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'''Turkish Croatia''' ({{langx|de|Türkisch Croatien/Kroatien}}, {{langx|hr|Turska Hrvatska}}) was a ] term which appeared periodically during the ] between the late 16th to late 18th century. Invented by Austrian military cartographers, it referred to a border area of ] located across the Ottoman-Austrian border from the ]. It went out of use with the ].
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'''Turkish Croatia''' ({{lang-hr|Turska Hrvatska}}), was a ] term{{cn|date=February 2020}} and ]{{cn|date=February 2020}} which appeared, periodically, during the ] between the late 16th to late 18th century{{cn|date=February 2020}}, and which can also be viewed{{cn|date=February 2020}} as ]{{cn|date=February 2020}}. It was invented{{cn|date=February 2020}} by the ]{{cn|date=February 2020}}, who worked for the ''Austrian-Ottoman Border Commission''{{cn|date=February 2020}}, set up by peace treaties from 1699 (]){{cn|date=February 2020}} and 1718 (]){{cn|date=February 2020}}, and consisted of number of Austrians{{cn|date=February 2020}}, Venetians{{cn|date=February 2020}} and one Croat (Vitezović){{cn|date=February 2020}}. It was used more consistently since that time in maps produced for the part of the territory{{cn|date=February 2020}} in present day Bosnia and Herzegovina,<ref name="Županc-Bjeliš">{{cite journal |last1=Županc |first1=Ivan |last2=Fuerst-Bjeliš |first2=Borna |title=Images of the Croatian Borderlands: Selected Examples of Early Modern Cartography |journal=Hrvatski geografski glasnik |date=1 September 2007 |volume=69 |issue=1 |pages=5–19 |doi=10.21861/HGG.2007.69.01.01 |publisher=hrcak.srce.hr |language=en |issn=1331-5854}}</ref><ref name="Magas-Zanic">{{cite book |last1=Magaš |first1=Branka |last2=Žanić |first2=Ivo |title=The War in Croatia and Bosnia-Herzegovina 1991-1995 |date=5 September 2013 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=9781136340925 |page=11 |chapter-url=https://books.google.ba/books?redir_esc=y&id=vZO0AAAAQBAJ&q=Turkish+Croatia#v=onepage&q=Turkish%20Croatia&f=false |accessdate=28 August 2019 |ref=1 |language=en |chapter=Obsession with the divission of Bosnia (Footnote 11 at page 11)}}</ref> specifically region of ] ''(Krajina = {{lang-en|]}}; during ] known as '']''{{cn|date=February 2020}} ({{lang-en|Lower Ends}}) and ''Zapadne Strane''{{cn|date=February 2020}} ({{lang-en|Westward Sides}}))''.


==Location==
This territory was usually depicted as roughly comprising the land area{{cn|date=February 2020}} between the river ] in the east, the ] in the northeast, the ] in the northwest{{cn|date=February 2020}}, as well as ] mountain in the south, including the '']'' pocket in the far west{{cn|date=February 2020}}. Parts of ], ] and northern ] were also mapped as part of "Turkish Croatia" when its borders went further west.


The name Turkish Croatia was used for the region of ] (name in use since 1594{{sfn|Vukičić|Gošić|1985|p=75}}), '']'' being a term for a frontier land. In ] this territory was known as '']'' ({{lit|Lower Ends}}) and {{lang|sh|Završje}} or {{lang|sh|Zapadne strane}} ({{lit|Westward Sides}}). Donji Kraji included territories of former ] župas of Banica, Zemljanik, and Vrbanja.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia |year=2011 |title=Donji Kraji |encyclopedia=] |url=https://www.enciklopedija.hr/natuknica.aspx?id=15954}}</ref> This territory was granted to Bosnian ] by King ] for his assistance in the wars with the ]. It was usually depicted as roughly comprising the land area between the river ] in the east, the ] in the northeast, the ] in the northwest, as well as ] mountain in the south, including the '']'' pocket in the far west. Parts of Croatian regions ], ] and northern ] were also mapped as part of "Turkish Croatia" when Ottoman borders went further west.{{citation needed|date=September 2021}}
The term started reappearing{{cn|date=February 2020}} in recent times, since 1990's, only{{cn|date=February 2020}} in Croatian far-right{{cn|date=February 2020}} nationalist political discourse,<ref name="Magas-Zanic"/> without any real impact on mainstream politics or academic research{{cn|date=February 2020}}.


