], naming "the doctrine of ''inequality'' of men and races"<ref name="UNESCO1950">, UNESCO, 1950, 11pp</ref>{{rp|1}} among the causes of ] and proposing to replace the term "race" with "ethnic groups" because "serious errors ... are habitually committed when the term 'race' is used in popular parlance".<ref name="UNESCO1950" />{{rp|6}} | |||
| <sup>*</sup> Dr. Abel, physician to the last ], mentions in his volume of travels, that when any of the ] boatmen cast off their clothes for the purpose of leaping into the water to push along the boats, they appeared to be dressed in light-coloured trowsers, though quite naked. | |||
| ==== Subraces according to Kroeber ==== | |||
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| ] (1948), ] Professor of Anthropology at the ],<!--Kroeber's credentials are cited to the 1st sentence, of the upper-right paragraph above the two columns of text, on page 293, of the Kroeber (1955) source. The other statements are cited to Kroeber (1948).--> referring to the racial classification of humankind on the basis of physical features,<!--The 1st sentence, of the 2nd-to-last paragraph, of page 126, indicates that Kroeber's classification was of race and based on physical features.--> said that there are basically "three grand divisions."<!--This is in the 1st sentence, of the 2nd-to-last paragraph, of page 131. The word "basically" is a rewording of the Kroeber's phrase, "On the basic view."--> Kroeber indicated that, within the three-part classification, the Mongoloid, the ], and the ] are the three "primary racial stocks of mankind."<!--On page 133, the 1st sentence from the caption of Figure 6, said, "Outline distribution of the primary racial stocks of mankind according to the threefold classification." In the middle of Figure 6, the labels next to rectangles are: "NEGROID," "MONGOLOID," and "CAUCASIAN."--> Kroeber said that the following are the divisions of the Mongoloid stock: the "Mongolian proper of ]," the "] of the ]," and the "]."<!--This is in the 1st sentence, of the last paragraph, of page 136.--> Kroeber alternatively referred to the divisions of the Mongoloid stock as the following: "Asiatic Mongoloids," "Oceanic Mongoloids," and "American Mongoloids."<!--In Figure 8, titled "RELATIONSHIP OF HUMAN RACES," on page 140, in the large, upper-right circle, Kroeber put small circles with the following terms inside of them: "American Indians," "Oceanic Mongoloids," and "Asiatic Mongoloids." In the last sentence, of the 2nd paragraph, of page 137, Kroeber said, "Among the American Mongoloids, the Eskimo appear to be the most particularized sub-variety, according to almost all anthropometrists."--> Kroeber said that the differences among the three divisions of the Mongoloid stock are not very large.<!--This is in the 2nd sentence, of the last paragraph, of page 136.--> Kroeber said that the Malaysian and the American Indian are generalized type peoples<!--This is in the 2nd and 3rd sentences, of the 1st paragraph, of page 137.--> while the Mongolian proper is the most extreme or pronounced form.<!--This is in the 3rd sentence, of the last paragraph, of page 136.--> Kroeber said that the original Mongoloid stock must be regarded as being more like the current Malaysians, the current American Indians, or an intermediate type between these two.<!--This is in the 2nd sentence, of the 1st paragraph, of page 137.--> Kroeber said that it is from these generalized type peoples, who kept more nearly the ancient type, that peoples such as the ] gradually ], who added the ], and a "certain generic refinement of physique."<!--This is in the 3rd sentence, of the 1st paragraph, of page 137.--> Kroeber said that, according to most ], the ] is the most particularized sub-variety out of the American Mongoloids.<!--This is in the last sentence, of the 2nd paragraph, of page 137.--> Kroeber said that in the East Indies, and in particular the ], there can at times be distinguished a less specifically Mongoloid strain, which has been called the "]Malaysian," and a more specifically Mongoloid strain, which has been called the "]Malaysian."<!--This is in the 1st sentence, of the 2nd paragraph, of page 137.--> Kroeber said that ] appear to have primary Mongoloid connections by way of the Malaysians.<!--This is in the last sentence, of the 4th paragraph, of page 138.--> Kroeber said that the Mongoloid element of Polynesians is not a specialized Mongoloid.<!--This is in the 4th sentence, of the last paragraph, of page 139.--> Kroeber said that the Mongoloid element in Polynesians appears to be larger than the definite Caucasian strain in Polynesians.<!--This is in the 3rd and 4th sentences, of the last paragraph, of page 139.--> Speaking of Polynesians, Kroeber said that there are locally possible minor Negroid absorptions, as the ancestral Polynesians had to pass by or through ]es which are presently ] Negroid to get to the central ].<!--This is in the 2nd-to-last sentence, of the last paragraph, of page 139.--><ref>] (1955). History of Anthropological Thought. ''Yearbook of Anthropology.'' ]. p. 293. .</ref><!--Kroeber's credentials are cited to Kroeber (1955). The other statements are cited to Kroeber (1948).--><ref>] (1948). ''Anthropology: Race, Language, Culture, Psychology, Prehistory.'' ]: ]. pp. 126, 131, 133, & 137–140. .</ref> | |||
| |} | |||
| === Coon's ''Origin of Races'' === | |||
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| American anthropologist ] published his much debated<ref name="ways">{{cite journal| last = Jackson| first = John Jr.| title="In Ways Unacademical": The Reception of Carleton S. Coon's The Origin of Races| journal = Journal of the History of Biology| volume = 34| issue = 2| pages = 247–285|date=June 2001| doi = 10.1023/A:1010366015968 | jstor=4331661| s2cid = 86739986}}</ref>{{rp|248}} ''Origin of Races'' in 1962. Coon divided the species '']'' into five groups: Besides the ''Caucasoid'', ''Mongoloid'', and '']'' races, he posited two races among the indigenous populations of sub-Saharan Africa: the '']'' in the south and the ''Congoid race''. | |||
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| !colspan="10" style="text-align:left;"|III. The ] or ] | |||
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| |<p>III. The ], or ], have the head narrow, and compressed at the sides, the forehead very convex and vaulted; the ] projecting; the nostrils wide; the jaws long; the front teeth of the ] turned obliquely forward; the ] strong and large; the skull generally thick and heavy. The face is narrow, with the lower part projecting; eyes prominent; nose spread, and almost confounded with the cheeks; the lips, particularly the upper one, very thick; the jaws prominent, and the chin retracted. The skin of this class, and the iris of the eye, are deep black; the ] and ]; characteristics that vary less in the ]es than in the two former classes, for this very obvious reason, that the ] are to be found native mostly in ]s, where there is little variety of temperature; and not like the Mongolian and ]s who are spread over all climates, from the ] to the ]. In this class are comprised all the natives of ] and ]; also the ], ] or ], ], ], the ], ], the ], ], the ], and also various tribes throughout the ].</p> | |||
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| Coon's thesis was that '']'' had already been divided into five different races or subspecies. "''Homo Erectus'' then evolved into ''Homo Sapiens'' not once but five times, as each subspecies, living in its own territory, passed a critical threshold from a more brutal to a more ''sapient'' state."<ref>Cited according to {{cite journal| last = Jackson| first = John Jr.| title="In Ways Unacademical": The Reception of Carleton S. Coon's The Origin of Races| journal = Journal of the History of Biology| volume = 34| issue = 2| page = 248|date=June 2001| doi = 10.1023/A:1010366015968 | jstor=4331661| s2cid = 86739986}} The reference given there is to "Coon, ''Origin of the'' ''Races'', 1963 , p. 657".</ref> | |||
| {| border=1 cellpadding=3 width="100%" class="wikitable" | |||
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| !colspan="10" style="text-align:left;"|IV. The ] | |||
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| |<p>IV. The ] approaches the Mongolian. The ] are prominent, but more arched and rounded than in the ], without being so angular, or projecting at the sides; the ] almost always deep; the shape of the forehead and the ] often ]; the skull generally light. The face is broad, without being flat; the features, viewed in profile, are prominent, and deeply marked; the forehead low, eyes deep-seated, nose rather flat, but prominent. The ], more or less ], or ], and approaching to ], according to climate and other circumstances. The hair is like that of the Mongolian class; and they have little or no ]. In this class are comprehended all the ], excepting, of course, the ], and the descendants of ] and ] colonists.</p> | |||
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| |} | |||
| Since Coon followed the traditional methods of physical anthropology, relying on morphological characteristics, and not on the emerging ] to classify humans, the debate over ''Origin of Races'' has been "viewed as the last gasp of an outdated scientific methodology that was soon to be supplanted."<ref name="ways" />{{rp|249}}<ref>For a criticism of Coon's relying on typology alone, see also: {{cite web |url=https://www.pbs.org/wgbh/nova/first/gill.html |title=Does Race Exist? A proponent's perspective |first=George W. |last=Gill |publisher=Pbs.org|year=2000}}</ref> | |||
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| !colspan="10" style="text-align:left;"|V. The ] | |||
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| |<p>V. The ] has the top of the head slightly narrowed, the forehead a little arched, the ] not prominent; the ] a little pushed forward; the prominence of the ]s strongly marked. The face is less narrow than that of the ], somewhat advancing in the lower part, when seen in profile; the features generally more prominent than those of the negro, the nose full, broad, and thick towards the point, or what is called a ]. The colour of the skin is brown, or ]; the ], soft, curled, and abundant. In this class are comprised all the ] of the ] (excepting those already mentioned as belonging to the ]); likewise the dominant nations of the ].</p> | |||
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| |colspan="8" style="text-align:center;"|Source: System of Universal Geography... (1842)<ref>]. (1842). | |||
| ''System of Universal Geography: Founded on the Works of Malte-Brun and Balbi.'' ]: Stevenson & Co. Page 107. . {{PD-notice}}</ref> | |||
| |} | |||
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| !colspan="10"|] Five Principal Varieties, (1865) | |||
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| |<p>''].'' Colour white, cheeks rosy (s. 43); ] or ] (s. 52); head ] (s. 62); face oval, straight, its parts moderately defined, forehead smooth, nose narrow, slightly ], mouth small (s. 56). The ] placed perpendicularly to each jaw (s. 62); the lips (especially the lower one) moderately open, the chin full and rounded (s. 56). In general, that kind of appearance which, ], we consider ]. To this first variety belong the ] (except the ] and the remaining descendants of the ]) and those of ], as far as the ], the ] and the ]; and lastly, those of ].</p> | |||
| === Disproof by modern genetics === | |||
| ''Mongolian variety.'' Colour yellow (s. 43); ], stiff, straight and ] (s. 52); head almost square (s. 62); face broad, at the same time flat and depressed, the parts therefore less distinct, as it were running into one another; ] flat, very broad; nose small, ]; cheeks usually ], prominent outwardly; the opening of the eyelids narrow, linear; chin slightly prominent (s. 56). This variety comprehends the remaining ] (except the ] on the extremity of the ]) and the ] population of the cold part of ], the ], ] and the race of ], so widely diffused over ], from ] to the inhabited extremity of ]. | |||
| The fact that there are no sharp distinctions between the supposed racial groups had been observed by Blumenbach and later by ].<ref>"It may be doubted whether any character can be named which is distinctive of a race and is constant... they graduate into each other, and.. it is hardly possible to discover clear distinctive characters between them... As it is improbable that the numerous and unimportant points of resemblance between the several races of man in bodily structure and mental faculties (I do not here refer to similar customs) should all have been independently acquired, they must have been inherited from progenitors who had these same characters.", Charles Darwin, </ref> | |||
| With the availability of new data due to the development of modern genetics, the concept of races in a biological sense has become untenable. Problems of the concept include: It "is not useful or necessary in research",<ref name="Lieberman1997" /> scientists are not able to agree on the definition of a certain proposed race, and they do not even agree on the number of races, with some proponents of the concept suggesting 300 or even more "races".<ref name="Lieberman1997" /> Also, data are not reconcilable with the concept of a treelike evolution<ref>"Indeed, if a species has sufficient gene flow, there can be no evolutionary tree of populations, because there are no population splits...", Templeton, A. (2016). Evolution and Notions of Human Race. In Losos J. & Lenski R. (Eds.), ''How Evolution Shapes Our Lives: Essays on Biology and Society'' (p. 355). Princeton; Oxford: Princeton University Press. {{doi|10.2307/j.ctv7h0s6j.26}}.</ref> nor with the concept of "biologically discrete, isolated, or static" populations.<ref name="AAPARace" /> | |||
| ''].'' Colour black (s. 43); ] and ] (s. 52); head narrow, compressed at the sides (s. 62); forehead knotty, uneven; ] protruding outwards; eyes very prominent; nose thick, mixed up as it were with the wide jaws (s. 56); ] narrow, elongated in front; the upper primaries obliquely prominent (s. 62); the lips (especially the upper) very puffy; chin retreating (s. 56). Many are ] (s. 69). To this variety belong ], except those of the ]. | |||
| === Current scientific consensus === | |||
| ''].'' ] (s. 43); ], stiff, straight and ] (s. 52); forehead short; eyes set very deep; nose somewhat ], but prominent; the face invariably broad, with cheeks prominent, but not flat or depressed; its parts, if seen in profile, very distinct, and as it were deeply ] (s. 56); the shape of the forehead and head in many ]. This variety comprehends the inhabitants of ] except the ]. | |||
| {{See also|Race and genetics}} | |||
| After discussing various criteria used in biology to define subspecies or races, ] concludes in 2016: "he answer to the question whether races exist in humans is clear and unambiguous: no."<ref name="Templeton2016">Templeton, A. (2016). Evolution and Notions of Human Race. In Losos J. & Lenski R. (Eds.), ''How Evolution Shapes Our Lives: Essays on Biology and Society'' (pp. 346–361). Princeton; Oxford: Princeton University Press. {{doi|10.2307/j.ctv7h0s6j.26}}. That this view reflects the consensus among American anthropologists is stated in: {{cite journal|last2=Yu|first2=Joon-Ho|last3=Ifekwunigwe|first3=Jayne O.|last4=Harrell|first4=Tanya M.|last5=Bamshad|first5=Michael J.|last6=Royal|first6=Charmaine D.|date=February 2017|title=Anthropologists' views on race, ancestry, and genetics|journal=American Journal of Physical Anthropology|volume=162|issue=2|pages=318–327|doi=10.1002/ajpa.23120|pmid=27874171|last1=Wagner|first1=Jennifer K.|pmc=5299519}} See also: {{cite web|author=American Association of Physical Anthropologists|author-link=American Association of Physical Anthropologists|title=AAPA Statement on Race and Racism |website=American Association of Physical Anthropologists|access-date=19 June 2020 |date=27 March 2019 |url=https://physanth.org/about/position-statements/aapa-statement-race-and-racism-2019/}}</ref>{{rp|360}} | |||
| == Features == | |||
| ''].'' ] (s. 43); ], soft, curly, thick and plentiful (s. 52); head moderately narrowed; forehead slightly swelling (s. 62); nose full, rather wide, as it were diffuse, end thick; mouth large (s. 56), upper jaw somewhat prominent with the parts of the face when seen in profile, sufficiently prominent and distinct from each other (s. 56). This last variety includes the ], together with the inhabitants of the ], the ], the ] and the ], and of the ]. | |||
| === General appearance === | |||
| ] according to French anthropologist ], showing a ].]] | |||
| The last edition of the German encyclopedia ] (1971–79, 25 volumes) lists the following characteristics of the "Mongoloid" populations of Asia: "Flat face with a low nasal root, accentuated ], flat-lying eyelids (which are often slanting), thick, tight, dark hair, dark eyes, yellow-brownish skin, usually short, stocky build."<ref>{{Cite encyclopedia|title=Meyers Enzyklopädisches Lexikon in 25 Bänden. Neunte, völlig neu bearbeitete Auflage zum 150jährigen Bestehen des Verlages|article=Anthropologie|volume=2|page=308|language=de|quote=flaches Gesicht mit niedriger Nasenwurzel, betonte Jochbogen, flachliegende Lidspalte (die oft schräggestellt ist), dickes, straffes, dunkles Haar, dunkle Augen, gelbbräunl. Haut, in der Regel kurzer, untersetzter Wuchs}}</ref> | |||
| === Skull === | |||
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| |colspan="8" style="text-align:center;"|Source: The ] ]s of ] (1865)<ref>]. (1865). ''The ] ]s of Johann Friedrich Blumenbach.'' ]: Published for the Anthropological Society. Pages 265 & 266. . {{PD-notice}}</ref> | |||
| |} | |||
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| !colspan="10"|John M. Ross on ] Four Main Types, (1877) | |||
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| !colspan="10" style="text-align:left;"|(1) The ] | |||
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| |<p>...(1) The ]. The males are of fair ], with well-developed torso and arms, but relatively and absolutely slender legs. The colour of the skin is some shade of chocolate brown, and the eyes very dark ] or black. Fine silky hair, usually ], never ], but wavy and tolerably long. The ] are ] (long-skulled), the cranial index often not amounting to more than seventy-one or seventy-two. Nose broad rather than flat, jaws heavy, lips very coarse and flexible. ''Norma occipitalis'' sharply ]. ] strong and prominent, teeth large, and ] strong. These marks are seen in the ] hill-tribes inhabiting the interior of the ]. The ordinary ] in an ] is nearly ]. The ], too, though changed by ] and probably ], has also the ], black silky wavy hair, long skull, fleshy lips, and broad ].</p><!--This quote is in the right column of page 585.--> | |||
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| In 2004, British anthropologist ] gave a description of "Mongoloid" skulls in her book on ]: "The Mongoloid skull shows a round head shape with a medium-width nasal aperture, rounded orbital margins, massive cheekbones, weak or absent ]e, moderate prognathism, absent brow ridges, simple cranial sutures, prominent zygomatic bones, broad, flat, tented nasal root, short nasal spine, shovel-shaped upper incisor teeth (scooped out behind), straight nasal profile, moderately wide palate shape, arched sagittal contour, wide facial breadth and a flatter face."<ref>{{cite book|author=Caroline Wilkinson|title=Forensic Facial Reconstruction|year=2004|page=86|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=0-521-82003-0}}</ref> | |||
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| !colspan="10" style="text-align:left;"|(2) The ] | |||
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| |<p>(2) The ] is best represented by the ] of ] (including ]), between the ] and the region of the ]. He is of fair ]; his body and limbs are well made; his ], with shades of brown; his eyes, ] or black; his ], short, and crisp; his ] and ] scanty. He is ], the cranial index being often only seventy-three. His forehead is ] and ]. The ''norma occipitalis'' is often ]. Like the ], there is generally ] (protruding jaws). The ]s are depressed, giving a characteristic flat nose. The lips are coarse and projecting. The ] of the ] area are a special type, marked by low ], the males not much exceeding 4 feet in height; both ]es, however, are well made. The skin is yellowish brown, the eyes and ], the latter ]. The ] ] of female ] is of great relative length. The ], and the large ] of females, are also characteristic. ] are said to be a cross between ] and ]es. Another modification, the ]s, occurs in the ], ], ], ], and the islands parallel to the ], from ] to ]. The ] have a cranial index of eighty; all the rest are doliocephalic, though some in the ] and ] approach the ] in large ] and otherwise ('']'', ], ], ], and ]s). There is perhaps a cross with ] in ]; more probably a cross with ] in the ].</p><!--This quote is in the right column of page 585.--> | |||
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| === Cold adaptation === | |||