==History== ==History==
⚫ In Austro-Hungarian military maps{{cn|date=February 2020}} from the 16th to 19th century, the so-called{{cn|date=February 2020}} "Turkish Croatia" appeared as a borderland in the ], whose ]-controlled side{{cn|date=February 2020}}, in present-day Croatia, was administered directly from ]'s military headquarters. In the 19th century, following the conclusion of the ]{{cn|date=February 2020}}, and the transfer of power in the ] from Ottomans to ] at the ] in 1878, the term became redundant, as it no longer served its purpose{{cn|date=February 2020}}, and disappeared from official usage completely{{cn|date=February 2020}}. The entire territory of ] came under a direct rule of the Viennese government, and since 1908 ] became a new ], thus making a term irrelevant{{cn|date=February 2020}} in the eyes of its originators.<ref name="Županc-Bjeliš"/>


The term was invented by the ] military cartographers, who worked for the Austrian-Ottoman Border Commission, set up by peace treaties from 1699 (]) and 1718 (]), and consisted of number of Austrians, Venetians and one Croat, ]. It was used more consistently immediately afterwards in maps produced for the part of the territory in present-day ].{{sfn|Županc|Fuerst-Bjeliš|2007}}{{sfn|Magaš|Žanić|2013|p=11}}
The term started appearing in colloquial usage among some Austria-Hungarian military and political mapmakers{{cn|date=February 2020}}, in correlation to Ottoman retreat and Austria-Hungarian expansion, and subsequently it was produced in military and ] maps<ref name="Magas-Zanic"/>. From here it found its way{{cn|date=February 2020}} into narrative, peculiar to Croatian national revival movement, based on a paraphrase of so-called{{cn|date=February 2020}} hrvatske "matere zemlje" ''({{lang-en|Croatian "mother-land"}})'' and "hrvatsko državno pravo" ''({{lang-en|Croatian state right}})''<ref name="anubih.ba-Lovrenovic-Kroatizacija">{{cite journal |author1=Dubravko Lovrenović |title=Sadrzaj - Dubravko Lovrenovic - Kroatizacija bosanskog srednjovjekovlja u svjetlu interkonfesionalnosti stecaka |journal=GODIŠNJAK/JAHRBUCH CBI ANUBiH (Yearbook of the Centre for Balkan Investigations) |date=2013 |issue=42 |url=http://www.anubih.ba/godisnjak/god42/sadrzaj-god42.htm |accessdate=30 August 2019 |at=104-113 / in pdf 2-11 |publisher=CEEOL Sarajevo for CBI Centar za balkanološka ispitivanja/Centre for Balkan Investigations of the ] |location=Frankfurt, M. |language=sh |format=pdf (full text) |issn=2232-7770 |oclc=780486455}}</ref> (similar to one in Serbia with an expression "Srpske zemlje" ''({{lang-en|Serb lands}})''), which is at the time propagated by political organization called ]. It was typically exploited{{cn|date=February 2020}} for the geopolitical purpose and utterance of territorial ambitions and expansionist{{cn|date=February 2020}} aspirations of both ] and later Croatia, via transposition of these "rights" on Bosnia and Herzegovina and its historic{{cn|date=February 2020}} territory<ref name="anubih.ba-Lovrenovic-Kroatizacija"/>.


In Austro-Hungarian military maps from the 16th to 19th century, the so-called "Turkish Croatia" appeared as a borderland in the ], whose ]-controlled side, in present-day Croatia, was administered directly from ]'s military headquarters. The term was similar as other borderland terms such as ] and {{lang|la|Terrae desertae}}.{{sfn|Županc|Fuerst-Bjeliš|2007}}
⚫ Although on rare occasions{{cn|date=February 2020}}, the term was also used in romanticized historiography{{cn|date=February 2020}}, as well as in the phantasmagoric{{cn|date=February 2020}} politics of "National awakening"{{cn|date=February 2020}} and "National integration and homogenization"{{cn|date=February 2020}} of the Croatia of the late 19th to early 20th century. In the first half of 20th century with a rise of nationalist fervor{{cn|date=February 2020}}, up to the time and establishment of fascist ] in 1940's, this term appeared sporadically again{{cn|date=February 2020}}, concerning the resurrection of a Croatian statehood, within the romantic sloganeering{{cn|date=February 2020}} of Nedeljko Mihanović{{cn|date=February 2020}}, journalistic and political propagandistic fieldwork in regard to Bosnia and Herzegovina future by Frano Milobar{{cn|date=February 2020}} and geopolitical contemplation by ]{{cn|date=February 2020}} and Filip Lukas{{cn|date=February 2020}}, eventually getting politically operationalized by ]{{cn|date=February 2020}}, and in 1940's, implemented by Frank{{cn|date=February 2020}} and ] via occupation and incorporation of entire Bosnia and Herzegovina into Nazi puppet-state, NDH.