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| In 1950, ], ], and ] proposed that the relative flatness of "Mongoloid" faces was caused by adaption to the extreme cold of subarctic and arctic conditions.<ref name="Dahlberg" />{{rp|132}}<ref name="So" />{{rp|66}} They supposed that "Mongoloid" eye sockets have been extended vertically to make room for adipose tissue around the eyeballs, and that the "''reduced''" brow ridges decrease the size of the air spaces inside of the brow ridges known as the ]es which are "''vulnerable''" to the cold.<!--The source text stated that the sinuses were "vulnerable", but it did not explicitly state that they were "vulnerable" to the cold. However, the context of the paragraph which was about Mongoloid faces being cold adapted indicated that the word "vulnerable" referred to the cold. The source text implied that smaller brow ridges contain smaller frontal sinuses, but it did not explicitly state this in the source text's sentence "Brow ridges, with their vulnerable sinuses, are reduced".--> They also supposed that "Mongoloid" facial features reduce the surface area of the nose by having nasal bones that are flat against the face and having enlarged cheekbones that project forward which effectively reduce the external projection of the nose.<ref name="Dahlberg">{{cite book |last1=Dahlberg |first1=A.A. |last2=Graber |first2=T.M. |title=Orofacial growth and development |date=1977 |publisher=Mouton |location=The Hague |isbn=9789027978899 |pages=132, 147, 148 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=j3X3SLzDNv0C&pg=PA132 |doi=10.1515/9783110807554}}</ref> | |||
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| !colspan="10" style="text-align:left;"|(3) The ] | |||
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| |<p>(3) ], or fair ], found in the greater part of the population of ]. They are of tall ], have a ] (through which the blood shows), ] or grey, hair ranging from ] to ] or ], and ] and ] abundant. They are both ] and ] (short-skulled). On the ] and ] this type meets the ], or dark ]; on the ] and ] it meets the Mongoloid...<!--This quote is in the right column of page 585.--> The ], ] occasionally with ] and Mongoloids, are to be found in ] and ], ], ], ], ], ], and ]. The type is seen in ], ], ], ], ] ], ], ], ], and ] ]s. In ] and ]ual development they often excel the ], but the skin, though transparent, is brown, deepening to ]; the ] and ], the latter fine and wavy. This type shades off into the ] and the ] variety of ].</p><!--This quote is in the left column of page 586.--> | |||
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| Still, in 1965 a study by A. T. Steegmann showed that the so-called cold-adapted Mongoloid face provided no greater protection against frostbite than the facial structure of Europeans.<ref name="So">{{cite journal|author=Joseph K. So|title=Human Biological Adaptation to Arctic and Subarctic Zones|journal=Annual Review of Anthropology|volume=9|year=1980|pages=63–82|doi=10.1146/annurev.an.09.100180.000431|jstor=2155729}}</ref>{{rp|66}} | |||
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| !colspan="10" style="text-align:left;"|(4) The Mongoloid Type | |||
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| |<p>(4) The great area ] of a line drawn from ] to ] is peopled chiefly by the Mongoloid, who are short, squat, with yellow-brown skin; eyes and ], the latter coarse, straight, long on the scalp, but ] and ]. They are sometimes very ], without prominent ], nose flat and small, eyes oblique. The ] and the ], who are not ]s, probably belong to this group. The ] and ], on the other hand, are distinguished chiefly by being ]; this characteristic occurs also in the ancient ] (found, for example, in ]), who are further remarkable for the development of ] and ], and the dull-red earthy skin. The ] of ], the ] of ], the ] of ], are all ], and seem to pass through the people of the ] and of the ] and ] ]s into the ], in whom the straight hair and oblique eye have disappeared, the skull being long and coming back to the ]. The ] type is best seen in the ] of ]; ] occurs in the ] and ]. ] shows that ] was peopled from the west, and it is thought that the ] type may be a cross between the ]-] and the ] elements in ]. In ] the ] are said to be the same as the ]s and ] of ]; with Mongoloid hair and skin they have very long skulls. ] also distinguishes the ] from the ] Mongoloid; only the ] and the ancient ] are ]. There is the same sort of contrast and resemblance between a ] proper and an ] as between a ] and ].</p><!--This quote is in the right column of page 585 and the left column of page 586.--> | |||
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| == Use in United States law == | |||
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| {{Cleanup|date=November 2024|reason=this section is written in ].|section}} | |||
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| |colspan="8" style="text-align:center;"|Source: The Globe ] of Universal Information ] II (1877)<ref>Ross, John M. (1877). The Globe ] of Universal Information ] II. ]: ]. Pages 585 & 586. . {{PD-notice}}</ref> | |||
| |} | |||
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| !colspan="10"|] on Races, (1879) | |||
| |-<!--The quoted sentence is the 2nd sentence, of the 1st paragraph, of page ix.--> | |||
| |It will be observed that the various regions of the world have been so grouped as to bring together those that are mainly inhabited:—(1) by the ] or ]s of ], including the whole of ] except the ], ], and ] and ] of the ]; (2) by the ] Mongolian and Mongoloid races, including the remainder of ], the ], Eastern ], and the ]; (3) by the ], a race agreeing with the following section in every thing but the character of the hair; (4) by the ] or ]—beginning with the ] ]es or ] in the widest sense of the term (including the ], ] proper, ], and ]s of the ]), and ending with the natives of ] and ], the ]es, ], and ]. | |||
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| !style="background-color: lightgray;" colspan="8" |<!--The book's date of 1879 is written in the book as the Roman numerals MDCCCLXXIX.--> | |||
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| |colspan="8" style="text-align:center;"|Source: Catalogue of the Specimens... (1879)<ref>] (1879). ''Catalogue of the Specimens Illustrating the ] and ] of ], Recent and Extinct, Contained in the ] of the ].'' ]: ]. Page ix. . {{PD-notice}}</ref> | |||
| |} | |||
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| !colspan="10"|] on ] Four Main Types, (1892) | |||
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| |<p>The ] peoples have a ], dark brown or black eyes, ], usually wavy, narrow skull (]), strongly-developed ], projecting jaw, large teeth, thick lips, and broad nose. Besides the ], many of the hill-], and perhaps the ], belong to this type.</p> | |||
| The ] peoples have all shades of ], ] or black eyes, ] (short, crisp, or ]), narrow skulls, little developed ], projecting jaws, thick, projecting lips, and flat, broad nose. This type includes, besides the mass of ], the ], who appear to be a specially modified branch, very short in ], yellowish-brown in skin, with black eyes and ]; the ], whom ] regards as a cross between Bushmen and ordinary ]es; the ]s of the ], ], and the ]; the ], ]ns, and ]. | |||
| The Mongoloid peoples include the greater part of the people of ], ], and ] — a short and squat race, with yellowish-brown skin, black eyes and ], the latter straight and coarse, short skulls (]), with prominent brows, ], and nose flat and small. The ] and ] differ from these in being long-headed, while the native ] of ] are also distinguished by the ]. The ] and ], the ], and the ] fall under the same classification, though with minor differences. Most of these peoples are long-headed, and in the Polynesians the straightness of the hair and ] of the eyes disappear. | |||
| There remain the peoples known as ], divided into ], or fair-whites, and ], or dark-whites. The fair-whites, tall, of almost ], belong to ] and ]; they have ] or ], light hair, ranging from ] to ] and ]; their skulls vary from the longest forms to the shortest and roundest.<!--The source is missing a period here.--> The dark-whites are not sharply marked off from these, and include many ], ], and ], together with ], ], ], ], ], and ] ]. By ] of the latter with ], a much darker ], making up the mass of the ]. | |||
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| |colspan="8" style="text-align:center;"|Source: The ], or, ], ]s, and ]s (3rd ]) (1892)<ref>]. (1892). ''The ], or, ], ]s, and ]s (3rd ]).'' ], ], ], and ]: ] Pages 12 & 14. . {{PD-notice}}</ref> | |||
| |} | |||
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| !colspan="10"|Charles Morris on ] Three Extreme Types, (1892) | |||
| |-<!--The quote starts with the 2nd-to-last sentence, of the last paragraph, of page 5, and it includes the entire 1st paragraph of page 6.--> | |||
| |More recently ] has given an outline of a system of human classification which he regards as most in accordance with the present state of our knowledge on the subject.{{ref|MorrisOnFlower|2}} He considers that there are three extreme types, — those called by ] the ], the Mongolian, and the ], around which all existing individuals of the ] can be ranged, but between which every possible intermediate form can be found. Of these the ] is secondarily divided into the African ]es, the ] and ], the ] ]es or ], and the ]s as represented by the inhabitants of the ] and other ]. The ], whom ] takes as the type of a separate race, he considers to be a mixed people, as they combine the ] type of face and skeleton, with hair of a different type. His second race is the Mongolian, represented in an exaggerated form by the ], in its typical condition by most of the natives of ] and ], and in a modified type by the ]. Excluding the ], the ] form one group, whose closest affinity is with the Mongolian, yet which has so many special features that it might be viewed as a fourth primary division. His third or ] includes two ], — the ] and ] of ]. The seat of this race is ], ], and ], its ] division being into ], ], and ]. | |||
| <center>{{note label|MorrisOnFlower|2}} ] before the ], Jan. 27; 1885.</center> | |||
| |-<!--The "2 Address before the Anthropological Institute, Jan. 27; 1885." note is at the bottom of page 5.--> | |||
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| |colspan="8" style="text-align:center;"|Source: The ]: Its Origins and Its Achievements (1892)<ref>Morris, C. (1892). ''The ]: Its Origins and Its Achievements.'' (2nd ]). ]: ]. Pages 5, & 6. . {{PD-notice}}</ref> | |||
| |} | |||
| {| border=1 cellpadding=3 width="100%" class="wikitable" | |||
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| !colspan="10"|Charles Morris on ] Three ] of ], (1892) | |||
| |-<!--This quote starts with the last sentence, of the last paragraph, of page 6, and it includes the entire 1st paragraph of page 7.--> | |||
| |]{{ref|MorrisOnTopinard1|1}} goes so far as to divide ] into three distinct ]. The first of these is the Mongolian, distinguished by a ], or short skull, by low ], yellowish skin, broad, flat ], ], ], ]less face, ] ], coarse, and round in ]. The second is the ], with moderately ], or long skull, tall ], ], narrow face, projecting on the ] line, ] and ] abundant, ], soft, and somewhat ] in ]. His third ] is the ], with skull strongly ], ], ], face very ], and with several peculiarities of bodily structure not necessary to name here. | |||
| <center>{{note label|MorrisOnTopinard1|1}} ], ] 510.</center><!--The "1 Anthropology, p. 510." note is written at the bottom of page 6.--> | |||
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| |colspan="8" style="text-align:center;"|Source: The ]: Its Origins and Its Achievements (1892)<ref>Morris, C. (1892). ''The ]: Its Origins and Its Achievements.'' (2nd ]). ]: ]. Pages 6, & 7. . {{PD-notice}}</ref> | |||
| |} | |||
| ===Legal history=== | |||
| In 1858, the ] enacted the first bill of several that ] of "]es, Mongolians and ]" from ].<!--This information is located in page 115.--><ref name="TamingTheElephant">Burns, John F. & Orsi, Richard J. (2003). ''Taming the Elephant: Politics, Government, and Law in Pioneer California.'' ] & ]: ]. Pages 115 & 116. .</ref> | In 1858, the ] enacted the first bill of several that ] of "]es, Mongolians and ]" from ].<!--This information is located in page 115.--><ref name="TamingTheElephant">Burns, John F. & Orsi, Richard J. (2003). ''Taming the Elephant: Politics, Government, and Law in Pioneer California.'' ] & ]: ]. Pages 115 & 116. .</ref> | ||
| In 1885, the |
In 1885, the California State Legislature amended its code to make ] for "children of Mongoloid or ] descent."<!--This information is located in the second-to-last sentence of the first paragraph of page 116. The date "1885" is the date 1880 "five years later."--><ref name="TamingTheElephant" /> | ||
| In 1911, the ] was using the term "Mongolic grand division," not only to include ], but "in the widest sense of all," to include ], ], ], and ].<!--This information is in the last and 2nd-to-last sentences of the 5th paragraph of page 256. The 2nd-to-last sentence of that paragraph talks about the usage of the term "Mongolian" in a more restricted sense to mean "Mongol."--> In 1911, the Bureau of Immigration and Naturalization was placing all "East Indians," a term which included the peoples of "], ], and ]," in the "Mongolic" grand division.<!--All East Indians being placed in the Mongolic grand division is in the last sentence, of the 2nd-to-last paragraph, of page 233. The people included in the term "East Indian" is indicated in the 2nd sentence, of the 6th paragraph, of page 233.--><ref>] (1911). ''Reports of the ]: Abstracts of Reports of the Immigration Commission.'' ]: ]. Pages 233 & 256. .</ref> | In 1911, the ] was using the term "Mongolic grand division," not only to include ], but "in the widest sense of all," to include ], ], ], and ].<!--This information is in the last and 2nd-to-last sentences of the 5th paragraph of page 256. The 2nd-to-last sentence of that paragraph talks about the usage of the term "Mongolian" in a more restricted sense to mean "Mongol."--> In 1911, the Bureau of Immigration and Naturalization was placing all "East Indians," a term which included the peoples of "], ], and ]," in the "Mongolic" grand division.<!--All East Indians being placed in the Mongolic grand division is in the last sentence, of the 2nd-to-last paragraph, of page 233. The people included in the term "East Indian" is indicated in the 2nd sentence, of the 6th paragraph, of page 233.--><ref>] (1911). ''Reports of the ]: Abstracts of Reports of the Immigration Commission.'' ]: ]. Pages 233 & 256. .</ref> | ||
| Line 364: | Line 91: | ||
| In 1985, Michael P. Malone of the ]<!--Information about Michael P. Malone is on page v (Roman numeral 5), which is page 5/205 of the PDF document.--> said that the FBI Laboratory is in a good position for the examination of Mongoloid hairs, because it does most of the examinations for ], which has a ], and it conducts examinations for the majority of ]s in the United States.<!--This information is in the 4th paragraph, of the right column, of page 112, which is page 112/205 of the PDF document.--><ref>''Proceedings of the International Symposium on Forensic Hair Comparisons.'' (1985). Host Laboratory Division ]. Pages v (] 5) & 112. .</ref> | In 1985, Michael P. Malone of the ]<!--Information about Michael P. Malone is on page v (Roman numeral 5), which is page 5/205 of the PDF document.--> said that the FBI Laboratory is in a good position for the examination of Mongoloid hairs, because it does most of the examinations for ], which has a ], and it conducts examinations for the majority of ]s in the United States.<!--This information is in the 4th paragraph, of the right column, of page 112, which is page 112/205 of the PDF document.--><ref>''Proceedings of the International Symposium on Forensic Hair Comparisons.'' (1985). Host Laboratory Division ]. Pages v (] 5) & 112. .</ref> | ||
| In 1987, a report to the ]<!--This information is in the title page, page 1/127 of the PDF document.--> indicated that the following skeletal collections were of the "Mongoloid" "]": Arctic ], Prehistoric ], ], and |
In 1987, a report to the ]<!--This information is in the title page, page 1/127 of the PDF document.--> indicated that the following skeletal collections were of the "Mongoloid" "]": Arctic ], Prehistoric ], ], and Chinese.<!--This information is in the data table on page 4, which is page 13/127 of the PDF document.--><ref>Jantz, R.L. & Moore-Jansen, P.H. (1987). ''A Data Base for Forensic Anthropology: Final Report to the ].'' ]. Title Page & Page 4. .</ref> | ||
| In 2005, an ] in a ] by the ] defined the term "Mongoloid," as the term is used in ] hair examinations. It defined the term as, "an ] term designating one of the major groups of human beings originating from ], excluding the ] and including ]."<!--The web page is an article in the journal, "Forensic Science Communications." The sentence under bold-text "3. Terminology" explains that the following terms are "defined by how they are used in forensic hair examinations." The terms are listed alphabetically, so the definition for "Mongoloid" is listed in the M section.--><ref>Scientific Working Group on Materials Analysis (SWGMAT). (2005). Forensic Human Hair Examination Guidelines. ''Forensic Science Communications, (7)''2..</ref><!--In the 1st sentence, of the 1st paragraph, of the "About FSC" citation it says that "Forensic Science Communications" is a journal by the FBI Laboratory.--><ref>About FSC. (n.d.). The FBI Federal Bureau of Investigation. .</ref> | In 2005, an ] in a ] by the ] defined the term "Mongoloid," as the term is used in ] hair examinations. It defined the term as, "an ] term designating one of the major groups of human beings originating from ], excluding the ] and including ]."<!--The web page is an article in the journal, "Forensic Science Communications." The sentence under bold-text "3. Terminology" explains that the following terms are "defined by how they are used in forensic hair examinations." The terms are listed alphabetically, so the definition for "Mongoloid" is listed in the M section.--><ref>Scientific Working Group on Materials Analysis (SWGMAT). (2005). Forensic Human Hair Examination Guidelines. ''Forensic Science Communications, (7)''2..</ref><!--In the 1st sentence, of the 1st paragraph, of the "About FSC" citation it says that "Forensic Science Communications" is a journal by the FBI Laboratory.--><ref>About FSC. (n.d.). The FBI Federal Bureau of Investigation. .</ref> | ||
| == Use as a term for Down syndrome == | |||
| The ] has approved that, for forensic hair examination and/or ] reports,<!--This information is in the 1st page, in the bold text below the "Purpose and Scope" paragraph.--> the hair examiner may state or imply that a human hair shows "] (]), ] (]) and/or Mongoloid (] or Native American Ancestry)" traits, which may or may not correspond to how an individual racially ].<!--This information is in the 1st page, in the 1st sentence of the "Characteristics of Ancestry" paragraph.--><ref>''Department of Justice Proposed Uniform Language for Testimony and Reports for the Forensic Hair Examination Discipline.'' (n.d.). ]. Page 1. .</ref> | |||
| ==Features== | |||
| {{See also|Epicanthal fold}} | |||
| {{stack|]]] | ] girl]] | ] American Indian]] | ] geisha]]}} | |||
| {{stack|]]] | ] Okinawan]] | ]]] | ]]]}} | |||
| ], in a writing entitled "Mongoloid Signs in Some Ethnic Types of the ]" said that this ] boy had ]s that almost completely covered his eyelashes and the ] parts of his eyes.<ref>Posnansky, A. (1917). Signos Mongoloides en Algunos Tipos Étnicos del Altiplano Andino. In Proceedings of the Second Pan American Scientific Congress:(section I) Anthropology. WH Holmes, chairman (Vol. 1, p. 112). US Government Printing Office.</ref>]] | |||
| ], ], woman from a publication by Czech anthropologist ] in 1906.<ref name="Hrdlicka" />]]] of ], ], ]]] | |||
| ] children of ]]] | |||
| {{Quote|text=The Mongoloid skull shows a round head shape with a medium-width nasal aperture, rounded orbital margins, massive cheekbones, weak or absent ]e, moderate prognathism, absent brow ridges, simple cranial sutures, prominent zygomatic bones, broad, flat, tented nasal root, short nasal spine, shovel-shaped upper incisor teeth (scooped out behind), straight nasal profile, moderately wide palate shape, arched sagittal contour, wide facial breadth and a flatter face.<!--This quote is in the last paragraph of page 86.-->|author=] |source=Forensic Facial Reconstruction. (2004). page 86.<ref name=Wilkinson>Wilkinson, C. (2004). ''Forensic Facial Reconstruction''. Cambridge University Press. {{ISBN|0-521-82003-0}}</ref>}} | |||
| {{Quote|text=Early craniological analyses focused on a few measurements of observations that were used to assign skulls to a racial type. This procedure has been recognized as too simplistic and impressionistic ... For example, an eastern Asian (or Mongoloid) skull, in general terms, can be described as round rather than long, with wide breadth, a high face and nose, frontal and lateral projection of the malars, broad palate, and a general facial flatness, especially in the upper face and interorbital region (Bowles 1977:343; Howells 1989:77; El-Najjar and McWilliams 1978:75; Krogman and İşcan 1986:271).<!--This quote is in the beginning of the right column of page 27. Page 27 is the first page of Chapter 5 which is about "Craniology."--><ref>Pietrusewsky, Michael & Douglas, Michele Toomay. (2002). Ban Chiang, a Prehistoric Village Site in Northeast Thailand, Volume 1: The Human Skeletal Remains. ], PA: ]. Page 27. Retrieved January 25, 2018, from </ref>|author=Michael Pietrusewsky & Michele Toomay Douglas of the Department of Anthropology at the ]<!--These two citations are to cite that Pietrusewsky and Douglas are of the Department of Anthropology at the University of Hawaii at Manoa.--><ref>College of Social Sciences Department of Anthropology ]. (2016). Michael Pietrusewsky. Retrieved January 25, 2018, from </ref><ref>A. (2018). Michele Toomay Douglas. Retrieved January 25, 2018, from </ref>}} | |||
| ] (1950) indicated that Mongoloids have the following skull characteristics: a short skull length, a broad skull breadth, a middle skull height, an arched ] contour, a very wide facial breadth, a high facial height, a rounded ] opening, a narrow ], a sharp lower nasal margin, a straight facial profile, a moderately wide ] shape, and a general impression of the skull which is large, smooth, and rounded.<!--This is in the Mongoloid data column of Table 38 on page 305.--><ref>] (1950). ''Genetics and the Races of Man: An Introduction to Modern ].'' ]: ]. Page 305. .</ref> | |||
| Šefčáková and Thurzo (1994) said that the following are Mongoloid features: a rather wide and flat nose of little prominence, a generally flat face, ], ] ] extension, and ].<!--This is in the 1st sentence, of the 2nd paragraph, of the left column, of page 75.--> The study said that the face flatness index is an important indicator of Mongoloid features.<!--This is in the 2nd sentence, of the 3rd paragraph, of the left column, of page 66.--><ref>Šefčáková, A. & Thurzo, M. (1994). Mongoloid Individuals from the ] (5th Century ]) at the ] (], ]). ''Anthropologie, 32''(1). Pages 66 & 75. .</ref> | |||
| Jodi Blumenfield (2000) indicated that Mongoloids have the following ] traits: a broad cranial form, a high, ] ] outline, a medium nose form, a small ] size, a ] nasal profile, a medium ], a medium nasal sill, a ] form, a moderate facial ], a moderate ] prognathism, a projecting ] form, a ]/] ] form, a round ] form, a ] ], a moderate ] projection, and a ] chin form.<!--This is in the Mongoloid data column of Table 1 on page 22.--><ref>Blumenfield, J. (2000). Racial Identification in the Skull and Teeth. ''Totem: The ] Journal of Anthropology, (8)''1. Page 22. .</ref> | |||
| Kim Ing-gon et al. (2001) said that, ], ] are distinct from ]. Kim said that the characteristics that distinguish Orientals are: a relatively prominent zygoma, a relatively prominent ], a relatively flat nose, a ] of the ], and a thick ].<!--The 1st sentence of the article's abstract, which is the 1st sentence, of the 1st paragraph, of the left column, of page 1768, says, "Orientals are anatomically distinct from Caucasians and are characterized by a thick dermis, a Mongoloid slant of the palpebral fissure, a relatively prominent zygoma and mandible angle, and a relatively flat nose." The 3rd and 4th sentences, of the 2nd paragraph, of the right column, of page 1768, say, "Orientals are anatomically distinct from Caucasians. They are characterized by a thick dermis, a Mongoloid slant of the palpebral fissue, a relatively prominent zygoma and mandible angle, and a relatively flat nose."--><ref>Kim, Ing-gon et al. (2001). Personal Experiences and ] of ] Assisted ] ] in Orientals for 5 Years. ''], 108''(6). Page 1768. .</ref> | |||
| Robert B. Pickering et al. (2009) indicated that Mongoloids have the following racial characteristics of the skull: a long skull length, a broad skull breadth, a middle skull height, an arched ] contour, a very wide facial breadth, a high facial height, a rounded ] opening, a narrow ], ]s that are wide and flat, a sharp lower nasal margin, a straight facial profile, a moderately wide ] that is a broad ], 90%+ frequency of ], and a large, smooth general form of the skull.<!--This is in the Mongoloid data column of Table 1 on page 83.--><ref>Pickering, R. B. et al. (2009). ''The Use of Forensic Anthropology'' (2nd. ]). ]: ] ]. Page 83. .</ref> | |||
| Nitul Jain (2013) indicated that ] and ] have the following anthropological variations of the skeleton that are associated with racial characteristics of the skull: a broad skull width, an intermediate skull height, an intermediate profile of the skull in terms of ], ] that have circular openings, a rounded ], and an intermediate ] in terms of width.<!--This is in "Asian/Native Americans" data column of Table 2.5 at the bottom of page 30. The phrase "anthropological variations of the skeleton" is a rewording of the source's phrase "skeletal anthropologic variations," in the title of Table 2.5. For the "Profile" parameter, the "Straight" data entry for "White" and the "Prognathic" data entry for "Black" indicates that the "Intermediate" data entry for "Asian/Native Americans" is in terms of prognathism. For the "Palate" parameter, the "narrow" data entry for "White" and the "wide" data entry for "Black" indicates that the "Intermediate" data entry for "Asian/Native Americans" is in terms of width.--><ref>Jain, N. (2013). ''Textbook of ] ].'' ], ]: ]. Page 30. .</ref> | |||
| In "''Whites''" and in "''Mongoloid populations''", the shafts of the ]s curve toward the front of the person relative to how the femurs are in "''Blacks''".<!--This information is at the bottom of page 101 in the left column in the paragraph that starts with "In Blacks, the tibia is long". The phrase "toward the front of the person" is a rewording of the source text's word "anteriorily". The word "curve" is a rewording of the source text's word "bowed".--><ref>Thali, M.J., Viner, M.D. & Brogdon, B.G. (2011). Brogdon's Forensic Radiology, Second Edition. USA: CRC Press. Page 101.</ref> | |||
| ''"Mongoloids''" have ]s with more curvature and more twisting at the neck than the femurs of both "''whites''" and "''blacks''".<!--The source text used the word "torsion" for the Mongoloid description and the word "twisting" in the descriptions for the other two races. The word "torsion" mean "twisting".--> Whites have femurs that are "''intermediate in both curvature and twisting''" between Mongoloids and blacks. Blacks have femurs with less curvature and less twisting at the head or neck than the femurs of both whites and Mongoloids.<!--This information is in the third paragraph of page 93 which starts with "Even in cases where the skull". The source text's description of black femurs was "relatively straight" instead of a degree of curvature like the descriptions of the other two races. The phrase "relatively straight" is another way of saying that they have less curvature.--><ref>Ubelaker, D.H. & Scammell, H. (1992). Bones: A Forensic Detective's Casebook. New York: M. Evans and Company, Inc. Page 93.</ref> | |||
| In 1962,<!--The date Coon said this is indicated in the source text by the date in parenthesis after the guy's name which was written "Coon (1962)" in the source text.--> ] said that one of the reasons<!--The source text indicated that this was not the only reason for Mongoloid facial flatness by the source text's phrase "is also related" with the key word here being "also".--> that Mongoloids have flatter faces than Caucasoids is due to the ] and ] jaw muscles in the faces of Mongoloids being positioned more toward the front of the faces of Mongoloids relative to where these jaw muscles are positioned in the faces of Caucasoids.<ref name="Dahlberg" /><!--This information comes from the last sentence of the last paragraph of page 147 and the first sentence of the first paragraph of page 148.--> | |||
| A 1992 study compared the features of North African skull samples dated to the ] against purported<!--The word "purported" is a rewording of the source text's word "supposed".--> "mongoloid" and "australoid" features. The study found that the skull samples had at "moderate to high frequencies" the "Chinese features" of shovel-shaped incisors and a horizontally flat face,<!--The phrase "horizontally flat face" is a rewording of the source text's phrase "transversely flat face". The word "transverse" means at right angles with the longest axis, so it means at right angles with the vertical axis in this instance.--> and the study found that the skull samples had at "moderate to high frequencies" the "southeast Asian traits" of a high degree of prognathism, strong brow ridges, projecting cheekbones<!--The phrase "strong brow ridges" is a rewording of the source text's phrase "strong supraorbital region", and the phrase "projecting cheekbones" is a rewording of the source text's phrase "everted malars".--> and "] ]".<!--This information is in the last paragraph of page 195.--><ref>Clark, G.A. & Willermet, C.M. (1997). Conceptual Issues in Modern Human Origins Research. New York: Aldine de Gruyter. page 195.</ref> | |||
| According to ] physical traits of Mongoloid crania are generally distinct from those of the ] and ] races. He asserts that forensic anthropologists can identify a Mongoloid skull with an accuracy of up to 95%.<ref>Gill, George W. 1998. "Craniofacial Criteria in the Skeletal Attribution of Race. " In Forensic Osteology: Advances in the Identification of Human Remains. (2nd edition) Reichs, Kathleen l(ed.), pp. 293–315.</ref> However, ] cautions that this precision estimate is often based on methodologies using subsets of samples. He also argues that scientists have a professional and ethical duty to avoid such biological analyses since they could potentially have sociopolitical effects.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Diana Smay, George Armelagos |title=Galileo wept: A critical assessment of the use of race of forensic anthropolopy |journal=Transforming Anthropology |date=2000 |volume=9 |issue=2 |pages=22–24 |url=http://www.anthropology.emory.edu/FACULTY/ANTGA/Web%20Site/PDFs/Galileo%20Wept-%20A%20Critical%20Assessment%20of%20the%20Use%20of%20Race%20in%20Forensic%20Anthropology.pdf |accessdate=13 July 2016 |doi=10.1525/tran.2000.9.2.19}}</ref> | |||
| Variation in craniofacial form between humans has been found to be largely due to differing patterns of biological inheritance. Modern cross-analysis of osteological variables and genome-wide ] has identified specific genes, which control this craniofacial development. Of these genes, ], ], ], ] and ] were found to determine ], whereas ] impacts chin protrusion.<ref>{{cite journal |author1=Adhikari, K. |author2=Fuentes-Guajardo, M. |author3=Quinto-Sánchez, M. |author4=Mendoza-Revilla, J. |author5=Chacón-Duque, J. C. |author6=Acuña-Alonzo, V. |author7=Gómez-Valdés, J. |title=A genome-wide association scan implicates DCHS2, RUNX2, GLI3, PAX1 and EDAR in human facial variation |journal=Nature Communications |date=2016 |volume=7 |doi=10.1038/ncomms11616 |pmid=27193062 |pmc=4874031 |page=11616 |bibcode=2016NatCo...711616A}}</ref> | |||
| The East Polynesian, the Paleoindian/North American Archaic, and the Mongoloid/Late Amerindian are characterized by a "Square, heavy jaw".<!--This description is in the fourth row from the bottom of Table 15.1 on page 275.--> The East Polynesian and the Mongoloid/Late Amerindian are characterized by a "Median chin".<!--This description is in the fifth row from the bottom of Table 15.1 on page 275.--> The European is characterized by a "sharp, thin jaw" that has a "strong, prominent chin".<!--This description is in the first sentence of page 277.--> Mongoloid peoples, meaning modern East Asians and Amerindians of the later time periods,<!--In the first sentence of the second paragraph of page 276, the authors define Mongoloid peoples as East Asians and Amerindians.--> are characterized by "robust" cheekbones that project forward and to either side of the face.<!--The information about cheekbones is in the first paragraph of page 275. Projecting to either side of the face is a rewording of the source's "laterally flaring".--><ref name="Gill">Stefan, V.H. & Gill, G.W. (2016). Skeletal Biology of the Ancient Rapanui (Easter Islanders). United Kingdom: Cambridge University Press. 275-277.</ref> | |||
| The nasal sill bones of American Indians are of medium development and "sometimes even sharp", and, in this respect, they are like the nasal sill bones of "Whites" whose nasal sill bones are almost without exception sharp.<!--This information is in the last paragraph of page 275 which starts with "American Indian nasal sills" which is a paragraph that spans to the next page to be the first paragraph of page 276. The phrase "almost without exception" is a rewording of the source text's word "invariably".--> The nasal bones of East Asians are "small" and "often flat". American Indians and East Asians almost never have a nasion depression which is the depression between the brow ridge and the bridge of the nose.<!--This information is in the second-to-last paragraph of page 275 which starts with "The nasal bones are rather large". The phrase "almost never" is a rewording of the source text's phrase "Virtually never".--> The nasal sill bones of East Polynesians are "rounded", smooth and "dull" and, in this respect, they are like the nasal sill bones of sub-Saharan Africans and Australians/Melanesians.<!--This information is in the last paragraph of page 275 which starts with "American Indian nasal sills" which is a paragraph that spans to the next page to be the first paragraph of page 276.--> The nasal bones of East Polynesians are "large and prominent"<!--This information is in the second-to-last paragraph of page 275 which starts with "The nasal bones are rather large".--> and there is often a nasion depression in East Polynesians which is a trait that is also present in "Whites". East Polynesians have a lower nasal root than "Europeans". The nasal bridge of East Polynesians is not as straight in profile as the "European" nasal bridge, and the nasal bridge of East Polynesians does not have the "] shape" of the "Caucasoid" nasal bridge.<!--This information is in the second paragraph of page 277 which starts with "The reduced nasal spines and dull nasal sills".--><ref name="Gill" /> | |||
| <!--Louis R. Sullivan, Curator of Physical Anthropology, ], said -->] are of the Mongoloid race but their features represent a "slightly different evolution since the time of their separation and isolation from their parental stock" or a retention of features that have been lost in other Mongoloid types. The "straight" or "low waves" hair<!--Samoan hair texture is described in Table XLI on page 94.--> of the Samoan is one such retention compared to the stiff, coarse hair that typifies the Mongoloid.<!--This is in the first paragraph of page 98.--> Most of the characteristics of the Samoan have Mongoloid affinities such as: skin color, hair color, eye color, conjuctiva, amount of beard, hair on chest, nasal bridge, nostrils, lips, face width, biogonial width, cephalo-facial index, nasal height, ear height and chin.<!--This is in Table XLIV at the bottom of page 97.--> Polynesians lack characteristic Mongoloid shovel-shaped incisors, because this characteristic Mongoloid trait disappeared in the Polynesian population as the teeth of Polynesians reduced in size over the course of their evolutionary history.<!--This is in the second paragraph of page 98.--><ref name="Sullivan">Sullivan, L.R., Gifford, E.W. & McKern, W.C. (1921). A Contribution to Samoan Somatology. Bishop Museum Press: Hawaii. Pages 94, 97 & 98.</ref> | |||
| <!--Dr. Rukang Wu of the Institute of Vertebrate Palaeontology and Palaeoanthropology, ], Taiwan, said-->Mongoloid features are a ] skull, fairly large and protruding cheekbones, ]s that are flat and broad, a ] that is slightly concave without depression in the ], "the lower borders of the ] are not sharp but guttered", shallow prenasal fossae, small ], trace amounts of ]e and moderate alveolar ].<ref name="Rukang">{{cite journal |last=Wu |first=Ju-kang |year=1959 |title=Human Fossils Found in Liukiang, Kwangsi, China |journal=Paleovertebrata et Paleoanthropologia |volume=1 |issue=3 |pages=97–104 |url=http://www.ivpp.cas.cn/cbw/gjzdwxb/xbwzxz/201003/P020100325320789803271.pdf}}</ref> | |||
| <!--Dr. ] of the Department of Biological Anthropology at ] said -->The ] has proto-Mongoloid morphology such as pronounced development of supraorbital ridges low frontals, marked post-orbital constriction, prominent and protruding occipitals, small mastoids, long crania and a relatively narrow bizygomatic breadth.<ref name="Lahr" /> | |||
| <!--Theodore G. Schurr of the Department of Anthropology at ] said -->The Mongoloid racial type is distinguished by forward-projecting malar (cheek) bones, comparatively flat faces, large circular orbits, "moderate nasal aperture with a slightly pointed lower margin", larger, more gracile braincase, broader skull, broader face and flatter roof of the nose.<ref name="Schurr">Schurr, Theodore G. (2011). Mapping Mongolia: Situating Mongolia in the World from Geologic Time to the Present. University of Pennsylvania Museum of Archaeology and Anthropology. Pennsylvania. {{ISBN|1-934536-18-0}}{{page needed|date=August 2014}}</ref> | |||
| <!--Robert B. Pickering Professor of Anthropology at the ] said -->The traits of the Mongoloid skull are: long and broad skulls of intermediate height, arched sagittal contour, very wide facial contour, high face height, rounded orbital opening, narrow nasal opening, wide, flat nasal bones, sharp lower nasal margin, straight facial profile, moderate and white palate shape, 90%+ shovel-shaped incisors and large, smooth general form.<ref>Robert B. Pickering, David Bachman. (2009). The Use of Forensic Anthropology (2nd ed.). CRC Press. {{ISBN|9781420068771}}. pp. 83</ref> | |||
| Miquel Hernández of the Department of Animal Biology at the ] said East Asians (], ], ], ], ] and ]) and Amerinds (], ] and ]) have the typical Mongoloid cranial pattern, but other Mongoloids such as Pacific groups (], ], ] and ]), Arctic groups (] and ]), Fuegians (], ], ]) and the ] differ from this by having "larger cranial dimensions over many variables".<ref name="Hernández">{{cite journal |author1=Hernández M. |author2=Fox C. L. |author3=Garcia-Moro C. |year=1997 |title=Fueguian cranial morphology: The adaptation to a cold, harsh environment |url= |journal=American Journal of Physical Anthropology |volume=103 |issue=1 |pages=103–117 |doi=10.1002/(SICI)1096-8644(199705)103:1<103::AID-AJPA7>3.0.CO;2-X |pmid=9185954}}</ref> | |||
| The ] gene causes the Sinodont tooth pattern, and also affects hair texture,<ref name="Kamberov_2013">{{cite journal |vauthors=Kamberov YG, Wang S, Tan J, Gerbault P, Wark A, Tan L, Yang Y, Li S, Tang K, Chen H, Powell A, Itan Y, Fuller D, Lohmueller J, Mao J, Schachar A, Paymer M, Hostetter E, Byrne E, Burnett M, McMahon AP, Thomas MG, Lieberman DE, Jin L, Tabin CJ, Morgan BA, Sabeti PC |title=Modeling recent human evolution in mice by expression of a selected EDAR variant |journal=Cell |volume=152 |issue=4 |pages=691–702 |date=Feb 2013 |pmid=23415220 |pmc=3575602 |doi=10.1016/j.cell.2013.01.016}}</ref> jaw morphology,<ref>{{cite journal |author1=Adhikari, K. |author2=Fuentes-Guajardo, M. |author3=Quinto-Sánchez, M. |author4=Mendoza-Revilla, J. |author5=Chacón-Duque, J. C. |author6=Acuña-Alonzo, V. |author7=Gómez-Valdés, J. |title=A genome-wide association scan implicates DCHS2, RUNX2, GLI3, PAX1 and EDAR in human facial variation |journal=Nature Communications |date=2016 |volume=7 |doi=10.1038/ncomms11616 |pmid=27193062 |page=11616 |bibcode=2016NatCo...711616A|pmc=4874031 }}</ref> and perhaps the nutritional profile of ].<ref>{{cite news |last=Lozovschi |first=Alexandra |date=24 April 2018 |title=Ancient Teeth Reveal Breastfeeding-Related Gene Helped Early Americans Survive The Ice Age |url=https://www.inquisitr.com/4876126/ancient-teeth-reveal-breastfeeding-related-gene-helped-early-americans-survive-the-ice-age-study |work=Inquisitr |location= |access-date=25 April 2018}}</ref> | |||
| Dennis C. Dirkmaat, professor of ] and ] at ],<ref>{{cite web |url=http://mai.mercyhurst.edu/personnel/dennis-c-dirkmaat/ |title=Dennis C. Dirkmaat, PhD, D.A.B.F.A. |publisher=Mai.mercyhurst.edu |accessdate=20 January 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150120185527/http://mai.mercyhurst.edu/personnel/dennis-c-dirkmaat/ |archive-date=20 January 2015 |url-status=dead |df=dmy-all}}</ref> said that Southeast Asian skulls can be distinguished from Asian and Native American skulls in that they are "smaller and less robust" with noses exhibiting a medium width without nasal overgrowth, and can "exhibit gracile features common to female skulls".<!-- pp. 76 --><ref name="Dirkmaat">Dirkmaat, D. (2012). A companion to forensic anthropology. Wiley-Blackwell Publishing: USA. pp. 300 {{ISBN|978-1-4051-9123-4}}</ref> | |||
| Dr. Ann H. Ross, Co-Director of the Forensic Sciences Institute at ],<ref>Ann H Ross. ''Research Gate'' Retrieved March 8, 2014, from </ref> in a presentation on the concept of "race" (written in ]) from the perspective of ], said individuals of "Asian ancestry" have an "intermediate profile", meaning the part of the ] is "moderate" compared to individuals of "African ancestry" who have a "projecting maxilla", and compared to individuals who are "White/Hispanic" who generally have a "straight profile" or "lack of ]".<!--- video segment 24:12 to 24:35 ---> She qualified her statement about Hispanics by adding that their lack of prognathism would not hold true for Hispanic populations with "African admixture".<!--- video segment 24:35 to 24:48 ---><ref>Ross, A.H. (2011). Seminar Session 1 The Concept of "Race": A Forensic Anthropological Perspective on Human Variation. ''Advances in Forensic Anthropology'' Retrieved March 8, 2014, from </ref> | |||
| Qing He et al. of the Obesity Research Center at ] did a study on "fat distribution" of 358 ] children and the study said that Asians have less ] than ]s and more relative ] fat than ], but less relative ] fat than Caucasians.<ref>{{cite journal |author1=Horlick M |author2=Thornton J |author3=Wang J |author4=Pierson R.N. |author5=Heshka S |author6=Gallagher D |year=2002 |title=Sex and race differences in fat distribution among Asian, African-American and Caucasian prepubertal children |url= |journal=Journal of Clinical Endocrinology and Metabolism |volume=87 |issue=5 |pages=2164–2170 |doi=10.1210/jc.87.5.2164}}</ref> | |||