The term started appearing in colloquial usage among some Austria-Hungarian military and political mapmakers, in correlation to Ottoman retreat and Austria-Hungarian expansion, and subsequently it was produced in military and ] maps.{{sfn|Magaš|Žanić|2013|p=11}} Croatian historian Mladen Ančić has referred to the term within the description of how medieval political and cultural boundaries were destroyed by the Ottoman wars and the establishment of early modern frontiers.{{sfn|Ančić|2004|p=339}}
In more recent times, with a rise of ] and establishment of the Republic of Croatia in the 1990's, the term was revived{{cn|date=February 2020}} and was preferred Tuđman's and his close associates'{{cn|date=February 2020}} argument in reference to their political and military aims{{cn|date=February 2020}} in Bosnia and Herzegovina,<ref name="Rudolf-book-feljton-Jutarnji">{{cite web |title=Činjenicama protiv histerije: Hrvatska je u BiH bila i agresor, a za to je kriv Franjo Tuđman |url=https://faktograf.hr/2017/11/30/cinjenicama-protiv-histerije-hercegbosanska-sestorka/ |website=Faktograf.hr |publisher=] in his book "Stvaranje hrvatske države 1991. – Ministarska sjećanja" (odlomci u feljtonu objavljenom u Jutarnjem listu) |accessdate=11 July 2019 |language=hr |date=30 November 2017}}</ref> which culminated in ].<ref name="Davorin Rudolf-Jutarnji-feljton-book">{{cite web |author1=Davorin Rudolf |title=Ministarska sjećanja: Misterij razgovora Miloševića i Tuđmana |url=https://www.jutarnji.hr/vijesti/hrvatska/ministarska-sjecanja-davorina-rudolfa-misterij-razgovora-milosevica-i-tudmana-u-karadordevu-nisu-se-dogovorili-o-podjeli-bih-da-jesu-ja-bih-to-znao/5562519/?fb_comment_id=1154415764668659_1154423104667925#f1d100de74cb44c |website=www.jutarnji.hr |publisher=Feljton - odlomci iz knjige: "Stvaranje hrvatske države 1991. – Ministarska sjećanja" |accessdate=11 July 2019 |language=hr |date=29 January 2017}}</ref> Encouraged with Tuđman's usage of the term as a mean to denigrate{{cn|date=February 2020}} and devalue{{cn|date=February 2020}} Bosnia and Herzegovina sovereignty and statehood<ref name="Magas-Zanic"/>, the term was adopted as part of Croatian far-right nationalist{{cn|date=February 2020}} narrative and, although sparsely, as part of their official political discourse{{cn|date=February 2020}}, however with little if any impact{{cn|date=February 2020}} on mainstream international geopolitics, political geography and historiography{{cn|date=February 2020}}, or on academic research{{cn|date=February 2020}} for that matter. The term never{{cn|date=February 2020}} took hold outside{{cn|date=February 2020}} the scope of Croatian political extremism{{cn|date=February 2020}} and academic fringes{{cn|date=February 2020}}.

All these various borderland terms vanished by the end of the 18th century or by the beginning of the 19th century, with the change of the complex circumstances that had created them.{{sfn|Županc|Fuerst-Bjeliš|2007}}

⚫ In the 19th century, following the conclusion of the ], and the transfer of power in the ] from Ottomans to ] at the ] in 1878, the term became redundant, as it no longer served its purpose, and disappeared from official usage completely. The entire territory of ], and since 1908 annexation (]) became a new ], thus making a term irrelevant in the eyes of its originators.{{citation needed|date=October 2021}}

In his 1900 work ''Kratka uputa u prošlost Bosne i Hercegovine, od g. 1463-1850'', ] used the phrase ''Turska-Hrvatska'' in reference to ''Krajina''.{{sfn|Bašagić|1900|p=|loc="Iza maloga odmora naredi velikome veziru Ibrahim paši, da mu pozove begove od Serhata(1), da se s njima posavjetuje o kooperaciji. 1) Turci i narodna pjesma tijem imenom zovu Hrvatsku i Ugarsku; pod imenom: Serhat i Krajina razumijeva se katkada samo Kliški-sandžak i Turska-Hrvatska."}}