| ===Cheekbones=== | |||
| Pranitan Rattanasalee et al. (2014) said that the ] of Mongoloid skulls are notably higher than the cheekbones of ] and ] skulls.<!--This is in the 1st sentence, of the 3rd paragraph, of the left column, of page 76.--><ref>Rattanasalee, P. et al. (2014). Could zygomatic angles be used for determining the sex of Thai skeletal remains? ''Chiang Mai Medical Journal, 53''(2). Page 76. .</ref> | |||
| ===Mandible=== | |||
| William S. Laughlin (1963) said, "The enormously broad ascending ] is characteristic of many Mongoloid groups. The breadth of this feature in ]s and ]s exceeds the breadth in ] man."<!--This is in the caption of the photograph of the mandible on the top of page 639, which is page 8/14 of the PDF document.--><ref>Laughlin, W.S. (1963). Eskimos and Aleuts: Their Origins and Evolution. ''Science, 142''(3593). Page 639. .</ref> | |||
| A study took ]s of two sites at the ]<!--Figure 2 of page 21 which is the second page of the PDF document shows the two sites on the left side of the diagram, and the caption on the right side of the diagram says "Shadow of the contralateral angle of the mandible". The second-to-last paragraph which starts with "Two sites were selected" of the left column of page 21 also talks about the two sites being taken on each side of the shadow of the contralateral angle of the mandible.--> of 79 dental students, consisting of 20 male Caucasoids, 20 female Caucasoids, 17 male Mongoloids and 22 female Mongoloids.<!--The 79 number and "dental students" description of the subjects is in the "Methods" section of the abstract in the first page. The break down by gender of the subjects is in the second paragraph of the "Materials and methods" section at the bottom of the right column of the first page of the PDF document.--> The ] for the study said that the Mongoloids in the study had about "''20% higher bone density at the angle of the mandible''" than the Caucasoids in the study with a ] of 0.0094 for the males and a p-value of 0.0004 for females.<!--The bone density percent and p-values are in the "Results" section of the abstract on the first page.--><ref>{{cite journal |vauthors=Ong RG, Stevenson MR |title=Evaluation of bone density in the mandibles of young Australian adults of Mongoloid and Caucasoid descent |journal=Dentomaxillofacial Radiology |volume=28 |issue=1 |pages=20–5 |date=January 1999 |pmid=10202474 |doi=10.1038/sj.dmfr.4600399}} Retrieved December 11, 2016, from .</ref> | |||
| ===Eyes=== | |||
| ] showing a Russian ]]] | |||
| In 1919, ] wrote that vertical distances of the openings of the eye sockets of Mongoloids are the longest, the vertical distances of the openings of the eye sockets of Europeans are intermediate, and the vertical distances of the openings of the eye sockets of aboriginal Australians and Melanesians are the shortest.<!--In the last sentence of the third paragraph of page 412, Cameron said, "However variable the orbital index may be, it certainly indicates to us that the vertical dimensions of the orbital aperture are greatest in the mongoloid races and least in the aboriginal Australians and Melanesians, <sup>(30)</sup> with the European races occupying an intermediate position."--><ref>Cameron, J. (1919). Two Remarkable Skulls from the New Hebrides: An Anthropological and Ethnological Study. In ].<!--The name of the journal is abbreviated at the bottom of page 403 as "Proc. & Trans. N.S. Inst. Sci."--> 14(26).<!--The volume number of the journal (14) is written in Roman numerals as XIV at the bottom of page 403 in the source text. The journal issue number (26) is written to the right of XIV.--> Page 412. Retrieved January 18, 2017, from .</ref> | |||
| Jeong Sang-ki et al. of ], using both Asian and ] ]s as well as four healthy young ] men, said that "Asian eyelids" whether "Asian single eyelids" or "Asian double eyelids" had more fat in them than in Caucasians.<ref name="Jeong" /> Jeong et al. said that the cause of the "Asian single eyelid" was that "the ] fuses to the levator ] at variable distances below the ] border; (2) ] fat pad protusion and a thick subcutaneous fat layer prevent levator fibers from extending toward the skin near the superior tarsal border; and (3) the primary insertion of the levator aponeurosis into the ] and into the upper eyelid skin occurs closer to the eyelid margin in Asians."<ref name="Jeong">{{cite journal |author1=Jeong Sangki |author2=Lemke Bradley N. |author3=Dortzbach Richard K. |author4=Geol Park Yeoung |author5=Keun Kang Heoung |year=1999 |title=The Asian Upper Eyelid: An Anatomical Study With Comparison to the Caucasian Eyelid |url= |journal=Arch Ophthalmol |volume=117 |issue=7 |pages=907–912 |doi=10.1001/archopht.117.7.907 |pmid=10408455}}</ref> | |||
| <!--Shunsuke Yuzuriha et al. of ] School of Medicine, ], ], said -->The Mongoloid eyelid is characterized by puffiness of the upper eyelid, "superficial expansion of the levator aponeurosis" that are "turned up around this transverse ligament to become the ]", "low position of the preaponeurotic fat" and narrowness of the ].<ref>{{cite journal |author1=Yuzurihaa Shunsuke |author2=Matsuo Kiyoshi |author3=Kushimaa Hideo |year=2000 |title=An anatomical structure which results in puffiness of the upper eyelid and a narrow palpebral fissure in the Mongoloid eye. |url= |journal=British Journal of Plastic Surgery |volume=53 |issue=6 |pages=466–472 |doi=10.1054/bjps.2000.3387 |pmid=10927673}}</ref> | |||
| ===Skin=== | |||
| <!--Akazawa said -->Mongoloid skin has thick skin cuticle and an abundance of carotene (yellow pigment).<ref name="Takeru" /> | |||
| Willett Enos Rotzell, professor of Botany and Zoology at the ], said the Asian race has skin color ranging from a yellowish tint to an ], with black and coarse hair with a circular cross section, an absent or scanty beard, a ], prominent cheek bones and a broad face. Rotzell said that the Asian race has its ] in ].<ref name="Rotzell">Willett Enos Rotzell. (1905). Man: an introduction to anthropology. Philadelphia.</ref> | |||
| William F. Loomis (1967) said that Mongoloids have yellowish skin, because the ] of Mongoloids is packed with disks of ], allowing Mongoloids to live within 20 degrees of the ], even though the skin of Mongoloids only has small amounts of ].<!--This is in the 2nd sentence, of the 2nd paragraph, of the left column, of page 505.--> Loomis said that, even on the equator, peoples of Mongoloid derivation acquire ], ] the ] by way of the ]s at ] 66]] as recently as 20,000 to 10,000 years ago, who were previously of medium-light skin.<!--This is in the 3rd sentence, of the 2nd paragraph, of the left column, of page 505.--> Loomis said that, in the Mongoloids of Asia and the Americas, constitutive keratinization is a defense against the production of too much ].<!--This is in the 1st sentence, of the 1st paragrah, of the middle column, of page 505.--><ref>Loomis. W.F. (1967). Skin-Pigment Regulation of Vitamin-D Biosynthesis in Man. ''Science, 157''(3788). Page 505. .</ref> | |||
| The average size of random ]s of "Asian skin" for Chinese individuals of ] IV through V was measured to be 1.36 ] 0.15 ] ] ] × 10<sup>−2</sup> which was between the higher value of 1.44 ± 0.67 μm<sup>2</sup> × 10<sup>−2</sup> measured for "African/American skin" of Fitzpatrick phototype VI and the lower value of 0.94 ± 0.48 μm<sup>2</sup> × 10<sup>−2</sup> measured for "Caucasian skin" of Fitzpatrick phototype II.<!-- The Fitzpatrick phototype values and the statement that the "Asian skin" was of Chinese origin were both located in the "Sources of skin" section on page 499. The average size of random melanosomes was found on page 502.--> The ratio of clustered to distributed melanosomes was 37.4% clustered vs. 62.6% distributed in Asian skin, 84.5%. clustered vs. 15.5% distributed in Caucasian skin and 11.1% clustered vs. 88.9% distributed in African/American skin.<!-- The clustered vs. distributed numbers came from page 500 in the upper right.--><ref>{{cite journal |author1=Thong H. Y. |author2=Jee S. H. |author3=Sun C. C. |author4=Biossy R. E. |year=2003 |title=The patterns of melanosome distribution in keratinocytes of human skin as one determining factor of skin colour |url= |journal=British Journal of Dermatology |volume=149 |issue=3 |pages=498–505 |doi=10.1046/j.1365-2133.2003.05473.x |pmid=14510981}}</ref> | |||
| Both darker-skinned and lighter-skinned Asians have a thicker ] than Caucasians of comparable skin pigment which may be the reason for a "substantially lower incidence of fine wrinkles" in Asians when compared to Caucasians, and this lower incidence of fine wrinkles may be the reason for the "myth" that Asian faces age slower than Caucasian faces.<!--This information is in the third paragraph of the "Skin Color and Texture" section on page 4.--><ref>McCurdy, J.A., Jr., & Lam, S.M. (2005). Cosmetic Surgery of the Asian Face (2nd ed.). China: Thieme Medical Publishers, Inc. pp. 4. TMP {{ISBN|1-58890-218-8}} GTV {{ISBN|3 13 747602 X}}</ref> | |||
| Asian people and black people have a thicker ] than white people. The skin of Asian people and black people also has more sun protection than the skin of white people due to Asian people and black people having larger and more numerous ]s in their skin than white people. The thicker dermis and the more numerous melanosomes of larger size might be the reasons that Asian people and black people have a lower incidence of facial wrinkles than white people.<!--This is in the third paragraph of the right column of page 293. This book appears to be a secondary source for citations 10 and 11 which appear to be cited at the bottom of this paragraph. The source uses the technical term "rhytides" which means wrinkles of the skin.--><ref>Goldman, M.P. et al. (2013). ''Lasers and Energy Devices for the Skin (2nd ed.).'' Taylor & Francis Group. pp. 293. {{ISBN|978-1-84184-934-8}}</ref> | |||
| Peter Bellwood (2007) said that the skin of Mongoloids has "a thick ] packed with ] but little pigmentation."<!--This is in the 3rd sentence, of the last paragraph, of page 75.--><ref name="Bellwood" /> | |||
| The skin of Asians turns darker and yellower with age relative to the skin of Caucasians.<!--This information is in the only paragraph in the section titled "Cultural Differences" which is in the right column of page 36. The numbers 1 and 2 in superscript following the relevant sentence in the source text indicates that the source text is a secondary source for this information, and these numbers indicate that references 1 and/or 2 are the primary sources for this information.--><ref>Vashi, N.A., Maymone, M.B. & Kundu, R.V. (2016). Aging Differences in Ethnic Skin. In The Journal of Clinical and Aesthetic Dermatology, 9(1). Page 36. Retrieved December 22, 2016, from .</ref> | |||
| ===Teeth=== | |||
| ]]] | |||
| In 1953, Dentist Stephen Kolas wrote that ] and ] are more commonly present in Mongoloids than in Caucasians and Negroids.<!--This information is in the very last sentence of the article's abstract. The phrase "more commonly present" is a rewording of the source text's phrase "occur with greater frequency".--><ref>{{cite journal |author=Kolas, S. |display-authors=etal |year=1953 |title=The occurrence of torus palatinus and torus mandibularis in 2,478 dental patients |journal=] |volume=6 |issue=9 |pages=1134–1141 |url= |doi=10.1016/0030-4220(53)90225-4|pmid=13088010 }}</ref> | |||
| Kim S. Kimminau (1993) said that, as compared to ], there is a general trend of relatively large ] as compared to ] among Asian Mongoloids.<!--This is in the 2nd sentence, of the 2nd paragraph, of page 70.--> Kimminau said that it is not typical for Mongoloids to have elaborated ] surfaces.<!--This is in the last sentence, of the 2nd paragraph, of page 70.--><ref>Kimminau, K. S. (1993). Dental Variation and Racial Estimation: Problems and Practical Forensic Applications. In Gordon, C.C., Amoss, P., & Bishop, R.J. (Eds.), ''NAPA Bulletin 13: Race, Ethnicity and Applied Bioanthropology.'' American Anthropological Association. Page 70. .<!--This link to the "Contents" of the book shows that the Kimminau article is part of the book.--> .<!--This is a link to the Kimminau article.--></ref> | |||
| Mongoloids generally have large ]s, large ], large ] and small ]s.<!--This is in the second paragraph of the right column of page 5. The source text wrote "large incisors, canines", indicating that the adjective "large" distributes to describe both Mongoloid incisors and Mongoloid canines.--><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Yaacob |first1=H. |last2=Narnbiar |first2=P. |last3=Naidu |first3=M.D.K. |year=1996 |title=Racial characteristics of human teeth with special emphasis on the Mongoloid dentition |url= |journal=Malaysian Journal of Pathology |volume=18 |issue=1 |page=5}}</ref> | |||
| In 1996, Rebecca Haydenblit of the Hominid Evolutionary Biology Research Group at ] did a study on the dentition of four pre-Columbian ]n populations and compared their data to other Mongoloid populations.<ref name="Haydenblit" /> She said that ], ], ] and ] populations followed an overall ] dental pattern characteristic of Southeast Asia rather than a ] dental pattern characteristic of Northeast Asia.<ref name="Haydenblit">{{cite journal | author = Haydenblit R | year = 1996 | title = Dental variation among four prehispanic Mexican populations | url = | journal = American Journal of Physical Anthropology | volume = 100 | issue = 2| pages = 225–246 | doi = 10.1002/(SICI)1096-8644(199606)100:2<225::AID-AJPA5>3.0.CO;2-W | pmid=8771313}}</ref> | |||
| George Richard Scott, physical anthropologist at the ], said that some East Asians (in particular, Koreans, some Han Chinese and some Japanese), as well as Native Americans, have a distinctive dental pattern known as ], where, among other features, the upper first two ] are not aligned with the other teeth, but are rotated a few degrees inward and are shovel-shaped.<ref>{{cite book |author1=George Richard Scott |author2=Christy G. Turner |date=1997 |title=The Anthropology of Modern Human Teeth: Dental Morphology and Its Variation |publisher=] |url=https://books.google.com/?id=HuRcAyXWJxIC&pg=PA165&dq=dental+complex#PPA177,M1 |isbn=978-0-521-78453-5}}</ref> | |||
| A "'']''" is a trait that commonly occurs in "''Mongoloid populations''".<!--This information is in the paragraph that starts with "With all specimens considered" which is the third paragraph of page 116.--><ref>Wu, R. & Olsen, J.W. (2009). Paleoanthropology and Paleolithic Archaeology in the People's Republic of China. USA: Left Coast Press, Inc. Page 116.</ref> | |||
| Mongoloid teeth are larger than Caucasoid and Negroid teeth.<!--This is in the first paragraph of the right column of page 26.--> Mongoloids have mandibles that are "robust", and Mongoloids have mandibles that are "similar" to the mandibles of Negroids<!--This is in the third paragraph of the left column of page 25.--> in respect to the chins of Mongoloids and Negroids not being as prominent as the chins of Caucasoids and in respect to the chins of Mongoloids and Negroids being "median" while the Caucasoid chin is "bilateral".<!--Exactly how the chins of Mongoloids and Negroids are "similar" is ambiguously indicated by these two chin traits separated by a comma from the "similar" statement in the source text. The source text shows in a data table on page 22 that Mongoloid and Negroid mandibles are not "similar" in both being robust, since that data table labels Negroid mandibles as "gracile" and Mongoloid mandibles as "robust".--><ref name="Blumenfield">{{cite journal |author=Blumenfield J |year=2000 |title=Racial Identification in the Skull and Teeth |url= |journal=Totem: The University of Western Ontario Journal of Anthropology |volume=8 |issue=1 |pages=21–33}} Retrieved December 10, 2016, from .</ref> | |||
| ===Hair=== | |||
| ] | |||
| Commenting on the lack of body hair (]) of Negroids and Mongoloids, ] wrote in 1939 that "oth negroid and mongoloid skin conditions are ] to excessive hair development except upon the ]."<!--This is on the top of page 278.--><ref>Coon, C.S. (1939). The Races of Europe. USA: The Macmillan Company.</ref> | |||
| ] (1982), Professor of ] at ],<!--Imwinkelried's credentials are written in the 1st sentence, of the 1st paragraph, which is under the horizontal line, on page 41.--> said that Mongoloid hair has a dense ],<!--This is in the 1st sentence, of the 2nd paragraph, of page 50.--> which is distributed rather evenly.<!--This is in the 2nd sentence, of the 2nd paragraph, of page 50.--> Imwinkelried said that the shaft of Mongoloid hair has a circular or triangular shape when viewing its ].<!--This is in the 2nd-to-last sentence, of the 2nd paragraph, of page 50.--> Imwinkelried said that there is a tendency of Mongoloid hair to be coarse and straight.<!--This is in the last sentence, of the 2nd paragraph, of page 50.--><ref>] (1982). Forensic ]: The Case Against The Underemployment Of Scientific Evidence. ''], 39''(1). Page 50. .</ref> | |||
| <!--Rodney P.R. Dawber of the Oxford Hair Foundation and Clinical Lecturer in Dermatology said -->Mongoloid males have "little or no facial or body hair".<ref>Dawber R.P.R. (1997). Diseases of the head and scalp (3rd ed.). Virginia:Blackwell Science Ltd.</ref> <!--Mildred Trotter of the School of Medicine St. Louis Missouri said -->Mongoloid hair is coarse, straight, blue-black and weighs the most out of the races.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Trotter M |year=1938 |title=A review of the classifications of hair |url= |journal=American Journal of Physical Anthropology |volume=24 |issue= |pages=105–126 |doi=10.1002/ajpa.1330240131}}</ref> <!--Mildred Trotter of the School of Medicine St. Louis Missouri and Oliver H. Duggins of the Department of Anatomy Washington University said -->The size of the average Mongoloid hair is {{convert|0.0051|mm2|sqin|sigfig=2}} based on samples from ], ], ] and ].<ref>{{cite journal |author1=Duggins O. H. |author2=Trotter M. |author3=Coon C. S. |year=1959 |title=Hair from a Kadar woman of India |url= |journal=American Journal of Physical Anthropology |volume=17 |issue=2 |pages=95–98 |doi=10.1002/ajpa.1330170203}}</ref> <!--Daniel Hrdy of the Department of Anthropology at Harvard University said that -->Mongoloid hair whether it be ], ] or ] has the thickest diameter out of all human hair.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Hrdy D |year=1973 |title=Quantitative hair form variation in seven populations |url= |journal=American Journal of Physical Anthropology |volume=39 |issue=1 |pages=7–17 |doi=10.1002/ajpa.1330390103 |pmid=4713565}}</ref> | |||
| Douglas W. Deedrick, Unit Chief of the Trace Evidence Unit for the ],<!-- His qualifications are given at the top of the first page of the eighteen page document.--> said that ]s of "Mongoloid or Asian origin" are characterized as being straight and coarse with a circular ] and a wider ] than those of other "racial groups". He said that the ] is thicker than those of ] or ] hairs while the ] is "continuous and wide". He said that the ] granules are smaller than the larger pigment granules of Negroid hair,<!-- The relative size of the Asian pigment granules to those of African hair appears in the paragraph about African hair on page three. --> and the pigment granules in the ] are "generally larger" than those of Caucasian hair. Unlike the "evenly distributed" pigment granules of Caucasian hair, Asian hair frequently has clusters of pigment granules that form "patchy areas".<ref>{{cite journal |author=Deedrick D. W. |year=2000 |title=Hairs, fibers, crime, and evidence |url= |journal=Forensic Science Communications |volume=2 |issue= |page=3}}</ref> | |||
| The theoretical index of hair bending stiffness is calculated using the thickest and thinnest axial diameters of human hair,<!--The first paragraph of page 82 explains what the abbreviations "Dmaj" and "Dmin" mean as used in the hair bending stiffness formula written in note "f" of Table 2 in page 88.--> and this index differs by race. The hair stiffness indexes of Mongoloids, Africans and Europeans are: 4.23, 2.75 and 1.59, respectively.<!--The far right column of Table 2 in page 88 gives the hair stiffness index values of the three groups.--> This means that Mongoloids with the highest hair stiffness index value of 4.23 have the most rigid hair and Europeans with the lowest hair stiffness index value of 1.59 have the least rigid hair.<!--The first paragraph of page 89 explains the meaning of the hair stiffness index.--> The eccentricity of hair cross-sectional shape index is also calculated using the thickest and thinnest axial diameters of human hair,<!--The formula for the hair eccentricity index is "Dmaj/Dmin", and it is located in the first paragraph of page 89.--> and this index also differs by race. The hair eccentricity indexes of Africans, Europeans and Mongoloids are: 1.74, 1.49 and 1.30, respectively.<!--The "Dmaj/Dmin" column of Table 2 in page 88 gives the hair eccentricity index values of the three groups.--> This means that Africans with the highest hair eccentricity index value of 1.74 have the curliest hair and Mongoloids with the lowest hair eccentricity index value of 1.30 have the least curly hair.<!--The first paragraph of page 89 explains the meaning of the hair eccentricity index.--><ref name="Maibach">Berardesca, E., Lévêque, J. & Maibach H.I. (2007). Ethnic Skin and Hair (Dermatology: Clinical & Basic Science). USA: Informa Healthcare, Inc. 82, 88 & 89.</ref> | |||
| === Proto-Mongoloids === | |||
| {{See also|wikt:proto-#English|Proto-Mongoloid|l1=proto-}} | |||
| ], ] man from a publication by German-American anthropologist ] in 1905.<ref>Franz Boas. (1905). ''Anthropometry of Central California''. Harvard University.</ref>]] | |||
| Arteaga et al. (1951) said that the ] traits of the ] are not in disagreement with the ].<!--This information is the 1st sentence of the 1st paragraph (the one after the list) of page 357, which is page 8/9 of the PDF document.--> Arteaga said that the ] and the ] are considered to be typical Mongoloids.<!--This information is the last sentence of page 355, which is page 6/9 of the PDF document.--> Arteaga said that the Mexican Indians and the ] are both typical Mongoloids, but the Mexican Indians and the Chinese differ somewhat, with the Mexican Indians having a preponderance of O and M ], while the Chinese have high frequencies of A and B blood phenotypes, and low frequencies of M and E blood phenotypes.<!--Table 5, on page 356, page 7/9 of the PDF document, shows that O and M, A and B, and M and E are blood phenotypes.--> Arteaga accounted for this blood phenotype frequency difference by accepting the fact that the ] may represent the ], while the Chinese are a rather mixed group.<!--This information is the 2nd and 3rd sentences of the 1st paragraph (the one after the list) of page 357, which is page 8/9 of the PDF document. Arteaga said, "the two typical Mongoloids," referring to Chinese and Mexican Indians.--><ref>Arteaga et al. (1951). Blood Agglutinogens of the Mexicans. ''], 16''(1). Pages 355, 356 & 357. & .</ref> | |||
| Harold E. Driver (1969), a leading figure in postwar ],<!--This information is in White (1975), in the 2nd sentence, of the 2nd paragraph, of page 295 (unlabeled, the next page is 296), which is page 3/22 of the PDF document.--> said that American Indians physically resemble ] more than any other major ] physical type. Driver said that the resemblance, however, is closer to the marginal Mongoloids of ], West ], and ] than to the central Mongoloids of ], ], or ]. Driver said that the marginal Mongoloids represent an earlier and less specialized racial type in comparison to the central Mongoloids. Driver said that American Indians came from the ancestors of the marginal Mongoloids, who were present in most of ], north and east of ]. Driver said that, in comparison to the central Mongoloids, the marginal Mongoloids share more physical traits in common with ]. Driver said that the greater physical resemblance of marginal Mongoloids to Europeans is a fact that is explained by the ] that the separation of Mongoloids and Europeans had not progressed very far when Mongoloids in ] started to migrate into Alaska by way of the ].<!--This information is in Driver (1969), in the 3rd paragraph, of page 5.--><ref>White, D.R. (1975). Process, Statistics and Anthropological Theory: An Appreciation of Harold E. Driver. ''Reviews in Anthropology, 2''(3). Page 295. .</ref><ref>Driver, H.E. (1969). ''Indians of North America, Second Edition, Revised.'' ] and ]: ]. Page 5. .</ref> | |||
| Tsunehiko Hanihara of the Department of Anatomy at ]<!--Hanihara's credentials are listed below Hanihara's name on page 233 which is page 1/14 of the PDF document.--> suggests that the inhabitants of ] and ], ], the ] and the modern ] are most likely directly descended from Proto-Mongoloids of ] ].<!--This information is in the second sentence of the fourth paragraph of page 242 which is page 10/14 of the PDF document. That sentence used the preposition "in" in the phrase "Proto-Mongoloid population in late Pleistocene Sundaland" while the article's abstract used the preposition "of" in the phrase "Proto-Mongoloid population of late Pleistocene Southeast Asia" which is located in the second sentence of the third paragraph of the article's abstract. This Misplaced Pages sentence uses the preposition "of" like in the article's abstract.--><ref>Hanihara, Tsunehiko. (1990). Dental Anthropological Evidence of Affinities among the Oceania and the Pan-Pacific Populations: The Basic Populations in East Asia, II. ''Journal of the Anthropological Society of Nippon, 98''(3). Page 242. Retrieved January 12, 2018, from </ref> | |||
| ], Professor of Anthropology at ], said Japan was settled by a Proto-Mongoloid population in the ] who became the ] and their features can be seen in the ], ] and as well in ]. Hudson said that, later, during the ], the Neo-Mongoloid type entered Japan. Hudson said that genetically Japanese people are primarily Neo-Mongoloid with Proto-Mongoloid admixture.<ref name="Hudson">Hudson, Mark J. (1999). Ruins of identity: ethnogenesis in the Japanese Islands</ref> | |||
| ], ], woman from a publication by Czech anthropologist ] in 1906.<ref name="Hrdlicka">Aleš Hrdlička. 1906. ''Contribution to the Physical Anthropology of California''. Berkeley University Press.</ref>]] | |||
| Theodore G. Schurr of the Department of Anthropology at the ] said that Mongoloid traits emerged from ]ia, central and eastern regions of Mongolia, and several regions of Northern China. Schurr said that studies of cranio-facial variation in Mongolia suggest that the region of modern-day Mongolians is the origin of the Mongoloid racial type".<ref name="Schurr" /> | |||
| In 1959, Dr. Wu Rukang of the Institute of Vertebrate Palaeontology and Palaeoanthropology, ], ], said the remains of ] human fossils were an early type of evolving Mongoloid that indicated South China was the birthplace where the Mongoloid race originated.<ref name="Rukang" /> | |||
| Dr. ] of the Department of Biological Anthropology at ] said there are two hypotheses on the origin of Mongoloids. Lahr said that one hypothesis is that Mongoloids originated in north Asia due to the regional continuity in this region and this population conforming best to the standard Mongoloid features. Lahr said that the other hypothesis is that Mongoloids originate from Southeast Asian populations that expanded from Africa to Southeast Asia during the first half of the ] and then traveled to Australia-Melanesia and East Asia. Lahr said that the morphology of the ] is consistent with the proto-Mongoloid definition.<ref name="Lahr">{{cite journal |author=Lahr M. M. |year=1995 |title=Patterns of modern human diversification: Implications for Amerindian origins |url= |journal=American Journal of Physical Anthropology |volume=38 |issue= |pages=163–198 |doi=10.1002/ajpa.1330380609}}</ref> | |||
| Hisao Baba and Shuichiro Narasaki of the Department of Anthropology at the ], in Tokyo, Japan,<!--Note number 2 at the bottom of page 221 (the first page) gave this information about the study's authors.--> said that it is broadly accepted that Zhoukoudian Upper Cave Man and maybe ] were "''so-called proto-Mongoloids''" who did not have a completely developed Mongoloid complex.<!--This information is in the bottom paragraph of the right column of page 227. In that paragraph, Baba and Narasaki mention Weidenreich (1943) and Wolpoff (1980) as examples to support their "widely accepted" claim. Therefore, Baba and Narasaki serve as a secondary source in this instance that made an interpretive claim that used the previous work by other authors. Reliable secondary sources are allowed to make interpretive claims per the ] policy. The word "maybe" preceding Liujian Man is a rewording of the source text's word "perhaps". The shortened term "Upper Cave Man" is used in the referenced paragraph of page 227, but "Zhoukoudian Upper Cave Man" is a longer term for the Upper Cave Man which is used in the first paragraph of the Introduction section of page 221.--><ref>Baba, H. & Narasaki, S. (1991). Minatogawa Man, the Oldest Type of Modern Homo sapiens in East Asia. In ]. 30(3). Pages 221 & 227. Retrieved January 19, 2017, from .</ref> | |||
| === Neoteny === | |||
| {{Main|Neoteny in humans}} | |||
| ] woman and child from the ]]] | |||
| In 1951, ] claimed "the skeleton of the classic Mongoloid type is very delicately made, even down to the character of the ] of the skull which, like those of the infant skull, are relatively smooth and untortuous. In fact the Mongoloid presents so many physical traits which are associated with the late fetus or young infant that he has been called a fetalized, infantilized or pedomorphic type. Those who have carefully observed young babies may recall that the root of the nose is frequently flat or low as in Mongoloids, and that an internal ] in such instances is usually present. The smaller number of individual head hairs and the marked hairlessness of the remainder of the body are infantile traits, as are likewise the small ]es, the shallow ] into which the ]bone fits (the ]), the rather stocky build, the large ] and brain, lack of ], and quite a number of other characters."<!-- This is on page 341. --><ref name="Montagu, A. 1951" /> | |||
| ] of the Institute of Cognitive & Evolutionary Anthropology at ] said, "An interesting hypothesis put forward by paleontologist ] many years ago was that the package of the Mongoloid anatomical changes could be explained by the phenomenon of neoteny, whereby an infantile or childlike body form is preserved in adult life.<!--pg. 217--> Neoteny in hominids is still one of the simplest explanations of how we developed a ] so rapidly over the past few million years.<!--pg. 217--> The relatively large brain and the forward rotation of the skull on the spinal column, and body hair loss, both characteristic of humans, are found in foetal ].<!--pg. 217--> Gould suggested a mild intensification of neoteny in Mongoloids, in whom it has been given the name pedomorphy.<!--pg. 217--> Such a mechanism is likely to involve only a few controller genes and could therefore happen over a relatively short evolutionary period.<!--pg. 217--> It would also explain how the counterintuitive retrousse nose and relative loss of facial hair got into the package".<!--pg. 217--> "ecrease unnecessary muscle bulk, less tooth mass, thinner bones and smaller physical size;<!--pg. 218--> ...this follows the selective adaptive model of Mongoloid evolution".<!--pg. 218--><ref name="Oppenheimer">Oppenheimer, Stephen. ''The Real Eve''. Published by Carroll & Graf Publishers, 2003 | |||
| {{ISBN|0-7867-1192-2}}</ref> | |||
| Paul Storm of the ], ],<!--His qualifications are given at the top of the article. --> said that in ] there are two types of cranial morphologies—the "]" (Mongoloid) and "]" (Australoid) types. Storm said that the "Sunda" (Mongoloid) type includes ] and ] people, and he said that the "Sahul" (Australoid) type includes ] and ]s. Storm said that the "Sunda" (Mongoloid) type has a flat face with high cheek bones,<!-- This was on page 128.--> and Storm said that this "flat face" of the Chinese and Javanese is known as the "mongoloid face".<!-- Storm refers to the "flat face" as the "mongoloid face" on page 99. --> Storm further said that the "Sunda" (Mongoloid) type has a more rounded skull, "feminine (juvenile) characters",<!-- This quote is on page 88.--> a "retention of juvenile characters"<!--This quote is on page 107.--> and a limited outgrowth of superstructures such as the ]. Storm said that "Sunda" (Mongoloid) skulls resemble female skulls more than "Sahul" (Australoid) skulls resemble female skulls.<!-- This was on page 128. The term "superstructures" is defined on page 132. --> Storm said that the skulls of "Asian" males ("Chinese and Javanese") have "more feminine characteristics",<!-- This was on page 58.--> and he said that they have "many feminine characters in contrast with Australians".<!--This was on page 90.--><ref name="Storm" /> | |||
| Paul Storm said that Asia contained humans with "generalized" cranial morphology, but between 20,000 ] and 12,000 BP this generalized type disappeared as a new type emerged. This new type had a flatter face with more pronounced cheekbones, a more rounded head, reduced ] (male skulls started to resemble female skulls), a reduction of superstructures such as the ] and an increased "retention of juvenile characters".<!--This is on page 132.--> Storm said that this new type of skull that emerged is called the "Proto-Sunda" (Proto-Mongoloid) type, and it is distinguished from the "Sunda" (Mongoloid) type by being more "]".<!-- The "Proto-Sunda" type is described on page 133.--> Storm said that the "Mongoloid" or "Asian" type of skull developed relatively fast during a ] in Asia that happened during the ] or ] through a ]ary trend that<!-- This was on page 132.--> involved a "continuation of neoteny and ] trends". Due to different courses of evolution, Storm said that these two types of skulls, the "Sunda" (Mongoloid) type and the "Sahul" (Australoid) type, are now clearly recognizable at the present time.<!-- This was on page 133.--><ref name="Storm">Storm, P. The evolutionary significance of the Wajak skulls. – Scripta Geol., 110: 1-247, figs. 1-30, tabs. 1-121, Leiden, September 1995.</ref> | |||
| Andrew Arthur Abbie who was an anatomist and anthropologist at the ]<ref>Ronald Elmslie and Susan Nance, 'Abbie, Andrew Arthur (1905–1976)', Australian Dictionary of Biography, National Centre of Biography, Australian National University, , published first in hardcopy 1993, accessed online 18 November 2014.</ref> talked about leg-to-torso length being related to neoteny. Abbie said that women normally have shorter legs than men, and he said that shorter legs are the normal condition in some ethnic groups such as Mongoloids. Abbie said that Mongoloids of whom he listed the people of "China, Japan and the Americas" have proportionately larger heads and shorter legs than Europeans, and he said that this is a case of "paedomorphism". Abbie said that ] and some African ethnic groups such as the "]", the "]" and the "]" peoples<!--The diagram on page 66 shows that these are the African ethnic groups with longer legs than Europeans.--> have proportionately longer legs than Europeans, and he said that this is a case of "gerontomorphism".<!-- This is on page 67.--> Abbie said that ethnic groups with proportionately shorter legs than Europeans are relatively "paedomorphic" in terms of leg-to-torso ratios when compared to Europeans, and he said that ethnic groups with proportionately longer legs than Europeans are relatively "gerontomorphic" in terms of leg-to-torso ratios when compared to Europeans.<!--This is on page 69 on the bottom right.--><ref>{{cite journal |author=Abbie A.A. |year=1964 |title=THE FACTOR TIMING IN EMERGENCE DISTINCTIVELY HUMAN CHARACTERS |url= |journal=Papers and Proceedings of the Royal Society of Tasmania |volume=98 |issue= |pages=63–71}}</ref> | |||
| === Cold adaptation === | |||
| {{See also|Allen's rule}} | |||
| {{Quote|text=Most mongoloids tend to have short necks, small hands and feet, and short distal portions in their arms and legs. The typical mongoloid face has been described as a model of ]. The ]s with their cold-vulnerable ] are reduced; the ] are extended forward and enlarged hence the external nose protrusion is reduced; the eye is protected by fatty lids whose borders are brought closer together, which in turn helps reduce the glare of light. The distended malars and ]es are also protected by fatty pads, which helps to give the typical mongoloid face its flat appearance. In addition Mongoloids have sparse ]s, which may be an advantage because exhaled breath, in cold regions at any rate, can freeze the beard and underlying skin.<!--This quote is the 3rd paragraph of page 205.-->|author=Rupert I. Murrill |source=Some Aspects of Human Racial Adaptation. (1960). Page 205.<ref>Murrill, R. I. (1960). Some Aspects of Human Racial Adaptation. ''], 63''(3). Page 205. .</ref>}} | |||
| ] on a traditional ''qamutik'' (dog sled) in ], ], ]]] | |||
| Akazawa Takeru, an anthropology professor at the International Research Center for Japanese Studies in ], wrote that Mongoloid features are an adaptation to the cold of the ].<ref name="Takeru" /> He mentions the ]s of warm blood cyclical vasodilation and vasoconstriction of the peripheral ] in Mongoloids as an adaption to the cold.<ref name="Takeru" /> He lists the short limbs, short noses, flat faces, epicanthic fold and lower surface-to-mass ratio as further Mongoloid adaptations to cold.<ref name="Takeru" /> | |||
| Mongoloids evolved hairlessness to keep clean while wearing heavy garments for months without bathing during the Ice Age.<ref name="Takeru" /> | |||
| ] said that biologists have speculated that the Mongoloid skull type was the result of ] in response to a cold climate,<!-- This was on page 121. --> and Wade said that the Mongoloid skull type first started to indisputably appear in the archaeological record 10,000 years ago.<!-- This was on page 120. --> Wade said that biologists have speculated that the fat in the eyelids of Mongoloids and the stocky builds of Mongoloids were selected for as adaptations to the cold.<!-- This was on page 121. --><ref name="Wade">Nicholas, Wade. Before the Dawn. Published by Penguin Publishing, 2006 {{ISBN|978-1594200793}}</ref> | |||
| Takasaki Yuji of ] said that, "Mongoloid ancestors had evolved over time in cold environments" and the short limbs of the Mongoloid was due to ].<ref>{{cite journal |author1=Takasaki Yuji |author2=Loy Steven F. |author3=Juergens Hans W. |year=2003 |title=Ethnic Differences in the Relationship between Bioelectrical Impedance and Body Size |url= |journal=Journal of Physiological Anthropology and Applied Human Science |volume=22 |issue=5 |pages=233–235 |doi=10.2114/jpa.22.233|hdl=10211.3/207248 }}</ref> | |||
| Writing in 1980, anthropology professor Joseph K. So at ] in Ontario cited a 1965 study by J. T. Steegman showing that the so-called cold-adapted Mongoloid face provided no greater protection against frostbite than the facial structure of European subjects.<ref name="So" /> In explaining Mongoloid cold-adaptiveness, So cites the work of W. L. Hylander (1977) where Hylander said that in the Eskimo (Inuit), for example, the reduction of the brow ridge and flatness of the face are instead due to internal structural configurations that are cold-adapted in the sense that they produce a large vertical ] necessary to chew frozen ].<ref name="So">Joseph K. So. "Human Biological Adaptation to Arctic and Subarctic Zones". ''Annual Review of Anthropology''; Vol. 9, (1980), pp. 63–82</ref> | |||
| ] family from ], 1929]] | |||
| Miquel Hernández of the Department of Animal Biology at the ] said that the high and narrow nose of ] (Inuit) and the ]s is an adaptation to a cold and dry environment, since it contributes to warming and moisturizing the air and the "recovery of heat and moisture from expired air".<ref name="Hernández" /> | |||
| A. T. Steegman of the Department of Anthropology at ] investigated the assumption that ] caused the structural configuration of the ] Mongoloid face.<ref name="Steegman" /> Steegman did an experiment that involved the survival of ]s in the cold.<ref name="Steegman" /> Steegman said that the rats with narrow nasal passages, broader faces, shorter tails and shorter legs survived the best in the cold.<ref name="Steegman" /> Steegman paralleled his findings with the Arctic Mongoloids, particularly the Eskimo and Aleut, by claiming these Arctic Mongoloids have similar features in accordance with Allen's rule: a narrow ], relatively large heads, long to round heads, large jaws, relatively large bodies, and short limbs.<ref name="Steegman">{{cite journal |author1=Steegmann A. T. |author2=Platner W. S. |year=1968 |title=Experimental cold modification of cranio-facial morphology |url= |journal=American Journal of Physical Anthropology |volume=28 |issue=1 |pages=17–30 |doi=10.1002/ajpa.1330280111 |pmid=5659959}}</ref> | |||
| Kenneth L. Beals of the Department of Anthropology at ] said that the ] have cephalic indexes that are an exception to Allen's rule, since the indigenous people of the hot climates of North and South America have cold-adapted, high cephalic indexes.<ref name="Beals">{{cite journal |author=Beals K. L. |year=1972 |title=Head form and climatic stress |url= |journal=American Journal of Physical Anthropology |volume=37 |issue=1 |pages=85–92 |doi=10.1002/ajpa.1330370111 |pmid=5039741}}</ref> Beals said that these peoples have not yet evolved the appropriate cephalic index for their climate, being, comparatively, only recently descended from the cold-adapted Arctic Mongoloid.<ref name="Beals" /> | |||
| In 1950, ] et al. said that Mongoloids have faces that are adapted to the extreme cold of subarctic and arctic conditions.<!--This information is in the second-to-last paragraph of page 132 that starts with "The most famous cold adaptation hypothesis".--> Coon et al. said that Mongoloids have eye sockets<!--The phrase "eye sockets" is a rewording of the source text's phrase "bony orbit".--> that have been extended vertically to make room for the adipose tissue that Mongoloids have around their eyeballs. Coon et al. said that Mongoloids have "''reduced''" brow ridges to decrease the size of the air spaces inside of their brow ridges known as the ]es which are "''vulnerable''" to the cold.<!--The source text stated that the sinuses were "vulnerable", but it did not explicitly state that they were "vulnerable" to the cold. However, the context of the paragraph which was about Mongoloid faces being cold adapted indicated that the word "vulnerable" referred to the cold. The source text implied that smaller brow ridges contain smaller frontal sinuses, but it did not explicitly state this in the source text's sentence "Brow ridges, with their vulnerable sinuses, are reduced".--> Coon et al. said that Mongoloid facial features reduce the surface area of the nose by having nasal bones that are flat against the face and having enlarged cheekbones that project forward which effectively reduce the external projection of the nose.<!--This information comes from the last paragraph of page 132 that starts with "The bony orbit of the mongoloid". Note that this paragraph has "(1950:69)" at the very end of it, and note that it is written in a smaller font than the other text. The reason for this difference is that the whole paragraph is a quote from Coon et al. (1950) as explained in the previous paragraph. The phrase "effectively reduce the external projection of the nose" is a rewording of the source text's phrase "reducing the effective salient of the nose".--><ref name="Dahlberg">Dahlberg, A.A. & Graber, T.M. (1977). Orofacial Growth and Development. USA & Canada: Mouton Publishers. Pages 132, 147 & 148.</ref> | |||