From maps it found its way into narrative, peculiar to ] movement, based on a paraphrase of so-called "{{lang|hr|hrvatske matere zemlje}}" ({{lit|Croatian mother land}}) and the "]" ({{lang|hr|hrvatsko državno pravo}}),{{sfn|Lovrenović|2013|pp=104-113 / in pdf 2-11}} similar to the one in Serbia with an expression {{lang|sr|srpske zemlje}} ({{lit|Serb lands}}), which is at the time propagated by the political organization called the ]. It was typically exploited for the geopolitical purpose and utterance of territorial ambitions and expansionist aspirations of both ] and later Croatia, via transposition of these "rights" on ] and ] and its historic territory.{{sfn|Lovrenović|2013|pp=104-113 / in pdf 2-11}}


== Maps == == Maps ==
<gallery> <gallery>
Upravni zemljevid Ilirskih provinc leta 1813.jpg|"Turkish Croatia" (''Türkisch Croatien'') on a Austro-Hungarian military map from 1813. Upravni zemljevid Ilirskih provinc leta 1813.jpg|"Turkish Croatia" ({{lang|de|Türkisch Croatien}}) and "Turkish Dalmatia" ({{lang|de|Türkisch Dalmatien}}) on an Austro-Hungarian military map from 1813.
1827 Finley Map of Turkey in Europe, Greece and the Balkans - Geographicus - TurkeyEurope-finley-1827.jpg|An 1827 map of the Ottoman conquest in Europe - A. Finley ("Turkish Croatia" in yellow). 1827 Finley Map of Turkey in Europe, Greece and the Balkans - Geographicus - TurkeyEurope-finley-1827.jpg|An 1827 map of the Ottoman conquest in Europe - A. Finley ("Croatia" in yellow as part of "Turkey in Europe").
Map of Croatia in 1791 by Reilly 002.jpg|Turkish Croatia (marked by green border line and words "Türkisch Kroatien") on a military map from 1791 made by Austrian cartographer Franz J.J. von Reilly. Map of Croatia in 1791 by Reilly 002.jpg|Turkish Croatia (marked by green border line and words "Türkisch Kroatien") on a military map from 1791 made by Austrian cartographer Franz J.J. von Reilly.
SDUK - Turkey I. Containing the Northern Provinces.jpg|An 1829 map published under the superintendence of the ] in London marked the westernmost province of the Ottoman Empire in Europe as "Croatia"
Der gegenwaertige Stand des Okkupationswerkes.jpg|A Vienna newspaper covering the ] showed "Turkish Croatia" (''Türkisch Croatien'') to the west of the Vrbas river
</gallery> </gallery>

==Legacy==

⚫ Although on rare occasions, the term was also used in romanticized historiography, as well as in the phantasmagoric politics of "National awakening" and "National integration and homogenization" of the ] of the late 19th to early 20th century. In the first half of the 20th century with a rise of nationalist fervor, up to the time and establishment of Nazi puppet-state ] in the 1940s, this term appeared sporadically again, concerning the resurrection of a Croatian statehood, journalistic and political propagandistic fieldwork in regard to Bosnia and Herzegovina future by {{ill|Fran Milobar|hr}} and geopolitical contemplation by ] and Filip Lukas, eventually getting politically operationalized by ], and in the 1940s, implemented by Frank and ] via occupation and incorporation of entire ] and ] into Nazi puppet-state, NDH.{{citation needed|date=September 2021}}