| ] also has a hypothesis for why noses on Mongoloids are very distinct. Typically, the nose is not very prominent on the face of a Mongoloid. Their frontal sinus is also reduced in order to allow more room for padding to protect from their cold environment. Regardless of the environment that the Mongoloid is in, their nose helps reduce the stress of the environment on their body by moistening the air inspired to cool the body off instead of doing a straight up heat exchange.<ref>{{Cite book |title=Human Biology |last1=Harrison |last2=Weiner |last3=Tanner |last4=Barnicot |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=1977 |isbn= |location=Oxford |pages=437}}</ref> | |||
| The Asian ] has been shown in a small Japanese study<ref>{{Cite journal |pmc = 4169230|year = 2014|last1 = Nishimura|first1 = T.|title = Relationship between mitochondrial haplogroup and seasonal changes of physiological responses to cold|journal = Journal of Physiological Anthropology|volume = 33|issue = 1|pages = 27|last2 = Watanuki|first2 = S.|pmid= 25183371|doi = 10.1186/1880-6805-33-27}}</ref> to provide greater heat production upon exposure to cold than other haplogroups prevalent in the area. | |||
| === Mongolian spot === | |||
| {{Main|Mongolian spot}} | |||
| A Mongolian spot, also known as Mongolian blue spot, congenital dermal melanocytosis,<ref name="Bolognia" /> and dermal melanocytosis<ref name="Bolognia">{{cite book |author1=Rapini, Ronald P. |author2=Bolognia, Jean L. |author3=Jorizzo, Joseph L. |title=Dermatology: 2-Volume Set |publisher=Mosby |location=St. Louis |year=2007 |pages=1720 |isbn=978-1-4160-2999-1 |oclc= |doi= |accessdate=}}</ref> is a ], flat, ] ] with wavy borders and irregular shape. In 1883 it was described and named after ] by ], a German anthropologist based in Japan.<ref>Die koerperlichen Eigenschaften der Japaner.(1885) Baelz.E. Mittheil.d.deusch Gesell.f.Natur-u-Voelkerheilkunde Ostasiens. Bd.4.H.32</ref><ref>Circumscribed dermal melanosis (Mongolian spot)(1981) Kikuchi I, Inoue S. in "Biology and Diseases of Dermal Pigmentation", University of Tokyo Press, p83</ref><ref>{{cite book |pages=6–17 |edition= |year=1993 |accessdate=May 17, 2014 |publisher=Wolfe |author=Bernard Cohen |volume= |quote= |location= |title=Atlas of pediatric dermatology |url=https://books.google.com/?id=grlsAAAAMAAJ&q=ines+mongolian+spot&dq=ines+mongolian+spot |isbn=978-1-56375-019-9}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |page=2262 |edition= |year=1908 |accessdate=May 17, 2014 |publisher=American Medical Association |volume= |quote= |location= |title=JAMA: The Journal of the American Medical Association, Volume 51 |url=https://books.google.com/?id=KUgcAQAAMAAJ&pg=PA2262&dq=ines+mongolian+spot#v=onepage&q=ines%20mongolian%20spot&f=false |isbn=}}</ref> It normally disappears three to five years after birth and almost always by ].<ref name="Mongolian Spot" /> The most common color is blue, although they can be blue-gray, blue-black or deep brown. | |||
| The spot is prevalent among ], ], ], ], Indigenous ]ns (chiefly ]ns and ]ns), Sub-Saharan Africans,<ref>{{cite book |page=95 |edition=illustrated |year=1997 |accessdate=May 17, 2014 |publisher=Edwin Mellen Press |author=Kevin C. Stuart |volume= |quote= |location= |title=Mongols in Western/American consciousness |url=https://books.google.com/?id=tCRtAAAAMAAJ&q=white+spanish+mongolian+spot&dq=white+spanish+mongolian+spot |isbn=978-0-7734-8443-6}}</ref> ],<ref>{{cite book |page=90 |edition=3, illustrated |year=1999 |accessdate=May 17, 2014 |publisher=Lippincott Williams & Wilkins |author=Miller |volume= |quote= |location= |title=Nursing Care of Older Adults: Theory and Practice |url=https://books.google.com/?id=nJ3pBEh1osMC&q=ines+mongolian+spot&dq=ines+mongolian+spot |isbn=978-0-7817-2076-2}}</ref> non-European ], ] of mixed-race descent, and ].<ref name="skin"> {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170119081851/http://skin-care.health-cares.net/Mongolian-blue-spots.php |date=2017-01-19 }} - Health care guide discussing the Mongolian blue spot.</ref><ref>{{cite journal |title=Frequency and characteristics of Mongolian spots among Turkish children in Aegean region |date=July 2006 |pmid=17172067 |volume=48 |issue=3 |journal=Turk J Pediatr |pages=232–6 |last1=Egemen |first1=A |last2=Ikizoğlu |first2=T |last3=Ergör |first3=S |last4=Mete Asar |first4=G |last5=Yilmaz |first5=O}}</ref><ref name="tokyo">{{cite web |url=http://www.tokyo-med.ac.jp/genet/msp/about.htm |title=About Mongolian Spot |work=tokyo-med.ac.jp |accessdate=1 October 2015}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=hNx9BwAAQBAJ&pg=PT289&lpg=PT289&dq=#v=onepage&q&f=false |title=Transcultural Medicine: Dealing with patients from different cultures |first=B. |last=Qureshi |date=6 December 2012 |publisher=Springer Science & Business Media |via=Google Books |isbn=978-94-011-6364-4}}</ref> | |||
| They occur in about 90 to 95% of Asian and 80 to 85% Native American infants.<ref name="tokyo" /> Approximately 90% of Polynesians and Micronesians are born with Mongolian spots, as are about 46% of children in Latin America,<ref name="med">{{cite web |url=http://emedicine.medscape.com/article/1068732-overview#a0199 |title=Congenital Dermal Melanocytosis (Mongolian Spot): Background, Pathophysiology, Epidemiology |date=7 January 2017 |publisher= |via=eMedicine}}</ref> where they are associated with non-European descent. These spots also appear on 5-10% of babies of full Caucasian descent; ] in Spain has a high incidence due to the presence of descendants of ], the first Japanese official envoy to Spain in the early 17th century.<ref name="tokyo" /><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.japantimes.co.jp/text/nn20031211b4.html |title=Spain's Japon clan has reunion to trace its 17th century roots – The Japan Times |work=The Japan Times |accessdate=1 October 2015}}</ref> Black babies have Mongolian spots at a frequency of 96%.<ref>{{cite book |page=34 |edition= |year=2012 |accessdate=May 17, 2014 |publisher=Springer Science & Business Media |author=N Silverberg |volume= |quote= |location= |title=Atlas of Pediatric Cutaneous Biodiversity: Comparative Dermatologic Atlas of Pediatric Skin of All Colors |url=https://books.google.com/?id=8ra2I3Vj8Y8C&pg=PA34&dq=white+spanish+mongolian+spot#v=onepage&q=white%20spanish%20mongolian%20spot&f=false |archiveurl=https://books.google.com/books?id=8ra2I3Vj8Y8C&pg=PA34&dq=spanish+mongolian+spot&hl=en&sa=X&ei=6pqdVb6-Kozj-QG_xr2QBQ&ved=0CEUQ6AEwBg#v=onepage&q=spanish%20mongolian%20spot&f=false |archivedate=2012 |isbn=978-1-4614-3564-8}}</ref> | |||
| == Genetic research == | |||
| {{See|Basal Eurasian|Ancient North Eurasian}} | |||
| {{See also|Asian people|Race and genetics}} | |||
| ] method based on 23 kinds of genetic information.<ref name="Kyushu">{{cite web |url=http://www.museum.kyushu-u.ac.jp/WAJIN/113.html |title=斎藤成也 Naruya, S. Kyushu Museum. 2002. February 2, 2007 |publisher=Museum.kyushu-u.ac.jp |accessdate=2013-12-15 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130906055349/http://www.museum.kyushu-u.ac.jp/WAJIN/113.html |archive-date=September 6, 2013 |url-status=dead |df=mdy-all}}</ref> Saitou et al. considered a "pan-Mongoloid grouping" which included the ], ] and ] Mongoloid groups.<ref name="Roberts" />]] | |||
| ] | |||
| ] | |||
| Genetic research into the separation time between the major racial groups was presented as early as 1985 by ]. | |||
| Nei (1985) found a separation time between ] and Eurasian (Caucasoid and Mongoloid taken together) of roughly 110,000 years, and a separation time between the Caucasoid and Mongoloid groups of roughly 40,000 years.<ref name="Nei1985">Caucasoid/Mongoloid 41,000±15,000, Caucasoid/Negroid 113,000±34,000, Negroid/Mongoloid 116,000±34,000. | |||
| Nei, M. (1985). Human Evolution at the Molecular Level. Population Genetics and Molecular Evolution. Japan Sci. Soc. Press, Tokyo. pp. 44–64.</ref> | |||
| In 2006, Yali Xue et al. of the genome research ] conducted a study of ] that said that northern populations in East Asia started to expand in number between 34 and 22 ], before the ] at 21–18 KYA, while southern populations | |||
| started to expand between 18 and 12 KYA, but then grew faster, and suggests that the northern populations expanded earlier because they could exploit the abundant ] of the "]", while the southern populations could increase in number only when a warmer and more stable climate led to more plentiful plant resources such as ]s.<ref>{{Cite journal |title=Male Demography in East Asia: A North–South Contrast in Human Population Expansion Times |journal=Genetics |volume=172 |issue=4 |pages=2431–2439 |url=http://www.genetics.org/cgi/reprint/172/4/2431.pdf |year=2006 |doi=10.1534/genetics.105.054270 |pmid=16489223 |pmc=1456369 |accessdate=2007-09-29 |author1=Yali Xue |author2=Tatiana Zerjal |author3=Weidong Bao |author4=Suling Zhu |author5=Qunfang Shu |author6=Jiujin Xu |author7=Ruofu Du |author8=Songbin Fu |author9=Pu Li |author10=Matthew E. Hurles |author11=Huanming Yang |author12=Chris Tyler-Smith}}</ref> | |||
| Gravel et al. (2010) gave a lower estimate for Caucasoid-Mongoloid divergece, between 28,000 and 21,000 years ago.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Gravel S. |year=2010 |title=Demographic history and rare allele sharing among human populations |journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America |volume=108 |issue=29 |pages=11983–8 |display-authors=etal |pmid=21730125 |doi=10.1073/pnas.1019276108 |pmc=3142009 |bibcode=2011PNAS..10811983G}}</ref> | |||
| A 2016 study presented an analysis of the population genetics of the ] people of northern Japan as key to the reconstruction of the early peopling of East Asia. The Ainu were found to represent a more basal branch than the modern farming populations of East Asia, suggesting an ancient (pre-Neolithic) connection with northeast Siberians.<ref>Jeong et al., "Deep History of East Asian Populations Revealed Through Genetic Analysis of the Ainu", Genetics. 2016 Jan;202(1):261-72. doi: 10.1534/genetics.115.178673.</ref> | |||
| Numerous studies performed during 2009–2016 have suggested that Eurasian populations can be derived from an early division of the ] lineage into an eastern and a western clade before around 40,000 years ago.<ref>"The former includes present-day East Asians and had differentiated as early as the ∼40 kya Tianyuan individual (Fu et al. 2013), while early members of the latter include ancient European hunter-gatherers (Lazaridis et al. 2014; Seguin-Orlando et al. 2014; Fu et al. 2016) and the ancient northern Eurasian ] (MA1, a ∼24 kya Upper Paleolithic individual from south-central Siberia) (Raghavan et al. 2014). More recent (Neolithic and later) western Eurasians, such as Europeans, are mostly descended from the western clade but with an additional component of "]" ancestry (via the Near East) splitting more deeply than any other known non-African lineage (Lazaridis et al. 2014, 2016). The timing of the eastern/western split is uncertain, but several papers (Gutenkunst et al. 2009; Laval et al. 2010; Gravel et al. 2011) have used present-day European and East Asian populations to infer dates of initial separation of 40–45 kya (adjusted for a mutation rate of 0.5 × 10−9 per year; Scally 2016)." | |||
| Mark Lipson and David Reich, "A Working Model of the Deep Relationships of Diverse Modern Human Genetic Lineages Outside of Africa", ''Mol Biol Evol'' 34.4 (2017), 889–902, {{DOI|10.1093/molbev/msw293}}.</ref> | |||
| The position of the ]n clade relative to this has long been uncertain, with some authors arguing from an early division of Australasians from all other Eurasians.<ref>Mondal M, Casals F, Xu T, Dall’Olio GM, Pybus M, Netea MG, Comas D, Laayouni H, Li Q, Majumder PP., et al. 2016. "Genomic analysis of Andamanese provides insights into ancient human migration into Asia and adaptation", Nat Genet. 48(9): 1066–1070. | |||
| Rasmussen, M., et al., "An Aboriginal Australian genome reveals separate human dispersals into Asia", ''Science'' 334(6052) (2011), 94-98, {{DOI|10.1126/science.1211177}}. | |||
| "We show that Aboriginal Australians are descendants of an early human dispersal into eastern Asia, possibly 62,000 to 75,000 years ago. This dispersal is separate from the one that gave rise to modern Asians 25,000 to 38,000 years ago."</ref> | |||
| Reviewing the evidence, Lipson and Reich (2017) present as best-fitting model an early trifurcation of the eastern Eurasian clade into the East Asian, Onge and Australasian lineages.<ref>"We also investigated another near-trifurcation, near the top of the eastern Eurasian clade, where the East Asian, Onge, and Australasian lineages are inferred to diverge in a short span. Here, the best-fitting arrangement features Onge and East Asians as a weak clade (p ∼ 0.02), but the model reaches a second, only slightly inferior local optimum with Onge and Australasians as sister groups instead, possibly suggesting admixture between two of the three lineages." Mark Lipson and David Reich, "A Working Model of the Deep Relationships of Diverse Modern Human Genetic Lineages Outside of Africa", ''Mol Biol Evol'' 34.4 (2017), 889–902, {{DOI|10.1093/molbev/msw293}}.</ref> | |||
| East Asian genetics shows a number of concentrated alleles suggestive of selection pressures since their separation from Caucasoids. This concerns the genes ], ], ], and ] in particular. | |||
| The East Asian types of ADH1B are associated with ] and would thus have arisen after the c. 11,000 years ago.<ref>Peng, Y. et al. The ADH1B Arg47His polymorphism in East Asian populations and expansion of rice domestication in history. BMC Evolutionary Biology 10, 15 (2010).</ref> | |||
| A 2013 study associated several phenotypical traits associated with Mongoloids with a single mutation of the EDAR gene, dated to c. 35,000 years ago.<ref>Traits affected by the mutation are sweat glands, teeth, hair thickness and breast tissue. | |||
| Kamberov et al., , ''Cell'' Volume 152, Issue 4, p691–702, 14 February 2013, DOI: https://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.cell.2013.01.016. | |||
| Journalistic report: , ''NYT'', 14 February 2013.</ref> | |||
| A 2013 study found ] of 18 genes—several of which are related to UV-light adaptation—within the chromosome 3p21.31 region (HYAL region) of East Asians. The introgressive haplotypes were positively selected in only East Asian populations, rising steadily from 45,000 years ago until a sudden increase of growth rate around 5,000 to 3,500 years ago. They occur at very high frequencies among East Asian populations in contrast to other Eurasian populations (e.g. European and South Asian populations). The findings also suggests that this Neanderthal introgression occurred within the ancestral population shared by East Asians and Native Americans.<ref name="dinch3">{{cite journal |last=Ding |first=Q. |author2=Hu, Y. |author3=Xu, S. |author4=Wang, J. |author5=Jin, L. |title=Neanderthal Introgression at Chromosome 3p21.31 was Under Positive Natural Selection in East Asians |journal=Molecular Biology and Evolution |year=2014 |origyear=Online 2013 |volume=31 |issue=3 |pages=683–695 |doi=10.1093/molbev/mst260 |pmid=24336922}}.</ref> | |||
| "]", an individual who lived in China c. 40,000 years ago, showed substantial Neanderthal admixture. | |||
| A 2017 study of the ancient DNA of Tianyuan Man found that the individual is closely related to modern East Asian popularions, but not a direct ancestor.<ref>Yang et al., "40,000-Year-Old Individual from Asia Provides Insight into Early Population Structure in Eurasia", Current Biology Volume 27, Issue 20, p3202–3208.e9, 23 October 2017, DOI: https://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.cub.2017.09.030.</ref> | |||
| === Subgroupings === | |||
| In a 1994 study led by ],<ref name="Sforza">Cavalli-Sforza, L.L., Menozzi, P. & Piazza, A. (1994). The History and Geography of Human Genes. New Jersey: Princeton University Press.</ref> 42 Asian populations were divided into three groupings, 1. ], 2. ] and ]n, 3. ]n, with substantial Caucasoid-Mongoloid hybridization along an approximate boundary running from the ] to ].<ref>More specifically, the ethnic groups Cavalli-Sforza said that were in the Northeast and East Asian cluster were the ], ], ], ] ], ], ], N. Chinese, ], ], ], ], ] and ]. | |||
| Moving south, the ethnic groups Cavalli-Sforza said that were in the Southeast Asian cluster were the ], ], ], S. Chinese, ], ], ], ], ] and ].</ref> | |||
| Other studies also show that S. Chinese, Vietnamese and Tai peoples were found intermediate between the N. Chinese or other Northeast Asians and Southeast Asian.<ref name="naturestudy">Table from "Genetic evidence supports demic diffusion of Han culture". Nature (journal, 16 September 2004 issue)</ref><ref name="EJH">Table from " A spatial analysis of genetic structure of human populations in China reveals distinct difference between maternal and paternal lineages". European Journal of Human Genetics (journal, 23 January 2008 issue)</ref> {{cite web |url=https://genographic.nationalgeographic.com/reference-populations/ |title=Reference populations}} | |||
| Atsushi Tajima et al., of ], said that there is evidence for four separate populations, carrying distinct sets of non-recombining ] lineages, within the traditional Mongoloid category: North Asians, Han Chinese, Japanese/Koreans, and Southeast Asians.<ref>{{cite journal |author1=Tajima A |author2=PAN I.-H |author3=Fucharoen G |author4=Fucharoen S |author5=Matsuo M |author6=Tokunaga K |author7=Juji T |author8=Hayami M |author9=Omoto K |author10=Horai S |year=2002 |title=Three major lineages of Asian Y chromosomes: implications for the peopling of east and southeast Asia |url= |journal=Human Genetics |volume=110 |issue=1 |pages=80–88 |doi=10.1007/s00439-001-0651-9 |pmid=11810301}}</ref> | |||
| Satoshi Horai of the Japanese ], said that phylogenetic analysis indicated that there are two distinct groups of Mongoloids – one which early on diverged from Negroids and another that diverged from Caucasoids later. Horai said that Mongoloid distribution corresponds to ] and ], ], ], ], and ].<ref name=HoraiHayasaka1990> | |||
| Horai, Satoshi & Hayasaka, Kenji. (1990). Intraspecific Nucleotide Sequence Differences in the Major Noncoding Region of Human Mitochondrial DNA. ''] 46''(4). Page 833. Retrieved March 4, 2018, from and .</ref> | |||
| A study conducted by the ] Pan-Asian SNP Consortium in 2009 used ], which makes no prior population assumptions, on genetic data sampled from a large number of points across Asia. They said that East Asian and South-East Asian populations clustered together, and suggested a common origin for these populations. At the same time they observed a broad discontinuity between this cluster and South Asia, commenting most of the Indian populations showed evidence of shared ancestry with European populations. The study said that genetic ancestry is strongly correlated with linguistic affiliations as well as geography.<ref name="HUGO-Asia"> {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130522034534/http://www.humpopgenfudan.cn/p/A/A1.pdf |date=2013-05-22 }}, The HUGO Pan-Asian SNP Consortium, 2009</ref> | |||
| Scott W. Ballinger et al. of the Department of Biochemistry at ] said "Asian ] lineages" originated in Southern China with the "Southern Mongoloid".<ref>{{cite journal |author=Ballinger S.W. |year=1992 |title=Southeast Asian Mitochondrial DNA Analysis Reveals Genetic Continuity of Ancient Mongoloid Migrations |url= |journal=Genetics |volume=130 |issue= |pages=139–152}}</ref> | |||
| Hiroki Oota et al. of the ], ], said that "Asian populations" have high ] variation with ] having the highest mtDNA diversity, but, overall, the genetic distance between "Asian populations" is small.<ref name="Oota2002" /> | |||
| Melissa L. Cann et al. of the Department of Biochemistry at the ], said that early Asians did not mix with "Asian ] and that the features of "ancient Asian forms" indicate that "Asian ]" was not ancestral to "]". Since modern-day "Asians" do not show the amount of ] divergence expected had they mixed with ], Cann believes the expanding Homo sapiens from Africa replaced the Asian Homo erectus.<ref name="CannStonekingWilson1987" >Cann, Rebecca L., Stoneking, Mark & Wilson, Allan C. (1987). Mitochondrial DNA and human evolution. ''] 325''. Page 32. ]: 10.1038/325031a0 Retrieved March 5, 2018, from .</ref> | |||
| Douglas C. Wallace of the Department of Biochemistry at ] said that the ] is "clearly Asian in character", but the few founding females carried "rare Asian ]s", causing a different frequency of mtDNA and a "dramatic ]".<ref>{{cite journal |author1=Wallace D.C. |author2=Garrison K |author3=Knower W.C. |year=1985 |title=Dramatic Founder Effects in Amerindian Mitochondrial DNAs |url= |journal=American Journal of Physical Anthropology |volume=68 |issue=2 |pages=149–155 |doi=10.1002/ajpa.1330680202 |pmid=2998196}}</ref> | |||