In more recent times, with a rise of ] and establishment of the ] in the 1990s, the term was revived in reference to the political and military aims that Tuđman and his close associates had in the ], wanting to control both the area of former ] as well as the adjacent Una-Sana regions of ].<ref name="Rudolf-book-feljton-Jutarnji">{{cite web |title=Činjenicama protiv histerije: Hrvatska je u BiH bila i agresor, a za to je kriv Franjo Tuđman |url=https://faktograf.hr/2017/11/30/cinjenicama-protiv-histerije-hercegbosanska-sestorka/ |website=Faktograf.hr |publisher=] in his book "Stvaranje hrvatske države 1991. – Ministarska sjećanja" (odlomci u feljtonu objavljenom u Jutarnjem listu) |accessdate=11 July 2019 |language=hr |date=30 November 2017}}</ref><ref name="Davorin Rudolf-Jutarnji-feljton-book">{{cite news |last=Rudolf |first=Davorin |date=29 January 2017 |title=Ministarska sjećanja: Misterij razgovora Miloševića i Tuđmana |language=hr |newspaper=] |department=Feuilleton - excerpts from the book: "Stvaranje hrvatske države 1991. – Ministarska sjećanja" |url=https://www.jutarnji.hr/vijesti/hrvatska/ministarska-sjecanja-davorina-rudolfa-misterij-razgovora-milosevica-i-tudmana-u-karadordevu-nisu-se-dogovorili-o-podjeli-bih-da-jesu-ja-bih-to-znao/5562519/ |access-date=1 May 2022}}</ref> ] used territory of ] for offensives against ].<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Marijan |first=Davor |date=2004 |title=Expert Opinion: On the War Connections of Croatia and Bosnia and Herzegovina (1991 – 1995) |url=https://hrcak.srce.hr/file/151907 |journal=Journal of Contemporary History |pages=252 |via=Croatian Institute of History.}}</ref> At a meeting in December 1991 with the ] leadership Tuđman discussed the possibility of joining ] to Croatia as he thought that Bosnian representatives were working to remain in ]. Tuđman was widely criticized, among the ], by the Croatian intelligentsia and in the international community, for his public discussions of this matter and giving it legitimacy, and was subsequently accused of encouraging a forceful ].<ref name="Davorin Rudolf-Jutarnji-feljton-book" /> However, in February 1992 he encouraged ] to support the upcoming ]. Izetbegović declared the country's independence on 6 April 1992 that was immediately recognised by Croatia. At the beginning of the ] a Croat-Bosniak alliance was formed, though it was often not harmonious. Over time, the relations between Croats and Bosniaks worsened, resulting in the ]. In January 1993 Tuđman said that Bosnia and Herzegovina can survive only as a confederal union of three nations.{{sfn|Mrduljaš|2008|p=862}} The war ended in March 1994 with the signing of the ].<ref>{{Cite book |last=Tanner |first=Marcus |title=Croatia: a nation forged in war |publisher=Yale University Press |year=2001 |isbn=0-300-09125-7 |location=New Haven, London |pages=292}}</ref> In June 1994 Tuđman visited ] to open the Croatian embassy. There he met with ] and discussed the creation of the ] and its possible ] with Croatia.<ref>{{Cite web |date=1994-06-14 |title=CROATIAN PRESIDENT VISITS SARAJEVO |url=https://www.chicagotribune.com/news/ct-xpm-1994-06-14-9406150075-story.html |access-date=2023-12-22 |website=Chicago Tribune}}</ref>

Encouraged with Tuđman's usage of the term as a mean to denigrate and devalue Bosnia and Herzegovina sovereignty and statehood,{{sfn|Magaš|Žanić|2013|p=11}} the term was adopted as part of Croatian far-right nationalist narrative and, although sparsely, as part of their official political discourse, however with little if any impact on mainstream international geopolitics, political geography and historiography, or on academic research for that matter. The term never took hold outside the scope of Croatian political extremism and academic fringes.{{citation needed|date=September 2021}}

References to 'Turkish Croatia' in modern-day Croatian scholarly works include discussions of a lack of an actually centrally positioned geographical space in Croatia since the 15th century.<ref>{{cite journal | url = https://hrcak.srce.hr/en/clanak/48271 | journal = Geoadria | volume = 13 | number = 1 | year = 2008 | doi = 10.15291/geoadria.566 | title = Contributions for Supplement and Modification in Regionalization of the Republic of Croatia | first = Radovan | last = Pavić | doi-access = free }}</ref>


==See also== ==See also==
* ]
* ]
* ] * ]
* ]
* ]
* ] * ]
* ]
* ]
* ] * ]
* ]
* ]
* ]
* ]
* ]
* ]
* ]