| The Austro-Asiatic groups of India are proto Asiatic groups, like the ]. | |||
| Shama Barnabas, B. Joshi and C.G. Suresh of the Division of Biochemical Sciences, National Chemical Laboratory, ], ], said that evidence for the original people of ] who they refer to as the "proto-Asiatic element" spreading into Southeast Asia to become ]s is shown by the ] affinities between ] and ]s and ]s in ''Dde''I 10394 site along with the associated Asian-specific ''Alu''I 10397 site.<ref>{{cite journal |author1=Barnabas S. |author2=Joshi B. |author3=Suresh C. G. |title=Indian-Asian Relationship: mtDNA Reveals More |url= |journal=Naturwissenschaften |volume=87 |issue=4 |pages=180–183 |doi=10.1007/s001140050699 |pmid=10840805 |bibcode=2000NW.....87..180B |year=2000}}</ref> | |||
| ==Skull images== | |||
| <gallery class="center"> | |||
| Young Osage Warrior Mongoloid American Indian skull.png|"Young ] Warrior" | |||
| File:Mongol Americans Number 1.png|] | |||
| File:Puelche of Patagonia.png|] of ] | |||
| File:Tlahuica Mexican.png|] | |||
| File:Calmuck (Front).png|] | |||
| File:Calmuck Skull (Side).png|] | |||
| </gallery> | |||
| == Criticism == | |||
| {{See also|Human Genetic Diversity: Lewontin's Fallacy}} | |||
| ] (1997), professor of anthropology at ],<!--The Beck (1991) citation is to cite that Lieberman is a professor of anthropology at Central Michigan University. In the 1st sentence, of the 2nd paragraph, Beck (1991) said, "...Leonard Lieberman, professor of anthropology at Central Michigan University..." The other information is cited to Lieberman (1997).--> said that Mongoloid is a cultural fiction.<!--This is in the section title, above the last paragraph, of page 6.--> Lieberman said that, in 1972, ] examined seventeen ] traits in what is conventionally labeled as "Mongoloids" as one of the seven alleged "races" (written in ]).<!--This is in the 2nd sentence, of the 2nd-to-last paragraph, of page 6.--> Lieberman said that Lewontin (1972) found that "the ] proportion of the total ] diversity that is contained within populations is 85.4 percent... the difference between populations within a race is 8.3 percent, so that only 6.3 percent is accounted for by racial classification."<!--This is in the 3rd sentence, of the 2nd-to-last paragraph, of page 6.--> Lieberman said that, "In general terms, there is more variation within each of the 'races,' as traditionally defined, than between them."<!--This is in the last sentence, of the 2nd-to-last paragraph, of page 6.--> Lieberman said that the vivid picture of the whole world being comprised of three distinctive races, the ], Mongoloid, and ] races, has been created by the history of the growth of the United States.<!--This is in the 1st sentence, of the last paragraph, of page 2.--> Lieberman said that ] was from three places, ], ], and ], which was the basis for the ] of the "big three races" (written in scare quotes).<!--This is in the 6th sentence, of the last paragraph, of page 2.--> This made the point of view of three races appear to be "true, natural, and inescapable."<!--This is in the 5th-to-last sentence, of the last paragraph, of page 2.--> Lieberman said that the diversity of the whole world could not be accurately be represented by three races.<!---This is in the 2nd-to-last sentence, of the last paragraph, of page 2.--> Lieberman said that not all ] can be designated as "Mongoloid."<!--This is in the 1st sentence, of the 2nd paragraph, of page 7.--> Lieberman said that ] are greatly diverse including people in the ], ], ], and various parts of ].<!--This is in the 2nd sentence, of the 2nd paragraph, of page 7.--> Lieberman said that the term "Mongoloid" is derived from the ], a people who ] are different from other Asians, making the term "Mongoloid" very misleading as a term applied in general to Asians.<!--This is in the 3rd sentence, of the 2nd paragraph, of page 7.--> Lieberman said that, due to the reason of inclusion regarding Asians not all being Mongoloid, and due to the reason of the term being very misleading regarding Mongols ironically being different from other Asians, and due to other variations and inconsistencies, the term "Mongoloid" lacks utility, because the term "Mongoloid is not precise.<!--This is in the last sentence, of the 2nd paragraph, of page 7. The term "these," in that sentence, refers to the two reasons previously mentioned in the 2nd paragraph of page 7.--><ref>Beck, J. (1991). ''End the Race Race; It's the Human Race that Really Matters.'' ]. .</ref><ref>] (1997). Race 1997 and 2001: A Race Odyssey. ]. .</ref> | |||
| Amber N. Heard (2008), from the Department of Anthropology at the ], has argued "Mongoloid" should be discontinued from forensic literature because Southeast Asians and Northeast Asians differ significantly in their frequency of combined non-metric cranial traits; Southeast Asians and Northeast Asians therefore should not be considered "Mongoloid", but separate ancestry categories.<ref>Heard, A. M. (2008) MSc Forensic Science. "Non-metric assessment of Southeast and Northeast Asian ancestry in the forensic context". Michigan State University Thesis.</ref> | |||
| The terminology of "Caucasoid", "Mongoloid", "Negroid" have also been criticized more generally as harking back to anthropological classifications unduly based on ] alone.<ref>{{cite web |last=O'Neil |first=Dennis |publisher=Palomar College |title=Biological Anthropology Terms |date=May 13, 2007 |url=http://anthro.palomar.edu/tutorials/pglossary.htm}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.pbs.org/wgbh/nova/first/gill.html |title=Does Race Exist? A proponent's perspective |first=George W. |last=Gill |publisher=Pbs.org}}</ref> | |||
| == As a term for Down syndrome == | |||
| {{Main|Mongolian idiocy}} | {{Main|Mongolian idiocy}} | ||
| "Mongoloid" has had a second usage, now generally avoided as highly offensive: until the late 20th century, people with ]<ref name="Smay and Armelagos" /><ref name="Lieberman" /><ref name="Templeton" /><ref name="Keevak" /> were often referred to as "Mongoloids", or in terms of "]" or "Mongolian imbecility". | "Mongoloid" has had a second usage, now generally avoided as highly offensive: until the late 20th century, people with ]<ref name="Smay and Armelagos" /><ref name="Lieberman" /><ref name="Templeton" /><ref name="Keevak" /> were often referred to as "Mongoloids", or in terms of "]" or "Mongolian imbecility". The term was motivated by the observation that people with Down syndrome often have ]s.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.down-syndrome.info/library/periodicals/dsrp/06/1/019/DSRP-06-1-019-EN-GB.htm |author=Ward, Connor O. John Langdon |title=Down the man and the message |year=2006 |publisher=Down-syndrome.info |access-date=2013-12-02 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060902102759/http://www.down-syndrome.info/library/periodicals/dsrp/06/1/019/DSRP-06-1-019-EN-GB.htm |archive-date=2006-09-02 |url-status=dead }}</ref> | ||
| The term was motivated by the observation that people with Down syndrome often have ]s.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.down-syndrome.info/library/periodicals/dsrp/06/1/019/DSRP-06-1-019-EN-GB.htm |author=Ward, Connor O. John Langdon |title=Down the man and the message |year=2006 |publisher=Down-syndrome.info |access-date=2013-12-02 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060902102759/http://www.down-syndrome.info/library/periodicals/dsrp/06/1/019/DSRP-06-1-019-EN-GB.htm |archive-date=2006-09-02 |url-status=dead }}</ref> | |||
| Coined in 1908, the term remained in medical usage until the 1950s. In 1961, its use was deprecated by a group of genetic experts in an article in '']'' due to its "misleading connotations".<ref>"The importance of this anomaly among Europeans and their descendants is not related to the segregation of genes derived from Asians; its appearance among members of Asian populations suggests such ambiguous designations as 'Mongol Mongoloid'; increasing participation of Chinese and Japanese in investigation of the condition imposes on them the use of an embarrassing term. We urge, therefore, that the expressions which imply a racial aspect of the condition be no longer used. Some of the undersigned are inclined to replace the term Mongolism by such designations as 'Langdon Down Anomaly', or 'Down's Syndrome or Anomaly', or 'Congenital Acromicria'. Several of us believe that this is an appropriate time to introduce the term 'Trisomy 21 Anomaly', which would include cases of simple Trisomy as well as translocations. It is hoped that agreement on a specific phrase will soon crystallise once the term 'Mongolism' has been abandoned." | Coined in 1908, the term remained in medical usage until the 1950s. In 1961, its use was deprecated by a group of genetic experts in an article in '']'' due to its "misleading connotations".<ref>"The importance of this anomaly among Europeans and their descendants is not related to the segregation of genes derived from Asians; its appearance among members of Asian populations suggests such ambiguous designations as 'Mongol Mongoloid'; increasing participation of Chinese and Japanese in investigation of the condition imposes on them the use of an embarrassing term. We urge, therefore, that the expressions which imply a racial aspect of the condition be no longer used. Some of the undersigned are inclined to replace the term Mongolism by such designations as 'Langdon Down Anomaly', or 'Down's Syndrome or Anomaly', or 'Congenital Acromicria'. Several of us believe that this is an appropriate time to introduce the term 'Trisomy 21 Anomaly', which would include cases of simple Trisomy as well as translocations. It is hoped that agreement on a specific phrase will soon crystallise once the term 'Mongolism' has been abandoned." | ||
| Allen, G. Benda C.J. et al (1961). Lancet corr. 1, 775.</ref> The term continued to be used as a ] in the second half of the 20th century, with shortened versions such as ''mong'' in slang usage.<ref>{{cite news |title=Ricky Gervais, please stop using the word 'mong' |url=https://www.theguardian.com/society/joepublic/2011/oct/19/ricky-gervais-mong-twitter |work=The Guardian |access-date=26 May 2012 |location=London |first=Nicola |last=Clark |date=October 19, 2011}}</ref> | |||
| Allen, G. Benda C.J. et al (1961). Lancet corr. 1, 775.</ref> | |||
| The term continued to be used as a ] in the second half of the 20th century, with shortened versions such as ''Mong'' in slang usage.<ref>{{cite news |title=Ricky Gervais, please stop using the word 'mong' |url=https://www.theguardian.com/society/joepublic/2011/oct/19/ricky-gervais-mong-twitter |publisher=The Guardian |accessdate=26 May 2012 |location=London |first=Nicola |last=Clark |date=October 19, 2011}}</ref> | |||
| By the end of the 20th-century, the pejorative connotations of the obsolete term for Down syndrome had in turn rubbed off on the term for the racial category. Thus, | |||
| Chong Yah Lim in 2004 expressed his dislike for the term "Mongoloid" for the broad racial category due to its connotations of "demented physical and mental developments", suggesting the term "East Asian race" as a more "appropriately neutral, modern term".<ref name="Lim2004p3">Chong Yah Lim. ''Southeast Asia: The Long Road Ahead''. World Scientific, 2004 P. 3. ("A more appropriately neutral, modern term would thus be the East Asian race")</ref> | |||
| In the 21st century, this usage of the term is deemed "unacceptable" in the English-speaking world and has fallen out of common use<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Rodríguez-Hernández|first1=M. Luisa|last2=Montoya|first2=Eladio|date=2011-07-30|title=Fifty years of evolution of the term Down's syndrome|journal=Lancet|volume=378|issue=9789|pages=402|doi=10.1016/S0140-6736(11)61212-9|issn=1474-547X|pmid=21803206|s2cid=8541289}}</ref> because of its offensive and misleading implications. The terminology change was brought about both by scientific and medical experts<ref name="Ward1999">{{cite journal|last1=Ward|first1=O Conor|title=John Langdon Down: The Man and the Message|journal=Down Syndrome Research and Practice|url=https://library.down-syndrome.org/en-us/research-practice/06/1/john-langdon-down-man-message/|volume=6|issue=1|year=1999|pages=19–24|issn=0968-7912|doi=10.3104/perspectives.94|doi-access=free|pmid=10890244}}</ref> as well as people of Asian ancestry,<ref name="Ward1999" /> including those from Mongolia.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Howard-Jones|first=Norman|year=1979|title=On the diagnostic term "Down's disease"|journal=Medical History|volume=23|issue=1|pages=102–04|doi=10.1017/s0025727300051048|pmc=1082401|pmid=153994}}</ref> | |||
| In 2016, a side event dedicated to ] and ]<!--The top of the article says, "Side event dedicated to the World Down Syndrome Day and CSW 60."--> was hosted by the ] and the Down Syndrome Association of Mongolia. One of the aims of this side event was to showcase how the term "mongol" and related words, when used in reference to people with Down syndrome, "...affect dignity of people of the mongoloid race..."<ref name="MongoliaMission">"Changing stereotypes against people with Down syndrome: THE MEANING OF MONGOL." ''Permanent Missions.'' .</ref> In 2016, Sükheegiin Sükhbold, the ] ], held the ] event to call for the complete elimination of the improper usage of the term "Mongoloid" in reference to people with ].<!--This information is in the 2nd-to-last sentence, of the 3rd paragraph, the paragraph that starts with "MONGOLOID," of page 594. The phrase "complete elimination" is a rewording of the source text's word "abolition." The phrase "improper usage" is a rewording of the source text's word "malpractice."--><ref>Sanders, A.J.K. (2017). ''Historical Dictionary of Mongolia, Fourth Edition.'' Lanham, Boulder, New York, London: Rowman & Littlefield. Page 594. .</ref> | |||
| == See also == | == See also == | ||
| * ] | |||
| *] | |||
| * ] | |||
| *] | |||
| * ] | |||
| *] | |||
| * ] | |||
| * ] | |||
| == References == | == References == | ||
| {{Reflist|30em}} | {{Reflist|colwidth=30em}} | ||
| == External links == | == External links == | ||
| *{{ |
* {{Wiktionary-inline}} | ||
| *{{Wiktionary-inline}} | |||
| {{Historical definitions of race}} | {{Historical definitions of race}} | ||
| {{Authority control}} | |||
| {{DEFAULTSORT:Mongoloid |
{{DEFAULTSORT:Mongoloid race}} | ||
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Latest revision as of 04:53, 6 January 2025
Outdated grouping of human beings For other uses, see Mongoloid (disambiguation).Mongoloid (/ˈmɒŋɡəˌlɔɪd/) is an obsolete racial grouping of various peoples indigenous to large parts of Asia, the Americas, and some regions in Europe and Oceania. The term is derived from a now-disproven theory of biological race. In the past, other terms such as "Mongolian race", "yellow", "Asiatic" and "Oriental" have been used as synonyms.
The concept of dividing humankind into the Mongoloid, Caucasoid, and Negroid races was introduced in the 1780s by members of the Göttingen school of history. It was further developed by Western scholars in the context of racist ideologies during the age of colonialism. With the rise of modern genetics, the concept of distinct human races in a biological sense has become obsolete. In 2019, the American Association of Biological Anthropologists stated: "The belief in 'races' as natural aspects of human biology, and the structures of inequality (racism) that emerge from such beliefs, are among the most damaging elements in the human experience both today and in the past."
The term Mongoloid has had a second usage referencing people with Down syndrome, now generally regarded as highly offensive. Those affected were often referred to as "Mongoloids" or in terms of "Mongolian idiocy" or "Mongolian imbecility".
History of the concept
Origins
Mongolian as a term for race was first introduced in 1785 by Christoph Meiners, a scholar at the then modern Göttingen University. Meiners divided humanity into two races he labeled "Tartar-Caucasians" and "Mongolians", believing the former to be beautiful, the latter to be "weak in body and spirit, bad, and lacking in virtue".
His more influential Göttingen colleague Johann Friedrich Blumenbach borrowed the term Mongolian for his division of humanity into five races in the revised 1795 edition of his De generis humani varietate nativa (On the Natural Variety of Mankind). Although Blumenbach's concept of five races later gave rise to scientific racism, his arguments were basically anti-racist, since he underlined that humankind as a whole forms one single species, and points out that the transition from one race to another is so gradual that the distinctions between the races presented by him are "very arbitrary". In Blumenbach's concept, the Mongolian race comprises the peoples living in Asia east of the Ob River, the Caspian Sea and the Ganges River, with the exception of the Malays, who are considered to be transitional between Caucasian and Ethiopian.Of peoples living outside Asia, he includes the "Eskimos" in northern America and the European Finns, among whom he includes the "Lapps".
In the context of scientific racism
Discussions on race among Western scholars during the 19th century took place against the background of the debate between monogenists and polygenists, the former arguing for a single origin of all humankind, the latter holding that each human race had a specific origin. Monogenists based their arguments either on a literal interpretation of the biblical story of Adam and Eve or on secular research. Since polygenism stressed the perceived differences, it was popular among white supremacists, especially slaveholders in the US.
British biologist Thomas Huxley, a strong advocate of Darwinism and a monogenist, presented the views of polygenists in 1865: "ome imagine their assumed species of mankind were created where we find them... the Mongolians from the Orangs".
During the 19th century, diverging opinions were pronounced whether Native Americans or Malays should be included in the grouping which was sometimes called "Mongolian" and sometimes "Mongoloid". For example, D. M. Warren in 1856 used a narrow definition which did not include either the "Malay" or the "American" races, while Huxley (1870) and Alexander Winchell (1881) included both Malays and indigenous Americans. In 1861, Isidore Geoffroy Saint-Hilaire added the Australian as a secondary race (subrace) of the principal race of Mongolian.
In his Essai sur l'inégalité des races humaines (Essay on the Inequality of the Human Races, published 1853–55), which would later influence Adolf Hitler, the French aristocrat Arthur de Gobineau defined three races which he called "white", "black", and "yellow". His "yellow race", corresponding to other writers' "Mongoloid race", consisted of "the Altaic, Mongol, Finnish and Tartar branches". While he saw the "white race" as superior, he claimed that the "yellow race" was physically and intellectually mediocre but had an extremely strong materialism that allowed them to achieve certain results.
| Caucasoid: Aryans Semitic Hamitic Negroid: African Negro Khoikhoi Melanesian Negrito Australoid Uncertain: Dravida & Sinhalese | Mongoloid: North Mongol Chinese & Indochinese Korean & Japanese Tibetan & Burmese Malay Polynesian Maori Micronesian Eskimo & Inuit American |
According to the Meyers Konversations-Lexikon (1885–90), peoples included in the Mongoloid race are North Mongol, Chinese and Indochinese, Japanese and Korean, Tibetan and Burmese, Malay, Polynesian, Maori, Micronesian, Eskimo, and Native American.
In 1909, a map published based on racial classifications in South Asia conceived by Herbert Hope Risley classified inhabitants of Bengal and parts of Odisha as Mongolo-Dravidians, people of mixed Mongoloid and Dravidian origin. Similarly in 1904, Ponnambalam Arunachalam claimed the Sinhalese people of Sri Lanka were a people of mixed Mongolian and Malay racial origins as well as Indo-Aryan, Dravidian and Vedda origins. Howard S. Stoudt in The Physical Anthropology of Ceylon (1961) and Carleton S. Coon in The Living Races of Man (1966) classified the Sinhalese as partly Mongoloid.
German physical anthropologist Egon Freiherr von Eickstedt, an influential proponent of Rassenkunde (racial studies) in Nazi Germany, classified people from Nepal, Bhutan, Bangladesh, East India, parts of Northeast India, western Myanmar and Sri Lanka as East Brachid, referring to people of mixed Indid and South Mongolid origins. Eickstedt also classified the people of central Myanmar, Yunnan, southern Tibet, Thailand and parts of India as Palaungid deriving from the name of the Palaung people of Myanmar. He also classified the Burmese, Karen, Kachin, Shan, Sri Lankans, Tai, South Chinese, Munda and Juang, and others as having "mixed" with the Palaungid phenotype.
Commenting on the situation of the United States in the early 20th century, Leonard Lieberman said that the notion of the whole world being composed of three distinct races, Caucasoid, Mongoloid, and Negroid, seemed credible because of the history of immigration to the United States with most immigrants coming from three areas, Southeast China, Northwest Europe, and West Africa. This made the point of view of three races appear to be "true, natural, and inescapable".
In 1950, UNESCO published their statement The Race Question. It condemned all forms of racism, naming "the doctrine of inequality of men and races" among the causes of World War II and proposing to replace the term "race" with "ethnic groups" because "serious errors ... are habitually committed when the term 'race' is used in popular parlance".
Subraces according to Kroeber
Alfred L. Kroeber (1948), Emeritus Professor of Anthropology at the University of California, Berkeley, referring to the racial classification of humankind on the basis of physical features, said that there are basically "three grand divisions." Kroeber indicated that, within the three-part classification, the Mongoloid, the Negroid, and the Caucasian are the three "primary racial stocks of mankind." Kroeber said that the following are the divisions of the Mongoloid stock: the "Mongolian proper of East Asia," the "Malaysian of the East Indies," and the "American Indian." Kroeber alternatively referred to the divisions of the Mongoloid stock as the following: "Asiatic Mongoloids," "Oceanic Mongoloids," and "American Mongoloids." Kroeber said that the differences among the three divisions of the Mongoloid stock are not very large. Kroeber said that the Malaysian and the American Indian are generalized type peoples while the Mongolian proper is the most extreme or pronounced form. Kroeber said that the original Mongoloid stock must be regarded as being more like the current Malaysians, the current American Indians, or an intermediate type between these two. Kroeber said that it is from these generalized type peoples, who kept more nearly the ancient type, that peoples such as the Chinese gradually diverged, who added the oblique eye, and a "certain generic refinement of physique." Kroeber said that, according to most anthropometrists, the Eskimo is the most particularized sub-variety out of the American Mongoloids. Kroeber said that in the East Indies, and in particular the Philippines, there can at times be distinguished a less specifically Mongoloid strain, which has been called the "Proto-Malaysian," and a more specifically Mongoloid strain, which has been called the "Deutero-Malaysian." Kroeber said that Polynesians appear to have primary Mongoloid connections by way of the Malaysians. Kroeber said that the Mongoloid element of Polynesians is not a specialized Mongoloid. Kroeber said that the Mongoloid element in Polynesians appears to be larger than the definite Caucasian strain in Polynesians. Speaking of Polynesians, Kroeber said that there are locally possible minor Negroid absorptions, as the ancestral Polynesians had to pass by or through archipelagoes which are presently Papuo-Melanesian Negroid to get to the central Pacific.
Coon's Origin of Races
American anthropologist Carleton S. Coon published his much debated Origin of Races in 1962. Coon divided the species Homo sapiens into five groups: Besides the Caucasoid, Mongoloid, and Australoid races, he posited two races among the indigenous populations of sub-Saharan Africa: the Capoid race in the south and the Congoid race.
Coon's thesis was that Homo erectus had already been divided into five different races or subspecies. "Homo Erectus then evolved into Homo Sapiens not once but five times, as each subspecies, living in its own territory, passed a critical threshold from a more brutal to a more sapient state."
Since Coon followed the traditional methods of physical anthropology, relying on morphological characteristics, and not on the emerging genetics to classify humans, the debate over Origin of Races has been "viewed as the last gasp of an outdated scientific methodology that was soon to be supplanted."
Disproof by modern genetics
The fact that there are no sharp distinctions between the supposed racial groups had been observed by Blumenbach and later by Charles Darwin.
With the availability of new data due to the development of modern genetics, the concept of races in a biological sense has become untenable. Problems of the concept include: It "is not useful or necessary in research", scientists are not able to agree on the definition of a certain proposed race, and they do not even agree on the number of races, with some proponents of the concept suggesting 300 or even more "races". Also, data are not reconcilable with the concept of a treelike evolution nor with the concept of "biologically discrete, isolated, or static" populations.
Current scientific consensus
See also: Race and geneticsAfter discussing various criteria used in biology to define subspecies or races, Alan R. Templeton concludes in 2016: "he answer to the question whether races exist in humans is clear and unambiguous: no."
Features
General appearance
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The last edition of the German encyclopedia Meyers Konversations-Lexikon (1971–79, 25 volumes) lists the following characteristics of the "Mongoloid" populations of Asia: "Flat face with a low nasal root, accentuated zygomatic arches, flat-lying eyelids (which are often slanting), thick, tight, dark hair, dark eyes, yellow-brownish skin, usually short, stocky build."
Skull
In 2004, British anthropologist Caroline Wilkinson gave a description of "Mongoloid" skulls in her book on forensic facial reconstruction: "The Mongoloid skull shows a round head shape with a medium-width nasal aperture, rounded orbital margins, massive cheekbones, weak or absent canine fossae, moderate prognathism, absent brow ridges, simple cranial sutures, prominent zygomatic bones, broad, flat, tented nasal root, short nasal spine, shovel-shaped upper incisor teeth (scooped out behind), straight nasal profile, moderately wide palate shape, arched sagittal contour, wide facial breadth and a flatter face."
Cold adaptation
In 1950, Carleton S. Coon, Stanley M. Garn, and Joseph B. Birdsell proposed that the relative flatness of "Mongoloid" faces was caused by adaption to the extreme cold of subarctic and arctic conditions. They supposed that "Mongoloid" eye sockets have been extended vertically to make room for adipose tissue around the eyeballs, and that the "reduced" brow ridges decrease the size of the air spaces inside of the brow ridges known as the frontal sinuses which are "vulnerable" to the cold. They also supposed that "Mongoloid" facial features reduce the surface area of the nose by having nasal bones that are flat against the face and having enlarged cheekbones that project forward which effectively reduce the external projection of the nose.
Still, in 1965 a study by A. T. Steegmann showed that the so-called cold-adapted Mongoloid face provided no greater protection against frostbite than the facial structure of Europeans.
Use in United States law
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In 1858, the California State Legislature enacted the first bill of several that prohibited the attendance of "Negroes, Mongolians and Indians" from public schools.
In 1885, the California State Legislature amended its code to make separate schools for "children of Mongoloid or Chinese descent."
In 1911, the Bureau of Immigration and Naturalization was using the term "Mongolic grand division," not only to include Mongols, but "in the widest sense of all," to include Malays, Chinese, Japanese, and Koreans. In 1911, the Bureau of Immigration and Naturalization was placing all "East Indians," a term which included the peoples of "India, Farther India, and Malaysia," in the "Mongolic" grand division.
In 1985, Michael P. Malone of the FBI Laboratory said that the FBI Laboratory is in a good position for the examination of Mongoloid hairs, because it does most of the examinations for Alaska, which has a large Mongoloid population, and it conducts examinations for the majority of Indian reservations in the United States.
In 1987, a report to the National Institute of Justice indicated that the following skeletal collections were of the "Mongoloid" "Ethnic Group": Arctic Eskimo, Prehistoric North American Indian, Japanese, and Chinese.
In 2005, an article in a journal by the FBI Laboratory defined the term "Mongoloid," as the term is used in forensic hair examinations. It defined the term as, "an anthropological term designating one of the major groups of human beings originating from Asia, excluding the Indian subcontinent and including Native American Indians."
Use as a term for Down syndrome
Main article: Mongolian idiocy"Mongoloid" has had a second usage, now generally avoided as highly offensive: until the late 20th century, people with Down syndrome were often referred to as "Mongoloids", or in terms of "Mongolian idiocy" or "Mongolian imbecility". The term was motivated by the observation that people with Down syndrome often have epicanthic folds. Coined in 1908, the term remained in medical usage until the 1950s. In 1961, its use was deprecated by a group of genetic experts in an article in The Lancet due to its "misleading connotations". The term continued to be used as a pejorative in the second half of the 20th century, with shortened versions such as mong in slang usage.
In the 21st century, this usage of the term is deemed "unacceptable" in the English-speaking world and has fallen out of common use because of its offensive and misleading implications. The terminology change was brought about both by scientific and medical experts as well as people of Asian ancestry, including those from Mongolia.
See also
- Craniofacial anthropometry
- Orientalism
- Proto-Mongoloid
- Race (human categorization)
- Race and genetics
References
- Mongoloid. (2012). Dictionary.com. Retrieved September 3, 2012, from link.
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- ^ American Association of Physical Anthropologists (27 March 2019). "AAPA Statement on Race and Racism". American Association of Physical Anthropologists. Retrieved 19 June 2020. The organization has since been renamed the American Association of Biological Anthropologists.
- ^ Smay, Diana; Armelagos, George. "Galileo Wept: A Critical Assessment of the Use of Race in Forensic Anthropology" (PDF). Emory University. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2018-08-18. Retrieved 2012-10-10.
- ^ Lieberman, Leonard (1997). "Out of Our Skulls: Caucasoid, Mongoloid, Negroid?". Anthropology News. 38 (9): 56. doi:10.1111/an.1997.38.9.56.
- ^ Templeton, Alan R. "Human Races: A Genetic and Evolutionary Perspective" (PDF). Washington University. Realfuture.org.
- ^ Keevak, Michael. "Becoming Yellow: A Short History of Racial Thinking". Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2011. ISBN 978-0-691-14031-5.
- Painter, Nell Irvin (2003). "Why White People are Called Caucasian?" (PDF). Yale University. Archived from the original (PDF) on October 20, 2013. Retrieved September 27, 2007.
- Bhopal R (December 2007). "The beautiful skull and Blumenbach's errors: the birth of the scientific concept of race". BMJ. 335 (7633): 1308–9. doi:10.1136/bmj.39413.463958.80. PMC 2151154. PMID 18156242.
Blumenbach's name has been associated with scientific racism, but his arguments actually undermined racism. Blumenbach could not have foreseen the coming abuse of his ideas and classification in the 19th and (first half of the) 20th centuries.
- Johann Friedrich Blumenbach (1797). Handbuch der Naturgeschichte. p. 60. Retrieved 2020-05-24.
Es giebt nur eine Gattung (species) im Menschengeschlecht; und alle uns bekannte Völker aller Zeiten und aller Himmelsstriche können von einer gemeinschaftlichen Stammrasse abstammen.
- German: "sehr willkürlich": Johann Friedrich Blumenbach (1797). Handbuch der Naturgeschichte. p. 61. Retrieved 2020-05-24.
Alle diese Verschiedenheiten fließen aber durch so mancherley Abstufungen und Uebergänge so unvermerkt zusammen, daß sich keine andre, als sehr willkürliche Grenzen zwischen ihnen festsetzen lassen.
- Bhopal, Raj (22 December 2007). "The beautiful skull and Blumenbach's errors: the birth of the scientific concept of race". BMJ. 335 (7633): 1308–1309. doi:10.1136/bmj.39413.463958.80. PMC 2151154. PMID 18156242.
- Douglas, Bronwen (2008). "'Novus Orbis Australis': Oceania in the science of race, 1750-1850". In Douglas, Bronwen; Ballard, Chris (eds.). Foreign Bodies: Oceania and the Science of Race 1750-1940 (PDF). ANU E Press. pp. 99–156. ISBN 978-1-921536-00-7.
- Johann Friedrich Blumenbach (1797). Handbuch der Naturgeschichte. pp. 61–62. Retrieved 2020-05-24.
- Huxley, T. H. On the Geographical Distribution of the Chief Modifications of Mankind (1870) Journal of the Ethnological Society of London. Huxley indicates that he has omitted certain areas with complex ethnic compositions that do not fit into his racial paradigm, including much of the Indian subcontinent and Horn of Africa. (Huxley, Thomas (1873). Critiques and Addresses by Thomas Henry Huxley, LL.D., F.R.S. Macmillan and Company. p. 153.) By the late nineteenth century, his Xanthochroi group had been redefined as the Nordic race, whereas his Melanochroi became the Mediterranean race. As such, Huxley's Melanochroi eventually also comprised various other dark Caucasoid populations, including the Hamites and Moors. (Gregory, John Walter (1931). Race as a Political Factor. Watts & Company. p. 19. Retrieved 8 May 2016.)
- Ibram X. Kendi, Stamped from the Beginning. The Definitive History of Racist Ideas in America, New York: Nation Books 2016. ISBN 978-1-5685-8464-5, chapters 4, 7–12, 14, 16 passim.
- Huxley, Thomas. Collected Essays of Thomas Huxley: Man's Place in Nature and Other Kessinger Publishing: Montana, 2005. p. 247. ISBN 1-4179-7462-1
- Warren, D.M. (1856). A System of Physical Geography. Philadelphia: H. Cowperthwait & Co. p. 77.
- "Huxley, Thomas, On the Geographical Distribution of the Chief Modifications of Mankind. 1870. August 14, 2006". Aleph0.clarku.edu. Retrieved 2013-12-15.
- Winchell, A. (1881). Preadamites; or A Demonstration of the Existence of Men Before Adam; (3rd ed.). Chicago: S.C. Griggs and Company; London: Trubner & Co. pp. 57, 66.
- Deniker, Joseph. The Races of Man: An Outline of Anthropology and Ethnography C. Scribner's Sons: New York, 1900, p.282 ISBN 0-8369-5932-9
- Gobineau, Arthur (1915). The Inequality of Human Races. Putnam. p. 146. ISBN 978-0-86527-430-3. Retrieved 2007-10-18.
- DiPiero, Thomas. White Men Aren't gid/s work Duke University Press, 2002, p.8 ISBN 0-8223-2961-1
- Blue, Gregory (1999). "Gobineau on China: Race Theory, the "Yellow Peril" and the Critique of Modernity"". Journal of World History. 10 (1): 93–139. doi:10.1353/jwh.2005.0003. JSTOR 20078751. S2CID 143762514.
- Meyers Konversations-Lexikon, 4th ed., 1885–90.
- Robb, Peter (1997). The Concept of Race in South Asia. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-564268-1 – via Google Books.
- Schubert, Stefan Andi (2016). A Genealogy of an Ethnocratic Present: Rethinking Ethnicity after Sri Lanka's Civil War. MA thesis, Kansas State University.
- Angel, J. Lawrence (1963). "The Physical Anthropology of Ceylon. Howard W. Stoudt". American Anthropologist. 65 (3): 694–695. doi:10.1525/aa.1963.65.3.02a00260.
- Coon, Carleton Stevens; Hunt, Edward E. (21 April 1966). "The living races of man". Cape – via Google Books.
- von Eickstedt, Egon Frhr. (21 April 2018). "Die Indien-Expedition des Staatlichen Forschungsinstituts für Völkerkunde in Leipzig. 1. Anthropologischer Bericht". Anthropologischer Anzeiger. 4 (3): 208–219. JSTOR 29535004.
- Eickstedt, Egon von (21 April 2018). "Rassenkunde und Rassengeschichte der Menschheit". F. Enke – via Google Books.
- ^ Lieberman, L. (1997). ""Race" 1997 and 2001: A Race Odyssey" (PDF). American Anthropological Association. p. 2.
- ^ "The Race Question", UNESCO, 1950, 11pp
- Kroeber, A.L. (1955). History of Anthropological Thought. Yearbook of Anthropology. University of Chicago Press. p. 293. Link.
- Kroeber, A.L. (1948). Anthropology: Race, Language, Culture, Psychology, Prehistory. New York: Harcourt, Brace and Company. pp. 126, 131, 133, & 137–140. Link.
- ^ Jackson, John Jr. (June 2001). ""In Ways Unacademical": The Reception of Carleton S. Coon's The Origin of Races". Journal of the History of Biology. 34 (2): 247–285. doi:10.1023/A:1010366015968. JSTOR 4331661. S2CID 86739986.
- Cited according to Jackson, John Jr. (June 2001). ""In Ways Unacademical": The Reception of Carleton S. Coon's The Origin of Races". Journal of the History of Biology. 34 (2): 248. doi:10.1023/A:1010366015968. JSTOR 4331661. S2CID 86739986. The reference given there is to "Coon, Origin of the Races, 1963 , p. 657".
- For a criticism of Coon's relying on typology alone, see also: Gill, George W. (2000). "Does Race Exist? A proponent's perspective". Pbs.org.
- "It may be doubted whether any character can be named which is distinctive of a race and is constant... they graduate into each other, and.. it is hardly possible to discover clear distinctive characters between them... As it is improbable that the numerous and unimportant points of resemblance between the several races of man in bodily structure and mental faculties (I do not here refer to similar customs) should all have been independently acquired, they must have been inherited from progenitors who had these same characters.", Charles Darwin, The Descent of Man p. 225 onwards
- "Indeed, if a species has sufficient gene flow, there can be no evolutionary tree of populations, because there are no population splits...", Templeton, A. (2016). Evolution and Notions of Human Race. In Losos J. & Lenski R. (Eds.), How Evolution Shapes Our Lives: Essays on Biology and Society (p. 355). Princeton; Oxford: Princeton University Press. doi:10.2307/j.ctv7h0s6j.26.
- Templeton, A. (2016). Evolution and Notions of Human Race. In Losos J. & Lenski R. (Eds.), How Evolution Shapes Our Lives: Essays on Biology and Society (pp. 346–361). Princeton; Oxford: Princeton University Press. doi:10.2307/j.ctv7h0s6j.26. That this view reflects the consensus among American anthropologists is stated in: Wagner, Jennifer K.; Yu, Joon-Ho; Ifekwunigwe, Jayne O.; Harrell, Tanya M.; Bamshad, Michael J.; Royal, Charmaine D. (February 2017). "Anthropologists' views on race, ancestry, and genetics". American Journal of Physical Anthropology. 162 (2): 318–327. doi:10.1002/ajpa.23120. PMC 5299519. PMID 27874171. See also: American Association of Physical Anthropologists (27 March 2019). "AAPA Statement on Race and Racism". American Association of Physical Anthropologists. Retrieved 19 June 2020.
- "Anthropologie". Meyers Enzyklopädisches Lexikon in 25 Bänden. Neunte, völlig neu bearbeitete Auflage zum 150jährigen Bestehen des Verlages (in German). Vol. 2. p. 308.
flaches Gesicht mit niedriger Nasenwurzel, betonte Jochbogen, flachliegende Lidspalte (die oft schräggestellt ist), dickes, straffes, dunkles Haar, dunkle Augen, gelbbräunl. Haut, in der Regel kurzer, untersetzter Wuchs
- Caroline Wilkinson (2004). Forensic Facial Reconstruction. Cambridge University Press. p. 86. ISBN 0-521-82003-0.
- ^ Dahlberg, A.A.; Graber, T.M. (1977). Orofacial growth and development. The Hague: Mouton. pp. 132, 147, 148. doi:10.1515/9783110807554. ISBN 9789027978899.
- ^ Joseph K. So (1980). "Human Biological Adaptation to Arctic and Subarctic Zones". Annual Review of Anthropology. 9: 63–82. doi:10.1146/annurev.an.09.100180.000431. JSTOR 2155729.
- ^ Burns, John F. & Orsi, Richard J. (2003). Taming the Elephant: Politics, Government, and Law in Pioneer California. Berkeley & Los Angeles: University of California Press. Pages 115 & 116. Google Books link.
- Dillingham, William P. (1911). Reports of the Immigration Commission: Abstracts of Reports of the Immigration Commission. Washington: Government Printing Office. Pages 233 & 256. Google Books link.
- Proceedings of the International Symposium on Forensic Hair Comparisons. (1985). Host Laboratory Division Federal Bureau of Investigation. Pages v (Roman numeral 5) & 112. Wayback Machine link.
- Jantz, R.L. & Moore-Jansen, P.H. (1987). A Data Base for Forensic Anthropology: Final Report to the National Institute of Justice. National Criminal Justice Reference Service. Title Page & Page 4. Wayback Machine link.
- Scientific Working Group on Materials Analysis (SWGMAT). (2005). Forensic Human Hair Examination Guidelines. Forensic Science Communications, (7)2.Wayback Machine link.
- About FSC. (n.d.). The FBI Federal Bureau of Investigation. Wayback Machine link.
- Ward, Connor O. John Langdon (2006). "Down the man and the message". Down-syndrome.info. Archived from the original on 2006-09-02. Retrieved 2013-12-02.
- "The importance of this anomaly among Europeans and their descendants is not related to the segregation of genes derived from Asians; its appearance among members of Asian populations suggests such ambiguous designations as 'Mongol Mongoloid'; increasing participation of Chinese and Japanese in investigation of the condition imposes on them the use of an embarrassing term. We urge, therefore, that the expressions which imply a racial aspect of the condition be no longer used. Some of the undersigned are inclined to replace the term Mongolism by such designations as 'Langdon Down Anomaly', or 'Down's Syndrome or Anomaly', or 'Congenital Acromicria'. Several of us believe that this is an appropriate time to introduce the term 'Trisomy 21 Anomaly', which would include cases of simple Trisomy as well as translocations. It is hoped that agreement on a specific phrase will soon crystallise once the term 'Mongolism' has been abandoned." Allen, G. Benda C.J. et al (1961). Lancet corr. 1, 775.
- Clark, Nicola (October 19, 2011). "Ricky Gervais, please stop using the word 'mong'". The Guardian. London. Retrieved 26 May 2012.
- Rodríguez-Hernández, M. Luisa; Montoya, Eladio (2011-07-30). "Fifty years of evolution of the term Down's syndrome". Lancet. 378 (9789): 402. doi:10.1016/S0140-6736(11)61212-9. ISSN 1474-547X. PMID 21803206. S2CID 8541289.
- ^ Ward, O Conor (1999). "John Langdon Down: The Man and the Message". Down Syndrome Research and Practice. 6 (1): 19–24. doi:10.3104/perspectives.94. ISSN 0968-7912. PMID 10890244.
- Howard-Jones, Norman (1979). "On the diagnostic term "Down's disease"". Medical History. 23 (1): 102–04. doi:10.1017/s0025727300051048. PMC 1082401. PMID 153994.
External links
The dictionary definition of mongoloid at Wiktionary