==References== ==References==
{{Reflist}} {{Reflist}}

==Sources==
* {{cite journal |last1=Županc |first1=Ivan |last2=Fuerst-Bjeliš |first2=Borna | title = Images of the Croatian Borderlands: Selected Examples of Early Modern Cartography | url = http://hrcak.srce.hr/index.php?show=clanak&id_clanak_jezik=32632 | via = ] |doi=10.21861/HGG.2007.69.01.01 |issn=1331-5854|doi-access=free | journal = Hrvatski geografski glasnik |volume=69 | issue = 1 |pages=5–19 |date=1 September 2007 |language=en | accessdate = 25 June 2010 | quote = Schimek's Map of the Turkish Croatia, 1788. (Facsimile from Marković 1998). "Turkisch Croatien"}}
* {{cite book |last1=Magaš |first1=Branka |last2=Žanić |first2=Ivo |title=The War in Croatia and Bosnia-Herzegovina 1991-1995 | year = 2013 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=9781136340925 |page=11 |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=vZO0AAAAQBAJ&q=Turkish+Croatia |accessdate=28 August 2019 |language=en |chapter=Obsession with the division of Bosnia (Footnote 11 at page 11)}}
* {{cite journal | first = Mladen | last = Ančić | year = 2004 | title = Society, Ethnicity, and Politics in Bosnia-Herzegovina | journal = Časopis za suvremenu povijest | volume = 36 | number = 1 | publisher = Croatian Institute of History | location = Zagreb | url = https://hrcak.srce.hr/103328 | issn = 1848-9079 }}
*{{cite book |last=Bašagić |first=Safvet-beg |author-link=Safvet-beg Bašagić |title=Kratka uputa u prošlost Bosne i Hercegovine, od g. 1463–1850 |trans-title=A brief lesson to the past of Bosnia and Herzegovina, from 1463–1850 |publisher=Vlastita naklada |year=1900 |oclc=31285183 |language=sh |url=https://archive.org/details/kratkauputaupro00bagoog}}
* {{cite journal | first = Dubravko | last = Lovrenović | authorlink = Dubravko Lovrenović | title = Kroatizacija bosanskog srednjovjekovlja u svjetlu interkonfesionalnosti stecaka | journal = Yearbook of the Centre for Balkan Investigations ANUBiH | year = 2013 |issue=42 |url=http://www.anubih.ba/godisnjak/god42/sadrzaj-god42.htm |accessdate=30 August 2019 |publisher=CEEOL Sarajevo for CBI Centar za balkanološka ispitivanja/Centre for Balkan Investigations of the ] |location=Frankfurt, M. |language=sh |format=pdf (full text) |issn=2232-7770 |oclc=780486455}}
* {{cite journal |last=Mrduljaš |first=Saša | journal = Društvena istraživanja: Journal for General Social Issues | volume = 17 | number = 4-5 (96-97) | title = Political dimension of Croat-Muslim/Bosniak relations during 1992 |publisher=Institute of Social Sciences Ivo Pilar |year=2008 |location=Split | url = https://hrcak.srce.hr/en/clanak/46327 }}
* {{cite book | first1 = Dragomir | last1 = Vukičić | first2 = Nevenka | last2 = Gošić | chapter = title missing | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=gqUaAAAAIAAJ | title = Zbornik referata i materijala V jugoslovenske onomastičke konferencije | trans-title=Collection of papers and materials of the fifth Yugoslav onomastic conference | publisher=Akademija nauka i umjetnosti Bosne i Hercegovine |year=1985 | language = sh }}


==External links== ==External links==

Latest revision as of 10:32, 28 October 2024

Turkish Croatia (German: Türkisch Croatien/Kroatien, Croatian: Turska Hrvatska) was a geopolitical term which appeared periodically during the Ottoman–Habsburg wars between the late 16th to late 18th century. Invented by Austrian military cartographers, it referred to a border area of Ottoman Bosnia and Herzegovina located across the Ottoman-Austrian border from the Croatian Military Frontier. It went out of use with the Austro-Hungarian rule in Bosnia and Herzegovina.

Location

The name Turkish Croatia was used for the region of Bosanska Krajina (name in use since 1594), Krajina being a term for a frontier land. In Medieval Bosnia this territory was known as Donji Kraji (lit. 'Lower Ends') and Završje or Zapadne strane (lit. 'Westward Sides'). Donji Kraji included territories of former Croatian-Hungarian župas of Banica, Zemljanik, and Vrbanja. This territory was granted to Bosnian Ban Kulin by King Bela III for his assistance in the wars with the Byzantines. It was usually depicted as roughly comprising the land area between the river Vrbas in the east, the Sava in the northeast, the Una in the northwest, as well as Dinara mountain in the south, including the Cazinska krajina pocket in the far west. Parts of Croatian regions Lika, Banovina and northern Dalmatia were also mapped as part of "Turkish Croatia" when Ottoman borders went further west.

History

The term was invented by the Austro-Hungarian Armed Forces military cartographers, who worked for the Austrian-Ottoman Border Commission, set up by peace treaties from 1699 (Treaty of Karlowitz) and 1718 (Treaty of Požarevac), and consisted of number of Austrians, Venetians and one Croat, Pavao Ritter Vitezović. It was used more consistently immediately afterwards in maps produced for the part of the territory in present-day Bosnia and Herzegovina.

In Austro-Hungarian military maps from the 16th to 19th century, the so-called "Turkish Croatia" appeared as a borderland in the Croatian Military Frontier, whose Habsburg-controlled side, in present-day Croatia, was administered directly from Vienna's military headquarters. The term was similar as other borderland terms such as Morlacchia and Terrae desertae.

The term started appearing in colloquial usage among some Austria-Hungarian military and political mapmakers, in correlation to Ottoman retreat and Austria-Hungarian expansion, and subsequently it was produced in military and geostrategic maps. Croatian historian Mladen Ančić has referred to the term within the description of how medieval political and cultural boundaries were destroyed by the Ottoman wars and the establishment of early modern frontiers.

All these various borderland terms vanished by the end of the 18th century or by the beginning of the 19th century, with the change of the complex circumstances that had created them.

In the 19th century, following the conclusion of the Ottoman–Habsburg wars, and the transfer of power in the Bosnia Vilayet from Ottomans to Habsburg rule at the Berlin Congress in 1878, the term became redundant, as it no longer served its purpose, and disappeared from official usage completely. The entire territory of Bosnia and Herzegovina came under a direct rule of the Viennese government, and since 1908 annexation (Bosnian Crisis) became a new Crown land, thus making a term irrelevant in the eyes of its originators.

In his 1900 work Kratka uputa u prošlost Bosne i Hercegovine, od g. 1463-1850, Safvet-beg Bašagić used the phrase Turska-Hrvatska in reference to Krajina.

From maps it found its way into narrative, peculiar to Croatian national revival movement, based on a paraphrase of so-called "hrvatske matere zemlje" (lit. 'Croatian mother land') and the "Croatian state right" (hrvatsko državno pravo), similar to the one in Serbia with an expression srpske zemlje (lit. 'Serb lands'), which is at the time propagated by the political organization called the Party of Rights. It was typically exploited for the geopolitical purpose and utterance of territorial ambitions and expansionist aspirations of both Austria-Hungary and later Croatia, via transposition of these "rights" on Bosnia and Herzegovina and its historic territory.

Maps

  • "Turkish Croatia" (Türkisch Croatien) and "Turkish Dalmatia" (Türkisch Dalmatien) on an Austro-Hungarian military map from 1813. "Turkish Croatia" (Türkisch Croatien) and "Turkish Dalmatia" (Türkisch Dalmatien) on an Austro-Hungarian military map from 1813.
  • An 1827 map of the Ottoman conquest in Europe - A. Finley ("Croatia" in yellow as part of "Turkey in Europe"). An 1827 map of the Ottoman conquest in Europe - A. Finley ("Croatia" in yellow as part of "Turkey in Europe").
  • Turkish Croatia (marked by green border line and words "Türkisch Kroatien") on a military map from 1791 made by Austrian cartographer Franz J.J. von Reilly. Turkish Croatia (marked by green border line and words "Türkisch Kroatien") on a military map from 1791 made by Austrian cartographer Franz J.J. von Reilly.
  • An 1829 map published under the superintendence of the Society for the Diffusion of Useful Knowledge in London marked the westernmost province of the Ottoman Empire in Europe as "Croatia" An 1829 map published under the superintendence of the Society for the Diffusion of Useful Knowledge in London marked the westernmost province of the Ottoman Empire in Europe as "Croatia"
  • A Vienna newspaper covering the Austro-Hungarian campaign in Bosnia and Herzegovina in 1878 showed "Turkish Croatia" (Türkisch Croatien) to the west of the Vrbas river A Vienna newspaper covering the Austro-Hungarian campaign in Bosnia and Herzegovina in 1878 showed "Turkish Croatia" (Türkisch Croatien) to the west of the Vrbas river

Legacy

Although on rare occasions, the term was also used in romanticized historiography, as well as in the phantasmagoric politics of "National awakening" and "National integration and homogenization" of the Kingdom of Croatia-Slavonia of the late 19th to early 20th century. In the first half of the 20th century with a rise of nationalist fervor, up to the time and establishment of Nazi puppet-state Independent State of Croatia in the 1940s, this term appeared sporadically again, concerning the resurrection of a Croatian statehood, journalistic and political propagandistic fieldwork in regard to Bosnia and Herzegovina future by Fran Milobar [hr] and geopolitical contemplation by Ivo Pilar and Filip Lukas, eventually getting politically operationalized by Ante Starčević, and in the 1940s, implemented by Frank and Ante Pavelić via occupation and incorporation of entire Bosnia and Herzegovina into Nazi puppet-state, NDH.

In more recent times, with a rise of Franjo Tuđman and establishment of the Republic of Croatia in the 1990s, the term was revived in reference to the political and military aims that Tuđman and his close associates had in the Republic of Bosnia and Herzegovina, wanting to control both the area of former Banovina of Croatia as well as the adjacent Una-Sana regions of Bosanska Krajina. Yugoslav People's Army used territory of SR Bosnia and Herzegovina for offensives against Croatia. At a meeting in December 1991 with the HDZ BiH leadership Tuđman discussed the possibility of joining Herzeg-Bosnia to Croatia as he thought that Bosnian representatives were working to remain in Yugoslavia. Tuđman was widely criticized, among the Bosniaks, by the Croatian intelligentsia and in the international community, for his public discussions of this matter and giving it legitimacy, and was subsequently accused of encouraging a forceful partition of Bosnia and Herzegovina. However, in February 1992 he encouraged Croats in Bosnia and Herzegovina to support the upcoming Bosnian independence referendum. Izetbegović declared the country's independence on 6 April 1992 that was immediately recognised by Croatia. At the beginning of the Bosnian war a Croat-Bosniak alliance was formed, though it was often not harmonious. Over time, the relations between Croats and Bosniaks worsened, resulting in the Croat–Bosniak War. In January 1993 Tuđman said that Bosnia and Herzegovina can survive only as a confederal union of three nations. The war ended in March 1994 with the signing of the Washington Agreement. In June 1994 Tuđman visited Sarajevo to open the Croatian embassy. There he met with Alija Izetbegović and discussed the creation of the Croat-Muslim Federation and its possible confederation with Croatia.

Encouraged with Tuđman's usage of the term as a mean to denigrate and devalue Bosnia and Herzegovina sovereignty and statehood, the term was adopted as part of Croatian far-right nationalist narrative and, although sparsely, as part of their official political discourse, however with little if any impact on mainstream international geopolitics, political geography and historiography, or on academic research for that matter. The term never took hold outside the scope of Croatian political extremism and academic fringes.

References to 'Turkish Croatia' in modern-day Croatian scholarly works include discussions of a lack of an actually centrally positioned geographical space in Croatia since the 15th century.

See also

References

  1. Vukičić & Gošić 1985, p. 75.
  2. "Donji Kraji". Croatian Encyclopaedia. 2011.
  3. ^ Županc & Fuerst-Bjeliš 2007.
  4. ^ Magaš & Žanić 2013, p. 11.
  5. Ančić 2004, p. 339.
  6. Bašagić 1900, p. 28, "Iza maloga odmora naredi velikome veziru Ibrahim paši, da mu pozove begove od Serhata(1), da se s njima posavjetuje o kooperaciji. 1) Turci i narodna pjesma tijem imenom zovu Hrvatsku i Ugarsku; pod imenom: Serhat i Krajina razumijeva se katkada samo Kliški-sandžak i Turska-Hrvatska.".
  7. ^ Lovrenović 2013, pp. 104-113 / in pdf 2-11.
  8. "Činjenicama protiv histerije: Hrvatska je u BiH bila i agresor, a za to je kriv Franjo Tuđman". Faktograf.hr (in Croatian). Davorin Rudolf in his book "Stvaranje hrvatske države 1991. – Ministarska sjećanja" (odlomci u feljtonu objavljenom u Jutarnjem listu). 30 November 2017. Retrieved 11 July 2019.
  9. ^ Rudolf, Davorin (29 January 2017). "Ministarska sjećanja: Misterij razgovora Miloševića i Tuđmana". Feuilleton - excerpts from the book: "Stvaranje hrvatske države 1991. – Ministarska sjećanja". Jutarnji list (in Croatian). Retrieved 1 May 2022.
  10. Marijan, Davor (2004). "Expert Opinion: On the War Connections of Croatia and Bosnia and Herzegovina (1991 – 1995)". Journal of Contemporary History: 252 – via Croatian Institute of History.
  11. Mrduljaš 2008, p. 862.
  12. Tanner, Marcus (2001). Croatia: a nation forged in war. New Haven, London: Yale University Press. p. 292. ISBN 0-300-09125-7.
  13. "CROATIAN PRESIDENT VISITS SARAJEVO". Chicago Tribune. 1994-06-14. Retrieved 2023-12-22.
  14. Pavić, Radovan (2008). "Contributions for Supplement and Modification in Regionalization of the Republic of Croatia". Geoadria. 13 (1). doi:10.15291/geoadria.566.

Sources

External links

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